Workplace Flexibility: From Research to Action

Workplace Flexibility: From Research

to Action

Ellen Galinsky, Kelly Sakai, and Tyler Wigton

Summary
Ellen Galinsky, Kelly Sakai, and Tyler Wigton explore the “time famine” among American
workers—the continuing sense among employees of not having enough time to manage the
multiple responsibilities of work and personal and family life. Noting that large shares of U.S.
employees report feeling the need for greater workplace flexibility to enable them to take better
care of family responsibilities, the authors examine a large-scale community-engagement initia-
tive to increase workplace flexibility voluntarily.

Using the 2008 National Study of the Changing Workforce as a primary source of data, the
authors begin with an overview of the prevalence of flexibility in today’s American workplace.
They track which categories of employees have access to various flexibility options, as well as the
extent to which employees with access to various types of flexibility use those options. Findings
from the study indicate that the majority of employees want flexibility but that access to it varies,
with more advantaged employees—those who are well educated, have high salaries, and work
full time, for example—being doubly advantaged in having greater access to flexibility.

A number of employers, say the authors, tend to be skeptical of the value of workplace flex-
ibility and to fear that employees will abuse it if it is offered. But the study data reveal that most
employees use flexibility quite conservatively. When the authors use their nationally representa-
tive data set to investigate correlations between access to workplace flexibility and a range of
workplace outcomes especially valued by employers—employee engagement, job satisfaction,
retention, and health—they find that employers as well as employees can benefit from flexibility.

Finally, the authors discuss When Work Works, a large, national community-based initiative
under way since 2003 to increase voluntary adoption of workplace flexibility. The authors detail
the conceptual basis of the project’s design, noting its emphasis on flexibility as one component
of effective workplaces that can benefit employers, employees, and communities alike. Galinsky,
Sakai, and Wigton conclude by drawing lessons learned from the project and briefly discussing
the implications of using research to bring about workplace change.

www.futureofchildren.org

Ellen Galinsky is the president and co-founder and Kelly Sakai and Tyler Wigton are program managers at Families and Work Institute, a
nonprofit, nonpartisan research organization in New York City that studies the changing workforce, the changing family, and the chang-
ing community.

VOL. 21 / NO. 2 / FALL 2011 141

T
Ellen Galinsky, Kelly Sakai, and Tyler Wigton

he recurrent feeling of so many (50 percent) is similarly large when it comes

American employees that there to feeling deprived of time for themselves.
simply are not enough hours in Women, full-time employees, managers and
the day has been called many professionals, unionized employees, salaried
things, but one phrase—a “time employees, employees living with a spouse or
famine”—captures the feeling especially well.1 partner, employees making between $25,000
and $39,999 annually, and more highly edu-
Employees experience the time famine in cated employees are the most likely to feel
different ways (figure 1). Women, in particu- starved for time to spend on themselves.
lar, feel the effects of the time squeeze on
their psychological well-being.2 Almost all In recent years, researchers have focused
employee groups of parents feel that they their attention on the effect of the time strain
have insufficient time with their children. on women. Women, particularly mothers,
Employed fathers and mothers, for example, face challenges in the workplace that men
feel similarly deprived of time with their chil- and childless women are less likely to experi-
dren. Differences begin to appear in other ence. Workplace evaluations, for example,
areas of time deprivation. Parents, full-time seem to hold mothers to higher standards (in
employees, more highly educated employees, terms of commitment to work, punctuality,
managers and professionals, higher paid, and and competence) than they hold their
younger employees are the most likely to feel childless counterparts.3
deprived of time with their husbands, wives,
or partners. The gap between parents (73 Access to Workplace Flexibility
percent) and nonparents (52 percent) in that A logical remedy to employees’ sensation of
respect is particularly striking. The disparity being famished for time is workplace flexibility
between parents (72 percent) and nonparents —allowing employees to have flexible work

Figure 1. Feelings of a “Time Famine” among Wage and Salaried Employees

100
2008
90
2002
80
75% 1992
70
66% 63%
60 60%
Percentage

55%
50 50%

40

30
20

10

0
Employees reporting not Employees reporting not Employees reporting not
having enough time to having enough time to having enough time
spend with child(ren) spend with partner/spouse for self

Source: Families and Work Institute, 1992, 2002, and 2008 editions of the National Study of the Changing Workforce.

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 Workplace Flexibility: From Research to Action

National Study of the Changing Technical Background on the

Workforce National Study of the Changing
The primary source of data for this article is
Workforce
Families and Work Institute’s National Study of Primary sources to inform this article were
the Changing Workforce (NSCW), a comprehen- the Families and Work Institute’s 1992, 1997,
sive, nationally representative, ongoing study of 2002, and 2008 National Study of the Changing
American employees’ lives on and off the job. Workforce (NSCW) surveys. The NSCW builds
Originally conducted as the U.S. Department of directly on the 1977 Quality of Employment
Labor’s Quality of Employment Survey (QES), it Survey (QES) conducted by the Institute for
was discontinued in 1977. It was then adopted Social Research at the University of Michigan
by Families and Work Institute in 1992 and con- with funding from the U.S. Department of Labor.
tinues to be conducted every five to six years. Both the NSCW and QES are based on random
samples of the U.S. workforce.

Total samples of the NSCW include wage and

salaried employees who work for someone else,
schedules that enable them to better manage independent self-employed workers who do not
employ anyone else, and small business own-
work and personal or family life. According to
ers who do employ others. The overall sample
the latest (2008) edition of Families and Work size of the 2008 NSCW is 3,502; this article,
Institute’s ongoing nationally representative however, is based on 2,769 wage and salaried
study, the National Study of the Changing employees. All NSCW samples are adjusted to
Workforce (NSCW), a large majority of (that is, weighted to) reflect recent U.S. Bureau
of the Census statistics on the total U.S.
employees—87 percent—report that having
population to adjust for any sampling bias that
workplace flexibility would be “extremely” or might have occurred. The response rates for all
“very” important if they were looking for a NSCW surveys are above 50 percent, applying
new job. Employee access to such flexibility, the conservative method of calculation recom-
however, is limited, and even when employees mended by the American Association for Public
do have access, they may worry about using Opinion Research. In 2008 the response rate
was 54.6 percent and the completion rate was
the offered flexibility—often for good reasons,
99 percent. The estimated maximum sampling
as several studies show. error for the total wage and salaried sample is
approximately plus or minus 1 percent.
Jennifer Glass, for example, found that
mothers who used flexibility policies offered
by their employer experienced wage depres-
sion, missed promotions, and other negative promoted. They did not find gender differ-
consequences, even when the policies used ences in the penalties for leaves of absence.5
were employer-sanctioned. The long-term In addition, a study by Scott Schieman and
effect of flexibility policies on mothers’ wages
Paul Glavin found that increased use of
depended on the type of flexibility used, the
flexibility can lead to “work-home blurring.”6
occupation, and continuity with the employer.4
Similarly, Michael Judiesch and Karen Lyness Because workers were available to their
studied 11,815 managers and found that those employers anytime, anywhere, they reported
who took leaves were more likely to receive “receiving work-related contact outside of
smaller salary increases and negative perfor- normal work hours” and found themselves
mance evaluations, and less likely to be working during designated family time.
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Ellen Galinsky, Kelly Sakai, and Tyler Wigton

