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Propagation Modes
There are many propagation mechanisms by
which signals can travel between the radar
transmitter and receiver.
– Ground-wave (< 2MHz) propagation
– Sky-wave/ ionosphere (2 – 30 MHz) propagation
– Space wave / Line-of-sight (> 30 MHz)
propagation
– Tropospheric Scatter Propagation

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Ground Wave (surface)

Propagation
• Follows the contour of the earth
• Can propagate considerable distances
• Frequencies up to 2 MHz
• Example
– AM radio
– submarine communication (long waves)

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 Ground Wave Propagation

Ground Wave Propagation

❑ Medium wave (MW) propagates along the surface of the
earth.
❑ Wave must be vertically polarized to prevent short
circuiting the electric component.
❑ Medium wave induces current in the ground over which it
passes, and thus, lose some energy by absorption.
❑ Range of such coverage depends on frequency, power of
the transmitter, ground conditions like salinity and
conductivity of the ground or water over which the waves
propagate, and the water vapor content of the air.
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Ground wave : VLF propagation

❑ When propagation is over a good conductor like seawater, (below about 100

kHz) surface absorption is small, and so is attenuation due to the atmosphere.

Thus the angle of tilt is the main determining factor in the long-distance

propagation of such waves.

❑ Because of the large wavelengths of VLF signals, waves in this range are able

to travel long distances before disappearing (right around the globe if

sufficient power is transmitted).

❑ The most frequent users of long-distance VLF transmissions are ship

communications, and time and frequency transmissions. Ships use the

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frequencies allocated to them, from 10 to 100 kHz

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 Sky Wave (Ionosphere) Propagation
• Signal reflected from ionized layer of
atmosphere back down to earth
• Signal can travel a number of hops, back and
forth between ionosphere and the earth
surface
• Reflection effect caused by refraction
• Examples
– amateur radio
– International broadcasts

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High frequency
HFwave (HF) propagates as sky
waves.

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Sky Wave (Ionosphere) Propagation

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CRITICAL FREQUENCY

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 Critical frequency

❑ The critical frequency (fc) for a given layer is the highest frequency that will
be returned down to earth by that layer after having been beamed straight up at
it.
❑ When the angle of incidence is normal, the name given to this
maximum frequency is critical frequency; its value. in practice ranges from 5
to 12 MHz for the F2 layer

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Maximum usable frequency, (MUF)

❑The maximum usable frequency, or MUF, is also a limiting frequency, but for some
specific angle of incidence other than the normal.
❑In fact, if the angle of incidence (between the incident ray and the normal) is 0, it
follows that :

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 Skip distance

❑ The skip distance is the shortest distance from a transmitter, measured along
the surface of the earth, at which a sky wave of fixed frequency (more than
fc ) will be returned to earth.
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❑ When the angle of incidence is made quite large, as for ray 1 of,
the sky wave returns to ground at a long distance from the
transmitter.
❑ As this angle is slowly reduced, naturally the wave returns closer
and closer to the transmitter, as shown by rays 2 and 3.
❑ If the angle of incidence is now made significantly less than that
of ray 3, the ray will be too close to the normal to be returned to
earth ( as for ray 4, or only slightly, as for ray 5 )
❑ Finally, if the angle of incidence is only just smaller than that of
ray 3, the wave may be returned, but at a distance farther than the
return point of ray 3 (a ray such as this is ray 6)
❑ It thus follows that any higher frequency beamed up at the angle
of ray 3 will not be returned to ground.
❑ It is seen that the frequency which makes a given distance
correspond to the skip distance is the MUF for that pair of points

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 Transmission path

❑ If the frequency used is low enough, it is possible to receive lower rays by two
different paths after either one or two hops. the result of this is interference once
again.
❑ The transmission path is limited by the skip distance at one end and the
curvature of the earth at the other.
❑ The longest single-hop distance is obtained when the ray is transmitted
tangentially to the surface of the earth. For the F2 layer, this corresponds to a
maximum practical distance of about 4000 km.
❑ Since the semi-circumference of the earth is just over 20,000 km, multiple-hop
paths are often required.
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❑ No unusual problems arise with multihop north-south paths.

❑ Care must be taken when ·planning long eastwest paths to realize that
although it is day "here," it is night "there,"
❑ A path calculated on the basis of a constant height of the F2 layer will, if it
crosses the terminator, undershoot and miss the receiving area

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 Space Wave (Line-of-Sight)
Propagation

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Space Wave Propagation

❑ The radio horizon for space waves is about four-thirds as far
as the optical horizon.
❑ This beneficial effect is caused by the varying density of the
atmosphere, and because of diffraction around the curvature
of the earth.

The same formula naturally applies to the receiving antenna.

Thus the total distance will be given by addition

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 Microwave space-wave propagation
❑ All the effects so far described hold true for microwave frequencies, but
atmospheric absorption and the effects of precipitation must be taken into
account. One new phenomenon which occurs is superrefraction, also known
as ducting .
❑ Under certain atmospheric conditions a layer of warm air may be
trapped above cooler air; often over the surface of water. The result is that the
refractive index will decrease far more rapidly with height than usual.
❑ Microwaves are thus continuously refracted in the duct and reflected by the
ground, so that they are propagated around the curvature of the earth for
distances which sometimes exceed 1000 km.
❑ The main requirement for the formation of atmospheric ducts is the so-called
temperature inversion.

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Tropospheric Scatter Propagation

Also known as troposcatter, or forward scatter propagation,

tropospheric scatter propagation is a means of beyond-the-horizon
propagation for UHF signals.
It uses certain properties of the troposphere, the nearest portion of the
atmosphere (within about 15 km of the ground).

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 Tropospheric Scatter Propagation

❑ Two directional antennas are pointed so that their beams

intersect midway between them, above the horizon.
❑ If one of these is a UHF transmitting antenna, and the other a
UHF receiving one, sufficient radio energy will be directed
toward the receiving antenna to make this a useful
communication system.

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Extraterrestrial Communications

❑ First, there is communication with, and tracking of, fast-moving

satellites in close orbits, typically 145 km in radius.

❑ Then there is communication via the geostationary satellites. Such

satellites are placed in equatorial orbits at a height of
approximately 36,000 km.
❑ This height gives a satellite the same angular velocity as the earth,
as a result of which it appears to be stationary over a fixed spot on
the equator.

❑ The last of the three is the communication and tracking connected

with interplanetary probes.

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