TOPIC

Submitted
In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

Submitted by

SACHIN DEV
B.Sc. (PCM) - VI Semester
Roll No.: 2101034204016

Under the supervision of

PROF. (DR.) CHINTA MANI TIWARI

Professor
MUIT, Lucknow

MAHARISHI SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

2024
 TOPIC

Submitted
In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

Submitted by

SACHIN DEV
B.Sc. (PCM) - VI Semester
Roll No.: 2101034204016

Under the supervision of

PROF. (DR.) CHINTA MANI TIWARI

Professor
MUIT, Lucknow

MAHARISHI SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

2024
 Certificate
Certified that Sachin dev (roll no. 2101034204016) has carried out the
research work presented in this Dissertation entitled topic for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science from Maharishi University of Information Technology, Luc-
know under my supervision. The Dissertation embodies results of original work,
and studies are carried out by the student himself/herself and the contents of
the Dissertation do not form the basis for the award of any other degree to the
candidate or to anybody else from this or any other University/Institution.

(Prof. (Dr.) Chinta Mani Tiwari)

Professor
Maharishi School of Science and
Humanities
Date:
Declaration

We hereby declare that the project entitled ”Nature of Singularities” submitted to

the Department of Mathematics Maharishi University of Information Technology,
Lucknow is record of an original work done by me under the guidance of (Proff)
Dr.C.M Tiwari”, Faculty of school of science.

i
Acknowledgement

First of all, I am extremely grateful to the almighty GOD for giving me the
opportunity to carry out research work With all due respect, I would like to thank
my supervisor. (Proff) Dr. Chinta-mani Tiwari, for their invaluable guidance and
support throughout my master’s program. Their expertise and encouragement
helped me to complete this research and write this thesis. I would also like
to thank Dr. Birendra Singh for serving on my thesis committee and providing
helpful feedback and suggestions. I would also like to thank my friends and family
for their love and support during this process. Without them, this journey would
not have been possible. Finally, I would like to thank all of the participants in my
study for their time and willingness to share their experiences. This work would
not have been possible without their contribution. I am grateful to everyone who
has supported me throughout this process. Without your help and guidance, this
thesis would not have been possible

Sachin dev

ii
Contents

Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.0.1 Are Complex Numbers Necessary? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.0.2 Basic Properties of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Analytic funtion and CR equation 4

2.1 Analytic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Cauchy-Riemann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.1 Question: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.2 Example: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.3 Example: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.4 Milne-Thomson Method: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.5 Orthogonal Functions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.6 Harmonic Functions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.7 Example: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.8 Example: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.9 Example: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3 The Cauchy Integral Formula 11

3.0.1 Theorem(Cauchy integral formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.0.2 Theorem (The derivative of an analytic function) . . . . . 14

iii
4 Taylor series 15
4.0.1 Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

5 Laurent series 18

6 Meromorphic Funtions 21
6.0.1 Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.0.2 Zeros and Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

7 The residue formula 24

8 Application of complex analysis 26

9 Conclusion 28

Bibliography 30
Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Complex analysis is not an elementary subject, and the author of a book like
this has to make some reasonable assumptions about what his readers know
already. Ideally one would like to assume that the student has some basic
knowledge of complex numbers and has experienced a fairly substantial first
course in real analysis. But while the first of these requirements is realistic
the
second is not, for in many courses with an ”applied” emphasis a course in
com-
plex analysis sits on top of a course on advanced (multi-variable) calculus,
and
many students approach the subject with little experience of f.-0 arguments,
and with no clear idea of the concept of uniform convergence. This chapter
sets
out in summary the equipment necessary to make a start on this book, with
references to suitable texts. It is written as a reminder: if there is anything
you
don’t know at all, then at some point you will need to consult another book,
either the suggested reference or another similar volume.
Given that the following summary might be a little indigestible, you may
find it better to skip it at this stage, returning only when you come across
anything unfamiliar. If you feel reasonably confident about complex numbers,
then you might even prefer to skip Chapter 2 as well.

1.0.1 Are Complex Numbers Necessary?

Much of mathematics is concerned with various kinds of equations, of which
equations with numerical solutions are the most elementary. The most funda-
mental set of numbers is the set N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} of natural numbers. If a and b
are natural numbers, then the equation x + a = b has a solution within the set of
natural numbers if and only if a < b. If a ̸= b we must extend the number system
to the larger set Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} of integers. Here we get a bonus,
for the equation x + a = b has a solution x = b − a in Z for all a and b in Z.
If a, b ∈ Z and a ̸= 0, then the equation ax + b = 0 has a solution in Z if and
only if a divides b. Otherwise we must once again extend the number system to

1
the larger set Q of rational numbers. Once again we get a bonus, for the equation
ax + b = 0 has a solution x = − ab in Q for all a ̸= 0 in Q and all b in Q.
When we come to consider a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (where
a, b, c ∈ Q and a ̸= 0) we encounter our first real difficulty. We may safely
assume that a, b and c are integers: if not, we simply multiply the equation by a
suitable positive integer. The standard solution to the equation is given by the
familiar formula √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a

Let us denote b2 − 4ac, the discriminant of the equation, by ∆. If ∆ is the

square of an integer (what is often called a perfect square) then the equation has
rational solutions, and if ∆ is positive then the two solutions are in the extended
set R of real numbers. But if ∆ < 0 then there is no solution even within R.
We have already carried out three extensions (to Z, to Q, to R) from our
starting point in natural numbers, and there is no reason to stop here. We can
modify the standard formula to obtain
p
−b ± (−1)(4ac − b2 )
x=
2a
where 4ac − b2 > 0. If we postulate the existence of i, then we get a ”solution”
√
−b ± i 4ac − b2
x=
2a
Of course we know that there is no real number i, but the idea seems in a way
to work. If we look at a specific example,

x2 + 4x + 13 = 0,

and decide to write i for i, the formula gives us two solutions x = −2 + 3i and
x = −2 − 3i. If we use normal algebraic rules, replacing i2 by −1 whenever it
appears, we find that

