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Introduction 68
Energy efficiency 68
Water efficiency and conservation 73
Water conservation measures 76

Resource Efficient Design: Energy Efficiency

(excluding section on Plate Heat Exchanger):
this has been contributed by the government's
Housing Energy Efficiency Best Practice
Programme, and Crown Copyright is reserved

67
Resource efficient design Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

always be taken. Draught sealing around succeeding 15 years, with the European
loft hatches is particularly important as Union contributing 8%, the USA 7% and
warm moisture-laden air from occupied Japan 6%.
Conservation has been described as the rooms can cause condensation in lofts.
Following an agreement reached
careful management and preservation of Pipework for heating must be insulated between the member states of the
natural resources and the environment. wherever it runs outside the heated living European Union, the United Kingdom is
Environmental Issues such as climate space; e.g., under floors or in garages. committed to reducing its greenhouse
change, ozone layer destruction along Hot water systems should also be gas emissions to 12.5% below the 1990
with air and water pollution are having a insulated to minimise heat loss from level by 2010. The heating of buildings
greater impact on building designs than storage cylinders and primary circuits; accounts for around a third of all UK CO,
in the past. For Building Services, heat output from them may contribute to emissions and is expected to contribute a
regulations are in place to help in the space heating requirements in the winter similar proportion of the necessary
design of space heating and hot and cold but in summer it is wasted and may reductions. Savings can be achieved
water services. The Institute of Plumbing make the building uncomfortably warm. from better insulation in new and existing
(lop) supports all initiatives that seek to buildings, more efficient heating and hot
reduce the use of energy and to rely water systems and electrical appliances.
where possible on renewable energy Professional responsibility
sources. This section of the Guide has
been compiled to give a broad view on The lop’s Code of Professional The benefits of
aspects of installations where these Standards requires members to
valuable resources can be saved. Some safeguard the environment, as does the energy efficiency
of these aspects are covered elsewhere Engineering Council’s Code of Practice
Energy efficiency produces benefits both
throughout the Guide, but this section Engineers and the Environment. As
for building occupants and for the
has greater detail to give the greenhouse gas emissions are one of
environment.
designer/installer a better understanding, the principal environmental concerns of
helping to achieve that all-important the present time, following the Code For the occupants of buildings, the
Resource Efficient Design. means that members must take all benefits are lower fuel bills and more
reasonable steps to pursue energy comfortable conditions. A well-insulated
efficiency in the work they undertake. building needs less heat to bring it up to
a comfortable temperature and cools
Aspects of heating system design and
down more slowly when the heating
installation are subject to the legal
Energy efficiency requirements relating to energy efficiency
system is turned off. And an efficient,
well-controlled heating system uses less
set by the Building Regulations, which
fuel to produce a given amount of heat.
apply to all material alterations to heating
What energy Both these attributes combine to reduce
systems, including those in existing
the total amount of fuel needed and
efficiency means buildings. In many cases, the customer
hence the cost. Affordable heating is of
relies on the installer for advice both on
‘Energy efficiency’ is a measure of the particular importance in the social
compliance with the Regulations and on
benefit obtained from the consumption of housing sector, which increasingly caters
options for reducing environmental
a unit of energy. The energy efficiency of for households with low incomes.
impact. Professional responsibility must
a building depends upon how well it is Consequently, contractors working for
therefore rest on awareness of legislation
insulated and how well the heating is housing associations and local
and an appreciation of the wider factors
controlled, as well as the efficiency with authorities need to pay particular
contributing to energy efficiency.
which its heating and hot water systems attention to energy efficiency.
can convert fuel to heat. Energy efficiency contributes to reduced
The fabric of the building has an The environmental rationale environmental impact through the use of
important influence on the amount of less fuel and lower emissions of
The combustion of fossil fuels, such as atmospheric pollution. But it is also
energy required to keep it comfortable. If gas, oil and coal, is responsible for a
it is badly insulated, even the most important to remember the difference in
large proportion of all carbon dioxide emissions between fuels, particularly the
efficient heating system will require a (CO,) emissions to the atmosphere. The
great deal of energy to keep it warm. high emissions associated with electricity
concentration of CO, in the global use. Electrical energy is already in a form
Although it may not always be possible to atmosphere has risen by about 30%
improve building fabric insulation, the that can be converted to heat with 100%
since the start of the industrial revolution. efficiency and can operate motors, lights
heating installer should always be aware In recent times, climatologists have
of opportunities for improved insulation and electronic circuits without further
reached a consensus view that the conversion. But that versatility comes at
and bring them to the client’s attention. ‘greenhouse effect’ arising from CO, and
Better insulation will improve comfort and a price: electricity has been generated
other man-made gases in the from fuel consumed at power stations
client satisfaction and may lead to atmosphere is likely to cause global
opportunities for a more competitive with an average thermal efficiency of
warming and consequent changes on around 40%. The energy used overall to
quotation. climates around the world. This has led provide 1kWh of delivered electricity is
Excessive ventilation, caused by air to agreements under the auspices of the therefore considerably greater at around
leakage through the building fabric, also United Nations Organisation to limit 2.5kWh. The total energy used to provide
contributes to unnecessary heat loss. It is further emissions of greenhouse gases. the supply is known as the ‘primary
essential to comply with requirements for Most notably, at the World Climate energy’, which takes account of the
ventilation and supply of combustion air Conference in Kyoto in 1997, it was energy overhead required for generation
to heating appliances and for the agreed that developed nations should and distribution. It should be noted that
ventilation of kitchens and bathrooms, achieve an overall reduction of 5.2% there are also energy overheads
but opportunities to reduce draughts relative to 1990 levels over the associated with the production, refining
around windows and doors should

68
Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Resource efficient design

and distribution of oil, gas and solid fuels, efficiency of the heating system, which operating and maintenance instructions.
although these are much smaller than for has the effect of reducing the relative The requirement for control of heating
electricity, typically around 5%. The disadvantage of electricity to some systems in dwellings may be met by
distinction between ‘delivered energy’ (as extent. zone controls, timing controls and boiler
metered and paid for by the consumer) interlock. The interlock requirement will
and primary energy is important when be satisfied if the boiler can only operate
considering environmental impact, which Building Regulations when either a space heating thermostat
arises from primary energy consumption. or a hot water cylinder thermostat is
Table 1 gives CO, emissions per unit of Part L of the Building Regulations (Part J calling for heat. In practice, this means
delivered energy for electricity and and Part F in the corresponding that thermostatic radiator valves alone
heating fuels in the UK. legislation for Scotland and Northern are not enough, and should be
Ireland, respectively) requires that supplemented by at least one room
‘reasonable provision shall be made for thermostat.
Table 1: CO, emission factors for the conservation of fuel and power’ in
buildings. It specifically requires limiting The requirement for commissioning of
delivered energy in the UK heating systems was introduced for the
heat loss through the fabric of the
Fuel 1 CO, emissions in koClkWh building, from hot water pipes and hot air first time in the year 2000 revision, and
Gas (mains) 0.053 ducts used for space heating, and from applies to both new and existing
LPG 0.068 hot water storage vessels. Other buildings. Responsibility for
0.074 requirements of particular relevance to commissioning rests with the person
Heating oil
~~

