1 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Human Anatomy (body parts) 7. Absorption

• Study of the structure and shape of the body part - Passage of digested products (food) through
and its parts membranes and into body fluids
• Intestine won’t absorb our food so the food we
1. Gross Anatomy eat should be digested to make it chemical
• Large structures (hikap & makit-an) because the chemical form of the food is what our
• Easily Observable (easily touched) body absorbs
• ex. muscles, ear, fingers, nose, eyes
8. Circulation
2. Microscopic Anatomy - Movement of substances throughout the body
• Structures are too small to be seen with the naked - circulation is very important aron ma distribute ang
eye nutrients and oxygen throughout the body
• ex. cells & tissues (can be viewed only with • Pag absorb ni intestine sa chemicals it will be
microscope) transferred to our blood.
ex. eating bread, pag digest sa bread nahimong
glocuse, and glocuse is absorbed, pag absorb
Human Physiology (function of the glocuse should be incorporated sa blood circulation
structure) so ang blood sugar maabot sa imo brain aron
• The science of the function of the most wondrous magamit sa brain.
of all structure
• the human body 9. Assimilation
- Changing absorbed substances into chemically
ex. different substances
anatomy - eyes -to assemble what we eat
physiology - function of the eyes
ex. food group
anatomy - heart - carbohydrates
physiology - function of the heart - proteins
- fats
10 Characteristics (processes) of life
(Absence of one could lead to medical problem) after we eat it will be digested, absorbed, and the
body will have to assemble them in order to make it
usable to our body example for tissue repair, growth,
1. Movement
or for sustenance
• self-initiated change in position, motion of internal
parts (brain nag bout na mo lihok ka)
- Voluntary - you initiated the motion 10. Excretion
- Involuntary - independent from the will of - removal of wastes

as our body uses oxygen, uses the food we eat, or

2. Responsiveness
as we metabolize, as the organs move there is
- Ability to sense changes and react
always the production of waste and that waste
should be removed from our body if not it would
3. Growth reach into toxic level and it is pathologic to human
- Increase in body size body

4. Reproduction ex. drinking water, after drinking water it absorbs

- DNA passed from parents to offspring and go to the blood but blood goes to the kidney
for filtration and the hugaw in your blood and extra
5. Respiration water should be removed by the kidney and the
- Obtaining oxygen (O2) from environment extra water plus the waste can be now converted
• humans are aerobic organisms and we need into urine. (waste product of blood should be
oxygen in order for our body to function excreted from our body)

ex. ato gikaon kay produced of hydrogen,

hydrogen is toxic and should be removed from our
body and need paresan og oxygen for it to be
removed from our body the result is sweating.
chemical composition of water is H2O, tangtangon
ang hydrogen combining it with oxygen so that it will
become water and will remove hydrogen through
sweating.

ex. by product of our cells is carbon, and carbon

cannot be removed from the body without oxygen
so paresan si carbon with oxygen aron ato ma
exhale in the form of carbon dioxide which is CO2

6. Digestion
- Chemically changing (breaking down) food
• food should be digested and broken down into a
form of chemicals so that it can be useful to our
body
 2 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1st Generalization About the Body 2. Cells - basic unit of the human body
3. Tissues
Structure
4. Organs
5. Organ Systems
1. The body is a large structural unit made
6. Organisms
up of many millions of smaller parts of four
kinds

a. cells
- smallest units that can maintain life and reproduce
themselves
- average-sized adult body consists of
100,000,000,000,000
- basic unit of the human body, everything in our
body starts from cells
- without cells, there is no human body
- biggest cell is egg

b. tissues
- organizations of many similar cells with non-living
intercellular substances between them
- four types: human body is created through the different level of
• connective tissue (cartilage, bones) organization, we are all the same because we
• epithelial tissue (skin - largest organ in our body, follow the same organization
considered organ because it has parts)
• muscle tissue (skeletal, smooth, cardiac)
9 Major Systems of the Human Body
• nervous tissue (compose your brain, spinal cord,
and nerves)
1. Skeletal System
- provide body's framework and protection
c. organ
- we cannot maintain upright position without
- an organization of several different kinds of tissues
skeleton
so arranged that together they can perform a
- there are portion in our skeletal system that
special function
protects our vital organs
- ex.
• brain has a function which generates ideas,
ex.
commands other parts of the body
• skull or cranium protects the soft and delicate
• kidney is made of different types of tissue its
organ called brain
function is regulation of water and electrolyte in our
• ribcage protects our lungs and heart
body