(−2 + 3i)2 + 4(−2 + 3i) + 13 = (−2)2 + 2(−2)(3i) + (3i)2 − 8 + 12i + 13

= 4 − 12i − 9 − 8 + 12i + 13 (since i2 = −1)
= 0,

and the validity of the other root can be verified in the same way. We can
certainly agree that if there is a number system containing ”numbers” a + bi,
where a, b ∈ R, then they will add and multiply according to the rules

(a1 + b1 i) + (a2 + b2 i) = (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 )i (2.1)

(a1 + b1 i)(a2 + b2 i) = (a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + b1 a2 )i. (2.2)

We shall see shortly that there is a way, closely analogous to our picture of real

2
numbers as points on a line, of visualising these new complex numbers.
Can we find equations that require us to extend our new complex number
system (which we denote by C) still further? No, in fact we cannot: the important
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, which we shall prove in Chapter 7, states that,
for all n ≥ 1, every polynomial equation with coefficients a0 , a1 , . . . , an in C and
an ̸= 0, has all its roots within C. This is one of many reasons why the number
system C is of the highest importance in the development and application of
mathematical ideas

1.0.2 Basic Properties of Complex Numbers

We can visualize a complex number z = x + yi as a point (x, y) in the plane.
Real numbers x appear as points (x, 0) on the x-axis, and numbers yi as points
(0, y) on the y-axis. Numbers yi are often called pure imaginary, and for this
reason, the y-axis is called the imaginary axis. The x-axis, for the same reason, is
referred to as the real axis. It is important to realize that these terms are used for
historical reasons only: within the set C, the number 3i is no more ”imaginary”
than the number 3. If z = x + iy, where x and y are real, we refer to x as the
real part of z and write x = Re z. Similarly, we refer to y as the imaginary part
of z, and write y = Im z. Notice that the imaginary part of z is a real number.
The number z = x − iy is called the conjugate of z. It is easy to verify that, for
all complex numbers z and w,

z = z,
z+w = z + w,
zw = zw,
z+z = 2Re z,
z−z = 2iIm z.

Let z and w be complex numbers. Then:

1. |Re z| ≤ |z|, |Im z| ≤ |z|, |iz| = |z|;

2. |zw| = |z| · |w|;

3. |z + w| ≤ |z| + |w|;

4. |z − w|2 ≤ |iz − iw|2 .

3
Chapter 2

Analytic funtion and CR

equation

2.1 Analytic Functions

article amsmath
An analytic function, also known as a holomorphic function, is a function
that is complex differentiable at every point within some open subset of the
complex plane. Mathematically, a function f (z) defined on an open subset U
of the complex plane is said to be analytic at a point z0 in U if it is complex
differentiable at every point in some neighborhood of z0 .
Formally, a function f (z) is analytic on an open set U if it satisfies the Cauchy-
Riemann equations:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= and =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
where u(x, y) and v(x, y) are the real and imaginary parts of f (z) = u(x, y) +
iv(x, y), respectively, and z = x + iy.
If a function is analytic on its entire domain, it’s called an entire function.
Analytic functions play a crucial role in complex analysis and have many impor-
tant properties, such as having power series expansions and obeying the principle
of analytic continuation.

2.2 Cauchy-Riemann
The Cauchy-Riemann equations are a pair of partial differential equations that
describe the conditions for a complex-valued function to be analytic. Let f (z) =
u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be a complex-valued function defined on an open set U of the
complex plane. The Cauchy-Riemann equations are given by:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= and =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

4
 where u(x, y) and v(x, y) are the real and imaginary parts of f (z), respectively,
and z = x + iy.

2.2.1 Question:
Determine whether the following function is analytic, and if so, find its derivative
at z = 1 + i:

f (z) = ex cos y + iex sin y

Given the function f (z) = ex cos y + iex sin y, where z = x + iy, let’s check if
it satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations:

Let u(x, y) = ex cos y and v(x, y) = ex sin y.

∂u ∂v
= ex cos y, = ex cos y
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
= −ex sin y, − = −ex sin y
∂y ∂x
Since the partial derivatives of u and v with respect to x and y satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations, the function f (z) is analytic.
Now, to find the derivative of f (z) at z = 1 + i:
∂u ∂v
f ′ (z) = +i
∂x ∂x
= ex cos y + iex sin y
Substituting x = 1 and y = 1 (since z = 1 + i), we get:

f ′ (1 + i) = e1 cos 1 + ie1 sin 1

Now, calculating the values of cos 1 and sin 1, and then simplifying, we obtain
the derivative of f (z) at z = 1 + i.

2.2.2 Example:
Determine if the following function is analytic, and if so, find its derivative at
z = 2 − i:

z2 + i
f (z) =
z−i

Solution:
2 +i
Given the function f (z) = zz−i , let’s first check if it satisfies the Cauchy-
Riemann equations.
We have z = x + iy, so f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), where u(x, y) is the real part
and v(x, y) is the imaginary part.
First, let’s express f (z) in terms of its real and imaginary parts:

5
 (x + iy)2 + i x2 − y 2 + 2ixy + i
f (z) = =
x + iy − i x + i(y − 1)
2 2
So, we have u(x, y) = x −y
x
and v(x, y) = 2xy+1
x
.
Now, let’s find the partial derivatives of u and v with respect to x and y:

∂u 2x(x) − (x2 − y 2 )
= =2
∂x x2
∂v 2(y − 1)(x) − (2xy + 1)
= =0
∂x x2
∂u −2y(x) − (x2 − y 2 )
= =0
∂y x2
∂v 2(x)(x) + 2(x)(y − 1) 2(x + y − 1)
= 2
=
∂y x x
The Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied if and only if:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= and =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
In this case, ∂u
∂x
= ∂y∂v
= 2, and ∂u ∂y
∂v
= − ∂x = 0, so the Cauchy-Riemann
equations are satisfied.
2 +i
Therefore, the function f (z) = zz−i is analytic.
To find its derivative at z = 2 − i, we can use the formula for the derivative
of a complex function:
∂u ∂v
f ′ (z) =
+i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
Given that ∂x
= 2 and ∂x
= 0, we have:

f ′ (z) = 2
Therefore, the derivative of f (z) at z = 2 − i is f ′ (2 − i) = 2.

