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ENERGY RESOURCES IN AFGHANISTAN AND MEASURES TO IMPROVE FOR

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 JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE ENERGY VOL. 2, NO. 4, DECEMBER, 2011

ENERGY RESOURCES IN AFGHANISTAN AND MEASURES TO

IMPROVE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
NADEEM MALIK
Commerce Department, University of Balochistan Quetta Pakistan
Email nadeem_malik_uob@yahoo.com

Abstract: Afghanistan‘s energy sector and its donor reconstruction and service sector growth. Despite
economy are at a crossroads. Energy is a very the progress of the past few years, Afghanistan remains
important input in the sustainable development of extremely poor, landlocked, and highly dependent on
Afghanistan. If it is not supplied imprudently it will foreign aid, farming, and trade with neighboring
pull down the Government‘s development efforts and countries. “Ref[2]”It will probably take the remainder of
be a drag on economic growth. The availability of the decade and continuing donor aid and attention to
secure energy within Afghanistan was significantly significantly raise Afghanistan's living standards from its
disrupted by the conflicts of the past two decades. The current status, among the lowest in the world. Much of
release of new estimates showing that Afghanistan the population continues to suffer from shortages of
may possess substantial reserves of oil and gas may housing; clean water, electricity, medical care, of the
shake up Central Asia’s increasingly competitive highly prolific, natural gas-prone Amu Darya Basin, has
energy contest and alter the region’s geopolitical the potential to hold a sizable undiscovered gas resource
balance. The energy sector in Afghanistan is base, especially in sedimentary layers deeper than what
predominately state owned and operated with little were developed during the Soviet era. Afghanistan’s
private sector participation. Although encouraging crude oil potential is more modest, with perhaps up to
private investment is a stated goal of the IROA, the 100 million barrels of medium-gravity recoverable from
substantive work that is required to create the Angot and other fields that are undeveloped. Afghanistan
enabling environment for meaningful private sector also may possess relatively small volumes of gas liquids
participation is absent. The energy sector and its sub- and condensate.
sectors are undergoing significant expansion. “Ref [2]”Outside of the North Afghan Platform, very
However, poor infrastructure, insufficient budgetary limited oil and gas exploration has occurred. Geological,
resources, lack of trained personnel and weak aeromagnetic, and gravimetric studies were conducted in
government policies have complicated and in some the 1970s over parts of the Katawaz Fault Block (eastern
instances significantly delayed energy resource Afghanistan – along the Pak border) and in the Helmand
development and deployment. The result is that each and Farah provinces. The hydrocarbon potential in these
sub-sector‘s entities often are not able to effectively areas is thought to be very limited as compared to that in
maintain, repair, manage or expand the system to the north.The Soviets had estimated Afghanistan's proven
meet the country‘s needs. The findings of the study and probable natural gas reserves at up to 5 trillion cubic
describe the important energy resources available to feet (Tcf) in the 1970s. Afghan natural gas production
the country and suggest measures to improve it. reached 275 million cubic feet per day (Mmcf/d) in the
Development of Afghanistan‘s require large capital mid-1970s. The Djarquduk field was brought online
investment and significant private sector during that period boosted Afghan natural gas output to a
participation to reach fruition. Major objective of the peak of 385 Mmcf/d by 1978-79. After the Soviet pullout
paper is to describe the existing energy resources and and subsequent Afghan civil war, at Sheberghan area
suggest measures to improve these resources. fields were shut in due to technical problems and the lack
of an export market in the former Soviet Union. At its
Key Words: Energy Resources, possess substantial peak in the late 1970s, Afghanistan supplied 70%-90% of
reserves, private sector participation, energy resource its natural gas output to the Soviet Union's natural gas
development, enabling environment, measures grid via a link through Uzbekistan. In 1992, Afghan
President Najibullah indicated that a new natural gas
1. INTRODUCTION sales agreement with Russia was in progress. However,
several former Soviet republics raised price and
Ref [1]”Afghanistan's economic outlook has improved distribution issues and negotiations stalled. In the early
significantly since the fall of the Taliban regime in 2001 1990s, Afghanistan also discussed possible natural gas
because of the infusion of over $8 billion in international supply arrangements with Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and
assistance, recovery of the agricultural sector and growth several Western European countries, but these talks never
of the service sector, and the reestablishment of market progressed further. Afghan natural gas fields include
institutions. Real GDP growth is estimated to have Djarquduk, Khowaja Gogerdak, and Yatimtaq, all of
slowed in the last fiscal year primarily because adverse which are located within 20 miles of the northern town of
weather conditions cut agricultural production, but is Sheberghan in Jowzjan province. In 1999, work resumed
expected to rebound over 2005-06 because of foreign on the repair of a distribution pipeline to Mazar-i-Sharif.

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Spur pipelines to a small power plant and fertilizer plant Installed capacity of 11 MW. Operational.
also were repaired and completed. Mazar-i-Sharif is now Darunta Dam
In Nangarhar province near Jalalabad.
receiving natural gas from the pipeline. The possibility of
exporting a small quantity of natural gas through the Sarobi Dam Installed capacity of 22 MW.
existing pipeline into Uzbekistan also is reportedly being
considered. “Ref [3]”Soviet estimates from the late 1970s Dahla Dam Kandahar province. Operational.
placed Afghanistan's proven and probable oil and Mazar-i- Small natural gas-fired power plant near
condensate reserves at 95 million barrels. Most Soviet Sharif Power Mazar-i-Sharif, partially operational at
assistance efforts after the mid-1970s were aimed at Plant under 30 MW.
increasing gas production. Sporadic gas exploration
continued through the mid-1980s. The last Soviet Note: This listing of Afghanistan’s energy infrastructure was compiled
technical advisors left Afghanistan in 1988. After a brief from information available in press and media sources, and should not
necessarily be considered comprehensive. Only facilities which have
hiatus, oil production at the Angot field was restarted in been reported to be functional or under repair have been included.
the early 1990s by local militias. Output levels, however,
are though to have been less than 300 b/d. Near Sar-i-Pol,
the Soviets partially constructed a 10,000-b/d topping
plant, which although undamaged by war, is thought by 2. METHODOLOGY AND OBJECTIVE OF
Western experts to be unsalvageable. THE STUDY