2. Muscular System
d. system
- muscles of our body
- an organization of varying numbers and kinds of
- posture and movement
organs so arranged that together they can perform
- way gamit ang skeleton og way muscles
complex functions for the body
- muscles provide us heat
- ex.
• respiratory system is made of several organs like
nose, trachea, bronchos, bronchioles, and the lungs. 3. Respiratory System
these are organs grouped together having complex - composed of trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, &
function like they take in oxygen and remove lungs
carbon dioxide - oxygenation
• digestive system composed of stomach, liver, - gas exchange
large intestine, small intestine which has different • bringing in oxygen from outside into your lungs
function. stomach is digestion of carbohydrates, pick up by blood and transports to different parts of
small intestine is digestion of protein and large the body while blood delivers oxygen at the same
intestine propells waste product of digestion time blood picks up carbon dioxide going back to
the lungs and release it in order to be exhaled
cells pundokon together becomes tissue, tissue
pundokon become an organ, several organs 4. Circulatory System
grouped together becomes a system - composed of heart, arteries (red carries
oxygenated blood), veins (blue carries
unoxygenated blood)
Levels Of Structural Organization
- blood circulation (the blood circulates because
the heart pumps)
6 six levels of structural organization
- atoms which is made of neutrons, electron, and
5. Digestive System
proton (basic structure of any matter in the earth)
- esophagus, stomach, the large and small intestine
pundokon si atom would result into formation of
- digestion, absorption, and excretion
molecules, and molecules form together results to
cells to tissues to organs, to organ systems and
pundokon tanan system results to organisms 6. Nervous System
- brain, spinal cord, nerves which is distributed to the
1. Atoms - basic structure of any matter in earth different parts of the body
- nerve impulse conduction (downward or upward)
 3 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ex. 2. Mediastinum
• you have an idea on your mind to slap your • midportion of the thoracic cavity
seatmate so the command will be sent from the • completely separated from the
brain to the spinal cord to your arms pleural cavities by fibrous tissue wall
• you felt a pain, the pain sensation is carried from • it contains:
the area where you are being hurt to your nerves, > heart
spinal cord, and going back to the brain > trachea and bronchi
> esophagus and thymus (esophagus is
7. Urinary System behind trachea, the tube connecting
- two kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra the mouth and stomach. the thymus is
- body fluid and electrolyte regulation part of the immune system)
ex. > various blood vessels, lymphatics,
• if there are excess fluids in your body, the kidney and nerves
will do something to remove the excess water. if
dehydrated, the kidney will do something to limit the
production of urine called fluid retention or
absorption
• electrolyte regulation because it regulates sa pag
labay or retain sa imo sodium, potassium,
magnesium, and calcium
- excretion

8. Endocrine
- Hormone regulation
- hormones are chemicals released in our body to
trigger another process
• female hormones are estrogen and progesterone,
if ma release si estrogen it would trigger fertility
• male hormones are androgen

9. Reproductive System
- reproduction and transmission of genetic
information
➢ Abdominopelvic Cavity
1. Abdominal portion:
2nd Generalization about the Body > liver (right upper quadrant)
Structure > gallbladder (beneath the liver, the
reservoir of the bile)
> stomach (left side)
2. Ventral & Dorsal Cavities- house the > pancreas (beneath the stomach)
numerous internal organs (viscera) of the body
> intestines (large portion of the
abdomen)
A. Ventral Cavity (located on the lower portion of > spleen (beneath the pancreas,
the body) graveyard of the dead red blood cells)
> kidneys and ureter
➢ Thoracic (Chest) Cavity - contains heart
and lungs

o 2 Specific Cavities found in Chest

Cavity

1. Pleural Cavities
• right pleural cavity contains the ring
lungs; left pleural contains the left lung
 4 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
2. Pelvic Portion
> bladder - every one if its component units consist of
> certain reproductive organs smaller parts arranged in an orderly and
(particularly the females because this is precise manner
where the uterus is located) ex. the arrangement of the cells has a
> part of large intestine (tumoy sa particular organization but sometimes it can
intestine) be disorganized and the consequence is the
production of a tumor cells

4. Body Structure change gradually over

years

- in general, body structures develop and grow

during the years before young adulthood

- after the period of young adulthood, they

age, and typically atrophy or gamay ang
muscle mass

Language of Anatomy (direction)

Directional Terms
B. Dorsal Cavity - pertains to the direction where the parts being
describe pertains to
➢ Cranial Cavity
- brain ➢ Superior or Cranial ⬆️
- the direction is going up
- towards the head end of the body (upper)
- head is superior to your shoulder

➢ Spinal Cavity
- spinal cord

➢ Inferior or Caudal ⬇️
- going down from the head
- away from the head
- lower
- wrist or hands is inferior to your shoulder

3rd & 4th Generalization about the Body

Structure

3. Organization is a vital structural

characteristic of body and all its parts

- cells, tissue, organs, system, organism is an

organization. the creation of the human body
is a well-planned organization, if the
organized structure of the body is being
disorganized it will result to disorders
 5 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

➢ Anterior or Ventral
- front ➢ Lateral ➡️
- your breast is anterior to your scapula - opposite of medial
- anterior view / front view - away from the midline of the body
ex.
axilla is lateral to the sternum
sternum is medial to your axilla

➢ Posterior or Dorsal
- back
- your scapula is posterior to your chest
ex. Xray
• anterior posterior view (front to back) ➢ Proximal (doul)
• posterior anterior (back to front) - toward or nearest the trunk or the point of
origin of a part
ex. knee is proximal to your femoral area
compared to your foot

➢ Medial or Mesial ⬅️
- from the outside towards the midline of the
body
➢ Distal
- away from or farthest from the trunk or the
point of origin of a part
ex.
our fingers are the most distal part from our
heart whereas axilla is proximal to our heart
 6 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Language of Anatomy (Planes) ➢ Transverse or Horizontal

- crosswise
Planes of Body (if ever we have to slice - dividing body or any of its part into upper
and lower sections
the body)

➢ Sagittal (divides the body from front to

back results in having the right and left
side)
- A lengthwise plane running from the front to
back
- divided the body of any parts into right and
left sides

why do we have to know these?