heating installers are that space and carrying out the work and includes the
Solid fuels 0.079 - 0.106 recording of system settings and
Electricity 0.113 water heating systems should be energy
efficient and that building occupiers performance test results. A certificate
should be provided with sufficient must be made available to the client and
Fuel choice information to allow them to operate their the building control body; the certificate
heating and hot water services efficiently. issued under the Benchmark Code of
Space and water heating can be Part L was revised during 2001, with new Practice for the Installation,
provided using a range of different fuels, requirements in force from April 2002 Commissioning and Servicing of Central
including electricity. Fuel price is (Part L1 deals with dwellings, Part L2 heating systems is considered suitable
generally the most important factor for with other buildings). for this purpose.
consumers in making a choice of fuel.
Standard tariff electricity is generally very Under Part L, heating became a
expensive, at around 5 times the price of ‘controlled service’ from April 2002, and Table 3: Minimum SEDBUK boiler
gas in delivered energy terms. Heating for the first time the provisions applied to efficiencies to be used with
oil has varied considerably with the price ‘material alterations’ carried out to elemental U-values in Part L 1
of crude oil over the past 3 decades, from existing heating systems. So heating
being the most economical fuel at times installers must take account of the Central heatina svstem fuel I SEDBUK %
to considerably more expensive than gas Regulations not just in new buildings but Mains natural gas 78
at others. LPG is generally expensive also when renewing systems in existing LPG 80
and tends to follow oil price trends rather buildings: failure to do so will leave them Oil 85‘
than the price of natural gas. The relative exposed to action from aggrieved ~ ~~

For boilers for which SEDBUK is not available,

price of fuels for heating may be customers and Building Control the appropriate seasonal efficiency may be
obtained from Table 12 in the Standard authorities. obtained from Table 4b of the SAP
Assessment Procedure (SAP), which is Approved Document L gives detailed For oil-fired combination boilers a SEDBUK
updated periodically: an abbreviated practical guidance showing how the value of 82%, as calculated by the SAP 98
version is shown here in Table 2. requirements may be met. In Part L1, for method, would be acceptable.
dwellings, three alternative ways of
demonstrating compliance with the The Standard Assessment
Table 2: Typical fuel costs, including VAT insulation requirements are shown,
but not standing charges including a ‘Carbon Index Method’, in Procedure (SAP)
(SAP 200 1) which the level of insulation required A home energy rating is a measure of
depends on the choice of fuel and the
the energy efficiency of a dwelling,
heating system efficiency. A minimum intended to give information on the
heating system efficiency is required for
relative energy efficiency of different
other cases, as shown in Table 3. Boilers houses. SAP is the UK Government’s
should meet specified SEDBUK standard methodology for home energy
1.7- 2.8
efficiencies, depending on type and fuel rating. The SAP rating is based upon
Electricitv (standard) I 7.4 used, and there are minimum standards
Electricity (7hour on-peak) I 7.9 running costs for space and water-
for cylinders and controls. For non-
Electricity (7hour off-peak) I 3.0 heating, which are calculated taking
domestic buildings, there are also three account of the form of the building, its
alternative ways of showing compliance, thermal insulation, which fuel is used and
Advice given by installers on the choice which are broadly analogous to those for the performance of the heating system.
of fuel for heating should be based on dwellings. The main difference is in the SAP ratings are expressed on a range of
both relative costs and CO, emissions, calculation methods specified, which take 1-120, the higher the better. They allow
as an increasing proportion of clients are account of the different building services
now concerned about environmental comparisons of energy efficiency to be
systems used. made, and can show the scope for
impact. Table 1 (above) may be used to
Apart from boiler efficiency, the most improvements.The SAP process also
provide a comparison between
relevant requirements for heating system delivers a carbon index, in the range
alternatives in terms of CO, emissions.
installers are those concerning controls, 0-10, to indicate carbon emissions. Using
Comparisons of both running cost and
commissioning, and provision of energy ratings, designers, developers,
CO, emissions must take account of the

69
Resource efficient design Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

house-builders,and home owners can temporary, as it will be withdrawn when a and oil, can be seen on the Boiler
take energy efficiency factors into European directive on boiler energy Efficiency Database at
consideration both for new dwellings and labelling is introduced. www.boiIers,org.uk.
when refurbishing existing ones. Energy
ratings can be used at the design stage Minimum standards of efficiency for most
as a guide to energy efficiency and the types of boiler are imposed by law, which
potential reduction of future fuel bills and Band SEDBUK ranae in the UK is the Boiler (Efficiency)
CO, production. The Building Regulations 7993 (UK legislation
Regulations require that every new implementing the European Union Boiler
dwelling be given a SAP energy rating, Efficiency Directive).
which must be displayed in the form of a Boiler efficiency depends on the design
notice.
D I 78%-82%
of the boiler and the conditions under
E 74%-78%
The heating designer has an important which it operates. Boiler design features
affecting efficiency include:
opportunity to influence the SAP rating G below 70%
and the carbon index through the choice a. Size (surface area) of heat exchanger
of fuel, boiler, hot water system, and
controls. When the carbon index is used Specifying efficient systems b. Water content of the heat exchanger
to show compliance with Part L of the c. the method of ignition, especially
How can purchasers specify efficient
Building Regulations, the performance of heating systems? To help them Central whether or not it relies on a
the heating system can contribute Heating System Specifications (CHeSS) permanent pilot flame
significantly, leading to less stringent have been published under the Energy d. The type of burner control (ontoff, gas
requirements for insulation. Efficiency Best Practice Programme as modulating or gadair modulating)
General Information Leaflet 59. They
have been written with assistance from e. Whether or not the boiler is designed
the relevant trade associations and the to operate in condensing mode
SEDBUK is an acronym for ‘Seasonal manufacturers of heating products. The f. Flue shape and length.
Efficiency of a Domestic Boiler in the specifications cover the eff iciency-critical
components of domestic wet central Operating conditions affecting boiler
UK. The method used in SEDBUK was efficiency include:
developed under the Government’s heating systems (boilers, cylinders,
Energy Efficiency Best Practice controls), with an emphasis on ensuring a. The size (power rating) of the boiler
Programme with the co-operation of good levels of energy efficiency using in relation to the design heat load and
boiler manufacturers, and provides a well proven and cost-effective techniques radiator sizes
basis for fair comparison of different and products. At present (CHeSS in year
2000) there are four, summarised in b. The heating system controls
models. It was specifically designed to
provide efficiency values for use in SAP Table 5. It is intended that purchasers c. Flow and return water temperatures.
calculations, and has been used in SAP should refer to CHeSS when seeking
quotations for installation work: as well as All three are at least in part within the
assessments since July 1999. control of the designer. Installation and
calling for good or best practice this is an
SEDBUK is the average annual efficiency aid to making quotations comparable. commissioning are also important to the
achieved in typical domestic conditions, realisation of the designer’s intentions.
making reasonable assumptions about Regular servicing and maintenance are
pattern of usage, climate, control, and Table 5: CHeSS (2000) reference
also necessary to ensure that efficiency
other influences. It is calculated from the systems is sustained, particularly for oil fired
results of standard laboratory tests boilers.
together with other important factors CHeSS Type of system
reference
such as boiler type, ignition arrangement,
internal store size, fuel used, and HR1 Good practice; system with regular Condensing boilers
knowledge of the UK climate and typical (i.e. non-combi) boiler
The heat exchanger in a condensing
domestic usage patterns. SEDBUK Good practice; system with combi boiler is designed to extract maximum
figures for most boilers currently on sale boiler
heat from the flue gases. As a
can be seen on the website Best practice; system with regular
www.boilers.org.uk, which is updated consequence of doing so, the
(i.e. non-combi) boiler temperature of the flue gases may fall
monthly.
For estimating annual fuel costs
SEDBUK is a better guide than
HC2
I Best practice; system with combi
boiler
below the dew point, which causes water
vapour to condense on the surfaces of
the heat exchanger, a situation that is
laboratory test results alone. It can be deliberately avoided in other boilers. The
applied to most gas and oil domestic Boiler efficiency presence of condensation in large
boilers for which data is available from quantities means that the heat exchanger
tests conducted to the relevant European The efficiency of the boiler is the main must be made of corrosion-resistant
standards. The SEDBUK method is used factor affecting the energy efficiency of materials and that a drain must be
in SAP, which is described below. gas and oil-fired wet central heating provided to dispose of the liquid
systems. Guidance on boiler types condensate.
As a simple guide to boiler efficiency for
(especially the relative advantages of
consumers, a scheme has been created Condensing boilers are always more
with bands on an ‘ A to ‘G’ scale. (see regular and combi boilers) and system efficient than non-condensing boilers,
design is given in Good Practice Guide
Table 4) The band may be used on which must be designed to operate with
284 Domestic central heating and hot
product literature and labels, though flue gas temperatures high enough to
water: systems with gas and oil-fired
there is no legal requirement for avoid the accumulation of condensate
boilers. Information on the efficiency of
manufacturersto do so. The scheme is that would cause corrosion. Even the
both current and obsolete boilers, gas