2.2.3 Example:
Determine if the function f (z) = x2 − y 2 + 2ixy is analytic, and if so, find its
derivative.

Solution:
Given the function f (z) = x2 − y 2 + 2ixy, let’s express it in terms of its real
and imaginary parts:

f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)

where u(x, y) = x2 − y 2 and v(x, y) = 2xy.
Now, let’s find the partial derivatives of u and v with respect to x and y:

6
 ∂u
= 2x
∂x
∂v
= 2y
∂x
∂u
= −2y
∂y
∂v
= 2x
∂y
The Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied if and only if:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= and =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
In this case, ∂u
∂x
= ∂y∂v
= 2x, and ∂u
∂y
∂v
= − ∂x = −2y, so the Cauchy-Riemann
equations are satisfied.
Therefore, the function f (z) = x2 − y 2 + 2ixy is analytic.
To find its derivative, we can use the formula for the derivative of a complex
function:
∂u ∂v
f ′ (z) = +i
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v
Given that ∂x
= 2x and ∂x
= 2y, we have:

f ′ (z) = 2x + 2iy
So, the derivative of f (z) is f ′ (z) = 2x + 2iy.

2.2.4 Milne-Thomson Method:

article amsmath
Milne-Thomson Method:
The Milne-Thomson method, also known as the method of conformal map-
ping, is a technique used in complex analysis to solve certain problems involving
fluid flow around simple shapes. It involves transforming the complex plane via
a conformal mapping, which preserves angles locally, to simplify the geometry
of the problem. By doing so, complicated regions in the physical plane can be
mapped to simpler regions in the transformed plane where the problem becomes
easier to solve. The Milne-Thomson method is particularly useful in solving prob-
lems related to the flow of fluids around bodies, such as the flow past cylinders,
airfoils, and other streamlined shapes. By mapping the flow domain to a simpler
domain, analytical or numerical techniques can be applied more effectively to
determine the fluid flow characteristics.

2.2.5 Orthogonal Functions:

In mathematics, orthogonal functions are functions that are orthogonal with re-
spect to a given inner product. Two functions f (x) and g(x) defined on a specified
interval [a, b] are said to be orthogonal if their inner product is zero:

7
 Z b
f (x)g(x) dx = 0
a
Orthogonal functions are widely used in various areas of mathematics, includ-
ing functional analysis, differential equations, and signal processing.

2.2.6 Harmonic Functions:

In complex analysis, a harmonic function is a real-valued function of the form
u(x, y), where u satisfies Laplace’s equation:

∂ 2u ∂ 2u
∇2 u = + =0
∂x2 ∂y 2
Harmonic functions arise naturally in the study of potential theory, where
they represent steady-state solutions to the heat equation and the wave equation
in regions with no sources or sinks.

2.2.7 Example:
Let’s consider the function f (z) = sin(x) cosh(y), where z = x + iy and x, y ∈ R.
We’ll verify whether f (z) is a harmonic function.
Solution:
Given f (z) = sin(x) cosh(y), we need to check if u(x, y) = sin(x) cosh(y)
satisfies Laplace’s equation:

∂ 2u ∂ 2u
∇2 u = + =0
∂x2 ∂y 2
Let’s compute the second partial derivatives:

∂ 2u
= − sin(x) cosh(y)
∂x2
∂ 2u
= sin(x) cosh(y)
∂y 2
Summing these, we have:

∂ 2u ∂ 2u
+ = − sin(x) cosh(y) + sin(x) cosh(y) = 0
∂x2 ∂y 2
Since the Laplacian of u(x, y) is zero, f (z) = sin(x) cosh(y) is a harmonic
function.

2.2.8 Example:
Let f (z) = z1 where z = x + iy, and x, y ∈ R. We’ll determine whether f (z) is a
harmonic function.
Solution:
Given f (z) = z1 , we can express it as f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), where u(x, y)
and v(x, y) are the real and imaginary parts of f (z), respectively.

8
 Since f (z) is analytic on its domain except at z = 0, we can use the Cauchy-
Riemann equations to find the real and imaginary parts of f (z).
The Cauchy-Riemann equations are:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= and =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
1 1
For f (z) = z
= x+iy
, we have:
x y
u(x, y) = and v(x, y) = −
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
Now, let’s compute the Laplacian of u(x, y) to determine if it satisfies Laplace’s
equation:

∂ 2u ∂ 2u
∇2 u =
+
∂x2 ∂y 2
∂ 2x(x2 + y 2 ) − 2x2
   
∂ −2xy
= +
∂x (x2 + y 2 )2 ∂y (x2 + y 2 )2
(x4 − 6x2 y 2 + y 4 + 2x2 − 2y 2 )
=
(x2 + y 2 )3
1
Since ∇2 u is not zero, f (z) = z
is not a harmonic function.

2.2.9 Example:
Let f (x) = sin(nx) and g(x) = cos(mx), where n and m are positive integers.
We’ll determine if f (x) and g(x) are orthogonal over the interval [0, π].
Solution:
To determine if f (x) and g(x) are orthogonal over the interval [0, π], we need
to compute their inner product and check if it equals zero:
Z π
f (x)g(x) dx
0

Substituting f (x) = sin(nx) and g(x) = cos(mx), we have:

Z π
sin(nx) cos(mx) dx
0
We know that the integral of the product of sine and cosine over one period
is zero if the frequencies of the sine and cosine functions are different integers.
Therefore, we need to ensure that n and m are different positive integers.
If n and m are different positive integers, then the integral evaluates to zero,
indicating that f (x) and g(x) are orthogonal over the interval [0, π]. Otherwise,
if n = m, the integral will not be zero, and the functions will not be orthogonal.

