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Perceptual and Motor Skills

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Preferred Music Genre ! The Author(s) 2020
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DOI: 10.1177/0031512520945084
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Increased Maximal
Strength and Strength-
Endurance and Reduced
Perceived Exertion

Nilson Ribeiro dos Santos Silva1 ,

Felipe Gabriel Rizardi1,
Rafael Akira Fujita2 ,
Marina Mello Villalba2 and
Matheus Machado Gomes1,2

Abstract
The ability to increase muscle strength seems to be influenced by extrinsic factors
such as the characteristics of an exercise environment. Given that many people train
while listening to music, the music environment is an important research topic.
However, no studies have investigated whether a preferred music genre differentially
affects strength production when compared to a non-preferred music genre. This
study evaluated the influence of listening to varied conditions of musical genre pref-
erence on maximal strength and strength-endurance testing, and on ratings of per-
ceived exertion (RPE). We submitted 20 young men to three different listening
conditions during strength testing: (a) preferred music genre (PMG), (b) non-
preferred music genre (NPMG), and (c) no music (NM), with the order of these
conditions randomized. We measured maximal strength with a handgrip

1
School of Physical Education and Sport of Ribeir~ao Preto, University of S~ao Paulo
2
College of Nursing of Ribeir~ao Preto, University of S~ao Paulo
Corresponding Author:
Matheus Machado Gomes, EEFERP – USP, Avenida Bandeirantes, 3900, Ribeir~ao Preto, S~ao Paulo, Brazil.
Email: mmgomes@usp.br
2 Perceptual and Motor Skills 0(0)

dynamometer, strength-endurance through the participant’s maximal repetition exe-

cution in the lat-pulldown exercise, and RPE by participant-completed Borg’s scales
at the end of the strength tests. Using three-way analyses of variances (ANOVAs)
and a significance level of p < 0.05, we found that participants produced higher
maximal strength, performed more repetitions of the lat-pulldown exercise, and
reported decreased RPE in the PMG condition, compared to the NPMG (maximal
strength p < 0.01, strength-endurance p < 0.01, RPE p ¼ 0.016) and NM (maximal
strength p < 0.01, strength-endurance p < 0.01, RPE p ¼ 0.023) conditions.
Individually determined PMG appears to improve maximal strength and strength-
endurance performance during exercise, and to decrease RPE in the PMG condition.

Keywords
resistance training, music influence, maximal force, maximal repetition, music
preference.

Introduction
There has been increased support for the practice of physical exercise, given its
positive effects for improving physical fitness and maintaining health (Dogan,
2015; Laverty & Wright, 2010). Among preferred exercise training methods,
resistance training has been shown to improve force production capacity,
which is fundamental for performing functional activities such as work and
locomotion. It is already known that the ability to produce greater force may
be influenced by factors in the training environment, such as the wall color and
music, (Ballmann et al., 2018; Elliot & Aarts, 2011) and by personal factors such
as muscle size, age, and sex (Tonson et al., 2008). Environmental factors include
ambient music, which can influence the performance of physical exercises
(Carlier & Delevoye-Turrell, 2017; Chtourou et al., 2012), apparently, increasing
the training duration at the same exercise intensity (Barwood et al., 2009;
Thakare et al., 2017).
According to Hernandez-Peon et al. (1961), music presents an ergogenic
effect since it acts as a dissociative cognitive strategy, creating pleasurable stim-
uli that may influence how participants perceive the effort required to perform
maximal repetitions, leading to increased tolerance for the discomfort produced
during hard effort. The ergogenic effect of music is also explained by the bot-
tleneck theory (Pashler, 1994) which states that only a limited number of sensory
inputs reach higher central nervous system integrating structures, and the past
stimuli experiences of the organism determine what input is integrated
(Hernandez-Peon et al., 1961). Thus, stimuli created while the participant listens
to music might impede the receipt of physiological effort signals at higher
Silva et al. 3