70
Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Resource efficient design

least efficient condensing gas boiler is area to provide rapid warm-up, as poor extent to which the building is insulated.
about 3% more efficient than the best heat exchanger performance causes the
Guidance for the insulation of pipes and
non-condensing boiler, and the difference boiler to be on for long periods at low ducts is given in Section 1.52 of
is typically about 13%. Condensing loads. Apart from providing poor service
Approved Document L1. Pipe work
boilers are most efficient when operating to the household, a slow response
located outside the insulated building
with low return water temperatures, reduces boiler efficiency and increases
fabric should be insulated with a
which induce high levels of heat losses from the primary circuit. It is
thickness, equal to the outside diameter
condensation. But they remain more also important to ensure that cylinders
of the pipe (up to a maximum of 40mm)
efficient than other boilers even while not have sufficient storage capacity; apart with insulation material having a thermal
condensing. Although it is possible to from the inconvenience caused by lack of
conductivity not exceeding 0.035 W/m.K.
increase the proportion of time boilers capacity, system energy efficiency will be
Pipes connected to hot water storage
operate in condensing mode by installing impaired if the boiler has to be called vessels, including the vent pipe and the
larger radiators and using lower flow and upon frequently to reheat the cylinder.
primary flow and return to the heat
return temperature, it is neither exchanger, should be similarly insulated
As a minimum, the designer should
necessary nor to be recommended; field for at least 1 metre from their points of
always specify hot water cylinders that
trials have shown it to be not cost- connection. Additional insulation may be
comply with BS 1566 or BS3198. ‘High
effective. performance’cylinders, which have fast required to prevent freezing of pipes
From the installer’s point of view, there recovery heat exchangers and are passing through unheated areas.
are two particular considerations to be usually also better insulated, are Guidance on suitable protection
taken into account when specifying recommended (see CHeSS (2000) notes measures is given in the BRE publication
condensing boilers: the provision of a 5 , 6 and 7).
‘Medium duty’ cylinders Thermal insulation: avoiding risks.
drain for the condensate and the should always be avoided as they are
acceptability of ‘pluming’- the production usually badly insulated and have poor
of a visible cloud of water droplets - from heat exchanger performance, and do not Solar water heating
the flue. The condensate drain does not comply with Building Regulations.
normally cause a problem, although care Solar water heating panels are widely
must be taken to ensure that it can be used around the world to provide
kept clear. Pluming can be a real Controls for heating systems domestic hot water, particularly where
problem, however, when the flue sunshine is plentiful and fuel is relatively
discharges into an area close to The output required from a heating expensive. In the UK, the great majority
neighbouring property. Pluming may be system varies considerably, particularly in of installed systems are in dwellings.
perceived as much less acceptable than response to external temperature.
The efficiency of solar collector panels
the less visible and more buoyant Controls are needed to ensure that the
depends on number of factors, including
combustion products from a non- system provides the appropriate output
the type of collector, the spectral
condensing boiler. Condensing boilers for all conditions, including those where
response of the absorbing surface, the
are thought by some installers to be little or no additional heat is required.
extent to which the panel is insulated and
more difficult to maintain and less Controls contribute significantly to the
the temperature difference between the
reliable but there is no reason why a efficient operation of a heating system,
panel and the ambient air. Efficiency
condensing boiler should be different by allowing the desired temperatures to
declines sharply as panel temperature
from any other modern boiler in these be achieved in each room at the times
increases above air temperature, and the
respects.There is little difference in required. The selection of appropriate
surface finish of the collector is
complexity and the only additional controls also plays a key part in the
important. Evacuated tube collectors are
maintenance task is to ensure that the overall running costs of a heating
able to maintain their efficiency at high
condensate drain is clear. system. For example, upgrading controls
temperatures, although they may be no
on older heating systems can save up to
For gas installations, condensing boilers more efficient at low temperature rises.
15% on energy bills. The recommended
should be specified unless the additional minimum set of controls is given in Good A typical solar water heating installation
costs outweigh the benefits or where Practice Guide 302 Controls for domestic consists of one or more roof-mounted
there are serious difficulties with terminal heating and hot water systems. See also panels, a hot water storage cylinder and
siting, pluming or connection to a drain. General Information Leaflet 83 Domestic a means of transferring heat from the
For oil installations, condensing boilers boiler anti-cycling controls - an panels to the cylinder. Very simple
have less of an advantage over non- evaluation concerning claims made for systems, used where sunshine is
condensing types and until recently the boiler anti-cycling devices. abundant, rely on gravity circulation but
market for them has not been developed systems designed for a typical UK
to the same extent as for gas. climate require a pumped primary
Insulation circulation. BS5918 gives guidance for
the design and installation of such
Hot water cylinders Insulation is relevant to the heating systems. Some systems used in the UK
installer in two different contexts. Firstly, have separate storage cylinders for solar
Two points require consideration to as noted above, the extent to which the heated water, which can be kept at an
ensure the energy efficiency of hot water fabric of a building is insulated affects the intermediate temperature to maximise
storage cylinders. Firstly, they should be design heating load. Consequently, the amount of heat collected. Others rely
well insulated, as heat lost to their opportunities for improving insulation on an additional heating coil in the main
surroundings cannot contribute usefully should be explored before undertaking hot water cylinder, which is also heated
to space heating requirements when no heating system design -the cost of the by a central heating system or by an
heat is required in summer and may insulation may well be offset by electric immersion heater. The circulation
cause uncomfortably high temperatures. reductions in the cost of the heating pump is usually controlled by a
Insulation is especially important if the system, as well as energy cost savings differential temperature sensor, which
cylinder is located in an unheated space. throughout the life of the installation. causes the pump to operate whenever
Secondly, the heat exchangers in indirect Secondly, parts of the heating system the temperature of the collector exceeds
cylinders should have sufficient surface itself require insulation, regardless of the