Example :
Show that the function f (z) = |z|2 is not analytic even though it is continuous
everywhere and differentiable at zero.

9
 Solution:
Let f (z) = 2 + 2i.

f (z + ∆z) − f (z) (z + ∆z)(z + ∆z) − zz

lim = lim
∆z→0 ∆z ∆z→0 ∆z


= lim z + z∆z + ∆z∆z
∆z→0

= lim z + z∆z
∆z→0

r · e−iθ
 
= lim z + z · (where ∆z = r · eiθ )
r→0 r · e−iθ

= z + z · e−2iθ
which does not tend to a unique limit as this limit depends on θ, the argument
of ∆z, which is arbitrary.
f (z) is not differentiable at any point z = 0 and hence f (z) is not analytic at
any point z = 0. Thus, continuity and differentiability of f (z) at z = 0 are as
follows:
f (z) − f (0) = 2 − 0 = r2 , the modulus of z, for which 0 < 2 − 0, where r is
for |w| for all w for which 0 < 2 − 0, and hence f (z) has the limit f (0) as z → 0
and hence f (z) is continuous at z = 0. Also,

f (0 + ∆z) − f (0) ∆z · ∆z
f ′ (0) = lim = lim = lim ∆z = 1
∆z→0 ∆z ∆z→0 ∆z ∆z→0

Since 0 ⇒ ∆z ̸= 0. Though f (z) is differentiable at the point z = 0, it is not

analytic at z = 0. Thus, f (z) is not analytic.

10
Chapter 3

The Cauchy Integral Formula

The Cauchy Integral Theorem, Basic Version, states that if D is a domain and
f (z) is analytic in D with f ′ (z) continuous, then
I
f (z) dz = 0
C

for any closed contour C lying entirely in D having the property that C is con-
tinuously deformable to a point.
We also showed that if C is any closed contour oriented counterclockwise in
C and a is inside C, then I
1
dz = 2πi.
C z −a
Our goal now is to derive the celebrated Cauchy Integral Formula which can
be viewed as a generalization of (∗).

3.0.1 Theorem(Cauchy integral formula

Suppose that D is a domain and that f (z) is analytic in D with f ′ (z) continuous.
If C is a closed contour oriented counterclockwise lying entirely in D having the
property that the region surrounded by C is a simply connected subdomain of D
(i.e., if C is continuously deformable to a point) and a is inside C, then
I
1 f (z)
f (a) = dz.
2πi C z − a

**Proof.** Observe that we can write

f (z) − f (a) f (z) − f (a)
I I I I
f (z) f (a)
dz = dz + dz = 2πif (a) + dz,
C z −a C z −a C z−a Ca z−a

where Ca = {|z − a| = r} oriented counterclockwise since (∗) implies

I I
f (a) 1
dz = f (a) dz = 2πif (a)
C z −a C z −a

11
and
f (z) − f (a) f (z) − f (a)
I I
dz = dz
C z−a Ca z−a
since the integrand f (z)−f
z−a
(a)
is analytic everywhere except at z = a and its deriva-
tive is continuous everywhere except at z = a so that integration over C can be
continuously deformed to integration over Ca .
However, if we write

f (z) − f (a)
I I
f (z)
dz − 2πif (a) = dz.
C z −a Ca z−a

f (z) − f (a)
Z
lim dz
r→0 C
a
z−a
Z 
f (z)
= lim dz − 2πf (a)i
r→0 Ca z − a
f (z) − f (a)
Z
= lim dz.
r→0 C
a
z−a
Hence, the proof will be complete if we can show that

f (z) − f (a)
Z
lim dz = 0.
r→0 C
a
z−a
To this end, suppose that Mr = max{|f (z) − f (a)| : z on Ca }. Therefore, if z
is on Ca = {|z − a| = r}, then

f (z) − f (a) |f (z) − f (a)| |f (z) − f (a)| Mr

= = ≤ ,
z−a |z − a| r r
so that

f (z) − f (a)
Z
dz
Ca z−a
f (z) − f (a)
Z
≤ dz
Ca z−a
Z
Mr
≤ dz
Ca r
1
= Mr · length(Ca )
r
1
= Mr · 2πr
r
= 2πMr .
However, since f (z) is analytic in D, we know that f (z) is necessarily contin-
uous in D so that limz→a |f (z) − f (a)| = 0 or, equivalently, limr→0 Mr = 0.
Therefore,

f (z) − f (a)
Z
lim dz ≤ lim(2πMr ) = 0
r→0 Ca z−a r→0

12
 as required.

1
R z·ez
Example:. Compute 2πi C z−i
dz where C = {|z| = 2} is the circle of radius
2 centered at 0 oriented counterclockwise.
Solution. Observe that f (z) = z · ez is entire, f ′ (z) = z · ez is continuous, and
i is inside C. Therefore, by the Cauchy Integral Formula,

z · ez
Z Z
1 1 f (z)
dz = dz = f (i) = i · ei .
2πi C z − i 2πi C z − i

z
Example : Compute C zz·e
R
2 +1 dz where C = {|z| = 2} is the circle of radius 2

centered at 0 oriented counterclockwise.

Solution. Observe that partial fractions implies
1 1 1 1 1
= · + ·
z2 + 1 2 z−i 2 z+i
so that
z · ez zez zez
Z Z Z
i i
dz = · dz − · dz
C z2 + 1 2 C z−i 2 C z+i
= 2πi · f (−i) − 2πi · f (i)

and so
z · ez zez zez
Z Z Z
i i
2
dz = dz − dz
C z +1 2 C z+i 2 C z−i

Let f (z) = z ·ez . Note that f (z) is entire and f ′ (z) = z ·ez +z ·ez is continuous.
Since both i and −i are inside C, the Cauchy Integral Formula implies...

