R.

Boodram
Speciation, Natural Selection and Genetic Engineering

S.O. 4.1 Define a species.

S.O. 4.2 Describe how new species are formed.

S.O. 5.1 Explain how natural selection plays a role in biological evolution.

S.O. 5.2 Distinguish between natural and artificial selection.

S.O. 6.1 Describe how genetic engineering can be used to change the traits of an organism.

S.O. 6.2 Discuss the possible advantages and disadvantages of genetic engineering.

BIOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT

A species is a group of related organisms that are able to breed together and produce fertile
offspring.

In some species there appears to be very little variation, while in others, individuals may look as if
they belong to different species. Species remain distinct because individuals from different species
cannot breed together successfully. Some individuals of different species do attempt to breed
together, some mate but produce embryos that do not develop and some produce sterile offspring
like the mule (a cross between a male donkey and female horse). Mules have donkey and horse
chromosomes, which cannot pair together during meiosis, so no gametes are produced.

SPECIATION

Speciation is an evolutionary process where isolated biological populations evolve to become

distinct species. There are two ways in which new species may arise: from geographical separation
or from ecological or behavioural separation.

Geographical separation

Populations of the same species may become separated by geographical barriers, such as bodies of
water or mountain ranges. Environmental conditions either side of the barrier are likely to be
different, so over a period of time the populations become significantly different from each other
through natural selection. They are not able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring; this means
that they no longer belong to the same species.

Anolis lizards have colonised islands in the Caribbean from the mainland. They have adapted to
different conditions on different islands and diversified into different species.

Ecological and behavioural separation

Speciation can occur within a population without there being any physical barriers. This may happen
because some individuals occupy part of a habitat that the others do not and become adapted to the
conditions there.
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Speciation, Natural Selection and Genetic Engineering

It may also result from a change in behaviour. Female cichlid fish

in Lake Victoria in Africa select males of a certain colour and this
has resulted in the formation of new species.

EXTINCTION

Over time, species can also become extinct, i.e. they no longer exist.
Habitat loss, disease, predation by introduced species, competition
with introduced species or overexploitation by humans, e.g.
overfishing or overhunting, can all lead to extinction of species. For
example, the Caribbean monk seal has become extinct due to it being
overhunted for its fur, meat and oil.

NATURAL SELECTION

Natural selection occurs when organisms are well adapted to their environment, have a greater
chance to breed and pass on their alleles to the next generation than those that are less well
adapted. Natural selection involves the following:

• Overproduction – each generation produces large numbers of offspring, far more than can
survive in the environment. Populations of most organisms remain fairly stable from
generation to generation because they are limited to environmental factors, such as:

o Competition – where individual organisms compete for resources such as food,

water and space. Some will have better ways to obtain these resources than others.

o Predation – where many individuals are eaten by predators.

o Disease – where many individuals are infected by pathogens and killed or weakened
by the disease that they cause.

• Differential survival – the individuals that survive long enough to breed are good at obtaining
resources from their environment, evading predation and withstanding disease. Less
successful individuals die before reproducing or only have small numbers of offspring.

• Reproduction and inheritance – organisms that are successful in the struggle for existence
have a higher chance to breed and pass on the alleles for the features that have made them
successful.

• Adaptation – organisms that survive are those suited best to the environment at that
particular time.

If the environment does not change, natural selection maintains populations of organisms so they do
not change much over time. Individuals at the extremes of the range of variation do not survive as
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Speciation, Natural Selection and Genetic Engineering

they are not well adapted. For example, female sparrows with very long or very short wings do not
survive to breed as they are often killed during stormy weather. However, when the environment
changes, individuals with features that help them survive the changed conditions are at an
advantage. They then compete successfully, survive, breed and pass on their alleles which become
more common in the population. Selective agents are those aspects of the environment, such as
predators, disease and competitors, that have these profound effects.

Genetic variation is the raw material for natural selection because it is responsible for all the
different phenotypes in each generation. Environmental factors select for the most favourable
phenotype in a particular situation. Mutation, meiosis and sexual reproduction ensure that there is
genetic variation among individuals in each generation for natural selection to act on.

Examples of Natural Selection

1. Antibiotic resistance – When bacteria are exposed to an antibiotic, such as penicillin, most
are killed. However, some bacteria have a mutation that gives them the ability to survive the
antibiotic. The resistant bacteria reproduce and pass on the gene for resistance to their
offspring.