71
Resource efficient design Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

the temperature of the stored water in appliance, in which a burner heats a to a low pressure circuit makes them the
the cylinder by a pre-set margin of thermal store. The water in the perfect choice for applications where the
2 or 3°C. thermal store is circulated to radiators operating pressures vary through a
to provide space heating, while a system. A typical example would be the
The energy content of the hot water
heat exchanger is used to transfer use of a vented boiler system to heat
produced annually per unit area of solar
heat to incoming cold water at mains mains pressure water. They are also
water heating panel depends upon
pressure to provide a supply of useful if there is a need to isolate
several factors, including the collector
domestic hot water. chemically treated water in one circuit
efficiency, storage volume and usage
patterns. BS 5918 gives a method for from separate systems. A plate heat
b. Integrated thermal stores also provide
sizing solar hot water systems for exchanger allows the two systems to
both space and water heating from
individual houses, taking account of operate separately, while providing
within a single appliance. However,
sufficient heat transfer for correct
climate, panel orientation and collector they differ from CPSUs in that a
operation.
performance. It shows that the optimum separate boiler is used to heat the
panel orientation is just West of South primary water.
but that there is little effect on output Plate heat exchanger sizing
C. Hot-water-onlythermal stores use
within 45" of the optimum. Optimum tilt When selecting plate heat exchangers,
thermal storage only for production of
for the UK is around 33" but there is little they must be large enough to provide the
domestic hot water. As for the two
difference within *I 5", which includes required rate of heat transfer, at the
types described above, the domestic
most pitched roofs in the UK. A rule of desired temperatures, and must also be
hot water is provided by a heat
thumb is that a house requires 2-4m2 of large enough to ensure that pressure
exchanger working at mains
panel area, which will yield around a drops across the heat exchanger are not
pressure.
1000kWh per year of heat and meet too high. Connection sizes will have an
around half of annual hot water Also, some models of combination boiler effect on pressure drops, however they
requirements. A set of European contain a small thermal store to are usually sized to suit the internal
Standards is currently under overcome the limitation on flow rates for arrangement of the plates. The
development. domestic hot water. relationship between power, flow rate
An Energy Efficiency Best Practice Thermal storage for larger buildings must and temperature rise of water flowing
Programme report' on solar hot water rely on purpose-designed storage through a plate heat exchanger can be
systems in new housing was published in vessels with capacity and storage calculated from the equation:
June 2001. temperature optimised for the heat load. Power (kW) = 4.2 x Temperature
Other design parameters that must be change ("C) x Flow rate (I/s)
Solar panels are also well suited to
considered are insulation of the storage
heating swimming pools. The low Although the temperatures and flow rates
vessel, arrangements for dealing with
temperature required and the very large will be different on the primary side of the
expansion and the control strategy for
thermal capacity of the pool water makes heat exchanger to those on the
coupling the store to the rest of the
it possible to achieve relatively high secondary, the power will be the same
system.
collector efficiency using simple unglazed (energy out = energy in).
panels. Typical installations in the UK Thermal stores may contribute to
(covered by BS 6785) have a panel area improved energy efficiency by allowing Example
of around half of the pool surface area the installation of a smaller heat source To work out the basics for a heat exchanger
and produce an average temperature that can operate closer to its maximum required to feed a shower with hot water,
rise above ambient air temperature of load and hence with improved efficiency. we know the shower flow rate to be about 8
around 5°K provided the pool is covered However, heat losses from the energy litres per minute, the incoming mains water
at night or indoors. store need to be taken into account; if temperature to be 10°C, and the required
insulation is not of a very high standard, water temperature is 42°C:
then any gains in efficiency from the Power Out = 4.2 x (42 - 10) x (8/60)
Thermal storage sizing effect can be cancelled out. = 17.92kW = Power In
Energy storage may be used either to Assuming the temperature of the primary
cope with peak loads or to take Plate heat exchanger water being used to provide the heat is
advantage of lower energy prices at 75"C, and we would like to aim for a
certain times of day. Heat is stored using A plate heat exchanger is a device used temperature drop of 1O"C, we can work out
either solid cores or hot water vessels. to transfer heat from one liquid (or gas) the required flow rate by reversing the
The most common application of thermal flowing in one direction (primary) through previous equation:
storage is in dwellings, in which solid the heat exchanger to cold water flowing Power
core storage is charged with heat at off- the opposite direction (secondary).The Flow Rate =
peak rates for a 7 or 8 hour period. two sets of water are kept separate by (4.2 x Temperature change)
Guidance for the design of such systems numerous stainless steel plates through - 17.92
is contained in the Electricity Council which the heat is conducted. Each (4.3 x (75 - 65))
(later the Electricity Association) waterway can operate typically up to 10
publication Design of mixed storage bar pressure, although models are = 0.42 I/s
heater/direct systems. available to take far higher pressures. A
typical plate heat exchanger measuring This is generally enough information
Gas fired systems relying on hot water required to select a heat exchanger,
only 20 x 7 x 12cm can transfer heat at
storage vessels are also available for use however one may find that the flow rate
over 100kW - enough to heat 45 litres
in dwellings. Three generic types are requirement or pressure drop on one
per minute of hot water from 12-42°C.
recognised: side of the heat exchanger is too high.
a. Combined primary storage units Isolation Increasing the size of the heat exchanger
(CPSU) provide both space and will allow reduced primary flow rates,
water heating from within a single The ability of plate heat exchangers to with accordingly lower return
transfer heat from a high pressure circuit

72
Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Resource efficient design