Table 1. Access to Flexibility among All Employees

Percentage of
Type of flexibility employees with access
Choices in Managing Time
Allowed complete or a lot of control over their work schedule 37
It is very true that their schedule or shift meets their needs 62
Flextime and Flexplace
Allowed traditional flextime (can choose own start and end schedules) 45
Allowed daily flextime (able to make short-notice schedule changes) 84
Allowed to work compressed workweek some of the time 36
Allowed to work some regular paid hours at home 16
Reduced Time
Full-timers who could arrange to work part time in their current position if desired 37
Part-timers who could arrange to work full time in their current position if desired 92
Could arrange to work part year 23
Time Off
It’s not hard at all to take time off during the workday for personal or family matters 35
Receive at least five paid days for personal illness a year 62
Receive at least five paid days for sick child(ren) a year 48
Able to take time off for elder care without fear of losing income 53
Able to take time off for elder care without fear of losing job 70
Have paid vacation days 78
Average days of annual paid vacation days allowed 15
Receive paid holidays 77
Able to volunteer during work time without losing pay 32
New mothers (with children under the age of six) with access to parenting leave 99
New mothers (with children under the age of six) with access to parenting leave with partial or full pay 48
New fathers (with children under the age of six) with access to parenting leave 94
New fathers (with children under the age of six) with access to parenting leave with partial or full pay 56
Culture of Flexibility
Strongly or somewhat disagree that they have to choose between advancing in their jobs or devoting 58
attention to their family or personal lives
Strongly or somewhat disagree that employees who ask for flexibility are less likely to get ahead in 61
their jobs or careers
Supervisor support (summary of five questions on a scale from 1=low to 4=high) 3

Source: Families and Work Institute, 2008 National Study of the Changing Workforce.

The 2008 edition of the NSCW investigated, one’s needs. The second, Flextime and
for the first time, workers’ access to, use of, Flexplace, includes traditional flexibility
and demand for flexibility. The 2008 survey (control over when the workday begins and
explored twenty-eight different aspects of ends), daily flexibility (short-notice schedule
workplace flexibility, which can be grouped changes), compressed workweeks, and
into five categories (the categories are aligned working at home. Reduced Time, the third
with the labels used by business leaders). The category, includes, for full-timers, being able
first category, Choices in Managing Time, to work part time in their current position,
includes feeling control over one’s schedule and, for part-timers, being able to work full
and agreeing that the schedule or shift meets time in their current position, as well as to
1 44 T H E F UT UR E OF C HI LDRE N
 Workplace Flexibility: From Research to Action

work part year. The fourth option, Time Off, Choices in Managing Time
includes being able, without difficulty, to take Only 37 percent of employees overall report
time for personal or family matters, at least having “complete” or “a lot” of control over
five paid days off for personal illness, at least their work schedules. Perhaps surprisingly,
five paid days off to care for sick children, no differences exist between the responses of
time off for elder care without fear of losing men and women and between the responses
one’s job, paid vacation time, paid holiday of parents and nonparents in schedule con-
time off, time off for volunteering without trol, but there are differences among other
the loss of pay, and maternity and paternity groups. Older employees, more educated
leave. The final category, Culture of employees, part-time employees, employees
Flexibility, includes not having to choose working in the service sector, nonunionized
between advancement and devoting attention employees, managers and professionals, and
to family life, not jeopardizing advancement those with higher wages report having the
by asking for flexibility, and having overall greatest schedule control.
supervisor support when work-life issues
arise. Table 1 presents an overview of how Employees are more likely to feel that their
many employees have access to each of these schedule or shift meets their needs (62
percent) than they are to feel that they have
five types of flexibility.
control over their schedule (37 percent). Age
matters here. Matures (76 percent) clearly
In the following subsections we break down
experience a better fit in their schedule or
the overall employee responses from the
shifts than Generation Y employees (56
2008 NSCW, making comparisons within the
percent), as do managerial employees, non-
following employee groups: men and women;
union employees, and those living in a couple
parent and nonparents; employees of differ-
relationship.
ent ages—Generation Y (born between 1980
and 1995), Generation X (born between 1966
Flextime and Flexplace
and 1979), Baby Boomers (born between
Overall, 45 percent of employees report hav-
1946 and 1965), and Matures (born between
ing access to traditional flextime, defined as
1922 and 1945); employees with different being able to choose one’s own starting and
levels of education (high school or less, some ending times for work. Men (48 percent)
postsecondary education, four-year college are more likely to have access to traditional
degree or more); employees with full- and flextime than women (41 percent), as are
part-time jobs; employees from different more highly educated employees. Those with
industries (goods-producing and service a college degree or higher have much greater
industries); employees who are managerial access (57 percent) than those with a high
and professional and those who are not; school degree or less (37 percent). Employees
unionized and nonunionized employees; working in the service sector, salaried employ-
hourly and salaried employees; employees ees, employees in managerial positions, and
who are married or living with spouse or employees with higher wages have greater
partner and those who are not; and employ- access to traditional flextime than other
ees from various annual wage groups (less groups, but the gap in access is particularly
than $25,000, $25,000–$39,999, $40,000– large between nonunionized (49 percent)
$64,999, and $65,000 and more).7 and unionized employees (27 percent).
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Ellen Galinsky, Kelly Sakai, and Tyler Wigton