- because when we are about to encounter
disorders and when we get to see the ct scans or mri
view by using these we'll know how to see the ct
scans and mri views.

➢ Median
- sagittal plane through midline
- gitunga ang body katunga sa Katunga
- divides the body or any parts into right and
left halves

C. Abdominal Region
- Abdomen is divided into 9 imaginary regions

Right epigastric left

hypochondriac region hypochondriac
region region

right lumbar umbilical left lumbar

region region region

➢ Frontal or Coronal (divided the body from right iliac hypogastric left iliac
right to left results in having the front and region region region
back)
- lengthwise (head to feet)
- dividing the body or any parts into anterior
and posterior portion (divide from right to left)

right hypochondriac region - liver

epigastric region - main part of the stomach
(hyperacidity)
left hypochondriac region - spleen

right lumbar region- large intestine

umbilical region- navel, beneath or inside is the small
intestine
left lumbar region- mostly large intestine
 7 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
and the response is we drink because we
right iliac region- appendix are thirsty. we drink because we want to
hypogastric region- urinary bladder & large intestine replenish the water we lost to, in order to
(intestinal cramps) stay the same, in order to maintain the
left iliac region- same level of fluid status in our body.

4 Quadrant (use this in practice) 3. Homeostasis depends upon the:

- body's continually carrying on many activities
right upper quadrant left upper quadrant ex. di pwede manobra ang tubig sa ato
(RUQ) (LUQ) lawas so mangihi ta, but if madaot ang ato
kidney we can’t maintain the same
right lower quadrant left lower quadrant
(RLQ) (LLQ) - responding to the changes in its environment
ex. when it’s hot, we sweat. when it’s cold, we
D. Anatomical Position shiver
- an erect position of the body, which arms at sides,
and palms turned forward (supinated) - exchanging materials between its
environment and its cells
ex. release carbon dioxide and take in
oxygen to maintain the same, if we dont
exhale the carbon dioxide it will deposited in
our body and will become a toxic gas and we
all die

- metabolizing foods
ex. we maintain being healthy when
metabolize the food

- integrating all its activities

ex. organization is one important function of
our body, all the systems of our body should
work together and synchronized to maintain
the same condition of our body

Homeostasis:
➢ maintenance of relatively stable internal
Generalizations About Body Function conditions

1. Survival is the body's most important business - a dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance
- survival of itself and survival of the human
species - necessary for normal body functioning and
to sustain life
- we want to survive because we don’t want to
die
Homeostasis imbalance
- everything we are doing is all about survival ➢ a disturbance in homeostasis results in disease
ex. excretion of extract fluids, simple pagpangihi is
one way to maintain homeostasis, if we keep on
2. Survival depends upon the body's maintaining
drinking and not urinating, we will not be able to
or restoring homeostasis of its internal
maintain the homeostasis of our body fluids. but if
environment our kidney will become damaged there is now
- you will survive if you can maintain what’s disturbance in homeostasis because we keep on
normal in your internal body (homeostasis drinking and not urinating, we are retaining fluids in
balance / equilibrium) our body and ang resulta mo glow ta and we
cannot remove the toxin and eventually the body
Homeostasis will die
➢ Homoios (Greek) - the same
➢ Stasis – standing
ex. ni saka ang room temperature, your sweat Maintaining Homeostasis
is cause of homeostasis ✓ two main controlling system: endocrine &
nervous system
✓ "Standing or staying the same." ✓ All homeostatic control mechanisms have at
- even if there is a change in outside least three components: receptor, control
environment center, and effector

- responsiveness because we want to

maintain homeostasis Receptor (censors)
ex. sakto ang fluid sa atong body, but if ➢ Responds to changes in the environment
mo drop ang fluid because gi singot or (stimuli- needle prick) – detect changes that
dehydrated ma feel na sa ato body
could affect the equilibrium or balance
through thirst mechanism since naka
➢ Sends information to control center along an
sense ka na naay thirst and e interpret
nimo, thirst is early sign of dehydration afferent pathway (affect the control center)
 8 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Feedback Mechanisms
Negative feedback
➢ Includes most homeostatic control
mechanisms – the common intensity used
when there is imbalance in the homeostasis
➢ Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its
intensity – if you have pain sensation your
body is decreasing the pain intensity
➢ Works like a household thermostat

Receptor – skin

Once the receptor is activated by the needle the

receptor, it detects the changes & sends the
homeostasis
information through the control center along the
afferent pathway (carries the information from the
receptor to the brain)

➢ Control center (brain)

