The Assessment of Intelligence intelligence, or g, the status of a

true entity because of their

Intelligence Testing: Yesterday and Today
misunderstanding of factor analytic
Slide 4 and 5
techniques.
Due to under-education, and to measure • The Bell Curve- divided based on
mental abilities, intellectual tests were the cognitive or intellectual ability
developed. of its citizen
• And delved into public policy
• First: compulsory education in the
issues such as poverty, crime,
United States and other countries
welfare, and affirmative action
resulted in a very diverse student
• divided based on the cognitive or
body
intellectual ability of its citizens
• Second: psychological scientists
• “Cognitive elite” e.g., doctors,
believed, and ultimately
lawyers, professors, essentially
demonstrated, that mental abilities
screen for high IQ.
could be measured
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon
The concept of Intelligence
Slide 6
slide 7
• Alfred Binet and his collaborator,
Two issues that have plagued
Theodore Simon, became leaders
psychologists from the beginning are still
in the intelligence testing
not resolved
movement when they devised the
Binet-Simon test to identify • First- what is the meaning of
individual differences in mental Intelligence?
functioning • Second- how do we develop valid
• Binet’s original purpose was to instruments for measuring it?
develop an objective method of
Brief Review of Reliability and Validity
identifying those truly lacking in
Slide 8
academic ability
Critiques of Intelligence testing • Reliability - consistency with
Movements which individuals respond to test
stimuli.
By the end of 1960s psychologist and • When you apply the same method
advocates attacking the validity of the to the same sample under the same
Intelligence test conditions, you should get the
• IQ testing is prejudicial to African same results. If not, the method of
Americans- stigmatizing as measurement may be unreliable or
cognitively impaired bias may have crept into your
research
• Stephen Gould- the mismeasure of
a man - Gould argued that theorists • Types of its reliability
such as Spearman (see below) • Validity - assessment technique
mistakenly accorded general measures what it is supposed to
measure
 • Types of its Validity/ Slide 9 find an underlying factor that
explains this correlation
Definition of Intelligence
• In the case of intelligence,
Slide 10
Spearman noticed that those who
• adaptability to new situations, the did well in one area of intelligence
capacity to deal with a range of tests (for example, mathematics)
situations. also did well in other areas (such as
• Definitions that focus on the ability distinguishing pitch
to learn— on educability in the • There was a strong correlation
broad sense of the term, Capable of between performing well in math
being educated or taught and music.
• the ability to use a wide range of • Specific Intelligence is the
symbols and concepts, the ability assumption that intelligence is best
to use both verbal and numerical defined as a collection of subset or
symbols individual specific ability in one
• Intelligence is a very general particular area
mental capability that, among other
Thurstone
things, involves the ability to
reason, plan, solve problems, • Thurstone (1938) challenged the
think abstractly, comprehend concept of a g-factor. After
complex ideas, learn quickly and analyzing data from 56 different
learn from experience tests of mental abilities, he
identified a number of primary
mental abilities that comprise
intelligence as opposed to one
general factor
Theorist of Intelligence
Slide 11 Cattell Theory
slide 12
Factor analytic approach
• Spearman (1927), the father of ✓ Fluid intelligence is the ability to
factor analysis, posited the problem solve in novel situations
existence of a g factor (general without referencing prior
intelligence) and s factors (specific knowledge, but rather through the
intelligence). use of logic and abstract thinking.
• General intelligence, also known as ✓ Fluid intelligence can be applied to
g factor, refers to a general mental any novel problem because no
ability that, according to Spearman, specific prior knowledge is
underlies multiple specific skills, required
including verbal, spatial, ✓ as you grow older fluid increases
numerical, and mechanical. and then starts to decrease in the
• Factor analysis is a procedure late 20s.
through which the correlation of ✓ Crystallized intelligence refers to
related variables is evaluated to the use of previously-acquired
 knowledge, such as specific facts Stenberg: Triarchic Theory of
learned in school or specific motor Intelligence
skills or muscle memory
▪ Robert Sternberg proposed a three-
✓ As you grow older and accumulate
category theory of intelligence,
knowledge, crystallized intelligence
integrating components that were
increases.
lacking in Gardner’s theory.
Guilford’s Classification ▪ componential aspect refers to
analytical thinking; high scores
▪ Structure of Intellect Model
would characterize the person who
(SOI)—used model as a guide
is a good test-taker
in generating data.
▪ The experiential aspect relates to
▪ Intelligence components can be
creative thinking and characterizes
divided into 3 areas: operations,
the person who can take separate
contents and products.
elements of experience and
▪ Operations: Cognition,
combine them insightfully
memory, constructing logic
▪ contextual aspect is seen in the
alternatives, arguments,
person who is “street smart”—one
evaluation.
who is practical, knows how to
▪ Content: Areas of information
play the game, and can
in which the operations are
successfully manipulate the
performed (figural, symbolic,
environment.
semantic and behavioral).
▪ Products: When a mental The Intelligence Quotient
operation is applied to a context slide 14
there are 6 types of products. o
▪ Binet regarded the mental age
Units, classes, systems,
(MA) as an index of mental
relations, transformations and
performance
implications.
▪ Mental age is "a person's mental
▪ 120 separates intellectual
ability expressed as the age at
abilities
which an average person reaches
Gardner: Multiple Intelligence the same ability.
slide 13 ▪ mental age is most often used when
assessing young children with
▪ Following the work of Thurstone,
developmental disorders, such as
American psychologist Howard
Down syndrome or autism, whose
Gardner built off the idea that there
mental age may not align with how
are multiple forms of intelligence.
old they actually are
▪ He proposed that there is no single
▪ old soul, young actual age
intelligence, but rather distinct,
▪ young soul, old actual age
independent multiple intelligences
exist, each representing unique Deviation IQ
skills and talents relevant to a
certain category.
 ▪ Although initially appealing, the ▪ Environment plays a role—
ratio IQ is significantly limited in biological relatives raised together
its application to older age groups are more similar.
▪ the higher the chronological age , ▪ Heritability of intelligence is not
the mental age will increase stable; 20% in infancy and 60% in
▪ IQ decreased over time young adults, 80% in old age.
▪ Wechsler introduced the concept of
Stability IQ scores and Flynn Effect
deviation IQ
▪ Compares an individual’s ▪ IQ Scores tend to be less stable for
performance on IQ test with his/her children and more stable for adults
same age peers and more influenced at a younger age
▪ Same IQ has a different meaning for children than for adults (i.e.
for different ages (ex: same IQ for environment).
22 year vs. 80 year old). ▪ The Flynn Effect refers to the
finding that the average human IQ
Correlates the IQ
has increased over time,
▪ School- General IQ shows success
The Clinical Assessment of Intelligence
in school and specific tests measure
Scale 1: The Stanford-Binet Scales
what area. IQ scores + grades
slide 16
correlation—.50
▪ Occupation- Based on educational ▪ Stanford-Binet 1972 revised test
level acquired (income, race, kit version followed a fourth
prestige…) revision in 1986 and the most
▪ IQ also good predictors of job recent revision in 2003—Stanford-
performance Binet Fifth Edition (SB-5
▪ Demographic Group-Differences
▪ The Stanford-Binet Scale is a
between sexes for specific abilities; contemporary assessment that
males on spatial and quantitative measures intelligence according to
ability and females on verbal five features of cognitive ability,
ability including