Table 1 Energy Infrastructure at a Glance The major objective of the study is to make a
descriptive review of the existing energy resources in
Oil Afghanistan and at the end suggest some important
Produces a small quantity of crude oil; measures in order to make the best possible use of these
Angot located in Sar-i-Pol province. Primitive resources. The methodology of the study was observation
Oilfield retorts used at the field and near and interviews conducted with the respondents related to
Sheberghan to refine produced oil. the study. The nature of the study was descriptive so the
data was collected from the Afghan government reports,
Natural Gas World Bank, Asian development Bank reports, research
papers and other sources.
Sheberghan The Djarquduk, Khowaja Gogerak, and
Area Gas Yatimtaq natural gas fields are all located
Fields within 20 miles of Sheberghan.
3. MATERIAL AND METHODS
A pipeline connects these natural gas
fields to Mazar-i-Sharif. Limited amounts The State of the Energy Sub-sectors in Afghanistan
of gas currently are supplied to a 48-MW detailed Analysis
Pipeline to Electricity
power plant near Mazar-I-Sharif (which is
Mazar-i- “Ref [4]”Electricity drives modern economies and per
operating at less than one-third full
Sharif capita consumption of electricity in Afghanistan is one of
capacity) and for the 100,000 mt/y
fertilizer plant, which is partially the lowest in the world. After a long period of decline,
operational. generating capacity, is beginning to grow again as are
generation and consumption. Hydro plants account the
Small-diameter pipelines supply gas to largest share of capacity with imports in second place
Local the Khwaja Gogerdak and Djarquduk gas and growing. The most promising long-term resource for
pipelines fields with Sheberghan and nearby power generation in Afghanistan is hydropower, which
villages . accounts for over 50% of grid-connected installed
Electricity capacity6. Following hydropower, thermal generation,
primarily diesel generation, supplies power mainly to
Located in Helmand province near urban areas. Utilization of indigenous fossil fuels (natural
Kandahar; transmission lines to Kandahar gas and coal) for power generation is very limited as is
repaired in early 2002, after being utilization of solar, wind and other renewable energy
Kajaki Dam resources. Reliance on diesel is both expensive and
damaged by airstrikes in November 2001.
Upgrading and expansion program is environmentally hazardous. Diesel generation costs
underway. almost 30 US cents per khw compared to natural gas at
3.5 US cents per kWh. Efforts are underway to utilize
Installed capacity of 66 MW. Near Kabul. local natural gas for power production and this should
Mahipar Operational only two to three months out remain a top priority
Dam of the year (springtime) but currently
lacking adequate water.
Installed capacity of 100 MW.
Naghlu Dam Operational. Provides most of the
electricity used in Kabul.

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Table 2 Historical Electricity Data

1980 1990 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Generation 0.94 1.10 0.47 0.39 0.69 0.81 0.76 0.75
(billion kWh)
Imports 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.10
(billion kWh)
Consumption 0.88 1.02 0.53 0.56 0.79 0.86 0.81 0.80
(billion kWh)
Capacity 0.426 0.494 0.405 0.265 0.264 0.323 0.323 0.320
(million kW)
Source: US EIA
Table 3 Afghanistan electricity Production Table 4 Afghanistan Electricity Consumption

YEAR ELECTRICITY - Year Electricity -

PRODUCTION consumption (billion
(BILLION KWH) kWh)
2000 0.43 2000 0.51
2001 0.42 2001 0.4806
2002 0.375 2002 0.45375
2003 0.3348 2003 0.5114
2004 0.3348 2004 0.5114
2005 0.54 2005 0.6522
2006 0.905 2006 1.042
2007 0.7343 2007 0.7829
2008 0.839 2008 1.088
2009 0.839 2009 1.418
Source: CIA World Fact Book Source: CIA World Fact Book

Rural power supply continues to rely mostly on PETROLEUM

micro-hydro plants (MHPs), limited diesel (mostly Relative to other forms of energy and to the region,
privately owned), and batteries, with very limited Afghanistan has minimal oil and gas resources and
availability to the rural population.7Most rural power consumption at this time is mainly transportation fuels
generation efforts are funded by donors with limited cost- and liquid fuel for power. Currently petroleum products
sharing by the Government. The financial condition of such as diesel, gasoline, and jet fuel are imported, mainly
the sector and the utility is going from bad to worse from Pakistan and Uzbekistan, with limited volumes
because there has been little improvement in tariffs and from Turkmenistan and Iran. Natural gas holds potential
operations while at the same time substantial assets have for power generation but suffers from a severe lack of
been added to the system. Maintaining and operating investment
these is expensive and if the Government does not shift
its focus from building new infrastructure alone to NATURAL GAS
efficiently operating and maintaining what is has, the Natural gas it not yet a significant energy resource,
burden on the economy will be enormous. although it has the potential to be a significant source of
“Ref [5]”Energy in Afghanistan in recent history can energy for the country and an important source of
be categorized as a period where supply has always been revenue to the Government. The consumption of natural
short of demand, as it has in many similar countries. The gas is supply constrained just as it is for all other energy
demand for energy outstrips current supply in every resources. Consumption and production of gas is
category of energy, including traditional energy which is estimated at about 21.2 million cubic feet/day, although it
unsustainably harvested. Much of the deficit in supply is likely that this is an overestimate8. In 2003, the World
can be blamed on the lack of investment, cannibalization Bank reported that Afghanistan ―meets only 40% of
and carnage that has accompanied Afghanistan‘s civil increasing domestic natural gas demand, produces gas at
crises since 1978. As civil strife strains financial 25% of its peak level in the 1980‘s, and loses 30% of that
resources new investment is abandoned, routine production to leakage - posing revenue and safety
maintenance is postponed; spares are taken from one issues. By 2006, this had fallen to about 20% of gas
plant for another; skilled human resources that are demand being met. To increase production, both the
needed to maintain the capital stock leave; and soon parts complete infrastructure must be re-built and/or
are stolen and sold for other uses. Sad and unpreventable constructed as new and new exploration and
as this is, a large share of the gap can be blamed on faulty development must be undertaken.
resource allocation policies.