integrating central nervous system structures, leading to lower perceived exer-

tion. According to the literature, even if individuals feel more tired, their sub-
jective perceptions of effort tend to decrease when hearing their preferred
musical style (Biagini et al., 2012). On the other hand, there is a lack of infor-
mation about the performance effects of the preferred music genre, especially for
resistance training.
Some prior studies have tried to elucidate how music influences exercise per-
formance due to its apparently ergogenic effects. When comparing self-selected
music with no music during the bench press exercise, Bartolomei et al. (2015)
found no changes in maximum strength but showed that strength-endurance
(maximal bench press repetition at 60% of one repetition maximal (1RM))
increased by 5.8% in the self-selected versus no music condition. Kose (2018)
replicated Bartolomei et al. (2015) and found similar results of no significant
differences between music versus no music, and significant strength-endurance
improvement (þ3.75%) for participants in the music versus no music group.
Similarly, Ballmann et al. (2018) compared the results of strength-endurance at
75% 1RM in conditions with preferred music genre (PMG) and non-preferred
music genre (NPMG) and also found a significant 15.8% increase in strength
endurance when participants heard preferred music.
As only a limited number of previous studies (Ballmann et al., 2018;
Bartolomei et al., 2015; Kose, 2018) have investigated the influence of listening
to music during strength training, further studies are needed to clarify remaining
questions, including the ergogenic effect of music preference. Given that
Bartolomei et al. (2015) and Kose (2018) used self-selected music, and did not
evaluate the effect of non-preferred music, we cannot determine whether the
obtained results were due to preferred music or simply the availability of music.
Similarly, the failure of Ballmann et al. (2018) to include a no-music control
condition limits our understanding of the influence of individually preferred
music. In addition, previous research studies using the 1RM test in the bench
press did not follow precisely the same recommended test procedures.
Furthermore, 1RM tests are not ideal methods to measure maximal effort,
since the protocols require load progressions, which could lead to muscle
fatigue, diminishing the sensitivity of the protocol to establish the real value
of 1RM (Buskard & Signorile, 2019).
The objective of the present study was to evaluate the influence of preferred
and non-preferred music genres on maximal handgrip strength, strength endur-
ance, and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). We hypothesized that the pre-
ferred music genre would have a positive influence on performance, increasing
maximum strength and strength endurance and decreasing RPE, compared to
resistance training in other music listening conditions. We also hypothesized
that there would be no performance differences for exercise conditions with
non-preferred music or no music.
4 Perceptual and Motor Skills 0(0)

Method
Research Design
We used a cross-sectional randomized design for the three situations included in
the protocol, each of which was performed by all participants. The participants
performed tests of maximal strength and strength-endurance, and they gave self-
reported ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) under preferred music genre
(PMG), non-preferred music genre (NPMG), and no music conditions. Each
music condition was tested on a different day. Between each of the testing days,
participants were allowed rest intervals of 2-5 days.

Participants
Twenty young adults participated in this study (M age ¼ 20.0, SD ¼ 1.4 years; M
weight ¼ 70.5, SD ¼ 2.8 kg; M height ¼ 170.5, SD ¼ 6.0 cm). All participants
were undergraduate students in kinesiology and had 2-5 years experience prac-
ticing strength training. All participants had been practicing uninterrupted
strength training at the rate of two training sessions/week for at least three
months. We recommended participants maintain their nutritional routine
while participating in the study, but we did not control their diet. Exclusion
criteria were: diagnosis of orthopedic injuries in the previous six months,
reduced auditory perception, or any health problems that would make it impos-
sible to carry out the tests and affect the results. All participants received and
signed an informed consent, and the study was approved by the local ethics
committee which is in accordance with the criteria established by the
Declaration of Helsinki. We performed a post hoc power analysis with
G*Power 3.1 software (Faul et al., 2007), which revealed statistical power of
1.0 for the three variables analyzed (strength-endurance, maximal strength, and
RPE).