Heritability of Intelligence ▪ fluid reasoning- Ability to solve

slide 15 new problems. Measured by sub-
tests. Quantitative Reasoning,
▪ Intelligence is influenced by Visual-Spatial Processing,
genetic factors (behavioral Working Memory and Knowledge
genetics)
▪ Similarity in intelligence is a result ▪ Each subtest is composed of items
of the amount of genetic material at varying levels of difficulty, from
shared (monozygotic more similar age 2 to adulthood
than dizygotic twins or siblings).
▪ revision uses an adaptive testing
▪ IQ variance associated with
procedure called multistage
genetics varies from 30% to 80%. testing.
 The Wechsler scales children between the ages of 6 and
slide 17 16.
• The WISC-IV has a hierarchical
• This was a test designed for adults—
structure in which individual subtests
one that would offer items whose
define four major indices that
content was more appropriate for and
comprise the Full Scale
more motivating to adults than the
• Please read the case study
school oriented Binet.
• This approach, as we have seen, WPPSI-III
assumes that intelligence is normally
• Similar to the WISC-IV but targeted
distributed and compares individuals
towards youth; so children below the
with their age peers.
age of 6.
The WAIS-IV • At present, the WPPSI-III yields only
slide 18 three indices, the Full Scale IQ, Verbal
IQ, and Performance IQ.
• (WAIS) is an IQ test designed to
measure cognitive ability in adults Clinical use of intelligence Test
and older adolescents, including
verbal comprehension, perceptual Estimating General Intelligence Level
reasoning, working memory, and
processing speed. • Determining the person’s g level—
what is the patient’s intellectual
• These Index scores reflect the potential?
major ability factors that underlie • Intellectual ability level can also assist
the WAIS-IV subtest scores. Index with helping individuals recover
scores provide a more detailed cognitive abilities following head
evaluation of the examinee’s trauma, injury
strengths and weaknesses across • IQ scores need to be interpreted and
tasks. placed in an appropriate context.
• Please refer page 208 of the 15 Prediction of Academic Success \\
WAIS-IV subtests, with the
corresponding Index scale • Intelligent tests should predict
academic success in school.
Reliability and Validity
The appraisal of Style
• cores from previous WAIS-III and
WISC-IV are strongly correlated • intelligence tests allow us to observe
with WAIS-IV scores. patient at work (observations; help
with interpretation).
The Wechsler Intelligence scale for • . Such observations can help us greatly in
Children -IV interpreting an IQ.
slide 19
Look at IQ as “present functioning” not innate
• is an IQ test designed to measure potential; it is an abstraction that allows us to
intelligence and cognitive ability in predict specific behaviors.
Intelligence tests can provide broad general illness. Nicole’s psychiatrist has noted
index of intellectual functioning across a ongoing concerns regarding her cognitive
range of situations. Can thus be used to deficits and functional impairments, which
compare similar individuals in same have significantly impacted her ability to
situations. maintain employment and engage in daily
activities. Nicole reports experiencing
persistent auditory hallucinations,
How does it affect clinical Psychology is delusions, disorganized thinking, and social
there is no assessment of intelligence? withdrawal, which have contributed to her
decline in occupational and social
Slide 5
functioning.
• it affects diagnosis and planning-
Family History:
Intelligence assessments, such as
IQ tests, are often used to aid in • There is limited information
diagnosing various intellectual available regarding Nicole family
disabilities, learning disorders, and history of mental illness. She has
cognitive impairments. Without minimal contact with his family
members and has been estranged
these assessments, clinicians would
from them for several years.
have to rely on alternative methods
to understand their clients' Medical History:
cognitive abilities and limitations,
• Nicole has a history of
which could lead to less accurate
schizophrenia and has been under
diagnoses and treatment planning. the care of a psychiatrist for several
• absence of intelligence assessment years. She has a treatment history
in clinical psychology would pose that includes antipsychotic
significant challenges to medications, psychotherapy, and
understanding cognitive supportive services.
functioning, diagnosing intellectual
Assessment Procedure:
and cognitive disorders, planning
interventions, conducting research, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-
and making informed decisions in IV): The WAIS-IV will be administered to
various professional contexts. evaluate Nicole intellectual functioning
across various domains, including verbal
comprehension, perceptual reasoning,
working memory, and processing speed.
Nicole is a 28-year-old woman diagnosed
with paranoid schizophrenia at the age of • Assuming the results of Nicole
23. She has a history of psychotic episodes assessment reveal significant
characterized by auditory hallucinations, cognitive deficits and functional
persecutory delusions, and disorganized impairments consistent with
speech. Nicole’s symptoms have been schizophrenia spectrum disorder.
chronic and treatment-resistant, despite While Nicole demonstrates average
multiple trials of antipsychotic medications to above-average intellectual
and psychosocial interventions. She has abilities, her cognitive performance
experienced significant functional decline is markedly impaired across
and social isolation since the onset of his multiple domains.