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Table 6 Natural gas - production: 20 million cu m

Year Natural gas - production Rank Percent Change Date of Information
2004 220,000,000 68 2001 est.
2005 220,000,000 68 0.00 % 2001 est.
2006 50,000,000 76 -77.27 % 2003 est.
2007 20,000,000 84 -60.00 % 2004 est.
2008 20,000,000 87 0.00 % 2006 est.
2009 20,000,000 86 0.00 % 2006 est.
Source: CIA World Fact Book
Table 7 Natural gas - consumption: 20 million cu m
Year Natural gas - consumption Rank Percent Change Date of Information
2004 220,000,000 92 2001 est.
2005 220,000,000 92 0.00 % 2001 est.
2006 50,000,000 101 -77.27 % 2003 est.
2007 20,000,000 107 -60.00 % 2004 est.
2008 20,000,000 108 0.00 % 2006 est.
2009 20,000,000 109 0.00 % 2006 est
Source: CIA World Fact Book

“Ref [6]”Like other energy prices, current gas prices this resource and attract private investment. Technical
are too low to cover costs of rehabilitation, O&M and assistance and training activities provided through donor
expansion of production and infrastructure. For funding have been ongoing for a number of year to help
incremental gas production, tariffs may be less than half resolve this impediments. To date, results have been
of the level needed to cover costs. Moreover, the IROA mixed and many of the activities are behind schedule.
collects no taxes or royalties from the natural gas sector, Due to the importance of the natural gas sector as a
missing out on a potentially major source of revenue. As significant contributor to Afghanistan‘s domestic energy
a result, sector entities have been unable to effectively production, as well as provide an important revenue
operate, repair and maintain the system. A large part of source to the GOA, efforts to develop the sector need to
the infrastructure for storage, transmission and be given a high priority within the IROA ‗s overall
distribution has been damaged while the remaining Energy Sector Strategy.
capacity is in need of rehabilitation. There is no incentive CRUDE OIL
to conserve or to optimize use of gas resources as the “Ref [8]”Afghanistan has only limited supplies of oil.
present cost is so low and operations are so inefficient. According to the USGS reserves are 13-14 million tons.
There is a good deal of uncertainty about reserves that Domestic oil production is insignificant with current
can only be resolved with further exploration. Studies put production is about 400 barrels/day (Technical Annex,
proven reserves between 1 trillion cubic feet (tcf) and 15 January 2004).
to 20 tcf. Other studies estimate additional probable As a result, Afghanistan depends on imports for most of
reserves of 15 or 20 tcf. Regardless, of the whether its consumption. Oil is produced in limited quantities
reserves are 1 tcf or more, there is still sufficient gas to primarily from the Angot oil field, located in Sar-i-Pol
justify immediate exploration and develop and utilization province. The U.S. government estimates that total oil
in power and, possible, for compressed natural gas reserves could be as much as 270 billion barrels.
(CNG) vehicle. If investments take place as envisioned, it is estimated
“Ref [7]”Development of Afghanistan‘s natural gas that oil production could increase from the current 400
resources has the potential of improving domestic energy bpd (barrel of oil production per day) to 3,000 bpd by
resources, reducing environmental impacts and 2008; 5,000 bpd by 2010 and 10,000 bpd by 2015.
supporting economic growth. Natural gas reserves are COAL
potentially large enough to support development of Like all other in Afghanistan, the demand for coal
electricity generation as well as a fertilizer plant and local does not drive production but rather production limits
commercial and residential markets in the Sheberghan consumption. The table below illustrates the production
area. Plans are underway to rehabilitate the gas fields to and consumption position since 1980. The Afghan coal
expand production and to upgrade the existing gas industry is operating at low production rates, less than
pipeline network to supply the fertilizer plant and the 200,000 tons reported per year; devastation of more than
local market. Activities to promote exploration and 2 decades of war and years of neglect, Afghanistan‘s coal
development of additional gas resources have been mines struggle to sustain current levels of production.
underway for some time. The supply of coal is essential for domestic energy /
Progress in developing these resources is being delayed heating and industrial uses. The quantity and quality of
by a number of factors that affect the ability to develop coal resources remains relatively unknown and programs

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to assess alternatives could take up to three years. As mines in Bamyan provinces.

such, there will be a continued reliance on existing
producing mines in Baghlan province as well as small
Table 8 Coal Energy Data (million short tons)

1980 1990 2000 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Production 0.131 0.116 0.089 0.092 0.096 0.099 0.103 0.099
Consumption 0.131 0.116 0.089 0.092 0.096 0.099 0.103 0.099
Source: US EIA