,. /j

temperatures. The only other alternative Air source heat pumps )generatingstation is located in an urban
is to increase the size of the primary area and heat, which would otherwise
pump and/or pipework.The correct Air source heat pumps may be used to have gone to waste, is distributed to
balance has to be found between heat extract heat either fl;om outside air or buildings nearby. A similar approach may
exchanger size and primary pump size. from ventilation exhaust air. When be adopted on a large campus site, such
outside air is used as a heat source, the as a hospital or industrial complex, which
Applications required to work with lower coefficient of performance declines as has a continuous need for both heat and
temperature differences across the heat the air temperature drops. There can also electric power. Smaller units are suitable
exchanger, such as using a heat be problems with icing of the heat for individual buildings, such as sports
exchanger to transfer heat from a boiler exchanger where the outside air is of centres or hotels. Large CHP systems
system at 75°C to a radiator circuit at high humidity, which is frequently the tend to be based on gas turbine
50°C will also require larger heat case in the UK. This requires periodic technology, while small units are more
exchangers. To size jobs accurately defrosting, which is often achieved by likely to use reciprocating engines.
requires access to various pump curves temporary reversals of the heat pump
and reduces the COP.Because of those Micro CHP describes very small units
as well as heat exchanger software - designed to operate in an individual
both of which can be obtained from factors, air-to-air heat pumps have a
relatively low COP(in the range of house or other small building, often
manufacturers and often free on the relying on a Stirling engine to drive the
Internet. On small output systems, under 2.0-2.5) when used for heating in a
typical UK climate. As COPdeclines with generator. Fuel cells, which generate
100kW, it may be far easier and more electricity directly from gas passed over
economical to choose a heat exchanger outside temperature, it is not economic to
size air-source heat pumps for the electrodes, are currently expensive but
that is slightly oversized, but off-the-shelf offer a promising long term alternative
and hence relatively cheap. coldest conditions, but to include some
supplementary heating by electrical form of generation. Micro CHP is
resistance coils. technically feasible and is currently
Limestale undergoing field tests in the UK and
The plates within the heat exchanger are Ground or water source elsewhere. However, there are problems
embossed with a corrugated pattern, heat pumps in matching short-term heat and
designed to maximise turbulence and electricity demand that could inhibit
heat transfer. Providing flow rates are Ground or water source heat pumps commercial exploitation. In particular, if
reasonable, the turbulent flow prevents extract heat from the ground, or from the unit were sized to replace a boiler,
scale deposits from sticking to the plates. bodies of water either at ambient there would be a significant surplus of
In addition, the slight flexing of the plates temperature or with temperature raised electricity that would need to be exported
during operation helps to break up any by the outflow of waste heat. They have and sold at a reasonable price.
deposits that do form. the advantage over air source heat Alternatively, if the unit were sized to
pumps in that their heat source has meet the base electrical load, the heat
Swimming pools much greater specific heat than air and, produced would not match the needs of
provided it has sufficient mass, varies the household and a separate boiler
Heating swimming pools poses additional much less with outside temperature. would still be required.
problems due to the levels of chlorides Small ground source heat pumps have a
and bromides often added to kill germs seasonal COPof around 3.5 in a typical
and bacteria in the water. Chlorine and UK climate.
bromine both attack metals, including
The COPfigures given above are for
copper, iron and steel. If a copper brazed
plate heat exchanger is used on treated electrically driven vapour compression Water efficiency
cycle heat pumps. Absorption cycle heat
water then the copper is open to attack
and may result in the failure of the heat pumps have a much lower COPbut have and conservation
exchanger. An alternative is to use Nickel the advantage that they can be powered
brazed plate heat exchangers that are far directly by gas. When used for heating, Water is a precious resource; it is
more resistant. the COPobtainable in practice (of around required to sustain life and is used
1.4) still offers a considerable advantage extensively in modern lifestyles.Water is
over a boiler. Domestic sized absorption consumed in the sense that it is
Heat pumps heat pumps are currently being transformed from a drinking water to a
evaluated in field trials in the lower grade wastewater containing
Heat pumps are available in a number of Netherlands; they are compact enough to pollutants.This section examines
different forms and exploit different be considered as a replacement for a methods of water conservation within
sources of low grade heat, with the effect boiler, silent in operation and offer output and around domestic, commercial and
that they can produce significantly equivalent to that from a boiler of 140% industrial buildings.
greater energy output than is supplied to efficiency.
them by fuel or electricity input. The In the UK, water supplied by the public
Many heat pumps used for heating in supply main is abstracted from streams,
Performance of a heat pump may be commercial buildings in the UK are
characterised by its coefficient of rivers, lakes and reservoirs, as well as
reversible and also provide cooling in groundwater from aquifers. These are fed
performance (COP),which is the ratio of summer at no additional capital cost.
the heat output to the power input. by an average rainfall of IOOOmm of
Although heat pumps clearly reduce water each year of which half returns to
requirements for delivered energy, they the atmosphere by evaporation and
should be considered in terms of primary Micro CHP transpiration by plants. The hydrological
energy if an overall gain in energy Combined heat and power (CHP) is the cycle is the process by which water
efficiency is to be established. For heat name given to systems designed to moves from the atmosphere to surface
pumps driven by electricity, a good COP generate heat and electricity waters (by precipitation) and acquifers,
is required to overcome the primary simultaneously. This may be done on a and then into the sea.
energy ratio of the electricity. large scale, whereby an electricity

73
Resource efficient design Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

Water conservation has become in households has risen by 70% over the
increasingly important in the UK as last 30 years to around 140 litres/person
demand for water has increased and /day of which only about 2.5 litres is used
shortfalls in supply have occurred. Also, for drinking purposes. In order to match
public awareness of the scarcity of water these increases in demand new sources
in some areas of the UK and the of water have to be created. However, in
economic value of water has increased. recent years in the UK there have been
The benefits of conserving water include: regular shortfalls in supply resulting in
178 drought orders being issued
I. Maintaining the availability of the between 1989 and 1991. Building new
water supply during drought periods reservoirs is expensive and can have
significant effects on the environment. An
2. Reduced pumping and treatment
costs (with associated energy savings) alternative new approach to the problem
is to reduce the demand for water.
3. Wastewater reduction
4. The protection of the environment
and the possible reduction in costs to Water supply in the UK
the consumer. In England and Wales, water abstracted
Throughout the world the use of water is to provide a public water supply is
increasing. Since 1950 the use of water provided by the ten regional water Figure 3 Typical household water use in
has more than tripled to about 4340km3 service companies and around the UK
each year. In the UK, water consumption seventeen water companies as well as NOTE:
1. There is considerable variation in water-
use between household size, socio-
economic group and from region to region.
2. External use includes water used for
gardening and car washing.

small private abstractors. They supply

water either metered or unmetered.
Figure 2 shows uses of abstracted public
water supplies in the UK.

Domestic water consumption

Presently domestic water bills are based
either on the rateable value of a building
or the volume of water consumed for
metered buildings. In 1991 only 2% of
households in England and Wales were
metered. By 2000, 18% of households
were metered. Domestic demand for
Figure 1 Comparison of water consumption rates in Europe (1989/90) water has increased over the past
decade. This has been alongside the
Figure 2 Volume of public water supplied in the UK population increase by 2.5% and other
factors, which include:
a. The increase in low occupation
density dwellings, (as the number of
occupants in a dwelling decreases
the water consumption for each
person of that dwelling increases)
b. The increasing use of water using
appliances, such as clothes washing
machines and dishwashers.
The largest single use of water in homes
is for WC flushing, as is shown in Figure
3, which gives a breakdown of water
consumption in a typical household in the
UK.