 • On the WAIS-IV, assuming that Disadvantages: The items are behavioral
Nicole obtained a fall within the in nature, Some inventories contain a
low-average range of cognitive mixture of items, transparent meaning of
ability. However, her performance some inventories’ questions, and the
on individual subtests revealed forced-choice approach.
deficits in working memory,
processing speed, and executive
METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION FOR
function, which are commonly OBJECTIVE TEST
observed in individuals with
• Content Validation- (a) carefully
schizophrenia.
defining all relevant aspects of the
Impression: variable you are attempting to
measure; (b) consulting experts
Based on the assessment findings, Nicole before generating items; (c) using
presents with severe cognitive deficits and judges to assess each potential item’s
functional impairments secondary to relevance to the variable of interest;
schizophrenia spectrum disorder. Her and (d) using psychometric analyses
symptoms have significantly impacted her to evaluate each item before you
ability to maintain employment, manage include it in your
daily responsibilities, and participate in • measure (Haynes, Richard, & Kubany,
social interactions. 1995; Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994).
• Empirical Criterion Keying- The utility
of an item is thus determined solely
PERSONALITY by the extent to which it discriminates
among known groups.
ASSESSMENT • Factor Analysis- (exploratory analytic
approach/ confirmatory factor
Personality Assessment- should have good
analytic approach) the idea is to
psychometric properties, tests should be
examine the intercorrelations among
selected and used based on research findings
the individual items from many
and viable theories about psychological
existing personality inventories.
problems, as well as a test’s clinical utility and
Factor analytic approach to test
contribution with other sources of
construction is the emphasis on an
information to produce good outcomes
empirical demonstration that items
(Hunsley & Mash, 2007).
purporting to measure a variable or
dimension of personality are highly
related to one another.
OBJECTIVE TEST • Construct Validity Approach- Scales
are developed to measure specific
• Objective personality measures
involve the administration of a constructs from a theory
standard set of questions or (personality). Validation is obtained
statements to which the examinee when the scale measures the
responds using a fixed set of options. theoretical construct.
The most desirable and labor-
Advantages: Economical, scoring and
intensive approach
administration are relatively simple and
objective, objectivity and reliability Description of MMPI
 • Uses the Keying Approach; Hathaway & direction by the PERSONALITY
McKinley wanted to identify psychiatric ASSESSMENT 225 standardization
diagnoses of individuals. Originally designed group. A high F score may suggest
for ages 16+, but was also used with younger deviant response sets, markedly
individuals. aberrant behavior, or other
hypotheses about extra test
• Given to both clinical and non-clinical
characteristics or behaviors.
populations.
3. L (Lie) Scale. This includes 15 items
• 550 items that were answered T/F or “can’t whose endorsement places the
say”. Only items that differentiated clinically respondent in a very positive light. In
from non-clinical individuals (ex: depressed reality, however, it is unlikely that the
individuals vs. non-clinical individuals) were items would be truthfully so
included. endorsed. For example, “I like
everyone I meet.”
4. K (Defensiveness) Scale. These 30
items suggest defensiveness in
Description of MMPI-2
admitting certain problems. These
• MMPI originally overemphasized the U.S. items purportedly detect faking good.
population and lacked diversity; this was
In addition to the four traditional validity
changed.
scales, three “new” validity scales can be
• Language was changed to be modern, & 154 scored from the MMPI-2.
new items were added bringing total to 704
5. Fb (Back-page Infrequency) Scale.
items.
These 40 items occurring near the end
• Lower age range—can be used with at least of the MMPI-2 are infrequently
13-year-olds or those with 8th grade endorsed.
education level. 6. VRIN (Variable Response
Inconsistency) Scale. This consists of
• Versions in multiple languages are available 67 pairs of items with either similar or
& an adolescent version MMPI-A is also opposite content. High VRIN scores
available. suggest random responding to MMPI-
2 items.
7. TRIN (True Response Inconsistency)
Validity Scales Scale. This consists of 23 item pairs
that are opposite in content. High
• As MMPI & MMPI-2 as self-report measures,
TRIN scores suggest a tendency to
they are susceptible to distortion due to
give true responses indiscriminately;
attitudes.
low TRIN scores suggest a tendency to
• To detect “faking-bad” behavior the MMPI give false responses indiscriminately.
& MMPI-2 incorporates 4 validity scales:
Short Forms and Interpretation
1. ? (Cannot Say) Scale. This is the
Through Patterns (Profile Analysis)
number of items left unanswered.
2. F (Infrequency) Scale. These 60 items • Shortened versions of the MMPI & MMPI-2;
were seldom answered in the scored but loss of interpretation is present and
intense scrutiny should be present in terms of • Strong validity with external correlates—
whether these and reliable and valid emotional states, stress reactivity.
measures.
• 2 aspects of validity for MMPI-2 (Butcher et
• MMPI—interpretation on elevated scale al., 1995)—incremental validity & cut-off
scores (ex: high Sc score schizophrenia). scores.