Procedures
Protocol. For each participant, the data collection routine was divided into four
days. On the first day, participants signed an informed consent and answered a
questionnaire about their music genre preference (preferred and non-preferred)
when performing several activities (i.e., driving a car, leisure time, and training
at the gym). We based music selection for the conditions of this research pro-
tocol on the preferred and non-preferred music genre chosen by each participant
while training. As the training centers usually play music that is not chosen by or
for a specific client, we did not give participants the option to choose specific
songs. It should be noted that in an attempt to minimize interference with the
results, participants did not know that the purpose of the study was to assess the
effect of music genre preference on maximum strength, strength endurance, and
Silva et al. 5

RPE. All tests were performed in a facility room, established especially for
human performance testing, with controlled temperature, and with no one pre-
sent except the participant and the evaluator. In the music conditions (NPMG
or PMG), music intensity was set at 70 dB, and the music tempo was maintained
at 165  5 beats per minute (BPM) for all participants. According to prior
research, music with a tempo > 130 BPM is stimulative (Karageorghis et al.,
1996). To measure music volume, we used a sound meter app (Sound Meter
v1.5, Abc Apps, USA) and determined music tempo with BPM analyzer soft-
ware (MixMeister BPM Analyzer, MixMeister, USA). In addition, all music
genres declared by the participants were included in our music sets. For each
of the chosen music genres, we selected songs that had the proposed beats per
minute frequency. Therefore, regardless of the music genre, all songs played had
the same rate of BPM. The music was played in stereo (Sony Gtx660, Sony,
Tokyo, Japan) with 250 watts of power. On each of the three days, one listening
condition occurred (i.e., listening to PMG, listening to NPMG, and listening to
no music), while the participants performed the maximal strength test (handgrip
strength test) and the strength endurance test (maximum number of repetitions
in lat-pulldown at 75% 1RM). We randomized the order of the music conditions
for the three days prior to the testing sessions. On the first testing day, before
any strength test, the participants performed a 1RM test in the lat-pulldown
exercise (McGuigan, 2015).

Measurements
Maximal Strength. Maximal strength was evaluated by the handgrip strength
test, an important indicator of the individual’s general muscular strength
(Ikemoto et al., 2007). We used a handgrip dynamometer (JAMAR, Lafayette
Instruments, Lafayette, USA) following the protocol established by
the American Society of Hand Therapists (MacDermid, Solomon & Valdes,
2015) in which the participants were required to place their arms by their
trunk with elbows flexed to 90 . All participants were encouraged to perform
three trials of maximal handgrip strength. We considered the average value of
the three attempts as the final maximal strength value. Between each test trial,
the participants were allowed a five minute rest for complete muscle recovery
(McGuigan, 2015).

Strength Endurance. Strength endurance was evaluated in the lat-pulldown

exercise (Lion Fitness, Valentim Gentil, SP, Brazil), chosen as it is frequently
performed in resistance training and is a good indicator of upper limb strength
(Signorile et al., 2002). Strength endurance corresponded to the maximum
number of repetitions in the lat-pulldown exercise performed with a load equiv-
alent to 85% 1RM. For this test intensity, we used the intensity of the lat-
pulldown 1RM the participant acquired on the first testing day, chosen as it
corresponds to the intensity used for strength endurance training (Sheppard &
6 Perceptual and Motor Skills 0(0)

Triplett, 2015). We controlled the movement cadence (two seconds for concen-
tric movement, followed by two seconds for eccentric movement) through an
electronic metronome (Exercise Timer, Neuron Digital, Kirkop, Malta). All
participants were encouraged to perform three trials of the maximal number
of repetitions until reaching muscle failure, corresponding to the inability to
maintain concentric contractions without changes in posture or movement
cadence (Steele et al., 2017). Thus, repetitions were recorded until the partic-
ipants changed their movement pattern or left the previously proposed move-
ment cadence. We considered the average value of the three attempts as the final
strength endurance value. Between each test trial, the participants were allowed
a five minute rest for complete muscle recovery (McGuigan, 2015).

Ratings of Perceived Exertion. We evaluated the participants’ RPE with the

Borg questionnaire (CR10) immediately after each lat-pulldown trial. This pro-
tocol was chosen as it provides a reliable non-invasive assessment of individual
exertion as well as exercise intensity (G. Borg, 1982, 1998; Neely et al., 1992). We
considered the average value of the three attempts as the final RPE value.