74

-
Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Resource efficient design

a. In industrial processes supplied on an unmetered basis many

consumers are unaware of the volume of
b. Cooling water they use. A programme of
c. Sanitation promoting water efficiency and
conservation and the benefits it can bring
d. Landscape irrigation. together with an awareness of water
consumption could instil a conserving
ethic amongst water users. This could be
Programmes for water based upon a public information scheme
conservation that includes the education of school
children in the importance of water.
To identify the need for water
conservation a review of current water
using practices and current conservation Identifying scope for
measures should be undertaken. The
evaluation of existing water conservation water conservation
techniques should consider the volume Current and future water supply and
of water conserved and if this can be demand should be estimated so that the
Figure 4 Typical water use in offices improved. Water conservation should not long term water conservation techniques
only be justified on an economic basis have a sound basis. The projected
(although it is likely that initial forecast of population increase or
M c e water consumption conservation measures need to be cost decrease and the use of a region for
effective) but on a complete cost-benefit residential, industrial, agricultural or
Most water used in commercial buildings analysis which takes an holistic view. commercial purposes should be used to
is charged on a metered basis and predict future water demands. This
therefore there is a financial benefit in Any water supply problems should be
identified.The type of problems that may information can be used to match the
reducing consumption.The single most water system sizing with the predicted
common use of water in offices is for WC occur on a water supply network include:
demand. This is important for new
flushing (43%) followed by urinal flushing. a. Short term - drought, supply developments, and can also be used for
Previous Water Byelaws and now Water contamination the renovation or upgrading of water
Regulations, stating that new flushing
cisterns can only be in operation when b. Long term - leakage, inadequate supply systems.
the building is in use, have recently reserves, inadequate source of
addressed the frequency of flushing supply, inadequate distribution
urinals. Other uses of water in offices are capacity or pressure Legal and statutory
shown in Figure 4. External use of water, c. Seasonal shortcomings - such as considerations
e.g. for landscape irrigation purposes, is summer high demands.
not accounted for in Figure 4. The following will have a bearing on any
long term water conservation
programme:
User education and
Industrial watelcuse co-operation a. Water Industry Act 1991
Most of the water used in industrial b. Codes of practice for water supply
buildings is metered. This means there is For a water conservation programme to such as British Standards BS 6700
already a financial incentive for water be successful the co-operation of water
consumers is required. c. Water Supply (Water Fittings)
conservation.The main uses of water Regulations
are: Since, traditionally water has been
d. Existing water and energy
conservation programmes
Figure 5 Water demand (with projections to 2021)
e. Building Regulations
f. BREEAM (Building Research
Establishment’s Environmental
Assessment Method).

Present requirements for

reducing waste of water
The Water Supply (Water Fittings)
Regulations 1999 and the Water Byelaws
2000 (Scotland) are in place to prevent
waste, undue consumption, misuse
contamination or erroneous
measurement of water supplied by the
water undertakers. The Regulationsthat
are relevant to water conservation cover
rrupwu

I estimate (low) estimate (base) . water fittings that are used to convey
water as well as water using appliances.
They set a fine for each non-compliance
plus a fine each day until it is rectified. In

75
Resource efficient design Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

‘i
addition, the Water Regulations Advisory WCs is now permitted. The reduced flush Approved Contractors
Scheme (WRAS) assesses compliance must be not more than two-thirds of the
of fittings with the Regulations.This maximum flush volume and clear The Regulations include the concept of
allows the selection of water fittings that operating instructions must be provided. Approved Contractors. This is a non-
will comply with the requirements and Also, alternatives to traditional external mandatory scheme whereby a contractor
minimise the possibility of contamination overflow arrangements for WC cisterns may choose to become a member of an
or waste of water. will be permitted. Approved Contractor Scheme. Such
schemes are administered by water
authorities or other organisations
Backflow prevention
including the lop’s own scheme, that are
The Water Supply (Water An example of the application of appointed by DEFRA or National
Fittings) Regulations 1999 European Standards is the introduction Assembly for Wales. Some of the
of new backflow prevention requirements. notification requirements are waived for
The Secretary of State for the The Water Regulations reflect the Approved Contractors. An Approved
Environment, Transport and the Regions approach being adopted in draft Contractor will issue a certificate for the
(DETR, now DEFRA) used powers under European Standard EN1717. It is the work.
the Water Act to replace the individual responsibility of the system designer to
water companies’ Water Byelaws with select the backflow prevention device
Water Regulations. Note: The Water appropriate to the fluid risk (i.e. a
Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 performance based approach). This
came into force in July 1999. They are
not retrospective, which means that they
allows for the introduction of new
methods to prevent backflow. The
Water conservation
do not apply to any fitting lawfully
installed with regard to the Byelaws
Regulations recognise risks associated
with five fluid categories.
measures
before July 1999. The Regulations apply
only to England and Wales. However, Installation A number of water conservation
new Byelaws have been introduced in measures have been identified that
Scotland that, subject to compliance with Installation issues are similar to those would be applicable in the UK, as well as
Scottish law, imposes similar covered previously in the Byelaws. other techniques that would require
requirements. Similar Regulations have Fittings should be installed as intended; further research to exploit there full
been introduced in Northern Ireland. i.e. the fitting should operate as required potential. The examination of water
by the Standards with which it is required conservation methods was based on
The efficient use of public water supplies to comply. In addition, the Regulations
and their prevention from contamination various attributes such as:
include requirements for not connecting
are crucial to the protection of public materials that might lead to
health as well as water resources. The
Regulations embrace this idea and
contamination through galvanic action or Types of conservation
leaching. They also include procedures
impact upon all water fittings, including
for pressure testing and disinfecting measures
retrofitting and new construction within
systems before they are used. To achieve water conservation, changes
domestic, commercial and industrial
plumbing systems. are required in the way water is used, by
Notifications altering the pattern of use, by the
Performance based requirements There are new notification requirements installation of efficient appliances or a
in the Regulations.The type of work that combination of the two. The simplest
Technically, the Regulations do not is required to be notified includes the distinction that can be drawn between
introduce many changes to the extension of plumbing systems in non- measures is to divide them into those
requirements of the Byelaws that they domestic premises, where there is a that are:
replaced. The two main exceptions are material change of use of a building. In
(a) backflow prevention and (b) a. products which relate to items, such
addition, notifiable work includes as, WCs, taps and automatic car
requirements for water closets (WCs). appliances that consume high volumes of
The requirements of the Regulations are washes
water for discretionary uses, for example
based largely on performance standards, swimming pools. Where high water b. techniques, such as, using air to
rather than the prescriptive approach consumption fittings are to be installed, move waste products instead of water
adopted in the Byelaws. Compliance is the water authority may consider and water pressure reduction
primarily based upon satisfying relevant metering the customer.
British and European Standards. c. services that cover water-use audits
Mechanisms are in place to update these and water-use labelling.
standards to reflect changes in Disagreement and disputes
Examples of these measures are given
technology and permit innovation. Water companies are still responsible for in the following sections.
enforcing the Regulations. In addition,
Water-efficient WCs there is a procedure for resolving
disputes. Where a water authority will not
From 1 January 2001, the maximum endorse an application for a relaxation, Products
flush volume for newly installed WCs was or refuses consent following a
reduced to 6 litres. Such WCs must meet This includes all types of device that can
notification, or applies conditions to the be used to save water ranging from the
the requirements specified in DEFRA’s consent, the customer can appeal to
WC Suite Performance Specification. simple flow restrictor, through low-water-
DEFRA as to whether the action was use washing machines to fully recycling
WCs can be flushed using any reasonable.
mechanism that passes this performance automatic car washing equipment.
standard. Therefore, it will no longer be i. Flow restrictors are readily available
necessary to use a siphon. and can be fitted to many appliances,
The use of dual flush mechanisms for but their use has to be appropriate.