Z
zez dz = 2πif (−i) = 2πi · (−i)e−i = 2πe−i
ZC
zez dz = 2πif (i) = 2πi · iei = −2πei
C

so that

zez
Z
i −i i
2
dz = · 2π · e − · (−2π) · ei
C z +1 2 2
−i
= πi · e + πi · ei
ei + e−i
= 2πi ·
2
= 2πi · cos 1.

13
3.0.2 Theorem (The derivative of an analytic function)
Let f(z) be analytic within and on a closed contour C and let z0 be any point
inside C, then
Z
′ 1 f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz
2πi C (z − z0 )2

Proof. Let z0 + h be a point in the neighborhood of z0 and inside C. Then

Cauchy’s Integral formula at these two points gives:
Z Z
1 f (z) 1 f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz, f (z0 + h) = dz
2πi C z − z0 2πi C z − z0 − h
Subtracting the first result from the second result gives:
Z
1 f (z)
f (z0 + h) − f (z0 )h = dz (1)
2πi C (z − z0 )(z − z0 − h)
We observe in (1) that as h → 0, the required result follows. We have thus
only to show that we can proceedRto the limit under the integral sign. We consider
the difference f (z0 +h)−f
h
(z0 ) 1
= 2πi f (z)
C (z−z0 )2
dz:
Z  Z 
1 f (z) 1 f (z)
= − dz (2)
2πi C (z − z0 )(z − z0 − h) (2πi) C (z − z)2
Z
h f (z)dz
=
2πi C (z − z0 )2 (z − z0 − h)
Since f (z) is analytic on C, f (z) is bounded on C. Thus, |f (z)| ≤ M on C,
where M is an absolute positive constant. Let us denote the distance of z0 from
theH points nearest to it on C by δ and the length of C by l. Then if h < δ,
|h C (z−z0f)2(z)dz
(z−z0 −h)
| ≤ M l|h|δ̂ 2 (δ − |h|) (3) which is bounded and tends to zero
as h → 0. Thus, taking the limit as h → 0, it follows from (2) that:

f (z0 + h) − f (z0 )
Z
1 f (z)
lim = dz
h→0 h 2πi C (z − z0 )2
R f (z)
Hence, f (z) is differentiable at z0 and f ′ (z0 ) = 2πi 1
C (z−z0 )2
dz, which is
′
Cauchy’s integral formula for f (z) at points within C.

H e2x −2
Example: Using Cauchy’s Integral Formula, show that C (z+1) 4 dz = 8πe 3i
where C is the circle |z| = 3.
Solution: jBy Cauchy’s Integralk Formula for derivatives, we have
(n) n!
H f (z)dz
f (z0 ) = 2πi C (z−z0 )n+1 where f (z) is analytic inside and on C. In the
present case, C is |z| = 3, f (z) = e2z , z0 = −1, n = 3 and f (z) is analytic
H einside
2x
(3) 2 −2 13
and on circle |z| = 3. Also, f (−1) = 8e ... (1) becomes 8e = 2πi C (z+1)4 dz
H e2z −2
C (z+1)4
dz = 8πe3 .i. Hence the result.

14
Chapter 4

Taylor series

In real analysis there are distinctions between functions that are dif-
ferentiable, infinitely differentiable (having derivatives of all orders),
and analytic (having a Taylor4 series expansion). We have already
seen that a holomorphic function is infinitely differentiable. In fact it
also has a Taylor series expansion. Precisely, we have the following
theorem:

4.0.1 Theorem
Let c ∈ C and suppose that the function f is holomorphic in some neighborhood
N (c, R) of c. Then, within N (c, R), we have
∞
X f (n) (c)
f (z) = an (z − c)n , an = , where n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
n=0
n!

Proof:
It is helpful first to record the sum of the following finite geometric series:

z − c (z − c)2 hn 1 hn+1
1+ + +. . .+ = − . (7.6)
h h2 (z − c)n+1 z − c − h (z − c)n+1 (z − c − h)

Let 0 < R1 < R2 < R. Then, f is holomorphic throughout the closed disc
N (c, R2 ). Let C be the circle (c, R2 ), and let c+h ∈ N (c, R1 ). Then, by Theorems
7.1 and 7.5 and Equation (7.6), we have
Z
1 f (z)
f (c + h) = dz
2πi C z − c − h

Z Z Z 
1 2 n f (z)
= f (z)(z − c) dz + h f (z)(z − c) dz + . . . + h dz
2πi C C C (z − c)n+1

15
 hn (n)
f (c) + hf ′ (c) + . . . + f (c) + En
n!

where,

|z − c − h| ≥ |z − c| − |h| ≥ R2 − R1 , since |z||z − c| = R and |h| ≤ R1 .

n
|h|(n+1)

M M |h| |h|
⇒ |En | ≤ · 2πR2 · (n+1) = ·
2π R2 · (R2 − R1 ) (R2 − R1 ) R2

|h|
Since < 1 we deduce that En → 0 as n → ∞.
R2

Thus, f(c + h) = ∞
P hn (n)
P∞
n=0 n!
f (c) and substituting z = c+h gives f (z) = n=0 an (z−
c)n , an = n!1 f (n) (c)
Z
1 f (z)
= dz.
2πi C (z − c)n+1

The Taylor series of a function f is unique. If f (z) = ∞ n

P
n=0 an (z − c) , then,
(n)
by Theorem 4.19, f (n) (z) = n! · an + positive powers of z − c, and so an = f n!(c) .
Thus, if we find, by whatever method, a power series for a function, the series we
find must be the Taylor series.
m

Example:
Show that, for all real a,
∞
X a(a − 1) · · · (a − n + 1)
(1 + z)a = 1 + zn (|z| < 1).
n=1
n!