A far smaller share of employees (16 percent) allow compressed workweeks during the
is allowed the option of flexplace, defined as summer months, calling them “summer
working some regularly scheduled paid hours hours.” Thirty-six percent of the total work-
at home. Men, older employees, more highly force reports having access to compressed
educated employees, full-timers, employees workweeks. The only difference in access
in the service sector, managers, nonunion is between nonunionized and unionized
employees, salaried employees, those living employees (37 percent and 31 percent,
with their spouse or partners, and those with respectively).
the highest wages are the most likely to have
access to flexplace. Particularly large is the Reduced Time
gap between employees with the highest In investigating access to reduced time, the
wages (41 percent) and those with the lowest 2008 NSCW asked part-timers whether they
(4 percent). believe they could work full time in their
same position and full-timers whether they
In addition to asking about traditional flex- believe they could work part time in their
time and flexplace, the 2008 NSCW asked position if they wished to. The question raises
employees whether they can make changes a variety of constraints, including whether
to their starting and quitting times when employees could afford such changes in
last-minute problems arise and found that 84 workload and time commitments. Only 37
percent had such access. The groups with the percent of the full-time employees (who
most access to this short-notice daily flex- make up 82 percent of the study sample)
ibility are managers, nonunionized employ- report that they could arrange to reduce their
ees, salaried employees, better-educated hours to part time in their same position, if
employees, and higher-income employees. they wanted to, with women (41 percent)
Certainly, education affects the kind of jobs more likely than men (34 percent) to feel this
that employees have—and certain jobs lend way. Overall, because part-time jobs are more
themselves more easily to flexibility than likely to be filled by women (63 percent) than
others—but, as becomes clear when we men (37 percent), it may not be surprising
discuss other types of flexibility, less advan- that women might also take jobs where
taged employees are also less advantaged in reducing their time is a possibility.
having access to workplace flexibility in many
respects, although they may in fact have the Part-time work is sometimes referred to
greatest need for it. Experience at Families as a part-time ghetto from which escape is
and Work Institute reveals that more jobs difficult. But according to the 2008 NSCW
lend themselves to flexibility than employers survey, 92 percent of the part-time employ-
might initially imagine. ees (who make up 18 percent of the study
group) report that they can move into a
Compressed workweeks are defined as work- full-time schedule and maintain their current
ing a full-time schedule, but shifting some position if they want to.
of those hours into longer days to be able
to take more time off on other days—such The 2008 NSCW also asked full-time employ-
as being able to work four ten-hour days ees if they would prefer to work a part-time
a week instead of five eight-hour days or schedule, and part-time employees if they
for all or part of the year. Some employers would prefer a full-time schedule. A greater
1 46 T H E F UT UR E OF C HI LDRE N
 Workplace Flexibility: From Research to Action

percent, respectively). Other employees

who are most likely to be able to work part
As becomes clear when year are those in the service industry, hourly
we discuss other types of employees, employees not living with a
spouse or partner, and employees in jobs with
flexibility, less advantaged the lowest wages.
employees are also less
Time Off
advantaged in having access Overall, 35 percent of employees report that
to workplace flexibility in it is “not at all hard” to take time off during
the workday for personal or family matters.
many respects, although they Mature employees (51 percent) have much
may in fact have the greatest greater access to this kind of flexibility than
do Generation Y employees (29 percent). The
need for it.
kind of trust that permits time off during the
day appears to be earned by a longer tenure
in the workforce. Employees who live with
share of part-time employees (37 percent) a spouse or partner (38 percent) also have
report an interest in working a full-time greater access to time off during the workday
schedule than vice versa (20 percent). With than those who do not (30 percent).
37 percent of part-time employees wanting
to move to a full-time schedule and more The 2008 NSCW asked employees who
than nine in ten reporting being able to do were providing elder care if they were able
so, it is unclear why more part-timers don’t to take the time off they needed without
increase their hours. Obviously, other factors fear of losing income as a result. Overall, 53
must explain this discrepancy. Interestingly, percent report being able to do so, with men,
data from Families and Work Institute’s full-time employees, and those living with a
most recent nationally representative study spouse or partner having more access to this
of employers, the 2008 National Study of flexibility than their counterparts. Seventy
Employers, show that 44 percent of employ- percent of employees who have elder care
ers allow at least some of their employees to responsibilities report being able to take time
move back and forth between full- and part- off to perform such care without fear of los-
time positions while remaining at their same ing their job. Women and older employees
level.8 Thus employees may also be more opti- report having the greatest such access.
mistic about being able to make these changes
than employers are. Asked the extent to which their employers
support their contributing to their communi-
In exploring access to part-year work, the ties by volunteering, 32 percent of employees
2008 NSCW asked whether employees could report that they are able to volunteer during
arrange to work for only part of the year in work time without losing pay. Three differ-
their current job and found that 23 percent ences emerge among groups: men (36 percent)
have such access. Part-time employees are have greater access to paid leave for volun-
more likely than full-time employees to be teering than women (28 percent), nonunion
able to work part year (36 percent and 20 employees (35 percent) have more access than
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Ellen Galinsky, Kelly Sakai, and Tyler Wigton

unionized employees (19 percent), and groups of employees. For example, 62 per-
salaried employees (42 percent) have more cent of all employees report having at least
access than hourly employees (26 percent). five paid days off for personal illness, but the
share of full-timers (68 percent) with access
The 2008 NSCW also asked employees with a to paid sick time is much larger than the
child under the age of six about their experi- share of part-timers (37 percent). Parents
ences in taking time off after birth or adoption (67 percent) are more likely to have paid sick
(although these employees may not have time than nonparents (59 percent)—perhaps
worked for their current employers when the because parents look for jobs that provide
child was born). Nearly all women with this option. In addition, employees who are
children under the age of six (99 percent) in the Baby Boomer generation, in service
report having access to some maternity leave, industries, salaried, living with their spouse
which could also include the time off for or partner, and who have higher wages are
medical disability. The only significant the most likely to have paid sick time. One
differences in access are between full-time particular difference—that between union
(100 percent) and part-time (95 percent) and nonunion employees—is interesting.
employees and between those in the service
Nonunionized employees have greater access
industries (100 percent) and the goods-
to unpaid flexibility, but unionized employ-
producing industries (92 percent). When
ees have greater access to paid time off. For
asked whether either partial or full pay was
example, 72 percent of unionized employees
provided during this leave, the share report-
have at least five paid sick days, compared
ing access drops to 48 percent. Those most
with 60 percent of nonunionized employees.
likely to receive pay during leave are better-
educated, full-time, and salaried employees
More advantaged employees have the great-
and those who already have higher wages.
est access to paid sick days—only 55 percent
of employees with a high school degree or
Men and women with children under the age
less have access compared with 76 percent
of six have similar access to caregiving leave.
Overall, 94 percent of fathers have some of college-educated employees. Managers
access to leave after the birth or adoption and professionals, as well as employees with
of a child. The only difference is between higher wages, are also more likely to have
men who live with a spouse or partner (95 access to paid sick days than do less well-paid
percent) and men who don’t (76 percent). employees.
Overall, 56 percent of fathers report being
given some pay during leave, with older, A smaller share of employees has at least five
better-educated, and salaried employees and paid days for their children’s illnesses (48
those with higher wages more likely to have percent) than has such leave for their own
access to payment during leave than others. It illnesses (62 percent). The pattern of access
is likely, however, that men are using personal is similar to that for paid sick time, with
or vacation time for wages during caregiving more highly educated employees, full-timers,
leaves rather than paid paternity leave. employees in the service industries, manag-
ers and professionals, unionized employees,
For the most common forms of paid time salaried employees, and higher wage earners
off, large differences exist among different having the greatest access.
1 48 T H E F UT UR E OF C HI LDRE N
 Workplace Flexibility: From Research to Action