• MMPI-2—interpretation of “pattern or o Incremental Validity: If a scale’s score

profile” test scores provides information about a person’s
personality features, behavior or
Interpretation Through Content psychopathology that is not provided by other
and Supplementary Scales measures

• Shift from clinical use of MMPI & MMPI-2— • All psychological tests including
away from use of differential psychiatric MMPI-2 lack incremental validity.
diagnosis based on a single score to a more
o Cut-off scores validity: Varies on the nature
sophisticated profile analysis of scale scores.
of the sample population (which patients
• MMPI-2: Content scales have been have or don’t have the disorder).
developed (ex: identify health concerns,
• MMPI-2 cut off T score of 65+ may or
identity fears…)
may not be appropriate.
• Supplementary Scales: 450 MMPI scales
ranging from Dominance to Success in
Personnel Selection and Bias
Basketball! MMPI-2 there are 20 • Empirical Criterion Keying approach limits
supplementary scales (ex: Anxiety, Strength, usage of MMPI-2 to those that understand it.
Social Responsibility). • May not be appropriate to use MMPI-2 to
screen candidates for employment hiring
A Summary Evaluation of the
(invasion of privacy into religious beliefs,
MMPI and MMPI-2 Screening and sexual orientation).
The Question of Personality Traits
• MMPI original—may be biased against
• MMPI-2 useful for information about mental ethnic groups. Test Bias means that different
disorder diagnosis in terms of severity and predictions are made for two groups even
hypothesis generator. when they receive the same score.

• Not useful for a screening specific disorders Concerns about the MMPI-2
(ex: depression) as very long + time intensive.
• Atheoretical: MMPI measures symptoms of • The normative sample is too education;
psychopathology. Not useful for individuals without college degrees not
understanding general personality traits and represented. • Criteria for inclusion of
situational determinants. “normal respondents” is confusing. • Those
who are administered both versions of the
Reliability and Validity of MMPI-2 MMPI show different results on each version.
• Scores on MMPI-2 are lower than the MMPI
• Lacks internal consistency but do show
• Internal consistency of the MMPI-2 Scale is
good test-retest reliability.
low
The Revised NEO-Personality • Lack of validity scales, has no items to
assess response patterns and test taking
Inventory (NEO-PI-R)
approach.
Description
• May not be good for clinical diagnosis
• Self-report personality inventory that is because it was based of a “normal”
made up of the Five-Factor Model (FFM) personality.

• OCEAN (Openness to Experience, Nature of Projective Tests

Consciousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness,
Neuroticism). • Projective techniques: First developed by
Rorschach in 1921, uses inkblots as a method
• There are 6 subscales/facet scales for of differential diagnosis for psychopathology.
each FFM Characterized as a person’s modes of
behavior by observing their behavior in
• The 240 items are rated on a scale (strongly
response to a situation that does not elicit a
disagree, disagree, neural, agree, strongly
particular response.
agree)
• Characteristics include:
• Original Version (Costa & McCrae) looked at
only Neuroticism, Extraversion and Openness. 1. Examinees are forced to impose their own
• Half of the items are reverse scored—lower structure and reveal something of themselves
scores are more indicative of a trait. when responding to ambiguous stimuli

Norms and Reliability & Stability, 2. Stimulus material is unstructured

(supposed to be ambiguous without a clear
Factor Structure
answer).
• U.S. Census for distribution of age and racial
3. Method is indirect—examinees are not
groups as well as college students.
aware of the purpose of the test.
• Excellent internal consistency and test-
4. There is freedom in response—allows a
retest reliability (for periods as long as 6 years
range of responses
later).
5. Response interpretation deals with more
• Factor analysis have supported the NEO-PI-
variables—allows for interpretation along
R five-factor-model structure. Clinical
multiple dimensions.
Applications, Alternative Forms of the NEO-PI-
R Standardization of Projective Tests,
• Axis II (Personality Problems), application to Reliability and Validity
the NEO-PI-R makes sense.
• If they were standardized it would allow for
• The NEO-PI-R and related FFM can be used communication & checks against biases.
for clinical assessment related to Axis I & II
• Other’s ague that project tests can’t be
disorders.
standardized because each person is unique.
• 60 question NEO Five Factor Inventory
• Test-retest reliability may change with
(NEO-FFI); but has no facet scales. There is
participants over time, but even split-half
also Form R. Limitations of the NEO-PI-R
reliability is difficult to demonstrate in • Most clinicians do not formally score the
projective tests. Rorschach but simply rely on determinants.