On the left, the environmental temperature drops
➢ Determines set point – determine how intense
and causes the body to become cold (homeostatic
the stimulus
imbalance), if we use the negative feedback the
➢ Analyzes information – where it should react or
body will decrease the intensity of coldness and
not
increase the body temperature through shivering
➢ Determines appropriate response (decides
(shivering > energy > heat) and back to normal
what to do to decrease the intensity &
homeostasis.
transfers the information to the effector
On the right, if there is increase in body
temperature, the negative feedback is to decrease
Effector (skeletal muscles) the body temp. and causes sweating (to lower the
body temp) once you sweat, gradually the body
➢ Provides a means for response to the stimulus
temp decrease and back to normal homeostasis.
➢ Information flows from control center to
effector along efferent pathway (carries the
information to take effect the actions from the
control center)

Stimulus – environmental temp & produces body

temp (detects by the receptor)
Control center- plans on what to do with your body
temp and after that your brain will form the task
planned to the effector through efferent pathway
Effector – response will be made
Muscles - performance of what the brain formulated
 9 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Positive feedback
➢ Rare in the human body
➢ Increases the original stimulus to push the
variable farther – increases the intensity
➢ Reaction occurs at a faster rate
➢ In the body, positive feedback occurs in
blood clotting and during the birth of a baby

Anatomy of the Cell

➢ Trillion of cells
➢ Cells are not all the same
➢ All cells share general structures

Nerve
cells

Cells are organized into three main regions

o Nucleus
o Cytoplasm
The fetus inside the womb pushed against the cervix o Plasma membrane
of the vaginal canal and it causes pain, this pain
sensation is transmitted through afferent pathway to
the control center which is the brain, as the brain
analyzes the pain sensation and realizes the pain is
necessary for the baby to be delivered, the brain will
determine that pain sensation must be increased.
Oxytocin is a hormone, it is carried from the pituitary
gland carried to uterine muscles to your
bloodstream (considered as the efferent pathway),
once the oxytocin reaches the uterine muscle it
produces its effect which is uterine muscular
contraction and the labor pain increases pushing
the baby for it to be delivered. Nucleus (nucle = kernel)
✓ Located near the center of the cell (every cell
of our body has nucleus)
4. Body functions are ultimately cell functions. (There ✓ Headquarter/control center of the cell
will be no tissue if there are no cells, and no organs if (commands and dictates every activity
no tissue) healthy cells = healthy body performed by the cells)
5. Body functions change gradually over the years ✓ Contains genetic material (DNA)
✓ Shape conforms to the shape of the cell
o Least efficient and effective during infancy ✓ A round or oval body that is surrounded by the
and old age nuclear envelope

Cells
➢ Cells are the building blocks/basic units of all
living things

History of the Cell

✓ Discovered by Robert Hooke in the late 1600s,
when he was looking through a crude
microscope at some plant tissue (cork)
Three regions:
✓ He saw some cubelike structures that o Nuclear membrane/envelope
reminded him of the long rows of monk’s o Nucleolus (baby/jr. nucleus)
rooms (cells) at the monastery, and thus o Chromatin
named these structures as cells.
 10 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA double helix

Chromatin (looks like noodles or thread)
strand)
✓ The blueprint (hair color, skin type, internal ✓ A loose network of bumpy threads composed
characteristics, etc) that contains all the of DNA and protein
instructions needed for building the whole ✓ Location: scattered throughout the inside of
body – dictates how you should be created nucleus
(half from the mother, half from the father) ✓ Cells have particular time to divide, transforms
into two to progress and multiply (every type
✓ Has the instructions for building proteins of cell has its time when to divide)
(Split ends to ingrown we are made of ✓ Chromatin condenses to form dense, rod-like
proteins, in every DNA here is protein) bodies called chromosomes in preparation for
cell division when the cell divides
✓ Absolutely necessary for cell reproduction
Chromatin - If our cells is not ready to divide
(genetic information from the mother and
father transfer through DNA) When it is time to divide the chromatin condense
(mo gahi) and it will become chromosomes,
because the structure of the chromosomes
makes it easier to divide into 2 equal parts. The
genetic information of cell 1 is the same in cell 2

Nucleoli (plural form of nucleolus/little nuclei)

✓ Refers to one or more small, dark-staining,
essentially round bodies
✓ Center of the nucleus

Plasma Membrane
✓ Fragile, transparent barrier for cell contents
(putos)
✓ Forms the outer cell boundary (sabaw sa
bowl, ang bowl ang plasma membrane &
aron ang cell content di manggawas)
✓ Composed of a lipid bilayer (oil) containing
proteins (two walls - inner & outer)

Nuclear Envelope/Nuclear Membrane

✓ Covers of the nucleus
✓ Double membrane (2 walls) barrier of the
nucleus – inner and outer walls
✓ Consists of a double phospholipid (protein,
glucose, and fats) membrane
✓ Contain nuclear pores that allow for
exchange of material with the rest of the cell
(not totally close allow movement of nutrients
from in to out or out to in / transport channel)
 11 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Hydrophilic (Water-loving) Heads (first layer of Role of proteins in the Plasma Membrance
the bilayer lipid membrane)
➢ Responsible for specialized membrane
✓ Polar (negatively charged) heads of functions:
phospholipid molecules ✓ Acts as Enzymes (chemical that trigger
✓ Attracted to water (gusto suyopon ang water) another chemical reaction to take place)
✓ Lie on both the inner lining of the cell
membrane & outer surfaces of the membrane ✓ Receptors for hormones or other chemical
✓ Mostly composed of sugar (sugar attracts messengers (in this example the chemical
water) messenger is the carbohydrate chains –
the landing area)