Statistical Analyses. For statistical analysis, we used the average of the three
obtained values of each test, for each music condition. Since all variables pre-
sented homogeneity of variance and homoscedasticity, we performed three one-
way analyses of variance (ANOVA) using music condition (preferred genre x
non-preferred genre x no music) as factor, treated as repeated measures. The
dependent variables were strength-endurance, maximum strength, and rating of
perceived exertion. The post-hoc tests were carried out with the Bonferroni
adjustment. All statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS program
(SPSS v.20, IBM Inc, Boston – MA, USA), maintaining a significance level
of p < 0.05.

Results
Overall the results revealed that participants demonstrated greater strength and
reported less perceived effort when listening to their preferred music genre
during strength testing than when listening to no music or listening to the
non-preferred music (Table 1).
Regarding the RPE, univariate analyses indicated a main effect of music
condition [F2.38 ¼ 6.45, p ¼ 0.004], and the post hoc tests showed that in the
condition with the preferred music genre, participants reported lower perceived
exertion compared to the no music and non-preferred music genre conditions.
There were no differences in RPE between the two conditions of no music and
non-preferred music genre.
Concerning the strength endurance, the univariate analysis revealed a main
effect of music condition [F2.38 ¼ 40.04, p < 0.001], and the post hoc tests
Silva et al. 7

Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations of Participant RPE and Strength Values When
Performing Tests in Different Music Conditions.

Strength endurance Maximal strength

RPE (A.U.) (maximal repetitions) (Newtons)
Mean  SD Mean  SD Mean  SD

PMG 6.01  1.89* 6.32  1.50* 494.86  75.56*

NPMG 6.42  1.65 4.48  1.22 450.01  74.10
No Music 6.38  1.65 4.42  1.10 449.27  77.02
A.U.: Arbitrary Units.
*p < 0.05 compared to NPMG and No Music.

indicated that in the preferred music genre condition, participants demonstrated

greater strength endurance compared to when listening to no music or the non-
preferred music genre. There were no differences in strength-endurance between
the two conditions of no music and non-preferred music genre.
Lastly, for the maximum handgrip, the univariate analyses indicated a main
effect of music condition [F2.38 ¼ 28.35, p < 0.001], and the post hoc tests showed
that in the testing condition with the preferred music genre participants pre-
sented higher maximum strength than in the testing conditions with no music
and the non-preferred music genre. There were no differences between the two
conditions of no music and the non-preferred music genre.

Discussion
The present study analyzed the influence of listening to preferred, or non-pre-
ferred genres of music and listening to no music on test performances of upper
limb maximal strength and upper limb strength-endurance, as well as on ratings
of perceived exertion during resistance training testing. Our results revealed that
when listening to their preferred music genre (compared to listening to no music
or listening to their non-preferred music genre), participants exhibited greater
strength-endurance and greater maximal strength performances and reported a
lower perceived exertion. On the other hand, there were no performance differ-
ences between the two conditions of listening to a non-preferred music genre or
no music during strength testing.
Our observation of lower perceived effort from participants when they lis-
tened to a preferred music genre corroborated prior findings from other studies
(Biagini et al., 2012; Nakamura et al., 2010; Szmedra & Bacharach, 1998).
Szmedra and Bacharach (1998) showed a reduction of approximately 10% in
RPE when participants performed a treadmill test while listening to music,
compared to running with no music. In our study, the RPE reduced by approx-
imately 6% when participants performed strength testing while listening to their
preferred music genre compared to no music and non-preferred music listening
8 Perceptual and Motor Skills 0(0)