• Validity needs to ask specific questions: • Exner’s Scoring System—strong for test-
Does the TAT predict aggression in situation retest reliability and construct validity.
A?
Reliability and Validity of
The Rorschach Inkblot Test Description and
Rorschach
Administration of Rorschach
• Many argue that reliability across time or
• Consists of 10 cards on which inkblot
test conditions does not exist for the
images are printed. 5 black & white and 5
Rorschach, while others counter-argue this
colored
statement.
• “Tell me what you see, there are no right or
• Clinicians who haven’t been trained
wrong answers, tell me what it looks like to
together & that use free-wheeling
you”
interpretation of the Rorschach makes
• Cards are administered in order and clinician interpreting the test difficult.
notes down patient’s responses word for
• Rorschach may be valid only under certain
word.
conditions; with the average validity being .41
• Other recorded aspects: lengths of time to (this has not been steady as another clinician
make response, total time spent on card, found a value of .29).
position of the card, all spontaneous remarks
(um, uh…). Rorschach Inkblot Method

• Inquiry: At the end patient is reminded of • Best viewed as a method of data collection
their responses to each card and asked what and not a “test”, as it is subject to
prompted that response. interpretation.

Scoring • Viewing it as a method allows clinicians to

use all aspects of the data output.
• Location: Area of the card that the patient
responds to (whole, blot, large detail, white The Thematic Apperception Test
space…) (TAT) Description
• Content: What is the object that is being • 31 TAT cards (of that 20 is recommended to
viewed (animal, rock, clothing, person…) be given to an examinee). Not as ambiguous
as the Rorschach but not clear cut either.
• Determinants: What aspect of the card
prompted patient’s response (form of the • Other versions: Roberts Apperception
blot, color, texture, shading…) Test and Children’s Apperception
Test]
• Some tests also score Popular
responses and Original responses • Reveal patient’s basic personality
• Exner’s Comprehensive System of characteristics by their interpretation of their
scoring is the most used. responses to a series of pictures.
• Used as a method inferring psychological • Very versatile and has a strong scoring
needs (ex: for achievement, sex, power…) and system that is objective and reliable (but also
how the patient interacts with the has freedom of response), it can be used
environment. Used to infer content of economically and is a good screening device.
personality & mode of social interaction.
Illusory Correlation
Administration and Scoring
• Not a lot of evidence backing these “signs”
• 6-12 cards are administered and patient’s associated with certain personalities.
responses and noted down word-for-word.
• Poor correlation between making valid
• “Make up a story for each of these pictures, statement about patients on the basis of their
who are these people, what are they doing…” responses—illusory correlation can lead to
• Not much emphasis is placed on scoring error.
TAT’s as the types of responses are so varied.
Incremental Validity and Utility
• Refers to the degree to which a procedure
Reliability and Validity adds to the prediction obtainable from other
sources.
• Very difficult to assess validity and
reliability (as a result of personality changes— • Assessment must inform the clinicians of
test-retest). something that the base rate/prevalence rate
can’t.
• Broadly looks at reliability of
interpretations—when there is explicit scoring Use and Abuse of Testing:
instructs interjudge reliability can be
Protections, The Question of
achieved.
Privacy
• Comparing TAT data with case data and
patient evaluations, matching techniques with • Clinicians should use only assessments that
no prior patient knowledge and general lie within their competence (only then can
principles interpretation include ways of they acquire tests).
establishing validity. • The examinee or individual has a right to full
• There are no adequate norms for TAT and explanation of how their responses & results
typically clinicians interpret responses (no will be used. Informed consent must thus be
scores). obtained.

• Must only be given tests relevant to the

Sentence Completion Techniques
evaluation and reason for test must be
• Most used is the Rotter Incomplete provided.
Sentences Blank.
Use and Abuse of Testing: The
• Incomplete Sentences Blank—uses 40
Question of Confidentiality & The
sentence stems (ex: I like…., What annoys
me….) Question of Discrimination