✓ Transport as channels or carriers of the wall

Hydrophobic (Water-hating) Tails

✓ Nonpolar (positively charged) tails of
phospholipid molecules
✓ Tails are at the center
✓ Avoid water – (pushes water away) Role of sugars
✓ Line up in the center of the plasma membrane ✓ Glycoproteins are branched sugars attached
(preventing the influx of the water into or out to proteins that abut the extracellular space
of the plasma membrane) there is balance in
your cytoplasmic membrane ✓ Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich area
✓ Also contains protein, cholesterol, and on the cell’s surface
glycoproteins
✓ Lipids (fats) hates water, hydrophobic mostly
composed of cholesterol

Plasma Membrane Specializations

Microvilli
✓ Finger-like projections that increase surface
area for absorption

(Heads more on sugar, tails more on cholesterol)

 12 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
✓ The larger its surface area, the more material Desmosomes (Macula Adherens) (tie wire)
can move through the membrane per minute
✓ A cell structure specialized for cell-to-cell
(mas dakoa ng surface area that the
adhesion (bind cells together to survive binat)
chemical is being in contact with, mas
✓ Help to resist shearing forces (friction and pull)
daghan ang ma absorb)
and are found in simple and stratified
squamous epithelium (found in our skin)
Bisan unsaon og kusi sa imo skin, dili malangkat
imo tissues because the cells are being higot pag
ayo through your desmosomes

(When you stretch, mas lapad sya, and if mas lapad

sya mas daghan maabsorb and chemicals. If we
have microvilli, it increases the surface area for
absorption of that certain tissue)
✓ Microvilli tend to accelerate absorption (mas
paspas ang pag absorb)
✓ The plasma membrane of cells specializing in
absorption have numerous microvilli (our Gap Junctions
body have particular tissues specially
designed for absorption) ✓ They directly connect the cytoplasm of two
o Ex: intestine (created for absorption) cells, which allows various molecules, ions and
electrical impulses to directly pass through a
regulated gate between cells.
✓ More on communication because it allows
various movements of to and from one cells to
another (buho between two cells)

Coronal section – frontal cut

sagittal – lengthwise
dissection of intestine
dividing the intestine
right into left and right
portion

Membrane Junctions
Tight Junctions (are like buttons)
✓ Are the closely associated areas of two cells
whose membranes join together forming a
virtually impermeable barrier to fluid
✓ They hold, connect, join two cells together
(mabungkag og binaton)

Gap Junctions
Tight Junction Desmosomes
 13 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Cytoplasm c) Pigments such as melanin seen in skin

(squamous epithelium) & hair cells
➢ Cellular material outside the nucleus and Melanin are the pigments that gives skin
inside the plasma membrane and hair colors.
Dark skin = dark hair (many melanins)

d) Mucus & other secretory products

Found in respiratory and gastro intestinal
tract

e) Various types of crystals

3 major elements:

1. Cytosol (fluid)
✓ Fluid that suspends other elements
✓ The fluid in which the organelles of the
cytoplasm are suspended;
✓ Also called the ground substance of the cell –
anything inside your cell is located/suspended Cytoplasmic Organelles
in your cytosol ➢ Little organs found in cells floating in
Plasma membrane – bowl of the mami noodles with cytoplasm
hard-boiled egg o Mitochondria
o Ribosomes
Nucleus – Hard-boiled egg o Endoplasmic Reticulum
Cytosol – sabaw of the mami where nag lutaw ang o Golgi Apparatus
other elements or parts of the cell o Lysosomes
o Peroxisomes
o Cytoskeleton
2. Organelles o Centrioles

✓ Metabolic machinery of the cell

Small machines are very important for the cells to
go on with its day-to-day activities

3. Inclusions (pakapin)
✓ Non-functioning units (lutaw2 lang)

✓ Chemical substances that may or may not be

present; most are stored nutrients or cell
products; includes:

a) Lipid droplets common in fat cells

Ex. Adipose tissues in your buyay is made
Mitochondria (mitos = thread)
of fat cells and when looked through the ✓ Singular: Mitochondrion
microscope you will find the fat droplets ✓ Tiny threadlike or sausage shaped organelles
✓ Usually they are rod-shaped, however they
b) Glycogen granules abundant in liver cells can be round.
Only found in liver cells – extra glucose > ✓ In living things, they squirm, lengthen, and
blood sugar > extra blood sugar > change shape almost continuously
glycogen > deposited into liver cells
When you don’t eat and nahurot na imo
blood sugar, we need blood sugar, then
your body withdraws your glycogen to
make it blood glucose from our liver
 14 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
✓ Consists of a double membrane (railroad
track), equal to 2 plasma membranes placed
side by side, separated by a space
(intermembrane space)
a. Outer membrane – smooth and
featureless (wall, no any other structure)
b. Inner membrane – has shelflike protrusions
called cristae (crests) (pilo or lukot)