Until the end of 2006, Afghan coal operations were Mines has included a 100MW coal fired power plant in
primarily contained in state enterprises of Northern Coal its 1386 budget figures; this presents interesting inter-
Enterprise and Sabzak Coal with oversight of the ministerial issues as the Ministry of Energy and Water is
Ministry of Mines. Some recent lease arrangements to responsible for state power generation which is implied
private operators have since been put in place that in this budget proposal. The confirmed quantity and
provide private firms with coal mining rights affiliated quality of coal resources remains relatively unknown but
with cement operations. In May 2007, President Karzai appears good.
announced the establishment of a Coal Commission. The COAL USES
genesis of this commission is the increasing discussion Afghan coal is primarily used for home cooking and
within Government to promote indigenous energy heating needs. The estimated demand for coal in
resources for power use as well as to examine the Afghanistan is approximately 250,000 tones per year (for
industry demand for coal as a fuel source. No residential, commercial, and light industrial uses
programmatic assistance has been provided to the nationwide). Over the next three years it is expected that
Afghan coal sector. demand for coal will also increase as a result of the
COAL DEPOSITS AND COST manufacture of cement and possible coal power
“Ref [9]”In general terms there are 11 coal mines in development. Therefore, recovery of the cement industry
Afghanistan with approximately 5 that have been deemed will significantly alter the total demand for coal.
to be reasonably safe for operation and viable for local Mechanisms are not in place to transparently and rapidly
production and use. Considerable coal reserves have yet address winter coal issues.
to be explored in Afghanistan. Coal is used in these COAL FOR POWER
mining areas as well as transported into Kabul and other “Ref [10]”In addition to the Aynak copper power
cities; transport of coal is generally conducted by private needs, Government has begun to assess the power needs
market entities although some mines maintain their own of the proposed Hajigak Iron Ore deposit as well as
transportation as well. The current price of coal is simply the generation of coal for power to supply the
indicated to be $65-$90 per ton depending on transport central and western parts of the country that now have no
costs – the actual coal price per ton is estimated to be or limited power access. This is a topic where both the
around $20-$25.00. In terms of regional coal costs, this is Ministry of Mines and the Ministry of Energy and Water
high. have important roles but have yet to determine strategic
The health and safety conditions at the mines, many priorities for development of coal for power including
of which are underground, are horrific. An example is the methods to attract sustainable investment. Opportunities
ongoing fires at the Dahne Tor coal mine. US Geological such as this argue for the development a cogeneration
Survey (USGS) experts visited the site in 2006 and policy and simplified power purchase agreements for co
indicated that unregulated mining observed is conducted generated power.
in a seam that is several hundred feet (stratigraphically RURAL AND RENEWABLE ENERGY
and topographically) higher than the main seam that was Renewable energy offers the greatest hope for
mined decades ago. The main mine was semi- Afghanistan in general and rural energy in particular.
mechanized, but everything is now collapsed, attributed Renewable energy includes hydro, solar, wind,
by Afghan coal managers to landslides, poor technical geothermal, biomass and wood. Hydro, both large and
oversight and general subsidence. It is estimated that small, represents significant untapped resources.
millions of dollars are required to sufficiently upgrade According to the ADB, there is 18,400 MW of untapped
the health and safety conditions at these mine operations. hydro potential in the country.
Longer-term strategies for growth in the Afghanistan has excellent wind potential in many areas
Afghanistan coal sector remain several years away but and is economical compared to diesel as shown in the
consideration of coal power is underway; the Ministry of table below.
Table 9 Wind Potential
Wind Resource Utility Wind Class Wind Speed m/s Total Capacity Installed
Scale (MW)
Good 4 6.8-7.3 75,970
Excellent 5 7.3-7.7 33,160
Excellent 6 7.7-8.5 33,100
Excellent 7 > 8.5 15,800
Total 158,100
Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