• Completions are scored along a 7-point • There are cases in which confidential
scale for adjustment-maladjustment. matters must be disclosed (i.e. Tarasoff case).
If the person is going to harm themselves or This tradition emerged as a reaction to the
others, then information can’t be privileged. dominant psychological perspectives of
the early 20th century, such as
• Tests might discriminate against minorities
psychoanalysis and introspection-based
(only include White-middle class populations)
structuralism, which emphasized internal
or include only certain population members
(ex: TAT only white members in cards) mental processes that were not directly
observable.
Use and Abuse of Testing: Test Bias
Behavioral Interviews:
• This is a validity issue (i.e. criterion or
performance varies significantly across Peterson and Sobell (1994) argue that this
groups). That it is more accurate for one model of behavioral assessment has great
potential to bridge the often wide gap
group than another.
between behavioral research and clinical
• Using traits characteristic for one practice. Yoman (2008) makes the case that
group (ex: men) but not the other an important first step in functional analysis is
group (ex: women). to define the “ultimate outcomes” of desired
behavior change. In other words, the behavior
• Differences in mean scores does not mean therapist asks the client about the hoped-for
bias, and bias can be overcome. results and, for each successive response,
queries about the intended result of that
The Use and Abuse of Testing: change. This interview will result in a chain of
Computer-Based Assessment behavior changes and results or
consequences that can then inform the
• Used to standardize tests, interpret therapist about how short-term
responses, cut costs, and increase clients consequences of behavior change may be tied
attention. to long-term consequences or “ulti mate
outcomes.”
• Internet-based psychological testing may
lack qualities of traditional testing—less - Ang basic goal of the interview is
reliable, valid, lack of control over the testing to identify specific problem
situation, technological issues, and cultural behaviors, situational factors that
differences in test interpretation.
maintain the problem behavior, and
the consequences that result from
• Computer Based Test Interpretation the problem behavior. Behavioral
(CBTI’s): Generate quick responses and interview allows therapist to
assess the client’s “hope” for end
process complex scores, but they must result
results. Ultimate Outcomes:
in inaccurate interpretations of results. Happiness, life satisfaction, making
the world better.
• CBTI’s must be clinically useful (should aid
in clinical understanding and treatment), valid
Observation Methods
(accurate interpretations) and reliable 1. Naturalistic Observation
(interpretations should be similar for similar Observing individuals in their
scores). natural environment, will enable a
clinician to better understand the
BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT problem.
• Observation in a natural
Traditional assessment environment has limitations and is
 easier for children than adults who -Task Accomplishment (meeting
may be outpatients. and balancing of family members’
needs in the con text of the meal)
A clinician can try to understand a - Affect Management (expression
person with a phobia’s fear of and management of feelings
heights, a student’s avoidance of expressed by family members)
evaluation settings, or anyone’s - Interpersonal Involvement (the
tendency to over eat. These people degree to which family members
could be interviewed or assessed show concern for one anothers’
with self-report inventories. Pero needs)
dli lang jod dara nag satisfy ang - Behavior Control (use of
mga clinicians because according discipline and consistency)
to them. To determine the - Communication (appropriateness
frequency, strength, and and directness of verbal and non-
pervasiveness of the problem verbal communication
behavior or the factors that are - Roles (how family members divide
maintaining it, behavioral tasks and responsibilities)
clinicians advocate direct SCHOOL OBSERVATION
observation. - used to assess problem behaviors
that may be observed in school
In some cases, it is possible to use classrooms or other settings
observers who are - An example of a behavioral
characteristically part of the observation system used in school
person’s environment (e.g., spouse, settings is Achenbach’s revised
parent, teacher, friend, or nurse). Direct Observation Form of the
Child Behavior checklist.
Clinical psychologists must take - It consists of 88 problem items as
pains to make sure that people are well as an open-ended item that
not observed without their allows assessors to indicate
knowledge kay ug mahibaw-an nila problem behaviors not covered by
they might act differenty and dli na these items. Assessors are
siya matawag ug natural.. instructed to rate each item
according to its frequency, dura
Examples of Naturalistic observation tion, and intensity within a 10-
HOME OBSERVATION minute observation period. It is
- involves the use of a videotaped recommended that three to six 10-
interaction of the entire family minute observation periods be
eating at mealtime, without the completed over at least two days,
presence of a clinician or prefereably in both the morning
researcher. and afternoon.
- One of the most well-regarded - McConaughy and colleagues
systems for home observation is (2010) revealed that the DOF
the Mealtime Family Interaction helped identify youth with ADHD
Coding System (MICS; 1994), even after accounting for the
which is based on the McMaster predictive value of parent and
Model of Family Functioning teacher rating scales of
- Trained coders watch the videotape inattentiveness and hyperactivity.
and rate the family on several HOSPITAL OBSERVATION
domains, including: - Observation techniques have long
been used in such settings as
 psychiatric hospitals and - Controlled observation is
institutions for those with mental sometimes referred to as analogue
retardation. behavioral observation (Haynes,
- An example of a hospital 2001). Such observation can occur
observation measure is the Time in a clinic setting or in the natural
Sample Behavior Checklist environment. The important feature
(TSBC) developed by Gordon Paul is that the environment is
and his associates (Mariotto &Paul, “designed” such that it is likely that
1974). It is a time-sample the assessor will observe the
behavioral check list that can be targeted behavior or interactions—
used with chronic psychiatric for example, asking couples to
patients. Time-sample means that discuss relationship problems in
observations are made at regular the laboratory to observe couple
intervals for a given patient. interaction patterns.
Observers can make a single 2- Parent–Adolescent Conflict
second observation of the patient - To more accurately assess the
once every waking hour. Thus, a nature and degree of parent–
daily behavioral profile can be adolescent conflict, Prinz and Kent
constructed on each patient. (1978) developed the Inter action
- Interobserver reliability for this Behavior Code (IBC) system.
checklist has typically been quite - Using the IBC, several raters
high, and scales such as the TSBC review and rate audiotaped
are helpful in providing a discussions of families attempting
comprehensive behavioral picture to resolve a problem about which
of the patient. they disagree.
- For example, using the TSBC, - Items are rated separately for each
Menditto et al. (1996) documen ted family member according to the
how a combination of a relatively behavior’s presence or absence
new antipsy chotic medication during the discussion (or for some
(clozapine) and a structured social items, the degree to which they are
learning program (Paul & Lentz, present).
1977) helped significantly decrease Consider a family consisting of a
the frequency of inappropriate
parent (Karen) and an adolescent
behaviors and aggressive acts over
a 6-month period in a sample of (Alex) who frequently experience
chronically mentally ill patients on conflicts related to household
an inpatient unit. responsibilities.