2. Pesticide resistance – Selection has also happened to insect pests that have been sprayed
with insecticides. Insects susceptible to insecticides die, while resistant forms survive and
increase in number. The same happens to weeds that are resistant to herbicides and fungal
pathogens resistant to fungicides used to control them.

3. Industrial melanism – Found in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, there are
two forms of the peppered moth – a speckled variety and a melanic (black) variety. Before
the industrial revolution (19th century), populations of this species were nearly all speckled.
A few melanic individuals appeared by mutation but because they were easily spotted and
eaten by predatory birds, never survived to breed. Industrialization led to an increase in the
burning of coal with an increase of sulphur dioxide and soot in the environment. Lichens
died and trees became covered in soot. Now the speckled variety was most conspicuous and
the melanic best camouflaged. The proportions of the melanic form increased in populations
around the big cities, such as Manchester in Britain. In rural areas, it still remained rare. With
Clean Air Acts and less industry, the speckled forms are again at a selective advantage and
the number of melanics has decreased.

4. Galapagos finches – The Galapagos Islands in the Pacific Ocean have at least 13 different
species of finches which are possibly all descendants of a single South American species that
colonized the islands from the mainland. The main difference between species is in the
shape and size of their beaks. As a result of natural selection, their beaks have become
highly adapted to the different types of food present on the various islands, e.g. seeds,
nectar, insects or fruits.

5. Caribbean lizards – Anole lizards are thought to have colonized the islands of the Caribbean
from Central and South America. Through natural selection, lizards stranded on the four
larger islands of Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and Puerto Rico independently evolved into
different species with similar characteristics that enabled them to fit similar ecological
niches on each island, e.g. twig anoles developed long, slender bodies and tails and short
legs; trunk ground anoles developed long, muscular legs; and canopy anoles developed large
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toe pads. Today the different species have equivalent species with similar body types on
each island.

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

People have grown crops and kept animals for at least ten thousand years. Over that time farmers
have kept seed from one year to another and have bred livestock. Across the world there are many
varieties of livestock and crop plants adapted to local conditions. Artificial selection is responsible for
the considerable changes that have occurred to species such as sheep, goats, cattle, wheat, rice and
maize.

In artificial selection:

• Humans choose a feature or trait to improve

• Animals or plants showing this trait are chosen for breeding

• The offspring that show improvement in this trait are used to breed the next generation

The process of selective breeding may continue for many generations. This is called artificial
selection as it is humans who are the selective agent, not the environment as it is with natural
selection. Humans decide which features to improve and which individuals survive to breed and pass
on their alleles.

Crossing existing varieties to combine features produces many new varieties. Hope cattle in Jamaica
were bred from Holsteins and Zebu cattle. This is known as hybridisation and is followed by a
programme of selective breeding. This breed is heat tolerant, has a high resistance to ticks and tick-
borne diseases and produced a high yield of milk, even when grazing on the poor pasturelands in the
Caribbean.

Sugar cane has been bred to produce varieties with a high sucrose content, increased resistance to
disease and insect pests and greater suitability to its environment.

Inbreeding can be a danger of selective breeding between closely related individuals. This may result
in harmful recessive alleles being passed on to descendants and a reduction in variation.

Many of our crop plants are genetically uniform, which is a big risk to food security. Varieties of
wheat, for example, differ from each other by very few genes. This makes them susceptible to
infection by plant pathogens with the possibility of wide scale famine.

Artificial selection is used extensively in agriculture to produce crop plants and farm animals with:

• Increased yields, e.g. cattle that produce more milk or meat, chickens that lay more or larger
eggs, sugar cane that produces more sucrose and cereal crops that produce more grain.

• Increased quality of product, e.g. meat with less fat, and cereals and ground provisions with
a higher protein content.

• Faster growth rates.

• Increased number of offspring.

• Shorter time to reach maturity so that more generations are produced per year.
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Speciation, Natural Selection and Genetic Engineering

• Increased resistance to pests and disease. This reduces product loss and the need for
pesticides.

• Increased suitability to the environment.