Overall, 78 percent of employees have access likely to feel the need to make that choice
to paid vacation days. Men (82 percent) have are less well-educated employees, full-timers,
greater access than do women (73 percent). and nonmanagers. In other words, the higher
Employees in the middle years (Generation X employees climb within their organizations,
and Baby Boomers) have greater access than the more likely they are to believe that they
those who are younger and older. Parents, have had to make tough choices.
better-educated employees, full-timers, man-
agers and professionals, salaried employees, Asked if they agree or disagree with the state-
employees living with a spouse or partner, and ment that employees who ask for flexibility
higher wage earners have the greatest access. are less likely to get ahead in their jobs, 61
percent disagree strongly or somewhat. The
On average, employees have 15.4 days of paid employees who are most likely to disagree are
vacation time a year. As has been the pattern, older employees, better-educated employees,
more advantaged employees have access to employees in the service industries, manag-
longer vacations. As an example, the highest- ers and professionals, salaried employees,
paid employees average 18.9 vacation days, employees living with a spouse or partner,
compared with 10.3 days for the lowest-paid and employees with higher wages.
employees.
To measure the final item in the Culture of
Similarly, 77 percent of the workforce has Flexibility—support that supervisors give
access to paid holidays. Those most likely to employees regarding work-life issues—we
have paid holidays are men, parents, better- created a scale of supervisor support that
educated employees, full-timers, manag- combines five variables.9 The scale runs from
ers and professionals, salaried employees, 1 to 4, with 1 representing low support and 4,
employees living with their spouse or partner, high support. Among all employees, the aver-
and higher-wage employees. age “score” for supervisor support is 3.3. The
only significant difference in support received
Culture of Flexibility from supervisors is between managers and
Some employees who have access to flexibil- professionals (3.4) and employees in other
ity believe that they would pay a price if they positions (3.2).
used it. To determine how widespread such
views are, the 2008 NSCW investigated the How Widespead Is the Use
extent to which employees think that they put of Flexibility?
their jobs in jeopardy if they use the flexibility Employers’ assumptions about the use of
they are offered. workplace flexibility can be negative and
strongly entrenched. Firm managers voice
Asked how strongly they agree or disagree concerns about flexibility at employer confer-
with the statement that they have to choose ences and events, typically saying that if they
between advancing in their jobs or devoting offer workplace flexibility, their employees
attention to their family or personal lives, 58 will take advantage of them by abusing it. “If
percent of employees disagree strongly or you give them an inch, they’ll take a mile”
somewhat. Thus, about two in five employees and “There will be nobody here when we
feel that they must make a choice between need them” are oft-repeated comments in
work and family life. Interestingly, those least such discussions.
VOL. 21 / NO. 2 / FALL 2011 149
Ellen Galinsky, Kelly Sakai, and Tyler Wigton

The 2008 NSCW is one of the first studies to vacation time, they take 12.9 days on aver-
investigate the usage of flexibility nationwide. age. Only 60 percent of employees use all of
Asked if they “sometimes” use a variety of the vacation time available to them in a year.
types of flexibility, 79 percent of employees Employees who receive at least five paid days
with access to traditional flextime report that off a year for personal illness on average took
they sometimes use it; 46 percent of those 1.9 days for personal illness over the past
with access to compressed workweeks report three months. Eighty-nine percent are satis-
that they sometimes use it; and 64 percent fied with the amount of time they are given.
of those allowed to work some of their paid
hours at home report that they sometimes Employees who are allowed to volunteer
do so. These types of arrangements, once during some of their paid hours spend 4.8
adopted, can become predictable so that hours a week on these activities—or the
employers and employees can know when equivalent of half a workday (though the 2008
and where employees are working. The study NSCW measure does not indicate whether
finds that employees make less use of short- these hours are on-the-job hours). Finally,
notice flextime: 19 percent never use it, 70 among employees who have given birth to or
percent use it once a month or less, and only adopted a child in the past six years, mothers
11 percent use it regularly. Likewise, only take 14.4 weeks off on average, and fathers
3 percent of those allowed to work mainly take 5.4 weeks (though these totals likely
at home do so, and 23 percent of those who include personal and vacation time).
could work part year adopt that schedule.
In sum, although a small number of employ-
Likewise employees take less time off than ees may take advantage of their employers
they are allowed. For example, although they by abusing the flexibility they are offered,
are offered, on average, 15.4 days of paid most appear to use it quite conservatively,

Figure 2. The Relationship between Job Engagement and Access to Flexibility*

100
High overall
90 access
80 Moderate overall
access
70
Low overall
60 57% 59% access
Percentage

50 51%

40 39%

30 30%
23%
20 19%
14%
10 10%

0
High overall Moderate overall Low overall
engagement engagement engagement

Source: Families and Work Institute, 2008 National Study of the Changing Workforce.
*This figure shows that the relationship between having access to flexibility and an employee’s level of engagement would occur by
chance 1 in 1,000 times.