✓ Contain enzymes that oxidize foodstuffs to

produce cellular energy – adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) (process what we eat using
oxygen and break it down into a simple form
of chemicals that yield energy ATP)
Our human energy is the energy or cells have
and cells gets energy in the form of ATP It is the ribosomes that makes the ER rough
Ex. The glucose we eat is broken down into
simple forms and the end product is the ATP and ✓ They are the protein builders / synthesizers of
the ATP is the free source of energy for our cells the cell
and the mitochondria can only transform when our cells replicate, the DNA has the
foodstuff into ATP blueprints but the DNA don’t go out the nucleus,
the RNA copies the code (exact carbon copy)
✓ Referred as the “powerhouse of the cell” – from DNA, then RNA go inside the ribosomes and
produces and source of energy ribosomes reads the code and prepares and
arranges the series of proteins from what is written
in the code

✓ They are like construction guys who connect

one amino acid at a time and build long
chains

Ribosomes
✓ Tiny, bilobed, dark-stained bodies made of
protein and one variety of RNA (ribosomal
RNA)

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

✓ Membranous system of tubules that extends
throughout the cytoplasm

✓ Found in two locations:

a. Floating freely is cytoplasm (cytosol)
b. Attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum

✓ The ER is continuous with the nuclear

envelope, forming a system of channels for
 15 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
the transport of cellular substance (protein) 4. The transport vesicle buds from the
from one part of the cell to another rough ER and travels to the Golgi
apparatus for further processing.

Exist in 2 forms:
b. Smooth ER
a. Rough ER
- It has no function in protein synthesis
- Studded with ribosomes (namilit ang
- It is a site for steroid and lipid synthesis, lipid
ribosomes)
metabolism, and drug detoxification (filter
- Tubules of rough ER provide an area for
outs extra chemicals from the meds or drugs)
storage and transport of the proteins made
✓ ER is the packaging and transport system of
on the ribosomes to other cell areas
all cell
Once ribosomes arranged the proteins it stands
in the rough ER waiting for the time these
proteins to be transported

From the ER the protein being packaged is now

transported from ER to Golgi Apparatus

Golgi Apparatus
✓ Stacks of flattened sacs with bulbous ends
and associated small vesicles
- External faces synthesized phospholipids and ✓ Found close to nucleus
cholesterol

1. As the proteins is synthesized on the

ribosome, it migrates into the rough
ER tunnel system
2. In the tunnel, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains
may be attached to the protein
(forming a glycoprotein)
3. Protein is packaged in a tiny
membranous sac called a transport
vesicle.
 16 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
✓ Within its cisterns, the protein delivered from
the rough ER are modified, segregated, and
packaged into membranous vesicles
✓ Packaging and repackaging

Peroxisomes
✓ Small lysosomes-like membranous sacs
containing oxidase (oxygen) enzymes that
detoxify alcohol, hydrogen, peroxide, and
Ribosomes – tita tua sa abroad magpada og other harmful chemicals
package ✓ Liver

Rough ER – lbc
Golgi Apparatus – ang pamilya na gipadalhan, ang
mo hatag sa mga sud sa package
Vesicles produced will ultimately:
- Are incorporated into the plasma membrane
(1) – become part of the PM
- Become secretory vesicles that release their
contents from the cells (2)
- Become lysozomes (3)

Centrioles (for cell division in mitosis)

✓ Paired cylindrical bodies lie at right angles to
each other close to the nucleus

Lysozomes (nangka)
✓ One of the vesicles may become lysosomes
✓ Various-sized membranous sacs containing
powerful digestive enzymes – chemical that
will digest everything that gets in contact with ✓ As part of the centrosome, they direct the
it formation of the miotic spindle during cell
✓ A product of the packaging activities of the division
Golgi apparatus ✓ Form the base of cilia and flagella
✓ It contains acid hydrolases to digest worn-out
cell organelles and foreign substances that
enter the cell
✓ Have the capacity of total cell destruction if
ruptured
✓ Suicide sacs / cleaner of the cells
 17 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Cytoskeleton (skeleton of the cell)

✓ Provide cellular support by forming an internal
scaffolding – maintain the shape of the cells
and support the structure (all over the place)
✓ Function also in intracellular transport
✓ Has 3 different types:
a. Microfilament
b. Intermediate filament
c. Microtubules

Microfilaments:
➢ Ribbon or cordlike elements
Cellular Projections
➢ Formed largely of actin (a contractile
protein), thus are important in cell mobility ✓ Ni sulpot sa cells particularly in cytoplasm
(elastic and allows the cell to change shape), ✓ Not found in all cells (stomach, sperm cells,
particularly muscle cells – rubber band in the respiratory lining)
scaffolding ✓ Use for movements

➢ Cilia (traps the abog – buhok)

- Moves materials across cell surface (upward)

Intermediate Filament:
➢ Proteinaceous cytoskeletal elements that act
as internal guy wires to resist mechanical
(pulling) forces acting on cells (abundant in
the skin) – tie wire or alambre