76 ‘
Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Resource efficient design

Where taps can be left on by careless not readily available in the UK but are ix. Automatic leak detectors are
users and where items are washed used in parts of France and the USA. becoming increasingly available in the
under running water they are a cheap To be used efficiently these cisterns UK. These devices are fitted into the
way of reducing water wastage. need to be matched to WC pans that incoming mains and close when a
However, a more effective, but more can use the higher velocity water leak is detected, preventing both the
expensive, solution would be to install effectively. Another type of water and waste of water and damage to
taps operated by proximity sensors. compressed air toilet, uses water to property. Some operate by sensing a
rinse the bowl and compressed air to high flow rate and others use
ii. The average amount of water used
evacuate the contents.This type is conductivity detectors to activate
for a conventional shower is
used in many types of buildings in the valves.
approximately 30 litres, whilst a bath
USA.
requires about 80 litres. It initially x. Automatic closure taps can produce
appears showering is more energy vi. Toilets that use no water for flushing water savings in commercial and
and water efficient, but the fact is that are available. The most common type public buildings where there is a risk
households with showers use them in the UK is the composting toilet. In of taps being left on accidentally.
more frequently than non-shower its domestic form this toilet is usually
xi. Presently, 85% of households
households use their baths. Also electrically powered heating the
possess a washing machine and 10%
pumped and multi-head showers are waste material to enable composting
a dishwasher, consuming, in total,
not as efficient as conventional action to occur. The major problem
about 12% of domestic water. The
showers. Households whose water with this type of toilet is its size; the
ownership of these previously luxury
use is metered could use suitable smallest domestic model is about
goods are increasing.Water
showering products as a method of twice the size of a conventional WC
Regulations govern the maximum
reducing total water consumption. suite. Large (greater than 15m3)
permissible volume of water used for
composting toilets do not usually
iii. Conventional showerheads can a wash: between 150 and 180 litre for
require the external input of energy
discharge water at between 0.3-0.5 a washing machine (depending on
for the process, as the aerobic
I/s. Low-flow showerheads can drum size) and about 196 litre for an
decomposition is sufficiently
reduce this to below 0.2 litre/sec average dishwasher. These levels are
exothermic to be self-sustaining.
depending on the supply pressure. above current consumption of about
Large composting toilets may be
Research conducted in the USA has 100 litre and 25 litre respectively).
environmentally acceptable as they
shown that the use of low-flow The Water Regulations maxima could
consume only a small volume of
showerheads can save approximately be brought in line with the water
water, require no drainage pipework
27 litre each day each person (for a consumption of current production
and produce compost that can be
person who mainly showers rather models.
used in the garden. However the
than takes baths).This equates to an
questions of adequate hand washing Other products include drip-proof taps
energy saving in hot water of 444kWh
facilities if there is no available water and drip feed irrigation systems.
(1.6 x 109 J) each person each year
supply and the safety of children
for water heated by gas (or 388kWh
using toilets with open chutes needs Techniques
for water heated by electricity). The
to be considered.
cheaper alternative to low-flow A technique is defined as the application
showerheads is to fit a flow restrictor vii. Urinal flushing cistern controllers of a collection of associated products
to the supply to an existing have been widely used in the UK for (e.g. a vacuum drainage system),
showerhead, although this may some time. Water Regulations state education or legislative policies, changes
increase the showering time. the maximum rate at which cisterns in cultural habits or the use of alternative
may be filled. Since 1989 new fluids for various processes.
iv. WC cistern water displacement
cisterns are required to be refilled
devices, called dams, which are i. In most drainage systems in the
only when the urinal is in use. There
inserted into cisterns, are available to world water is used as the transport
are various methods of sensing use
reduce the volume of water flushed. medium. This is mainly due to
and operation. Some use changes in
Although these are relatively historical reasons as most drainage
water pressure to identify operation of
inexpensive they can interfere with systems involved removal of waste
taps and therefore by association the
the correct and efficient operation of into rivers. However, water is
use of urinals. Others use passive
the cistern. They do not fit easily into becoming increasingly valuable and
infra-red (PIR) detectors to detect
UK cisterns with a syphon flush in some circumstances it is very
movement of persons in the room,
mechanism because they are wasteful to use water of drinking
some sense the temperature of urine
designed primarily for use in cisterns quality to flush toilets and drains. An
in the urinal traps and many use
fitted with flap valves. If all the volume established alternative is the vacuum
various forms of proximity detector.
of water in the cistern was necessary drainage system. This uses air as the
The essence of these devices is they
to clear the WC pan, a reduced flush main transport medium. Some
all obviate the flushing of urinals
volume may not be effective and the systems also use special appliances
when the premises are not being
user will flush the cistern again and that use little water, such as, the
used and are usually an improvement
hence increase the use of water, vacuum WC and urinal.
over the use of the traditional ‘pet-
instead of reducing it.
cock’ that has to be set to drip water ii. Education programmes to change the
V. WCs can be flushed with water using at the required rate into the cistern. public’s uses of water have been
compressed air assistance. Some used at various times in most
viii. The use of an occupancy detector to
such cisterns use the pressure of the developed countries of the world.
isolate the water supply to a
mains water supply to compress a Education of all ages is needed but
washroom when unoccupied is
volume of air above the stored water. education programmes in schools
another application of PIR technology.
When the water is released into the help produce a new generation with
This can minimise the waste in urinal
bowl it has a much greater velocity an awareness of the problem.
flushing and that caused by taps
than from a conventional gravity
being left on. iii. Metering of supplies is a technique
operated cistern. These products are