16
 Solution
The function is holomorphic in the open set C \ {−1}, so certainly in the
neighborhood N (0,
1). Moreover, the principal argument of f1 + 2 lies safely in
the interval − π2 , π2 and so there is no ambiguity in the meaning of (1 + z)a = ea .
Hence, log(1 + 2). A routine calculation gives f (n) (z) = a(a − 1) · · · (a − n + 1)(1 +
(n)
z)a−n for n = 1, 2, . . .. Thus, f n!(0) = a(a−1)···(a−n+1)
n!
and
∞
a
X a(a − 1) · · · (a − n + 1)
(1 + z) = 1 + zn (|z| < 1)
n=1
n!

as required. □
article amsmath, amssymb
We sometimes want to say that the Taylor series f (z) = ∞ n
P
n=0 an (z −c) is the
Taylor series of f at c, or that the series is centered on c, or that c is the center of
the series. To qualify Remark 7.17 above, the Taylor series of a function is unique
once we choose the center, but a function has many different Taylor series, with
1
different centers. For example, the function (1+z) 2 is holomorphic in C \ {−1} and

its Taylor series, centered on 0, is 1 − 2z + 3z − 4z 3 + · · · = ∞

2 n n
P
n=0 (−1) (n + 1)z
(|z| < 1).
If we choose an arbitrary complex number c ̸= −1 as the center, we find that
∞
1 1 1 X (−1)n (n + 1)
= = = (z−c)n (|z−c| < |c+1
(1 + z)2 [(c + 1) + (z − c)]2 z−c 2 (c + 1)n+2
 
(c + 1)2 1 + c+1 n=0

17
Chapter 5

Laurent series

Let f be some single-valued function analytic in some region. To derive a Laurent

series for f , we need to restrict our attention to an open ”annular” subregion A
on which f is analytic. Now, when we say A is an ”annular region”, we mean A
is bounded by two concentric circles Cinner and Couter about some point z0 , with
radii rinner and Router , respectively, satisfying 0 ≤ rinner < Router ≤ ∞.
If rinner = 0, then Cinner is simply the point z0 , and A is a disk without its
center z0 . This case will be important for analyzing the function near z0 . If
Router = ∞, then there really isn’t an outer circle, and A is the entire complex
plane outside of the inner circle. This case will be important for analyzing the
behavior of the function as z → ∞. In practice, the radii of the inner and outer
circles will typically depend on the distances between z0 and the various singular
points for f . Often, there will be many possible choices for the annular region A,
and thus, many possible Laurent series for a function about a given point, with
each valid on a different annular region.
Now let z be any point in A, choose any two positive values r and R such
that rinner < r < |z − z0 | < R < Router .

and let Cr and CR be the two counterclockwise oriented circles centered at

z0 with radii r and R, respectively. Add two smooth oriented curves l1 and l2
between Cr and CR as indicated in figure 16.1, with neither touching z. Using
the endpoints of l1 and l2 , break Cr and CR into two pieces each, Cr+ and Cr− , and

18
CR+ and CR− , respectively, as also indicated in figure 16.1. Finally, keeping track
of the orientations of the subcurves, let Γ1 and Γ2 be the closed curves given by

Γ+ = CR+ + l1 − Cr+ + l2 and

Γ− = CR− − l2 − Cr− − l1 ,

and consider the integrals

f (ζ) f (ζ)
IΓ+ dζ and IΓ− dζ.
ζ −z ζ −z

By the Cauchy integral theorem, we know that the integral over Γ− (the curve
not encircling z) is 0, while the basic Cauchy integral formula tells us that the
other integral is i2πf (z). Thus,
Z Z Z Z
f (ζ) f (ζ) f (ζ) f (ζ) f (ζ) f (ζ)
i2πf (z)+0 = IΓ+ dζ+IΓ− dζ = dζ+ dζ− dζ+ dζ
ζ −z ζ −z + ζ − z
CR l1 ζ − z Cr+ ζ − z l2 ζ − z

That is, Z Z 
1 f (ζ) f (ζ)
f (z) = dζ − dζ .
i2π CR ζ −z Cr ζ −z
Consider the first integral on the right side of equation (16.1). More precisely,
let ζ ∈ CR . Then |z − z0 | < R = |ζ − z0 |, which means that
z − z0
< 1,
ζ − z0
and the formula for the sum of the geometric series can be applied as follows:
∞  k X ∞
1 1 1 1 1 X z − z0 (z − z0 )k
= = · = · = .
ζ −z ζ − z0 − (z − z0 ) ζ − z0 1 − z−z
ζ−z0
0
ζ − z0 k=0 ζ − z0 k=0
(ζ − z0 )k+1

Consequently,
∞ ∞ Z ∞
(z − z0 )k (z − z0 )k (z −
Z Z
1 f (ζ) 1 X 1 X X
dζ = k+1
f (ζ) dζ = k+1
f (ζ) dζ =
i2π CR ζ −z i2π CR k=0 (ζ − z0 ) i2π k=0 CR (ζ − z0 ) k=0
i2

(Note: The necessary uniform convergence of the series in the integral to

justify the above interchanging of the integral and the summation can be verified
using the continuity of f on the region and straightforward extensions of theorem
12.17.)
Note the following about the integrals in the last line: 1. They do not depend
on z. 2. By a corollary of the Cauchy integral theorem (namely, theorem 15.5),
we can replace CR with any simple, counterclockwise oriented loop in A about
z0 .
This means the last sequence of equations reduces to
Z ∞
1 f (ζ) X
dζ = ak (z − z0 )k
i2π CR ζ −z k=0

19
where Z
1 f (ζ)
ak = dζ
i2π C (ζ − z0 )k+1
and C is any simple, counterclockwise oriented loop in A about z0 . An analogous
derivation can be done for the other integral in equation (16.1).
m

Example :
Calculate the first few terms of the Laurent series for sin1 z at 0.
Solution
The function sin1 z has a singularity at 0 but is otherwise holomorphic in the
3
neighborhood N (0, π). We know that, as z → 0, sin z = z − z6 + O(z 5 ).
Hence, for z near 0,
 2 −1
z2
  