1 50 T H E F UT UR E OF C HI LDRE N
 Workplace Flexibility: From Research to Action

indicating that employers’ fears about high Job Engagement

usage and abuse are largely unfounded.10 One workplace outcome about which
employers are deeply concerned is job
Does Access to Flexibility Make a engagement—which they see as a proxy
Difference in the Workplace? measure for productivity and business
Findings from the 2008 NSCW indicate success.13 As figure 2 shows, flexibility and
that employees want flexibility; that access engagement are positively linked.14 For
to it varies, with more advantaged employ- example, 30 percent of employees with high
ees being doubly advantaged in that they access to flexibility are highly engaged in
have greater access; and that overall usage is their jobs, compared with 19 percent of those
modest. To what extent do the NSCW data with moderate access and only 10 percent of
address the larger issue: does access to flex- those with low overall access. Similarly, 39
ibility matter—both for employers and for percent of employees with low access to
employees? Though correlations do not indi- flexibility have low overall job engagement,
cate causation, we believe our findings can compared with 23 percent of those with
lead the way to other studies that do assess moderate access and 14 percent with high
causation. Several studies are now under access. Interestingly, the relationship
between high, moderate, and low access to
way to assess employee outcomes such as job
flexibility and moderate job engagement is
engagement, retention, physical health, and
less systematic, a finding that warrants
well-being before and after employees are
further investigation by other researchers.
offered greater access to supportive supervi-
sors and flexibility (such as the studies funded
Job Satisfaction
by the National Institutes of Health and
Job satisfaction is also positively linked to
conducted by the Work, Family, and Health
access to flexibility (figure 3).15 Sixty percent
Network).11
of employees with high access to flexibility
are highly satisfied with their jobs, compared
To explore whether access to flexibility makes
with 44 percent of those with moderate
a difference in the workplace, we used a
access and only 22 percent of those with
global measure of access to thirteen types of low access.
flexibility included in the 2008 NSCW.12 We
conducted a series of analyses to determine Retention
how access to flexibility affects four work- Overall, according to the 2008 NSCW, 17
place outcomes of interest to employers and percent of employees are very likely and 23
employees: job engagement, job satisfaction, percent are somewhat likely to make a
job retention, and employee health. Our concerted effort to find a new job in the
focus was on access to, rather than use of, coming year. As the national economy slowly
flexibility, because analyses reveal that access recovers, many employers know that they
has a greater impact on workplace outcomes need to retain their best talent to thrive.
than usage. It appears that flexibility func- Among employees with high access to flexibil-
tions like an insurance policy—just knowing ity, 71 percent are very unlikely to try to find a
that flexibility is there for them, should they new job in the coming year, compared with 61
need to use it, appears to be reassuring to percent of those with moderate access and 45
employees. percent of those with low access (figure 4).16
VOL. 21 / NO. 2 / FALL 2011 151
 Ellen Galinsky, Kelly Sakai, and Tyler Wigton

Figure 3. The Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Access to Flexibility*

100
High overall
90 access
80 Moderate overall
access
70
Low overall
60 60% access
Percentage

50
44% 43%
40
34% 36%
30
27%
20 22% 22%
13%
10
0
High level of Moderate level of Low level of
job satisfaction job satisfaction job satisfaction

Source: Families and Work Institute, 2008 National Study of the Changing Workforce.
*This figure shows that the relationship between having access to flexibility and an employee’s level of job satisfaction would occur by
chance 1 in 1,000 times.

The inhospitable nature of an inflexible work Employee Health

environment has led some mothers to leave As escalating health care costs take a rising
successful jobs in a number of fields and toll on employers’ bottom line, the overall
return home to raise their children. In Opting health of the U.S. workforce is in decline.19
Out? Why Women Really Quit Careers and On average, less than one-third of employees
Head Home, Pamela Stone chronicles the (28 percent) say their overall health is
experiences of women who quit their jobs “excellent”—a 6-percentage-point drop since
because of a one-size-fits-all work environ- 2002. For that reason, the link between
ment and the unwillingness of corporations employee health and access to flexibility
(figure 5) is of particular concern, particularly
and managers to help women create other
because of the cost implications. Among
options.17 Only a few of these women had
employees with high access to flexibility, 39
originally planned to leave the workforce to
percent report being in excellent health,
raise children; most had expected to continue
compared with 29 percent of those with
with their careers while raising their families,
moderate access and only 20 percent of those
but found it very difficult to do. Phyllis Moen
with low access. Again, however, these
and Patricia Roehling similarly call attention relationships are complex and warrant further
to how the mystique “that Americans give investigation.
their all to paid labor in order to ‘make it’”
is at odds with the expectations of women An Experiment to Increase Access
today. In their book, The Career Mystique, to Flexibility
they illuminate the clash between the expec- The findings reported above as well as those
tation that employees will devote their entire from other articles in this volume reveal that
lives to their employer and the reality of life workplace flexibility can have positive ben-
among dual-earner families today.18 efits for employers, employees, and children.
1 52 T H E F UT UR E OF C HI LDRE N
 Workplace Flexibility: From Research to Action

Figure 4. The Relationship between Job Retention and Access to Flexibility*

100
High overall
90 access
80 Moderate overall
71% access
70
Low overall
60 61% access
Percentage

50
45%
40

30 31%
24%
20 18% 22%
17%
10 11%

0
Not at all likely to Somewhat likely to Very likely to
try to find new job try to find new job try to find new job
in next year in next year in next year

Source: Families and Work Institute, 2008 National Study of the Changing Workforce.
*This figure shows that the relationship between having access to flexibility and an employee’s likelihood of leaving his or her job in
the next year would occur by chance 1 in 1,000 times.

So the question is how to increase flexibility. Eight Principles of the Theory

There are two broad alternatives: a mandated of Change
approach, where change is required by law, The conceptual basis of When Work Works is
and a voluntary approach, where employers a theory of change developed by Families and
recognize their own self-interest in offering Work Institute after extensive consultations
workplace flexibility and thus increasingly with scholars and practitioners who have
provide it. successfully carried out change experiments.
Eight principles inform this theory of change.
In 2003, the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation chal-
The change theory’s first principle is to pro-
lenged Families and Work Institute to create
ceed in stages. Social and business change
and evaluate an experiment to increase the
takes time and requires a long-term strategy
voluntary adoption of workplace flexibility.
that unfolds slowly, with each stage contain-
The resulting project, called When Work
ing within itself the seeds of the next. The
Works, was launched later that same year
first stage is raising awareness; the second,
with funding from the Sloan Foundation. changing behaviors; and the third, engaging
The project, based on a strategy of commu- people in action.
nity involvement, was directed by Families
and Work Institute in partnership with the The second principle is to understand how
Institute for a Competitive Workforce (an the public frames the issue. Knowing in
affiliate of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce) advance how people see the issue helps
and the Twiga Foundation. In 2011 the target change for maximum effectiveness. It
Society for Human Resource Management also ensures against the inadvertent use of
partnered with Families and Work Institute language or issues that trigger unnecessary
to expand the project in new ways. opposition or backlash.
VOL. 21 / NO. 2 / FALL 2011 153
 Ellen Galinsky, Kelly Sakai, and Tyler Wigton

Figure 5. The Relationship between Overall Health and Access to Flexibility*

100
High overall
90 access
80 Moderate overall
access
70
Low overall
60 access
Percentage

50 52%
48%
43%
40 39%

30 29% 29%
20 20%
17% 17%
10
1% 2% 3%
0
Excellent Good Fair Poor
overall health overall health overall health overall health

Source: Families and Work Institute, 2008 National Study of the Changing Workforce.
*This figure shows that the relationship between having access to flexibility and an employee’s health would occur by chance 1 in
1,000 times.