Differences between natural and artificial selection

Feature Natural Selection Artificial Selection

Selective agent The total environment although Humans, e.g. farmers, plant and
one factor may be very animal breeders
important e.g. predation

Type of traits selected Adaptations to the conditions Useful characteristics for

in the environment at a humans, e.g. fast growth, high
particular time yield, docile temperament

Number of traits selected All traits One, or a few traits, e.g. disease
resistance

Speed Generally slower Faster – improvement can

occur in several generations

Questions

1. State what is meant by ‘natural selection’ and explain why genetic variation is important in
natural selection. (4 marks)

2. Humans have developed breeds of dogs with different traits. Explain TWO ways in which this
breeding process differs from natural selection, giving TWO possible disadvantages to the
species. (4 marks)

3. Using TWO example, define the term ‘species’. (4 marks)

4. State TWO ways by which speciation occurs. (2 marks)

5. Explain how EACH of the TWO ways stated above leads to speciation. (4 marks)

6. Natural selection assists in the process of speciation. Outline THREE advantages and TWO
disadvantages of natural selection. (5 marks)

GENETIC ENGINEERING
Genetic engineering involves changing the traits of one organism by inserting genetic material from
a different organism into its DNA. The organism receiving the genetic material is called a transgenic
organism or genetically modified organism (GMO).

Genetic engineering is used to:

• Protect agricultural crops against environmental threats, e.g. pathogens, pests, herbicides
and low temperatures.
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• Modify the quality of a product, e.g. increasing nutritional value.

• Make organisms produce materials that they do not usually produce, e.g. vaccines and
drugs.

• Improve yields, e.g. increasing size or growth rate, or making organisms more hardy.

Genetic engineering uses

• Food production, e.g. golden rice. Genes from daffodils are inserted into rice which enables
it to produce beta-carotene which the body converts to Vitamin A. Golden rice should help
fight vitamin A deficiency which is a leading cause of blindness and often death of children in
many underdeveloped countries.

• Medical treatment, e.g. insulin production. The DNA for insulin production is transferred to
bacteria, which replicates quickly and is able to produce insulin. The insulin-producing
bacteria are given the nutrients and conditions they need to produce human insulin.

• DNA testing or DNA fingerprinting. This involves analysing specific regions of DNA taken
from cells of individuals, scenes of accidents or crime scenes. It is used for solving crimes,
paternity testing, identification of bodies, detection of genetic disorders or diseases,
identifying family relationships and determining ancestral lines.

• Gene therapy. This is an experimental technique that involves altering genes inside body
cells to cure a disease or help the body fight a disease. It involves putting a dominant allele
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into human cells. Gene therapy has been used to treat forms of leukaemia and cystic
fibrosis.

• Captive breeding programs. This involves breeding and raising animals in human controlled
environments e.g. zoos, aquariums and wildlife reserves. The aim is to prevent extinction of
endangered species, conserve species that may not survive well in the wild, reintroduce
animals back into the wild and preserve biodiversity. DNA profiling is used to assess the
genetic diversity of organisms to be bred to prevent inbreeding, and to help prevent the loss
of genetic diversity.

Advantages of genetic engineering

• Yields can be increased by genetic engineering which should increase the world food supply
and reduce food shortages.

• The nutritional value of foods can be increased by genetic engineering which should reduce
deficiency diseases worldwide.

• The need for chemical pesticides that harm the environment can be reduced by genetically
engineering crops to be resistant to pests.

• Vaccines produced by genetic engineering are generally safer than vaccines containing live
and weakened or dead pathogens.

• Larger quantities of drugs in a safer and purer form can be produced than were previously
produced from animal sources resulting in more people worldwide having ready access to
safe, life-saving drugs.

• It overcomes ethical concerns of obtaining certain drugs from animals, e.g. insulin used to be
obtained from pigs and cows.

Disadvantages of genetic engineering

• Plants genetically engineered to be toxic to a pest may also be toxic to useful organisms, e.g.
insects that bring about pollination. This could negatively affect wild plants and reduce
reproduction in crops, reducing food production.

• Plants genetically engineered to be resistant to pests and herbicides could create

unpredictable environmental issues, e.g. they could lead to the development of pesticide-
resistant insects or they could interbreed with closely related wild plants and create
herbicide-resistant superweeds.

• Once a genetically modified organism is released into the environment, it cannot be

contained or recalled. Any negative effects are irreversible.

• The number of allergens in foods could be increased by transferring genes causing allergic
reactions between species.

• Unknown health risks may occur as a result of eating GMOs.

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• Large companies with funds and technology to develop GMOs could make large profits at
the expense of smaller companies and poorer nations.

• Future steps in genetic engineering might allow the genetic makeup of higher organisms
such as humans, to be altered, e.g. to produce designer babies. Difficult moral and ethical
issues then arise, e.g. how far should we go in changing our own genes and those of other
animals?

Questions

1. Genetic engineering techniques are being applied in areas such as medicine, biotechnology
and research. Discuss TWO possible negative outcomes of genetic engineering and THREE
benefits of continuing the use of genetic engineering techniques. In your answer, state what
is meant by genetic engineering. (7 marks)