Controlled Observation The objective is to observe and

- Clinicians can exert certain amount analyze the dynamics of conflict
of control over the events being between Karen and Alex during a
observed, may be better in
controlled interaction related to
situations where behavior does not
occur very often on its own. household chores.
- The environment is “designed” for
the clinician to observe the The observation takes place in a
behavior occurring. controlled setting, perhaps in a
- Situational Tests: Place individuals therapist's office or a dedicated
in situations similar to real life and
space within the home designated
observe how people behave.
 for conflict resolution exercises. The techniques illustrates several
environment is neutral and approaches to this kind of
measurement.
designed to minimize external
distractions.
- Behavioral avoidance. The test of
avoidance behavior consisted of a
series of 29 per formance tasks
Observers use a predetermined requiring increasingly more
checklist or rating scale to record threatening interactions.
specific behaviors and .
communication patterns during the - Fear arousal accompanying
conflict. Parameters may include approach responses. In addition to
tone of voice, body language, facial the measurement of perfor mance
capabilities, the degree of fear
expressions, and the content of
aroused by each approach response
verbal exchanges. was assessed. During the
behavioral test, sub jects rated
A specific scenario is established, orally, on a IQ-interval scale, the
such as discussing responsibilities intensity of fear they experienced
related to chores. The controlled when each snake approach task
was described to them and again
nature allows for the manipulation
while they were performing the
of variables to elicit and observe corresponding behavior.
conflict dynamics. - Meet Emma, a 25-year-old
woman struggling with social
Observers note observable behaviors anxiety disorder. She
during the conflict, such as: experiences intense fear in
• Non-verbal cues: Facial social situations, particularly
expressions, eye contact, when meeting new people. Her
gestures. therapist, Dr. Martinez, conducts
• Verbal expressions: Tone, controlled observations to
volume, choice of words. differentiate between behavioral
• Conflict resolution strategies: avoidance and fear arousal
Problem-solving attempts, accompanying approach
defensiveness, avoidance. responses.
Based on observations, therapists
or mediators introduce intervention Controlled Observation Session 1:
strategies to address the observed Mingling at a Social Event
conflicts. This may involve teaching
effective communication skills, Behavioral Avoidance:
problem-solving techniques, and
conflict resolution strategies. • Emma arrives at the social event
but spends most of her time
Controlled Performance near the entrance.
Techniques • She avoids eye contact, keeps
- A series of assessment procedures her body turned away from
using controlled performance
 others, and clasps her hands approaches a social group, engages in
tightly. conversation, and confronts her social
• When approached by someone, anxiety. This approach response is
Emma provides brief responses accompanied by observable signs of
and finds reasons to excuse fear but represents a positive step
herself from the conversation. toward overcoming avoidance.
• Physiological signs of anxiety
are evident, including a rapid - Psychophysiological measures are
heart rate and tense posture. used to assess unobtrusively central
nervous system, auto nomic
nervous system, or skeletomotor
Fear Arousal Accompanying
activity
Approach Responses:
- The advantage of
psychophysiological measures is
• In a subsequent session, Dr. that they may assess processes
Martinez encourages Emma to (e.g., emotional responsivity) that
approach a small group are not directly assessed by self-
engaged in conversation. report or behavioral measures.
• As Emma approaches, fear
SELF-MONITORING
arousal becomes evident: her
- Individuals observe and record
face reddens, and she fidgets their own behaviors, thoughts and
with her hair. emotions.
• Despite the fear, Emma - • Keep diaries, logs for some
manages to initiate a brief period of time—usually in terms of
conversation with the group, how often the behavior occurs
introducing herself and sharing (frequency, duration and intensity).
a bit about her interests. - • Most effective in relation to other
• Dr. Martinez reinforces Emma's larger forms of therapy.
approach with positive - • Other monitoring devices include
personal digital assistants (PDA’s),
feedback.
palmtop computers, phones.
- When dealing with individual
Analysis: In the first scenario, Emma clients, it is often impractical or too
engages in behavioral avoidance by expensive to observe them as they
physically staying away from social move freely about in their daily
interactions, limiting eye contact, and activities. Therefore, clinicians
using minimal verbal communication have been relying increasingly on
self-monitoring, in which
to escape the situation. The primary
individuals observe and record
goal is to reduce anxiety by avoiding their own behaviors, thoughts, and
direct engagement. emotions.
- Of course, there are potential
In the second scenario, Emma problems with self-monitoring.
demonstrates fear arousal Some clients may be inaccurate or
accompanying approach responses. may purposely distort their
Despite feeling fearful, she actively observations or recordings for
 various reasons. Others may simply -
resist the whole procedure. - It is necessary to brief them
- But Despite these obvious extensively on just what the
difficulties, self-monitoring has definition of, say, depression is,
become a useful and efficient what specific behaviors represent
technique. It can provide a great depression, and so on. Their goal
deal of information at very low should not be to “please” their
cost. supervisor by coming up
(consciously or uncon sciously)
Variables Affecting Reliability with data “helpful” to the project.
Nor should they protect one
of Observations another by talking over their
Complexity of target behavior ratings and then “agreeing to
- the more complex the behavior to agree.”
be observed, the greater the - observer drift, in which observers
opportunity for unreliability. who work closely together sub tly,
Behavioral assessment typically without awareness, begin to drift
focuses on less complex, lower- away from other observers in their
level behaviors ratings. Although reliability among
- Observations about what a person the drifting observers may be
eats for breakfast (lower-level acceptable, it is only so because,
behav ior) are likely to be more over time, they have begun to shift