77
Resource efficient design Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

that has social, political and financial Economical products BRE has developed a water efficient
implications. Presently, the majority of To help in the selection of water specification for new housing which
domestic water used in the UK is economical products, water-use labelling meets the Water Regulations
charged on a tariff that was related to of appliances is being adopted in requirement and is given below.
the rateable value of a building. A Australia. It is analogous to fuel
BRE water efficiency specification:
charge based on the volume of water consumption figures for motor cars. A
consumed is an alternative to the rate prospective purchaser is able to compare i. WCs (6 litre)
method; this requires some form of the relative amounts of water that
ii. Dual flush WCs (6/4 litre) or (6/3 litre)
metering. Commercial and industrial different appliances use. This scheme
buildings are generally metered. would require the testing of appliances to iii. Low volume baths
an agreed standard and would add to the
iv. Long pipe runs are to be avoided iv. Water butts (for garden irrigation)
cost of the product. Currently, products
because water contained in them
that are covered in the Australian v. Spray taps on handwash basins
may have to be run off before the
scheme include:
water reaches the desired vi. Reduced flowrate taps on handwash
temperature. The insulation of hot I. Shower heads basins
water pipes can reduce this problem.
ii. Taps vii. Water efficient dishwasher
It is common practice to run water
from hot taps to waste until it is up to iii. Flow restrictors viii. Water efficient washing machine
temperature and then add cold water.
iv. Dish washing machines ix. Water efficient showerhead.
If the initial cooler water was utilised
reductions could be achieved. Other V. Clothes washing machines Water metering
ways of reducing water wasted in Metering trials have been conducted in
vi. w c s
pipe runs would be to use point of twelve areas in England.These sites
use water heaters, and to use vii. Urinals cover a range of geographical areas and
unvented hot water systems which social groups; a total of approximately
viii. Domestic garden equipment.
operate on higher water pressures 56,570 households. A survey carried out
than traditional vented water heaters In the UK, the Bathroom Manufacturers by Ofwat indicated that there was a high
and can be used with smaller bore Association, represents many level of acceptance of water metering by
piping. sanitaryware manufacturers. 72% of those questioned.The installation
of water meters and their use for the
V. One of the most popular techniques Toilet rebate programmes
charging of water on a volume used
presently used for saving water is to Toilet rebate programmes have been
rather than on a flat rate basis could be
use rainwater for tasks where used to great effect in parts of the USA.
used to encourage water conservation.
drinking water would normally be They involve offering payments to users
The actual tariff system adopted for
used. These include WC flushing, who exchange their existing WC for a
metered dwellings will affect the potential
garden and window box watering. low-water-useWC from a specified list.
water savings that can be achieved. The
Not only does this result in water savings
vi. Recycling of wastewater is possible relative contributions to the total water bill
but also increased WC and bathroom suit
but may give rise to problems. from standing charges and charges
sales and is an incentive to the industry.
Wastewater from sinks, baths and related to the volume of water used are
Experience in San Simeon, California,
basins may be used for irrigation important for creating financial incentives
USA has shown a 39% reduction in total
purposes but if it is used for WC for water conservation.
water-use after a toilet rebate scheme
flushing the cisterns mechanism may
had been implemented.This required the The majority of metered householders
suffer due to deposits of soap and
replacement of the existing 1198 WCs for (59%) in the study attempted to reduce
other contaminants. Other problems
low-water-userWCs (less than 7.2 litre). their water consumption by some means.
associated with recycling wastewater
A rebate scheme for gas-fired This was achieved by a number of
are storage, contamination and
condensing boilers is already operated in methods including:
separation from the existing drinkable
the UK by the Energy Savings Trust.
water supply. i. Less plant watering
Efficient landscaping
ii. Less toilet flushing
Services Efficient landscaping can reduce the
amount of water required for irrigation iii. Taking showers instead of baths
These are not product based but involve and the watering of plants. Presently the
knowledge that can be applied or iv. Using washing machines less
external use of water for gardening runs
utilised. frequently
at between 2% and 3% of total water
Audit consumption for domestic properties. v. Sharing baths, bath water, or
An audit of water using appliances, Many commercial and public buildings showers.
especially in large organisations, may have extensive landscaped areas. Low
Even though installation of meters may
reveal many areas where savings can be transpiration plants native to the
be costly in existing buildings, there are
made. Companies that offer these Mediterraneancan be used for
hidden benefits, such as detecting
services usually market devices such as ornamental gardening. Large areas are
existing leaks during installation.
WC dams, tap flow restrictors and are also given over to recreational uses,
Presently, many new buildings are
able to offer the audits at negligible cost such as golf courses. Efficient watering
automatically fitted with a water meter or
to the clients. In New York City, USA, the systems that monitor wind speed and air
provided with suitable connections for
use of a voluntary water audit in 5200 temperature can vary irrigation rates so
installation later, although trends show an
buildings has shown potential water water is more fully utilised and
increase in unmetered water
savings of 28 million litres per year. The evaporation is reduced.
consumption.
audit consisted of a leak and waste
inspection with free replacement of Evidence from the USA suggests that
showerheads, aerating taps and WC water savings from the installation of
cistern dams. water meters produced savings in the
Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Resource efficient design

Since cooling water is a high component Energy Efficiency Best Practice

20000 of water used in industry it should be Programme, General lnformation Report
targeted for reuse. As cooling water is 88 ‘Solar hot water systems in new
r
m
housing - a monitoring report’.
-
z815000 not normally degraded (except for
mineral content), it can be reused for BS 67851986 Code of practice for solar
-P processes, such as cleaning, which do heating systems for swimming pools.
--
0
g10000 not require drinking water.
Electricity Council, Design of mixed
.-
c
0
storage heater/direct systems. Technical
5000 Information DOM-8. 1980 (revised 1984
-.-
.--
0 References and 1989).
“ 0 The Building Regulations 2000 Approved The Water Supply (Fittings) Regulations
Document L Conservation of Fuel and 1999 and Water Byelaws 2000
Power HMSO 2001. (Scotland).
The Governments Standard Assessment
Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings
BRECSU 2001.
figure 6 Uses of abstracted water supplies Energy Efficiency Best Practice
in the UK Programme, General lnformation Leaflet
59 ‘Central Heating System
Specifications (CHeSS) ’.
region of 13% to 45% of supplied water. Energy Efficiency Best Practice
These trials were carried out between Programme, Good Practice Guide 284
1955 and 1975 and were based on water ‘Domestic central heating and hot water:
susceptible to differences and variations systems with gas and oil-fired boilers’.
due to particular seasonal requirements. BS 1566-1:I 984 Copper indirect
Also in the USA, the proportion of the cylinders for domestic purposes.
water used for external purposes (37%) Specification for double feed indirect
is greater than in the UK (3%). Therefore cylinders.
there is more scope to conserve water
used externally for domestic purposes. BS 1566-2:1984 Copper indirect
cylinders for domestic purposes.
Reductions in industrial water usage Specification for single feed indirect
The methods to reduce water cylinders.
consumption in industry will be similar to BS 3198: 1981 Specification for copper
those for domestic and commercial hot water storage combination units for
buildings. The water used in industrial domestic purposes.
processes can be reduced by various
methods: Energy Efficiency Best Practice
Programme, Good Practice Guide 302
i. The use of a water audit to locate ‘Controls for domestic heating and hot
leaks and any process which uses water systems’.
more water than it may require
Energy Efficiency Best Practice
ii. The reuse of water (or reclaiming Programme, General lnformation Leaflet
wastewater) 83 ‘Domestic boiler anti-cycling controls’.
iii. The use of a closed circuit cooling BRE report BR 262, Thermal Insulation:
system instead of a once-through Avoiding risks, 2002 edition.
system SERl Engineering principles and
iv. The use of efficient cleaning concepts for active solar systems Solar
processes which utilise less-clean Energy Research Institute 1988 ISBN 0-
water first. 801 16 855 9 (Hampshire Publishing
Corporation).
An audit of process water requirements BS 5918: 1989 Code of practice for solar
should also examine the quality of water heating systems for domestic hot water.
that is needed for each operation. This
allows effluent from one operation to be EN 12975: 2000 Thermal solar systems
matched to a demand for lower-grade and components - Solar Collectors.
water for another operation. On-site EN 12976: 2000 Thermal solar systems
treatment of wastewater could also be and components - Factory made
beneficial in aiding this procedure (also systems.
matching output from the water treatment DD ENV 12977: 2001 Thermal solar
plant to water demand thereby avoiding systems and components - Custom built
excessive peaks and the requirement for systems.
make-up water from the mains). This can
BS 6700: 1997 Design, installation,
reduce overall water consumption for a
testing and maintenance of services
process as well as reducing sewerage
supplying water for domestic use within
charges.
buildings and their curtilages.

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