The third principle of the theory of change is and opinions when they are looking into an
to focus on action. Changing attitudes is not unknown future. The final lesson is the
enough. It is important to be able to specify importance of tailoring different messages for
concrete steps when people say, “I get it. different groups. One size does not fit all.
What do you want me to do?”
The fifth principle is that unexpected mes-
The fourth principle, that messages are sengers also make a difference. Hearing
critical, incorporates several ancillary lessons. messages from the usual messengers (for
One is that unexpected messages can get example, advocates talking about the impor-
people’s attention. An unexpected message tance of their advocacy issue) is predictable
causes people to take in information precisely and easy to dismiss as self-interest. Hearing
because it is unexpected. Another related messages from unexpected messengers cre-
lesson is that the message should be based on ates increased attention and involvement.
solid research that spells out not only the
benefits of change, but also the costs of no The sixth principle is to target the people
change—of not taking action. People change who have the power to bring about change—
their opinions or actions when they see that to recognize, connect with, and assist them.
the benefits of change can outweigh the costs It is essential first to define both the decision
of no change. This kind of cost-benefit analysis makers and those who influence them and
is what employers call “making a business then to target both groups—typically, public
case.” A third related lesson is the need for policy makers, businesses, professionals, the
messages to project into the future. It is easier media, citizens, families, and employees—
for people to think about the present in new and finally to develop strategies to reach
ways and to move beyond everyday realities them effectively. Enabling people in diverse
1 54 T H E F UT UR E OF C HI LDRE N
 Workplace Flexibility: From Research to Action

sectors to feel connected to a large change project would have to do extensive outreach
initiative and to learn from their successes within communities.
and failures can be very sustaining.
When Work Works was launched as a pilot
The seventh principle of change is to take effort in eight communities in 2005. Having
advantage of opportunities as they arise. The a pilot year made it possible to get the kinks
release of a new study or some event that out before expanding—as the project has
captures the public’s attention could lead done every year thereafter. In 2011, the
to unexpected opportunities. It is critical to project is ongoing in twenty-eight commu-
take advantage of an issue that has already nities and statewide in five states. Each of
engaged the public or key constituencies to these communities and states is asked to take
show how it relates to the change effort. a series of strategies, which grow out of the
eight principles of the theory of change.
The final principle of the theory of change is
to plan in detail what outcomes to expect and Strategy 1: Create a Coalition of
to assess results and make adjustments all Community Leaders
along the way. Goals should be built into the Community leaders serve as champions for
process from the very beginning. Continuing workplace flexibility. This strategy targets the
to assess progress in reaching these goals people who have the power to bring about
allows for ongoing mid-course corrections change with the aim of recognizing, connect-
and a greater likelihood of achieving what is ing with, and assisting them. Coalitions of
hoped for and expected. leaders involve local “movers and shakers”
who represent diverse constituencies, such as
The Strategy of Change local and state government, business councils
To reach small and mid-sized employers and employer groups, media, nonprofits, and
(where most U.S. employees work) as well workforce development. The When Work
as large employers from all sectors—public, Works project provides these local leaders
private, for-profit, and not-for-profit—When with information, tools, and resources to be
Work Works took a local and worksite, or champions for creating better workplaces in
community involvement, strategy. The their communities so that they, in turn, can
strategy was chosen before the analyses from become expected and unexpected spokesper-
the 2008 NSCW became available, but in sons for change.
retrospect it could hardly have been better
suited to the survey results. In detailing who Strategy 2: Provide Educational Events
has most access to workplace flexibility, the within the Community
2008 NSCW survey described, again and This strategy speaks to the principle of
again, the more advantaged worker20—men, moving in stages from changing awareness
parents, married employees, employees who to changing behavior to engaging people in
are better educated, who are salaried, who action. The lead organization, in partner-
are managers and professionals, full-timers, ship with its coalition of community leaders,
employees in the service industries, and hosts a minimum of two educational events
those with higher wages. To reach less on effective and flexible workplaces. This
advantaged employees, who do not yet have business-to-business strategy integrates
and who most need access to flexibility, the workplace flexibility with existing business
VOL. 21 / NO. 2 / FALL 2011 155
Ellen Galinsky, Kelly Sakai, and Tyler Wigton

topics and presents it as a stand-alone live flexibility has grown, and the issue is now
or webinar event. The national When Work being reported less as a “nice-to-have” benefit
Works team has supported this educational in human-interest stories, and more as a nec-
effort by providing and suggesting resources essary business tool in hard-news stories.
and services that can be customized to meet
the issues and needs of a particular commu- Strategy 4: Implement the Sloan Awards
nity or audience. This strategy speaks to the principle of know-
ing what you want people to do. At the center
Strategy 3: Provide Media Outreach of When Work Works are the Sloan Awards.
within the Community Worksite-based awards make it possible
This strategy is linked to the principle of for organizations to be evaluated on their
knowing ahead of time how the public sees effective and flexible programs and policies
this issue. When the When Work Works as well as their organizational culture. The
initiative was launched in 2003, workplace Sloan Awards also allow When Work Works
flexibility was seen largely as a benefit either to evaluate its progress in bringing about
for employees—a perk that was given to an change.
individual (often a woman)—or for employ-
ers—a strategy to help businesses manage Employers are eligible to apply for the Sloan
the ebbs and flows of demand by having “on Awards if they have been in operation for at
call” employees who have little certainty least one year and have at least ten employ-
about their work schedules. ees who work from or report to the applying
worksite. Employers can reapply every year,
The challenge has been to reflect solid whether or not they win. The application
research—that flexibility can be a compo- process takes place in two rounds. In Round
nent of effective workplaces that can benefit I, employers self-nominate by completing a
employers, employees, and communities questionnaire about their worksite’s flexibility
alike. When Work Works has tackled this practices, policies, and the supportiveness of
challenge by sharing research data on the its work culture. Responses to the question-
potential links between workplace flexibility naire are then measured against norms that
and employers, employees, and communities. have been derived from Families and Work
Institute’s ongoing nationally representative
The partner communities provide a gateway study, the National Study of Employers. To
to local media outlets for targeted efforts, qualify for Round II, employers must rank in
especially because members of the local the top 20 percent of employers nationally.
business media often belong to the leader
coalitions and because the communities are In Round II employees are asked about their
responsible for outreach to local media. The access to and use of flexibility, the aspects of
When Work Works national team provides the workplace culture that support their abil-
support for these efforts and continues to ity to work flexibly, whether they experience
release research that keeps these issues in “jeopardy” when working flexibly, and their
the news. access to other ingredients of an effective
workplace. Of those surveyed, a minimum
Since When Work Works first went into oper- of 40 percent must respond (the average
ation, overall media attention to workplace response rate is 52 percent).
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 Workplace Flexibility: From Research to Action