reliable than those centering on their definitions of target
interpersonal behavior (higher- behaviors.
level, more complex behavior).
This applies to self-monitoring as
well. Variables Affecting Validity of
- Unless specific agreed-upon Observations
behaviors are designated, the
observer has an enor mous range of Content Validity- Behavioral
behavior upon which to concen observation schema should include
trate. Thus, to identify an instance behaviors that are important/pertaining
of interpersonal aggression, one to the research or clinical purpose
observer might react to sarcasm being measured.
while another would fail to include
it and focus instead on clear, Concurrent Validity
physical acts. - Another way to approach the
Training Observers. validity of observations is to ask
- There is no substitute for the whether one’s obtained
careful and systematic training of observational ratings correspond to
observers. what others. Example a therapist
- may use two separate scales with a
- For example, observers who are patient to confirm specific
sent into psychiatric hospitals to diagnosis.
study patient behaviors and then -
make diagnostic ratings must be - For example, the BCS of Jones et
carefully prepared in advance. al. (1975) was derived from a
Kinahanglan kabalo sila in advance social learning framework that sees
and naa najod silay more aggression as the result of learning
knowledge. in the family. When the rewards for
 aggression are substantial, - Another factor affecting the
aggression will occur. When such validity of observations is
rewards are no longer contingent reactivity. Patients or study partici
on the behavior, aggression should pants sometimes react to the fact
subside. that they are being observed by
- Therefore, the construct validity of changing the way they behave. For
the BCS could be demon strated by example: The talkative person
showing children’s aggressive suddenly becomes quiet. The
behavior declines from a baseline complaining spouse suddenly
point after clinical treat ment, with becomes the epitome of self-
clinical treatment defined as sacrifice.
rearranging the social - Sometimes an individual may even
contingencies in the family in a feel the need to apologize for the
way that should reduce the dog by saying, “He never does that
incidence of observed aggression. when he is alone with us.” In any
case, reactivity can severely
Construct Validity- Degree to which a hamper the validity of observations
test measures what it claims to measure. because it makes the observed
Mechanics of rating behavior unrepresentative of what
- One could decide to record normally occurs
behaviors along a dimension of
intensity: How strong was the Ecological Validity.
aggressive behavior? One might - One of the biggest problems in
also include a duration record: psychology (and one that has never
How long did the behavior last? Or been fully resolved) is what
one might use a simple frequency Brunswik (1947) referred to many
count: How many times in a years ago as ecological validity.
designated period did the behavior - Is the client’sbehaviortoday
under study occur? Wala bitaw typical, or is it the product of some
proper norm or standard in uncharacteristic stimulus?
observing clients. ROLE-PLAYING
Observer Error - Role-playing is another technique
- No one is perfect. Observers must that has been used in behavioral
be monitored from time to time to assessment. Role-playing or
ensure the accuracy of their behavioral rehearsal (Goldfried &
reports. Sometimes they simply Davison, 1994) can be used as a
miss things or else believe they means of training new response
have observed things that never patterns. Although role-playing is
really happened. Syempre tawo an old clinical technique,
ragud ta and sa pagpilok diay nato behavioral assessors have carried
naa nay gibuhat lain ang client. out few systematic studies on the
- A child’s yell may be accidentally methodological problems inherent
attributed to the wrong child. Or in the technique as a means of
perhaps the yell is coded as verbal assessment—among them, demand
aggression when actually it characteristics, standardization of
represented a kind of camaraderie. procedures, rater halo effects, and
In other cases, it may not be error sampling prob lems involved in
so much as bias. role selections.
Reactivity.
- Role-playing has been widely used plan an intervention strategy. What
in the assessment of social skills underlying cognitions are aiding
and assertiveness. In a study of with lack of performance, and
social skills in shy men, for under what circumstances?
example, Twentyman and McFall - • E.g.-think out loud, verbalize
(1975) developed six social thoughts.
behavior situations that required -
the individual to play a role. Strengths and Weaknesses of
Participants were instructed to Behavioral Assessments \
respond aloud as they would were • Behavioral assessors specify
they actually in the situ ation the behaviors targeted for
described to them. intervention, treatments are
provided before, after and
INVENTORIES AND during treatment and on this
CHECKLISTS basis are modified as such.
- . For example, the Fear Survey • The use of quantifiable measures
Schedule (Geer, 1965; Lang & allows for the precise
Lazovik, 1963) and the Fear measurement of behavior,
Questionnaire (Marks & Matthews, providing clear and measurable
1979) have been widely used to outcomes. This is particularly
assess behaviors associated with beneficial for tracking changes
over time.
anxiety dis orders. The Fear Survey
• Interpreting behavior can be
Schedule consists of 51 potentially complex, and the same behavior
fear-arousing situations and may have different meanings in
requires the patient to rate the different contexts. Contextual
degree of fear each situation factors and individual differences
arouses, and the Fear Questionnaire may impact the interpretation of
includes 15 items that cover observed behaviors.
situations that are avoided due to • Conducting behavioral
fear. assessments, particularly through
direct observation, can be time-
- Other frequently used self-report consuming and resource-intensive.
inven tories in behavioral This may limit the feasibility of
assessment include the Rathus extensive, long-term observations.
Assertiveness Schedule (Rathus,
-
1973), the Beck Depression
Inventory-II (Beck, Steer, &
Brown,

COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL
ASSESSMENT
- Cognitions relate to the
development of pathological
situation, its maintenance and
changes.
- • Notion that client’s thoughts play
a vital role in behavior.
- • Cognitive Functional Approach:
Functional analysis of the client’s
thinking process must be made to