➢ Flagellum
- Propels the cells (move the cell itself) ikog

Microtubules:
➢ Slender tubules formed of proteins called
tubulins
➢ They organize the cytoskeleton and formed
the spindle during cell division
➢ Formed the internal structure of the centrioles
and help determine cell shape
➢ Gagmay na tubo
 18 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Cell Transport Mechanisms and ➢ Diffusing substances spread throughout their

available space until their concentration
Permeability reach equilibrium

Permeability
➢ The ability to allow nutrients to enter the cell
but keeps out undesirable substance
• Only those who are needed inside the
cells are allowed
➢ Valuable cell proteins and other substances
are kept within the cell – not allowed to get
out
➢ Excreta or wastes pass to the exterior –
carbon dioxide & some by products

➢ This movement does not require cellular

energy
➢ The particles are said to follow their
concentration gradient- from higher
concentration to lower concentration

Passive Processes
➢ Movement of molecules through the plasma
membrane that does not require energy
output by the cell
➢ The 2 important passive processes of
membrane transport are diffusion and osmosis

Diffusion
➢ It is the constant movement of particles from a
region of relatively high concentration to one
➢ When substances diffuse through a
of lower concentration
membrane, passage is limited to those
Solutes – green particles
particles small enough to pass through spaces
Solvent – fluids
between molecules in the membrane

students

classroom Facilitated Diffusion

✓ It is the movement of materials across the
plasma membrane in the direction of the
concentration gradient using transporters to
As the students (solute) are dismissed they move the material at a faster rate – still no
spread from the higher concentration to energy used
lower concentration (daghan to gagmay)
kay manggawas naman sa classroom until
they become equal
 19 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Protein carriers located in cell wall
➢ In clinical practice, it describes the tendency
of a solution to draw water into it
➢ This force is directly related to concentration:
the higher the concentration of a solution, the
greater its tendency to draw water in it

Solution outside
the RBC is higher The solution
Osmosis than on the inside outside is lesser
➢ The diffusion/ movement of water through a Equal osmotic compared to the
semi-permeable membrane (allows pressure – no inside
movement of water
movement of molecules but only those who
are small enough can pass through)
➢ The water molecules move from an area
where there are more of them to an area
where there are fewer of them (mo balhin ang
water molecule gkan sa daghan og water
ngadto sa less og water)

Filtration
✓ It is the passage of water containing dissolved
materials through a membrane as a result of
mechanical ("pushing") force on one side
➢ the solvent (water molecules) moves from an
area of lower solute concentration to an area
of higher solute concentration

Active Processes
Osmotic Pressure
✓ Movement of molecules across membrane
➢ The force needed to stop the flow
that requires energy (ATP)
(counteract) of water by osmosis
 20 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Active Transport ➢ Material taken into the cell is first enclosed in
a vesicle made from plasma membrane and
➢ Movement of small solute particles into or out
is later destroyed by lysosomes
of the cell opposite the direction in which they
would normally flow by diffusion
moves from an area of low concentration to
an area with higher concentration
➢ Since this movement goes against the natural
flow of particles, it requires energy
➢ It also requires protein in the cell membrane
that act as transporter for the particles

Pinocytosis (vesicular transport)

➢ The cell engulfs droplets of fluid (cell drinking)
➢ This is a way for large protein molecules in
suspension to travel into the cell

Types of Active Method

Bulk Transport
- Large amounts of material being
moved/transported
Vesicular Transport
- Movements of particles in small bubbles or
vesicles

➢ Active transport example: sodium-potassium

pump
➢ Necessary for nerve impulses conduction
- Sodium is transported out of the cell
- Potassium is transported into the cell

Endocytosis (inside)
✓ A term that describes bulk movement of
materials into the cell

Phagocytosis (cell eating)

➢ A relatively large particles are engulfed (eat) Exocytosis (outside)
by the plasma membrane and moved into ➢ Transport of bulk amounts of materials out of
the cell (engulfed) cell using vesicles
➢ Certain white blood cell (pacman) carries out ➢ A vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane
phagocytosis to rid the body of foreign then ruptures and releases its contents
material and dead cells
 21 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
➢ Nuclear envelope and nuclei are intact and
visible

3 Distinct Periods (preparation of DNA info)

Vesicles > attached > expels G1: The centrioles begin replicating
S: DNA is replicated
G2: Final preparations for mitosis are completed and
centrioles finish replicating (chromatin are
transformed & centriole is on the right position to
Eat (engulfed) and then
release (detached) enzymes start the mitosis)

Events of Cell Division

Mitosis (controls cell division)
➢ The division of the copied DNA of the mother
cell to 2 daughter cells
➢ Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei
with exactly the same genes as the mother
nucleus

Prophase
➢ First part of cell division
➢ Chromatin condenses, forming bar-like
chromosomes
(chromo= colored; soma= body)

Stages:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase

Interphase
➢ Not part of mitosis (no cell division occurs)-
inactive phase ➢ Each duplicated chromosomes consist of 2
➢ Cell carries out normal metabolic activities identical threads (sister chromatids) held
and growth –cells not yet preparing for division together at the centromere
➢ DNA is in the form of chromatin
 22 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
➢ Chromosomes have attached randomly to the
2 spindle fibers by their centromeres
(centromeres migrate to the poles)