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“Ref [11]”Not all of this potential wind energy can be energy. Due to the dispersed nature of the rural
economically converted into electricity because of a population, renewable energy offers the best solution for
number of factors such as distance from population electrification for the majority of Afghanistan‘s rural
centers and wind speed. However, the first initial survey population that currently does not have access to
indicates that there is significant potential which can be electricity and has no real expectation of connection to
tapped at around US$ 0.09 per kWh. the grid
There is significant solar potential but it still remains a It is very important that the economic conditions and
high cost energy resource for electricity. The Indian opportunities of rural population be fully understood
Government has funded a solar village initiative. While when devising a rural energy strategy. Too often donors
solar PV is expensive compared to the cost of generation and Government officials have blindly followed a policy
for other alternatives, there is strong evidence that with of rural electrification. The result has been much higher
the proper enabling environment of micro credit and cost energy delivered than people can afford and little, if
training, solar home systems are a viable electricity any, associated economic activity. The goal of increasing
source. Solar cookers have shown significant promise in energy is poverty reduction and economic growth.
other countries and may have widespread application Electricity alone in rural areas is unable to do that job.
here. Solar cookers were deployed in Afghan refugee What is not known about rural Afghan‘s economic and
camps in Pakistan. energy characteristics? First, rural Afghani‘s are poor by
“Ref [12]”It is important to note that there are many most countries‘standards. ―Over 20.4% of the rural
environmental benefits from using renewable energy population cannot meet the minimum level of dietary
such as reduced emissions (both indoor and outdoor) but energy required to sustain a healthy life. 19
the development of renewable energy must also consider Unemployment is rampant. Average household income is
the potentially negative environmental impacts. It is estimated to be no greater than $231 a year.
important that EIA guidelines be followed and the as “Ref [15]”Probably less than 4% of rural households
with any energy project, public debate is an important have access to electricity. Of those with access, 7% use
tool. electricity for lighting. Kerosene lamps are the major
There is an overwhelming view that rural areas need source of lighting, representing roughly 86 percent. It is
electricity and that providing access is the best use of highly likely given what is known about other countries,
resources for energy. An Asia Foundation survey in 2006 that the main source of cooking fuel is from self collected
concluded that at the local level electricity was the fire wood from which there is no monetary outlay or
second most important problem behind unemployment. charcoal. This information is valuable because it tells us
When survey respondents were asked what were the how much of a rural household‘s money income is
largest problems at the national level, they citied devoted to energy. Using detailed data for Balochistan,
electricity as the ninth most important problem The Asia the average rural household spends only 3.5% of its
Foundation sample was not representative of the country budget on energy and this includes imputed or no cash
from an energy perspective and used a definition for rural outlays. Clearly, for many families on the lower end of
that obfuscates the real patterns of importance in the income spectrum, the vast majority of energy services
planning development assistance The results from other are self supplied – that is through the gathering of fuel
countries consistently indicate that there is a hierarchy wood, crop residues, and other biomass. Energy
for demand to services and electricity is usually further expenditures were dominated by wood, charcoal, and
down on the ladder than services such as an all weather kerosene. Wood and charcoal are used mainly for
road, water supply, schools, and clinics. For example, if cooking and heating, while kerosene is the main source
the preponderance of survey respondents already has of lighting. Rural Afghanistan is similar.
access to road, water and schools, then electricity may Extreme poverty in rural areas also is related to lack of
well be their next choice of service. In rural-remote income earning opportunities. The productive use of
Afghanistan, if Afghans are similar to the peoples of the energy helps reduce poverty by providing alternative
region, then access to electricity will not be their most sources of livelihoods and increase educational and
urgent priority. training opportunities. The remoteness of rural locations
“Ref [13]”Additionally, experience the world over has and the rough terrain make expansion of the electricity
provided an important lesson with regard to blindly grid into these areas economically infeasible. Therefore,
providing access to electricity. the application off-grid technologies to these areas—
There is no guarantee that increased access to electricity including renewable energy resources— and other forms
will bring economic benefits. Simply look around in of energy is the primary focus of IROA activities.
Kabul and other urban areas where residential access has Supply
increased. If access to electricity is not targeted to or “Ref [16]”There is no reliable data on traditional energy
coupled with income generating activities, then rural use in rural Afghanistan. The bulk of commercial energy
access brings lighting and little else. is supplied by kerosene, Hydro power and diesels.
Demand Hydro, wind and solar offer opportunities for small scale
“Ref [14]”Although there is little data for Afghanistan on supply. Following hydro, solar energy has the greatest
rural energy use, inferences can be drawn from similar potential as a renewable energy source but cost remains a
countries in the region. There is a tendency to assume major barrier. Estimates indicate that in Afghanistan
that grid connected electricity offers the best form of solar radiation averages about 6.5 kWh per square meter
energy for rural populations. Experience throughout the per day and the skies are sunny about 300 days a year.
world has shown that there is a progression in the use of Consequently, the potential for solar energy development
 JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE ENERGY VOL. 2, NO. 4, DECEMBER, 2011

is high, not only for solar water heaters for homes, Perhaps the single biggest constraint in the sector is the
hospitals and other buildings, but also for generating very limited capacity given the tasks that need to be
electricity. In addition, some 125 sites have been accomplished. Both the Ministries and the SOEs are
identified for micro-hydro resource development with the characterized by limited capacity, the low numbers of
potential to generate 100 MW of power. trained/skilled personnel below the senior levels. It is
Other renewable energy technologies, particularly micro- imperative that basic managerial skills be provided and
hydro and wind energy, have broad applicability within that training in accounting and finance also take place.
rural areas of Afghanistan and offer employment
opportunities directly through operation and maintenance IV. SUGGESTED MEASURES TO IMPROVE
requirements, and indirectly through businesses like ENERGY SECTOR IN AFGHANISTAN
agro processing that provide off farm work. There is a time in Afghanistan‘s future when energy
Hydropower, solar, wind and biomass offer the most will be abundant, blackouts will be a thing of the past,
potential to contribute to energy supply. Development, and most of its energy needs will be provided directly by
however, requires sound institutional and financial the private sector. Private investors will develop power
support, sustained commitment and a long-term plants, operate and own distribution systems and develop
development horizon. Use of renewable energy is beset in situ resources, just as they have begun to do in many
by a number of factors, including high upfront costs, lack countries. But that is the distant future. For now,
of suppliers, inadequate financing mechanisms, and weak Afghanistan must work hard to increase energy
institutional and technical capacity. production, doing so efficiently and in a cost effective
Role of the Private Sector manner. It can do this by building new capacity and by
“Ref [17]”Throughout the world, the role of the private improving the efficiency of existing infrastructure,
sector in energy is growing and is significant in most building capacity in its workforce, and reorganizing its
countries. In Afghanistan, it is virtually nonexistent. The energy operations to make them more transparent,
roles of the private sector vary from managing increase operating efficiency and prepare them for
government owned assets to outright ownership and eventual entry into the private sector. At the same time
operation. There are examples where all these though, it must begin laying the ground-work for the
mechanisms coexist in one country. There are other eventual large-scale participation of the private sector.
examples where countries have chosen one model and “Ref [18]”The time has come that Afghanistan must not
yet, others where the country transitions over time from only focus on the immediate energy needs but turn
the simplest model (management contract) to complete attention to the longer run. It knows where it is going and
ownership and operation. but not necessarily how to get there. This strategy will
To be sure, there are obstacles in Afghanistan to greater address the questions of where we are going and how we
private sector involvement, primarily to investment, but get there. What this means for energy is that as we
some of these obstacles can be completely overcome and continue to focus our efforts on short run options to
others offset with innovative mechanisms. The private increase supply, one must begin developing the
sector can be called upon to manage, operate, invest foundation that will support long run sustainable growth.
and/or own energy entities and operations. Each different Afghanistan must be laying the legal, regulatory,
mechanism has its advantages and disadvantages. Often, commercial and institutional foundations to unleash the
there is a progression from management through power of the private sector when conditions are
ownership that takes into account the current situation. appropriate.
Take the electricity sub-sector for example. It is highly The following factors will help in the improvement of the
unlikely under the current security, institutional, policy energy sector.
and legal/regulatory situation, that private investors will  Increased Private Sector Provision of Energy
be attracted to invest in a large-scale power plant.  Better Sector Governance
However, until these issues are resolved, there are many  Increased trade with neighboring countries,
other ways to use the private sector. Billing can be focusing on the transmission of energy
outsourced. Individual power plants could be given on  Expand the availability of electric power
management contract. There are a variety of mechanisms  Develop a Master Plan for Rural Energy; and,
available now for the IROA to tap the private sector as it  Establish market-based tariffs with a clear
prepares the enabling timetable to phase out subsidies
frameworks and other requisite mechanisms to foster full Electricity
private sector ownership and operation. Afghan government should rehabilitate hydro and
The single most important challenge facing energy is thermal generating facilities; increase power imports and
attracting the private sector in a meaningful way. The develop PPAs with Central Asian countries; purchase
sector is plagued by inefficiency and under investment. small diesel generating sets for supplementing power
Private sector participation in Afghanistan‘s energy supply in selected urban areas; develop selected
sector is crucial to achieving its long term objectives of transmission lines to maximize deliverability from
the sector. Efforts to attract private investment are domestic generation sources and increase use of imported
incorporated with IROA programs and projects, but there power; and develop micro-hydro and other energy
is no coordinated approach to achieving this goal. In resources in rural and remote areas. Through these
particular, options for private participation beyond combined efforts, the supply of electricity throughout
equipment and supplies and management contracts need
to be explored, and effective policies put into place.