1 1 z 4 1 1 z
= 1− + O(z ) = 1+ + O(z ) = + + O(z 3 ).
4
sin z z 6 z 6 z 6

Example :
Show that cot z = z1 − z3 + O(z 3 ).
Solution  
cos z z2 1 z
4


From what we know already, cot z = sin z = 1 − 2
+ O(z ) z
+ 6
+ O(z 3 ) =
1
− z 12 − 61 + O(z 3 ) = z1 − z3 + O(z 3 ).


z
article amsmath, amssymb lipsum

20
Chapter 6

Meromorphic Funtions

6.0.1 Singularities
There is a general principle in the theory, already implicit in Riemann’s work,
which states that analytic functions are in an essential way charac- terized by
their singularities. That is to say, globally analytic functions are ”effectively”
determined by their zeros, and meromorphic functions by their zeros and poles.
While these assertions cannot be formulated as precise general theorems, there
are nevertheless significant instances
where this principle applies. We begin this chapter by considering singulari-
ties, in particular the different kind of point singularities (”isolated” singularities)
that a holo- morphic function can have.

• removable singularities
• poles
• essential singularitiesIn order of increasing severity, these are:
• removable singularities
• poles
• essential singularities

The first type is harmless since a function can actually be extended

to be holomorphic at its removable singularities (hence the name).
Near the third type, the function oscillates and may grow faster than
any power, and a complete understanding of its behavior is not easy.
For the second type the analysis is more straight forward and is con-
nected with the calculus of residues, which arises as follows.
Recall that by Cauchy’s theorem a holomorphic function f in an
open set which contains a closed curvey and its interior satisfies
Z
f (z) dz = 0
γ

The question that occurs is: what happens if f has a pole in the
interior of the curve? To try to answer this question consider the

21
example f(z) = 1/z, and recall that if C is a (positively oriented) circle
centered at 0, then
Z
dz
= 2πi
C z
vmm
This turns out to be the key ingredient in the calculus of residues.
A new aspect appears when we consider indefinite integrals of holomor-
phic functions that have singularities. As the basic example f(z) = 1/2
shows, the resulting ”function” (in this case the logarithm) may not be
single-valued, and understanding this phenomenon is of importance for
a number of subjects. Exploiting this multi-valuedness leads in effect
to the ”argument principle.” We can use this principle to count the
number of zeros of a holomorphic function inside a suitable curve. As
a simple consequence of this result, we obtain a significant geometric
property of holomorphic functions: they are open mappings. From
this, the maxi- mum principle, another important feature of holomor-
phic functions, is an easy step.

In order to turn to the logarithm itself, and come to grips with

the precise nature of its multi-valuedness, we introduce the notions of
homo- topy of curves and simply connected domains. It is on the latter
type of open sets that single-valued branches of the logarithm can be
defined.

6.0.2 Zeros and Poles

By definition, a point singularity of a function f is a complex number
z0 such that f is defined in a neighborhood of z0 but not at the point
z0 1. Zeros and poles itself. We shall also call such points isolated
singularities .
m

For example, if the function f is defined only on the punctured plane

by f (2) = z, then the origin is a point singularity. Of course, in that
case, the function f can actually be defined at 0 by setting f (0) = 0,
so that the resulting extension is continuous and in fact entire. (Such
points are then called removable singularities.) More interesting is
the case of the function g(z) = z1 defined in the punctured plane. It
is clear now that g cannot be defined as a continuous function, much
less as a holomorphic function, at the point 0. In fact, g(2) grows
to infinity as z approaches 0, and we shall say that the origin is a
1
pole singularity. Finally, the case of the function h(z) = e z on the
punctured plane shows that removable singularities and poles do not
tell the whole story. Indeed, the function h grows indefinitely as z
approaches 0 on the positive real line, while h approaches 0 as z goes

22
to 0 on the negative real axis. Finally, h oscillates rapidly, yet remains
bounded, as z approaches the origin on the imaginary axis.
Since singularities often appear because the denominator of a frac-
tion vanishes, we begin with a local study of the zeros of a holomorphic
function.
A complex number z0 is a zero for the holomorphic function f if
f (z0 ) = 0. In particular, analytic continuation shows that the zeros of
a non-trivial holomorphic function are isolated. In other words, if f is
holomorphic in C and f (z0 ) = 0 for some z0 ∈ C, then there exists an
open neighborhood U of z0 such that f (z) ̸= 0 for all z ∈ U \ {z0 }, unless
f is identically zero. We start with a local description of a holomorphic
function near a zero.

23
Chapter 7

The residue formula

We now discuss the celebrated residue formula. Our approach follows

the discussion of Cauchy’s theorem in the last chapter: we first con-
sider the case of the circle and its interior the disc, and then explain
generalizations to toy contours and their interiors.

Theorem:
Suppose that f is holomorphic in an open set containing a circle C and
its interior, except for a pole at z0 inside C. Then
I
f (z) dz = 2πi resz0 f.
C

Proof. Once again, we may choose a keyhole contour that avoids

the pole, and let the width of the corridor go to zero to see that
I I
f (z) dz = f (z) dz
C Cϵ

where Cϵ is the small circle centered at the pole zc and of radius ϵ. Now
we observe that I
1 a1
dz = a1
2πi C z − z0
is an immediate consequence of the Cauchy integral formula (Theorem
4.1 of the previous chapter), applied to the constant function f = a−1 .
Similarly,
I
1 ak
dz = 0
2πi C (z − z0 )k
When k > 1, by using the corresponding formulae for the derivatives
(Corollary 4.2 also in the previous chapter). But we know that in a
neighborhood of z0 we can write

f (z) = an /(z − z0 )n + an+1 /(z − z0 )n−1 + · · · + a1 /(z − z0 ) + G(z),

where G is holomorphic. By Cauchy’s theorem, we also know that

24
R R
C
G(z) dz = 0, hence C f (z) dz = a−1 . This implies the desired result.
This theorem can be generalized to the case of finitely many poles
in the circle, as well as to the case of toy contours.
**Corollary 2.2** Suppose that f is holomorphic in an open set
containing a circle C and its interior, except for poles at the points
z1 , . . . , zN inside C. Then
Z N
X
f (z) dz = 2πi reszk f.
C k=1

For the proof, consider a multiple keyhole which has a loop avoiding
each one of the poles. Let the width of the corridors go to zero. In the
limit, the integral over the large circle equals a sum of integrals over
small circles to which Theorem 2.1 applies.
**Corollary 2.3** Suppose that f is holomorphic in an open set
containing a toy contour γ and its interior, except for poles at the
points z1 , . . . , z2N inside. Then
Z N
X
f (z) dz = 2πi reszk f.
γ k=1

In the above, we take γ to have positive orientation.