conditions. Music seems to decrease perceived exertion and improve positive

mood during exercise (Carlier & Delevoye-Turrell, 2017). Biagini et al. (2012)
submitted their participants to strength-endurance tests (bench press and squat
jumps) with and without self-selected music. The authors noticed a lower RPE
when participants listened to music, compared to the no-music condition. In
addition, although there were no significant pre-test differences in the Profile of
Mood States (POMS) (McNair et al., 1971) for the different music conditions, at
the post-test moment, participants in the no-music condition demonstrated
higher fatigue, tension, and vigor compared to the music condition. These
results may have occurred because the volunteer’s performance in power move-
ments (squat jump) was better in the music compared to the no music condition,
probably due to the participants’ higher effort. According to Biagini et al.
(2012), even if individuals feel more tired, their subjective perceptions of
effort tend to decrease when hearing their preferred musical style. Similarly,
Nakamura et al. (2010) demonstrated that participants listening to their non-
preferred music style reported an increased subjective perception of effort in a
cycle-ergometer test.
We believe that the decrease in RPE found in the current study when listening
to the preferred musical genre may be due to an ergogenic effect of music, acting
as a psychophysical effect of music on the perception of fatigue or as a disso-
ciative strategy. The psychophysical effect of music relies on the bottleneck
theory (Pashler, 1994) positing that a limited number of sensory inputs reach
higher central nervous system integrating structures, and the past stimuli expe-
riences of the organism determine what input is integrated (Hernandez-Peon
et al., 1961). Thus, pleasurable stimuli created while the participant listens to
preferred music might impede the receipt of physiological effort signals at higher
integrating central nervous system structures, leading to lower perceived exer-
tion. On the other hand, according to the dissociative strategy, the participant
might purposely avoid unpleasant sensory inputs while performing self-hypnosis
(Morgan, 1978). Under this theory, the preferred music genre might represent an
external focus for the participant that facilitates the dissociative strategy and
improves performance (Hill et al., 2017).
For the strength-endurance testing, our results corroborate prior findings
(Ballmann et al., 2018; Bartolomei et al., 2015; Kose, 2018). Just as our partic-
ipants improved strength-endurance by 29.1% when listening to PMG, both
Bartolomei et al. (2015) and Kose (2018) found improvements in strength-
endurance of 5.8% and 3.4%, respectively, when their participants listened to
music compared to no music. The protocols of these studies were similar and
included maximal repetition tests at 60% 1 RM in the bench press under con-
ditions with and without music (self-selected music). Ballmann et al. (2018) also
showed positive effects, even with loads at 75% 1RM, for participants who
listened to their preferred music genre versus non-preferred music genre while
training. Similar to our results (possibly because these researchers used a similar
Silva et al. 9

load of submaximal effort), these researchers found that participants performing

the strength-endurance test with a preferred music genre presented an increase
of 15.8% in strength-endurance performance.
Thus, the preferred music genre seems to positively influence strength-
endurance performance. It is possible the preferred music genre also has an
ergogenic effect on strength-endurance, as it may influence how participants
perceive the effort required to perform maximal repetitions (Hernandez-Peon
et al., 1961). Hence, music acting as a dissociative cognitive strategy seems to
increase tolerance for the discomfort associated with the strength-endurance test
(Barwood et al., 2009; Daly et al., 2015) whether or not the test is performed
with the bench press or lat-pulldown. While our results also suggested that
certain kinds of music had a positive influence on physical performance, other
studies have not supported this cause and effect relationship. Atan (2013) inves-
tigated the effect of music on anaerobic exercise, using the Wingate and RAST
tests (Anaerobic Sprint Run Test). Participants initially performed the RAST
and, after 48 hours, the Wingate test. During both tests, participants were sub-
jected to three conditions; fast music (200BPM), slow music (70BPM), and no
music, and the results of the study showed that the music did not increase
performance, compared to no music. This divergence from our findings may
be due to the fact that Atan (2013) determined the musical selection, rather than
allowing participant preference to determine it. Thus, it was not possible to
establish whether the music selected was the participants’ preferred or non-
preferred music style/genre. Lopes-Silva et al. (2015) investigated the effect of
music on time-to-exhaustion and heart rate during exercise performed on a
stationary bicycle, in conditions with and without pre-fatigue. These researchers
found that music was not able to delay exhaustion in any of the conditions,
although Lopes-Silva et al. (2015), like Atan (2013), chose the songs to be played
and did not know whether the participants preferred or did not prefer the
music genre.
Concerning muscular strength, the present results corroborate previous stud-
ies (Karageorghis et al., 1996) showing that the preferred music genre can be an
ergogenic resource to increase maximum strength, similarly to the strength-
endurance test values. Our participants presented increases of 9.06% in maxi-
mum strength while listening to the preferred music genre. Karageorghis et al.
(1996) also found that music can influence maximal handgrip strength. Their
participants (men and women) showed higher hand grip values when listening to
stimulative/energizing music (130 BPM) compared to sedative/relaxing music
(100 BPM) or white noise. In contrast, Bartolomei et al. (2015) compared
bench press maximal strength (1RM) under conditions with preferred music
and no music, and found no significant differences. A possible explanation for
these contradictory results is that the songs selected by participants of the
Bartolomei et al. (2015) study did not precisely follow a musical genre but
were from a playlist of songs in which the musical genre could be varied with
10 Perceptual and Motor Skills 0(0)