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Afghanistan has increased by 66% albeit from a very low conserve or to optimize use of gas resources as the
base. present cost is so low and operations are so inefficient.
A key objective of these initiatives is to increase the The operational strategy of the Government for the gas
number of connections, adding about 850,000 residential sector is to promote economic growth by removing
and non-residential connections by 2010 to increase impediments to the reconstruction and modernization
access in urban areas from an estimated 27% currently to program and to open the sector to private investment,
65% by 201031; and, country-wide from 6% currently to particularly for gas exploration and development. Efforts
almost 25 % by 2010. By 2015 the goal is to increase to attract private investment depend on developing policy
urban access to 90% and achieve an overall national reforms and structural changes to support longer-term
access rate of 33%. sector development and expansion. Progress to date has
Natural Gas been slow, thereby limiting investor interest. Options to
“Ref[19]”Development of Afghanistan‘s natural gas speed up this process and to increase private sector
resources has the potential of improving domestic energy involvement need to be explored.
resources, reducing environmental impacts and Crude Oil and Petroleum Products
supporting economic growth. Natural gas reserves are “Ref [21]”Afghanistan has only limited supplies of oil.
potentially large enough to support development of Domestic oil production is insignificant and current
electricity generation as well as a fertilizer plant and local production is about 400 barrels/day.55 As a result,
commercial and residential markets in the Sheberghan Afghanistan depends on imports for most of its
area. Plans are underway to rehabilitate the gas fields to consumption. Oil is produced in limited quantities
expand production and to upgrade the existing gas primarily from the Angot oil field, located in Sar-i-Pol
pipeline network to supply the fertilizer plant and the province. Given the serious supply shortfall, in order to
local market. Activities to promote exploration and meet country‘s needs, most petroleum products—diesel,
development of additional gas resources have been gasoline and jet fuel included—are imported primarily
underway for some time. from Pakistan and Uzbekistan.
Afghanistan needs to develop indigenous energy Infrastructure for local production of oil is largely non-
resources, including natural gas reserves in the existent and what infrastructure is present is functioning
Sheberghan area. Data on gas reserves indicate that there inefficiently and suffers from chronic under-funding. In
is sufficient low-cost gas reserves available to operate a addition, the level of local expertise in oil exploration
combined cycle turbine plant at Sheberghan for 25 years and development is limited. As a result, sector entities
and that the cost per kWh of power generated would be have been unable to operate effectively, to repair and
in the 2.8 to 3.5 cent range. While this is more expensive maintain the system, nor engage effectively in new
than the cost of imported power, which currently is in the exploration and development. A large part of the
2.0 to 2.5 cents/kWh range, future prices are expected to infrastructure for storage, transmission and distribution
be 4.0 cents/kWh or more. Also,it is important to note the of petroleum products has been damaged, while the
domestic benefits resulting from developing the gas remaining capacity is in need of rehabilitation.
fields and gas-fired power plant. USAID is exploring Much of the petroleum resource potential of Afghanistan
options for some funding of a 100MW gas-fired power and all of the known crude oil and natural gas reserves
plant to be located near the Khwoja Gegertak, Jarkaduk are in northern Afghanistan, located in parts of two
and Yatimtaq gas fields and an associated urea plant. geologic basins – the Amu Darya Basin to the west and
USAID is confirming the size of the reserves, quality of the Afghan-Tajik Basin to the east. Most of the
the gas and delivery prospects for the plant and plans to undiscovered crude oil is in the Afghan-Tajik Basin, and
move forward with construction of the generating plant most of the undiscovered natural gas is in the Amu Darya
pending results of these assessments. Basin. The U.S. government estimates that total oil
“Ref [20]”In addition, current gas prices are too low to reserves could be as much as 270 billion barrels.
cover costs of rehabilitation. For incremental gas If planned investments take place as envisioned, it is
production, tariffs may be less than half of the level estimated that oil production could increase from the
needed to cover costs. Moreover, the IROA collects no current 400 bpd (barrel of oil per day) to 3,000 bpd by
taxes or royalties from the natural gas sector, missing out 2008; 5,000 bpd by 2010 and 10,000 bpd by 2015.
on a potentially major source of revenue. As a result, Clearly, however, the increased investment will require
sector entities have been unable to effectively operate, changes in the laws, rules and regulations in the sector
repair and maintain the system. A large part of the and creating an environment conducive to expanded
infrastructure for storage, transmission and distribution private sector involvement. Total revenue streams from
has been damaged while the remaining capacity is in these investments are estimated to increase, at a
need of rehabilitation. minimum, from $5.1 million in 2004 to about $292
The majority of more than 12,000 residential customers million/year by 2015 assuming a price of $80 a barrel.
and more than 700 business customers are not metered. These revenue estimates do not include additional
Afghan Gas management indicates that metered and non- revenue from value added taxes that could be derived
metered customers generally pay the same rate for gas. from converting the crude oil to refined petroleum
No meaningful data is available to adequately present the products.
costs of operating and maintaining the system at this Coal
time.53 Moreover, the technical standard of Afghan gas “Ref [22]”Afghanistan has reasonably good quality coal
operations is extremely low. There is no incentive to resources and is estimated to have significant coal
reserves (probable reserves estimated at about 400