The proof consists of choosing a keyhole appropriate for the given
toy contour, so that, as we have seen previously, we can reduce the situ-
ation to integrating over small circles around the poles where Theorem
2.1 applies.
The identity γ nf (z) dz = 2πi N
R P
k=1 reszk f is referred to as the residue
formula

25
Chapter 8

Application of complex analysis

Complex analysis, the study of functions of complex numbers, has

numerous applications across various fields, including mathematics,
physics, engineering, and economics. Its rich theory and elegant tech-
niques make it a powerful tool in solving problems that often appear
in these disciplines.
In mathematics, complex analysis plays a fundamental role in un-
derstanding and proving properties of functions. One of its key ap-
plications is in the study of complex integrals and residues, which are
essential in evaluating real integrals and calculating difficult sums. The
residue theorem, for example, provides a method for computing cer-
tain real integrals by contour integration, which is often more efficient
than traditional methods.
Moreover, complex analysis is used in the study of differential equa-
tions. Solutions to many differential equations can be expressed in
terms of complex functions, leading to insights into the behavior of
physical systems. For instance, the Laplace transform, which is widely
used in engineering and physics to solve differential equations, relies
heavily on complex analysis.
In physics, complex analysis is applied in various areas, such as fluid
dynamics, electromagnetism, and quantum mechanics. In fluid dynam-
ics, for example, complex variables are used to represent the velocity
potential in potential flow theory, simplifying the analysis of fluid flow
around objects. In electromagnetism, complex analysis helps in solving
Maxwell’s equations, leading to the development of technologies such
as antennas and microwave devices.
Complex analysis also finds applications in signal processing, where
it is used to analyze and manipulate signals in communication systems.
The use of complex exponentials in Fourier analysis, for instance, al-
lows for the decomposition of complex signals into simpler components,
making it easier to analyze and process them.
In economics, complex analysis is applied in the study of economic
models and financial markets. It is used to analyze complex systems of
equations that describe economic behavior, such as supply and demand
equations. Additionally, complex analysis is used in financial mathe-
matics to model the behavior of financial instruments and markets.

26
 In conclusion, complex analysis is a versatile and powerful tool with
applications across various fields. Its ability to simplify complex prob-
lems, provide elegant solutions, and offer insights into the behavior of
systems makes it an indispensable tool in mathematics and its appli-
cations.

27
Chapter 9

Conclusion

Here’s a detailed conclusion on complex analysis

—
Complex analysis is a branch of mathematics that deals with func-
tions of complex variables, which are functions that map complex num-
bers to complex numbers. It is a rich and powerful field with wide-
ranging applications in mathematics, physics, engineering, and other
disciplines. In this conclusion, we will summarize some key concepts
and results in complex analysis and discuss their significance.
One of the central ideas in complex analysis is the concept of ana-
lyticity. A function f (z) of a complex variable z is said to be analytic
at a point z0 if it is differentiable at z0 and in a neighborhood of z0 .
The Cauchy-Riemann equations provide a criterion for analyticity: if
a function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic at a point z0 = x0 + iy0 ,
then its real and imaginary parts, u(x, y) and v(x, y), must satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= and =− .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
These equations relate the behavior of a complex-valued function
to the geometry of the complex plane, and they play a fundamental
role in complex analysis.
The Cauchy integral formula is another key result in complex anal-
ysis. It states that if f (z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed
contour C, and z0 is any point inside C, then
I
1 f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz,
2πi C z − z0
where the integral is taken counterclockwise along C. This formula
allows us to compute the value of an analytic function at a point in
terms of its values on the boundary of a region, and it has many im-
portant consequences in complex analysis.
One of the most striking applications of the Cauchy integral formula
is the residue theorem. This theorem states that if f (z) is analytic
inside and on a simple closed contour C except for isolated singularities
at points z1 , z2 , . . . , zn inside C, then

28
 I n
X
f (z)dz = 2πi Res(f, zk ),
C k=1

where Res(f, zk ) is the residue of f (z) at the singularity zk . The

residue theorem provides a powerful tool for computing complex inte-
grals, and it has many applications in the evaluation of real integrals
and in the solution of differential equations.
Another important concept in complex analysis is that of confor-
mal mapping. A conformal mapping is a function f (z) that preserves
angles between curves in the complex plane. Conformal mappings are
important in the study of fluid dynamics, electromagnetism, and other
fields where the preservation of angles is important.
In conclusion, complex analysis is a beautiful and rich field of math-
ematics with many important applications. Its concepts and results,
such as analyticity, the Cauchy-Riemann equations, the Cauchy inte-
gral formula, the residue theorem, and conformal mapping, are fun-
damental in mathematics and have wide-ranging applications in other
disciplines. Complex analysis provides powerful tools for understand-
ing the behavior of functions of a complex variable and has deep con-
nections to geometry, physics, and other areas of mathematics. It is
a field that continues to inspire researchers and mathematicians alike,
and its impact on science and technology is profound and enduring.
—
This conclusion summarizes some key concepts and results in com-
plex analysis and highlights their significance in mathematics and other
disciplines. It provides a glimpse into the beauty and importance of
complex analysis as a field of study.

29
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