different tempos. Moreover, Kose (2018) also failed to find significant differ-
ences in the bench press maximum strength under conditions with self-selected
versus no music. As with Bartolomei et al. (2015), the songs selected in the K€ose
study (2018) did not necessarily follow only one music genre, and both
Bartolomei et al. (2015) and Kose (2018) used a 1RM bench press measure
for assessing maximal strength. It is important to emphasize that the 1RM
test may present less sensitivity to the maximum value of strength since it
requires load progressions of at least two kilograms from one attempt to anoth-
er, and may present a submaximal maximum force value (Buskard & Signorile,
2019). Since PMG and self-selected music are somewhat linked, divergent results
across research studies may be due to different strength tests. Given that the
handgrip test provides an instant assessment of maximum strength, there is no
possibility of recording submaximal force due to possible fatigue from previous
progressions, as in the 1RM protocol.
Our study had some limitations regarding how we estimated participants’
training experience (i.e., the mean years and standard deviations of prior train-
ing), and this could have affected their response to the maximal effort (Gallo
et al., 2015). Additionally, even though the chosen music was related to a specific
genre in the PMG condition, there was a risk of playing a specific song that a
participant did not like. Therefore, future studies should consider which partic-
ular songs the participant likes within the chosen music genre. We also did not
assess the participant’s mood each day before the tests, and this too may have
varied from day to day, influencing performance. Future studies might investi-
gate the effect of the interaction between music and mood on performance in
strength tests. Another important limitation was our limited sample of 20 young
men, limiting the generalization of these results to other samples until there has
been broader replicating research.
In summary, it is important to associate music with physical exercise, since
music can bring several benefits, as mentioned above. With the results of the
present study, we can now suggest that music genre is a further factor affecting
an external focus strategy that influences perceived effort during training
(Hernandez-Peon et al., 1961) or perhaps acting as a competitive stimuli against
physiological input to central nervous system processing.
The present study suggests that training performance may be influenced by
preferred music genre such that listening to preferred music is associated with
better strength training results. However, it is worth mentioning that the non-
preferred music genre did not provide either a positive or negative effect. We
conclude, as previously reported (Gfeller, 1988), that those responsible for
applying strength training (i.e., gym and training center owners, therapists,
strength and conditioning coaches) should be aware of the effects of music
and make the practitioner’s favorite music genre available during training in
order to offer a more pleasant environment, lower perceived effort, and, possi-
bly, enhance training.
Silva et al. 11

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by Coordenaç~ao de
Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nıvel Superior – Brasil (CAPES) – Finance Code 001.

ORCID iDs
Nilson Ribeiro dos Santos Silva https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6517-2343
Rafael Akira Fujita https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0865-8857
Marina Mello Villalba https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7752-7431
Matheus Machado Gomes https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2123-5699

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Author Biographies
Nilson Ribeiro dos Santos Silva: is a Master’s student in Kinesiology at the School of Physical
Education and Sport of Ribeir~ao Preto – University of S~
ao Paulo.

Felipe Gabriel Rizardi: holds a bachelor’s degree in Physical Education and Sport by School of
Physical Education and Sport of Ribeir~ao Preto – University of S~
ao Paulo.

Rafael Akira Fujita: is a Physical Education professional and Ph.D. student at Ribeir~
ao Preto
College of Nursing – University of S~
ao Paulo.

Marina Mello Villalba: is a Physical Education professional and Ph.D. student at Ribeir~
ao Preto
College of Nursing – University of S~
ao Paulo.

Matheus Machado Gomes: is a Physical Education professional with a Ph.D. in Health Sciences. He
is an assistant professor at the School of Physical Education and Sport of Ribeir~ ao Preto –
University of S~ao Paulo, with interest in kinesiology applied to resistance training.