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million tons), most of which are located in the northern electrification for the majority of Afghanistan‘s rural
part of the country in the region between Herat and population that currently does not have access to
Badashkan58. Although Afghanistan produced over electricity and has no real expectation of connection to
100,000 short tons of coal annually as late as the early the grid.
1990s, production had fallen to only around 1,000 short Most of Afghanistan‘s 25 million people have no
tons in 2000. access to modern forms of energy. Fuel wood accounts
The primary coal resources in Afghanistan occur in for an estimated 75% of total rural energy supplies. This
the Katawaz Basin south and west of Kabul. Prospective is having an adverse impact on forests and watersheds. In
economically viable coal deposits are found in four coal addition, burning these fuels increases indoor air
districts: Karkar, Ishpushta, Dara-i-Suf, and Chalow. pollution, which adversely affects the health of women
However, the real extent of coal deposits in the country is and children in particular.
not known and there is an urgent need to assess the Extreme poverty in rural areas also is related to lack
resource base. of income earning opportunities. The productive use of
Some current coal operations are taking place at electricity helps reduce poverty by providing alternative
Karkar and Ispushta mining districts. The literature sources of livelihoods and increase educational and
indicates that Dara-i-Suf appears to have the greatest training opportunities. The remoteness of rural locations
potential for significant reserves, estimated to be over 84 and the rough terrain make expansion of the electricity
million tons. This coal is believed to be of coking grade grid into these areas economically infeasible. Therefore,
with a high calorific value in the range of 7,000 kilo- the application off-grid technologies to these areas
calories/kg. The mines at Kalich in the Ispushta district including renewable energy resources are the primary
are active. Coal in these districts is extracted by either focus of IROA activities.
crude, inefficient, mechanized mining methods or by The role of the IROA is to provide policy and
―artesian methods. Current production from all regulatory frameworks to encourage and facilitate
operations is estimated to be about 110,000 short tons. participation by the private sector and civil society in
The existing industrial sized coal mines are marginal rural electrification and application of renewable energy
(if not out of operation) due to antiquated machinery and technologies. Ultimate responsibility for renewable and
lack of maintenance and new investment. However, there rural electrification resides in the Ministry of Energy and
is considerable small scale production. At present, the Water (MEW), although other entities, particularly the
small scale mining sector, including coal is wholly MRRD and its program, NSP, CDCs, NGOs, and donors
unregulated and occupies large numbers of persons in are active in rural development projects. MEW also is
difficult security, health, and environmental conditions. charged with establishing a renewable and rural energy
Moreover, coal demand and prices in urban centers have policy in conformance with the development objectives
risen due to domestic energy needs during the winter of the IROA.
months and also due to increasing industrial demand to Hydropower, solar, wind and biomass offer the most
fire construction bricks. potential to contribute to energy supply. Development,
Development of coal and other mineral resources however, requires sound institutional and financial
requires investments in excess of government abilities. support, sustained commitment and a long-term
Therefore the IROA‗s policy is to establish an enabling development horizon. Use of renewable energy is beset
environment conducive to attracting and retaining by a number of factors, including high upfront costs,61
investment by both private local and international groups. lack of suppliers, inadequate financing mechanisms, and
However, privatization and/or leasing of existing state weak institutional and technical capacity.
owned mining enterprises to private groups is, at present,
held up by the lack of adequate mining legislation and Afghanistan as Energy Transit Route
the need for a clear policy on sector development. “Ref [25]”Due to its location between the oil and natural
Enabling legislation and a proper mineral concession gas reserves of the Caspian Basin and the Indian Ocean,
system is needed to establish clear lines of authority and Afghanistan has long been mentioned as a potential
responsibility for the Government and for private pipeline route, though in the near term, several obstacles
developers. will likely prevent Afghanistan from becoming an energy
“Ref [23]”To develop the coal sector and increase transit corridor. During the mid-1990s, Unocal had
production to support new electricity generation, the pursued a possible natural gas pipeline from
Government needs to adopt appropriate policies and Turkmenistan's Dauletabad-Donmez gas basin via
programs to stimulate private sector investment, rather Afghanistan to Pakistan, but pulled out after the U.S.
than direct government investment in operations. To missile strikes against Afghanistan in August 1998.
achieve these objectives internationally competitive “Ref [23]”The Afghan government under President
mining legislation and fiscal measures are necessary. Karzai has tried to revive the Trans-Afghan Pipeline
Afghanistan‘s coal sector requires immediate capital (TAP) plan, with periodic talks held between the
investment to support development of resources as well governments of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Turkmenistan
as for development of power plants that utilize coal for on the issue, but little progress appears to have been
fuel. made as of early June 2004 (despite the signature on
December 9, 2003, of a protocol on the pipeline by the
Rural and Renewable Energy governments of Afghanistan, Pakistan and
“Ref [24]”Due to the dispersed nature of the rural Turkmenistan). President Karzai has stated his belief that
population, renewable energy offers the best solution for the project could generate $100-$300 million per year in