On the basis of both the employer and support, sowing the seeds for a sustainable
employee questionnaires, an overall score is grassroots movement for workplace change.
computed, with two-thirds of the score based
on employees’ responses. There is no mini- Houston, Texas, for example, promoted
mum or maximum number of award recipi- workplace flexibility as a community solution
ents. All applying companies have access to to ease traffic congestion and lessen pollu-
technical assistance and receive an individu- tion under the leadership of former Mayor
alized benchmarking report that compares Bill White. By moving even a relatively small
their responses on the surveys with those of number of people off the roads during peak
employers nationally, of applicant companies, congestion times, Flex in the City was able
and of winners. If they participate in Round to improve commuting time, reduce traffic
II, their benchmarking report also compares congestion and pollution, and help employ-
their employee data with the 2008 NSCW. ers improve productivity as well. The mayor’s
All winning companies are written up in an office worked with the city’s mass transit and
annual Guide to Bold New Ideas for Making Commute Solutions programs, local employ-
Work Work, which describes and promotes ers, chambers of commerce, and the When
best practices in workplace flexibility. Work Works national team. This commu-
nity approach served the program well and
Strategy 5: Specify Outcomes and ensured its continuity after the mayor left
Measure Results office. Although no longer housed by the
The principle of detailing expected out- city government, the initiative, now called
comes, assessing results, and making changes Flexworks, continues to operate as a division
informs this strategy. Every year, When Work of TCT Enterprises, LLC, a management
Works sets goals and measures itself against consulting firm, and is poised to expand to
them, making changes as necessary. other areas of Texas.

Lessons Learned The second lesson is that change is most

Through the When Work Works project we likely when community leaders are com-
have learned important lessons about when mitted to improving workplaces to meet an
workplace change is most likely to occur. important community challenge. For local
efforts to take root and succeed, workplace
The first lesson is that key community lead- flexibility must be framed not just as an
ers across different sectors (business, media, employer issue that can yield business ben-
government) must direct the effort locally. efits, but also as a community issue—such as
A well-functioning coalition of key commu- reducing traffic congestion and air pollution,
nity leaders can ensure that the initiative is becoming green, attracting younger workers,
informed by diverse constituents; that it taps retaining older workers and helping them live
into networks that can lead to new opportu- better as they age, and responding to eco-
nities and synergies; and that it maintains a nomic challenges. One role of the leadership
continuum of support, keeping change going coalition is to help define the community case
during times of transition. By securing the for the initiative.
commitment of influential leaders, including
unexpected messengers, partner communi- In Dayton, Ohio, for example, flexibility
ties build a broad-based foundation of local is framed as a way for the community to
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Ellen Galinsky, Kelly Sakai, and Tyler Wigton

address its economic challenges. Located in When Work Works uses the Sloan Awards to
the nation’s “Rust Belt,” the Dayton region is assess—rigorously and comprehensively—
transitioning from a manufacturing-based to workplace flexibility programs, policies,
a knowledge-based economy. Effective and practices and culture, and the components
flexible workplaces are part of the commu- of an effective workplace. The award pro-
nity’s overall workforce development strategy gram, one of the few such evidence-based
to recruit and retain talent. Michigan, a state- programs in the country, draws on informa-
wide When Work Works partner, likewise tion about effective and flexible workplaces
focuses on flexibility as a strategy for attract- from Families and Work Institute’s nation-
ing new businesses to the state. ally representative studies of employers and
employees. The award is unique in being
The third lesson is that flexibility does worksite-based and reaching employers of
not stand alone but should be viewed as all sizes and industries—from mom-and-pop
one component of an effective workplace. shops to global companies. It also reaches
Research from Families and Work Institute employers with varying ethnic groups and
has found that flexibility is one element— income levels, as well as companies where
albeit an essential one—of an effective work- people have said flexibility is “not possible,”
place that benefits employers and employees. such as call centers or manufacturers.
Analysis of 2008 NSCW data has identified
six criteria of effective workplaces: job chal- The application process is reviewed annually
lenge and learning, a climate of respect, by subject-matter experts and modified to
autonomy, work-life fit and flexibility, eco- address emerging concerns. The criteria for
nomic security, and supervisor task support. the awards evolve in response to changing
conditions so that there is always “something
Because employers know that flexibility alone new.” In 2009 new questions included how
will not solve all their problems, flexibility has employers were helping employees manage
much more resonance in the context of other the recession; in 2010, how to help employ-
more accepted components of an effective ees increase their education and improve
workplace. In effect, making flexibility one their skills. In 2011 surveys are addressing
component of an effective workplace reflects the flexibility needs for members of the mili-
the principle in the theory of change that tary and their families.
action should be based on solid research evi-
dence. It also builds on a cost-benefit strat- The fifth lesson is that workplace awards
egy. When employers’ own company research alone are not sufficient to bring about
shows that certain components of an effective change. The awards’ effectiveness is magni-
workplace enhance their employee engage- fied because they are part of a continuing
ment and productivity, they can begin to see process that includes education, technical
flexibility in a similar light. assistance, and employer-to-employer com-
munication about promising practices and
The fourth lesson is that the effectiveness of how-to techniques. Applicants for a Sloan
the Sloan Awards grows out of the respect Award receive, in essence, a comprehensive
they earn from the employer community by tutorial on the different types of programs
providing quality assurance and by being and policies that employers might use to cre-
based on a rigorous application process. ate effective and flexible workplaces. Upon
1 58 T H E F UT UR E OF C HI LDRE N
 Workplace Flexibility: From Research to Action

completing the process, all applicants receive for example, is not consistently linked with
a custom benchmarking report, which com- increased employer flexibility. For four years
pares their employer and employee responses there was a consistent link between increases
to other Sloan Award applicants and winners in workplace flexibility and repeated appli-
as well as to nationally representative data. cations for the Sloan Awards. That correla-
An annual publication, the Guide to Bold tion made sense, on the hypothesis that the
New Ideas for Making Work Work, compiles process itself—the benchmarking reports,
promising practices from all of the award technical assistance, and the best-practice
winners and is a useful resource for any guide—helps reapplying employers improve.
employer, manager, or employee interested Then, in 2009–10 all applicant companies,
in innovative workplace initiatives. not just repeat applicants, saw an overall
increase. We hope other researchers will
Finally, what we have learned as these lessons investigate the possibilities, as we will.
have been absorbed and the change experi-
ment has matured is that workplace flex- In Conclusion
ibility has increased. When Work Works is When Work Works has offered Families and
not a controlled experimental study, in which Work Institute and its partners an unprece-
subjects are randomly assigned to different dented opportunity to explore the conditions
conditions and cause and effect can be rigor- under which workplaces can be improved by
ously determined. Many conditions beyond providing employees with greater access to
the project’s control—not least, the local, workplace flexibility. Initial data reveal that
national, and global economy—affect what increased flexibility can make work “work” for
happens to flexibility. Another complication increasing numbers of employers, employees,
is that the employers involved in the project employees’ families, and communities.
are self-selected and thus do not represent a
random group of employers within the popu- A perennial issue in research is how it can be
lation. These limitations make it impossible applied to practice. And a perennial issue in
to draw causal conclusions about whether practice is how to bring successful pilot
and how the When Work Works project has projects to scale and make them sustainable.
increased flexibility. That said, however, flex- Now in partnership with the Society for
ibility has increased over time among partici- Human Resource Management and poised to
pants in the project. Analysis of the data to spread even further, we believe that When
try to explain that increase more narrowly has Work Works offers many lessons that can be
been inconclusive. The length of time that adapted to other research-based change
communities are involved with this initiative, experiments.

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Ellen Galinsky, Kelly Sakai, and Tyler Wigton

Endnotes
1. Ken M. Nomaguchi, Melissa A. Milkie, and Suzanne M. Bianchi, “Time Strains and Psychological Well-
Being: Do Dual-Earner Mothers and Fathers Differ?” Journal of Family Issues 26, no. 6 (2005): 756–92.

2. Ibid.

3. Shelley J. Correll, Stephen Benard, and In Paik, “Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty?”
American Journal of Sociology 112, no. 5 (2007): 1297–1338.

4. Jennifer Glass, “Blessing or Curse? Work-Family Policies and Mothers’ Wage Growth over Time,” Work
and Occupations 31, no. 3 (2004): 367–94.

5. Michael Judiesch and Karen Lyness, “Left Behind? The Impact of Leaves of Absence on Managers’ Career
Successes,” Academy of Management Journal 42, no. 6 (1999): 641–51.

6. Scott Schieman and Paul Glavin, “Trouble at the Border? Gender, Flexible Work Conditions, and the
Work-Home Interface,” Social Problems 55, no. 4 (2008): 590–609.

7. Because our initial analyses reveal that having elder care is not predictive of the outcomes we look at in this
article, we exclude it from our analyses.

8. The 2008 National Study of Employers surveyed a representative national sample of 1,100 for-profit (77
percent of the sample) and nonprofit employers (23 percent of the sample) with fifty or more employees by
telephone interviews with human resource directors. Representatives of Harris Interactive conducted the
thirty-minute interviews from April 19 through August 13, 2007. Employers were selected from Dun &
Bradstreet lists using a stratified random sampling procedure in which selection was proportional to the
number of people employed by each company to ensure a large enough sample of large organizations. The
response rate for the study was 43 percent. The maximum sampling error (margin of error) for the study in
describing the total sample is approximately 2 percent.

9. The five variables included in the supervisor support measure are: 1) My supervisor or manager is fair and
doesn’t show favoritism in responding to employees’ personal or family needs; 2) My supervisor or manager
is responsive to my needs when I have family or personal business to take care of; 3) My supervisor or
manager is understanding when I talk about personal or family issues that affect my work; 4) I feel comfort-
able bringing up personal or family issues with my supervisor or manager; and 5) My supervisor or manager
really cares about the effect that work demands have on my personal and family life.

10. We analyzed the data for demographic differences in use, but there were few significant findings, so they
are not included in this report.

11. E. Kossek and J. Michel, “Flexible Work Schedules,” in Handbook of Industrial-Organizational Psychology,
vol. 1, edited by S. Zedeck (Washington: American Psychological Association, 2011), pp. 535–72.

12. The thirteen types of flexibility included in the global measure are: traditional flextime, short-notice flex-
time, flexplace, compressed workweek, lack of difficulty in taking time off, advance notice for overtime, at
least five paid sick days for oneself, at least five paid sick days for one’s child, part-time work if full time or
full-time work if part time, part-year work, overall schedule flexibility, a schedule or shift that meets one’s
needs, and lack of career jeopardy for using flexibility.

1 60 T HE F UT UR E OF C HI LDRE N
 Workplace Flexibility: From Research to Action

13. Steve Bates, “Getting Engaged,” HR Magazine 49, no. 2 (February 2004): 44–51.

14. This measure of job engagement asks employees how much they agree with the following statements: “I
look forward to going to work,” “I feel I am really a part of the group of people I work with,” and “When
I’m at work, time passes very quickly.” We also ask, “How often do you think about good things related to
your job when you’re busy doing something else?” Answers are averaged and then converted into a three-
point scale in which low overall engagement represents the bottom 25 percent of scores (bottom quartile),
moderate overall engagement represents the middle 50 percent of scores (quartiles 2 and 3), and high over-
all engagement represents the top 25 percent of scores (top quartile).

15. Our measure of job satisfaction includes three items: all in all, how satisfied are you with your job? know-
ing what you know now, if you had to decide all over again to take the job you now have, what would you
decide? and if a good friend of yours told you that he or she was interested in working in a job like yours for
your employer, what would you tell your friend? Job satisfaction was measured with an index scale, which
was converted into a three-point scale (low is the bottom 25 percent; moderate is the middle 50 percent;
high is the top 25 percent of scores).

16. Turnover intent was measured with one item (not at all likely, somewhat likely, very likely to look for a new
job with a new employer in the next year).

17. Pamela Stone, Opting Out? Why Women Really Quit Careers and Head Home (University of California
Press, 2007).

18. Phyllis Moen and Patricia Roehling, The Career Mystique (Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.,
2005), p. 6.

19. Kerstin Aumann and Ellen Galinsky, The State of Health in the American Workforce: Does Having an
Effective Workplace Matter? (New York: Families and Work Institute, 2009).

20. Joan Williams, Unbending Gender: Why Family and Work Conflict and What to Do about It (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2000).

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