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transit fees for Afghanistan, while creating thousands of Focusing on policies and projects that improve the
jobs in the country. operating efficiency of energy production It strives to get
“Ref [24]”Afghanistan is well positioned to be a the most energy delivered for the minimum
transit route for electricity produced in CAR countries environmental impact. For example, reducing technical
and exported to South Asia, and perhaps eventually it losses or cogeneration Years of neglect cannot be
might also become a net exporter of power produced overcome until the Afghanistan government has the
from its own hydro, natural gas, and coal resources. capability to recover costs, expand its capabilities, and
Efforts are currently underway to increase electricity conduct operations and maintenance of the energy sector.
imports from Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and The energy sector directly tackles corruption in several
Iran and to upgrade cross-border transmission links ways. One of the most important measures for reducing
“Ref [25]”Given the obstacles to development of a corruption is limiting the role or influence of
natural gas pipeline across Afghanistan, it seems unlikely Government. In energy, we are promoting increased
that such an idea will make any progress in the near private sector participation; we are reducing the role of
future, and no major Western companies have expressed Government. Additionally, in SOE‘s, such as DABM, we
interest in reviving the project. The security situation in introduced loss reduction programs that are targeted at
Afghanistan remains an obvious problem, while tensions finding and deploying ways of controlling corruption.
between India and Pakistan make it unlikely that such a Furthermore, increasing private investment in the energy
pipeline could be extended into India and its large (and sector requires rule-of-law and increased transparency
growing) gas market. Financial problems in the utility and accountability; thereby indirectly strengthening anti-
sector in India, which would be the major consumer of corruption, and anti-narcotics measures. Finally, the
the natural gas, also could pose a problem for introduction of a multi-sector regulator outside the
construction of the TAP line. Finally, the pipeline's $2.5- concerned ministries and under the Ministry of Economy
$3.5 billion estimated cost poses a significant obstacle to will provide greater oversight.
its construction. The most important areas furthering regional cooperation
include expansion of energy trade by upgrading
V. Conclusion and Recommendations electricity transmission ties with Central Asian countries
and exploring options for transport of electricity and
The above energy resources and the measures to improve natural gas through Afghanistan for regional supply.
it have provided a base for better planning and Finally, the major emphasis within the Energy Sector
management of this sector. However in order to Strategy placed on institutional strengthening and
implement these measures there is some cutting issues capacity building—and on institutional reform, such as
which should be kept in mind. These include the consolidating authority over rural electrification and rural
environment, counter narcotics, anti-corruption, gender energy projects and separating policymaking from
and regional cooperation in addition to capacity building. regulatory authority—will result in fostering a
Capital investment in energy is rising rapidly attesting to professional, open environment and increase
the efforts to the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan opportunities for participation in energy sector activities
(IROA) and the donor community. At the same time on behalf customers and other stakeholders.
though, the efficiency of energy operations is not
increasing. If left unchecked, much of the investment that VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
is being made will be wasted. Post-conflict efforts by the This work would have not been possible without the
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (IROA) and online support of Dr. Barnett Rubin, Director of CIC,
international donors to date have focused on expanding New York University, USA. I would like to express my
the availability of energy resources throughout the gratitude for efficient help and kindness of Dr. Omar
country. Particular emphasis has been on expanding and Zakhilwal, senior advisor to the Ministry of Rural
rehabilitating the electricity sector in the major economic Rehabilitation and Development of Afghanistan. I am
hubs of the country and providing basic service in rural grateful to Prof. Najibullah Safdari for his kindly
areas. Efforts also have been taken to improve the supply comments about the study. I am also indebted to many
of natural gas, increase availability of hydro-electric colleagues and locals in Kabul, Bamiyan, Parwan, and
generation, rehabilitate and expand electricity and natural Herat provinces, who have generously provided us with
gas transmission and distribution systems, develop guidance, logistical support and encouragement
renewable energy resources in rural and remote areas and throughout this work.
improve the capability of energy sector institutions. The Afghanistan Center for Policy and Development
According to the findings, undiscovered petroleum Studies has facilitated and supported this research study
resources in northern Afghanistan range from 3.6 to 36.5 in Afghanistan. The Kabul Polytechnic Institute and the
trillion cubic feet (TCF) of natural gas, with a mean of Herat University in Afghanistan have provided local
15.7 TCF. Estimates of oil range from 0.4 to 3.6 billion support and research facilities. The Department of
barrels (BBO), with a mean of 1.6 BB0. Estimates for Geological Survey of the Ministry of Mines and Industry
natural gas liquids range from 126 to 1,325 million of Afghanistan has kindly provided permission to access
barrels (MMB) with a mean of 562 MMB. These the pertaining archive information on the previous work.
estimates represent an 18-fold increase in the country’s I am grateful to the AIMS office of the UNDP Kabul, for
potential oil resources, and more than triple the natural generously providing the graphical maps of Central and
gas resources. Western Afghanistan to this study.

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