➢ As the chromosomes appear, the nucleoli

disappear – nucleus and nucleoli start to
bungkag
➢ The 2 centromeres separate from one another
➢ Kinetochore microtubules pull on each
and begin to move towards opposite sides of
chromosome from both poles in a tug-of-war
the cell, directing the assembly of mitotic
drawing the chromosomes to the center
spindle (made of microtubules) between them
(equator) of the cell)
as they move

Late Prophase
➢ The nuclear envelope breaks up, allowing the
spindle to interact with the chromosomes

Interphase – inactive, complete nuclear envelope (nucleolus) and

centrioles are still located at the right angle di mabuwag ni
nucleus kay involve ni sa mitosis

Early Prophase – condenses to become chromosomes

Late Prophase – spindle fibers attached to the chromosomes and

starting to pull both directions of the chromosomes
The nuclear membrane mabungkag, since wala nay walls mag
cover sa mga chromosomes, kadtong mga ikog (thread-like
structure) nga giguyod ni centrioles is now free to attach itself
to the chromosomes in the centromere. The attachment of
the spindles is only in the centromere, in every chromosome
attached are 2 spindle fiber
 23 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Metaphase Telophase
➢ Chromosomes cluster and become aligned at ➢ Like prophase in reverse – chromosomes
the metaphase plate (the center of the disintegrate to become chromatin
spindle midway between the centrioles) so ➢ Identical chromosomes at opposite ends of
that a straight line of chromosomes is seen the cell uncoil to become threadlike
chromatin
➢ Nuclear envelope forms after spindle fibers
disappear – nucleus and nucleolus formed
➢ The spindle breaks down and disappears

➢ Spindle from centromeres is attached to

chromosomes that are aligned in the center of
the cell

➢ A nuclear envelope form around each

chromatin mass
➢ Nucleoli appear in each of the daughter
nuclei – 2 nuclei in one cytoplasm
➢ A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins to
form

Pag sugod og bira sa

late prophase, ma-align
na gani sa center ang
chromosomes mao na
ang metaphase

Anaphase (separation of 2 sister chromatids)

➢ The shortest phase of mitosis
➢ It begins abruptly as the centromeres splits
simultaneously
➢ Chromatids, now called chromosomes, begin
to move slowly apart, drawn toward the
opposite ends of the cell
➢ Chromosomes are pulled by their half-
Cytokinesis
centromeres, with their arms dangling behind
them ➢ Division of the cytoplasm
➢ Ends when chromosome movement ends ➢ Begins when mitosis is near completion during
once the chromosomes get to the centrioles late anaphase and completes during
telophase
➢ Cleavage furrow squeezes or pinches the
original cytoplasmic mass into 2 parts
 24 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
➢ Formation of 2 daughter cells, each of which Tissues (formation of same type of
is smaller and has less cytoplasm than the
mother cell, but is genetically identical to it –
cells)
separate two daughter cells tungaon ang Protein Synthesis (takes place before tissues)
plasma membrane and cytoplasm
➢ The daughter cells grow and carry normal cell Gene (segment / part of the DNA)
activities until it is their turn to divide (later
➢ A DNA segment that carries a blueprint for
become the mother cells) – each and every
building one protein
tissue has its time when to divide
➢ DNA carries a lot of genes which dictates how
the protein of the body produces

➢ It is the genes that carry the messages for the

development of particular inherited
characteristics
➢ They do so by directing the manufacture of
protein in the cells

Metaphase – alignment of chromosomes at the

center plate Protein has many functions
Anaphase – separation of two sister chromatids and ➢ Fibrous (structural) building materials for cells
being pulled towards the opposite direction ➢ Globular (functional) act as enzymes
Telophase – associated with cytokinesis – the (biological catalyst)
formation again of the nucleus on both sides ▪ DNA information is coded into a sequence of
forming two nuclei with one cytoplasm bases (what ribosomes reads)

Cyto (cell) kinesis (movement) – cytoplasm is

divided into two – two daughter cells should move
into two opposite direction to separate or divide the
cytoplasm
 25 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
▪ A sequence of three bases (triplet) codes for Types:
an amino acid
➢ A blueprint in a DNA is only a guide
Ex.
➢ The information it contains must be interpreted
DNA sequence of AAA specifies the amino
by appropriate actions
acid phenylalanine
✓ RNA is the substance needed for these steps

DNA – plan; RNA- work the plan

Codes:
DNA RNA
Cytosine (C) Guanine (G)

Guanine (G) Cytosine (C)

Adenine (A) Uracil (U)

Thymine (T) Adenine (A)

➢ Each DNA triplet corresponds to an mRNA

codon
➢ If DNA sequence is AAT-CGT-TCG, then the
mRNA corresponding codons are UUA-GCA-
AGC
How does RNA differ from DNA?
✓ RNA is single-stranded (DNA double) ▪ The process begins with the transfer of
✓ RNA contains ribose sugar instead of information from DNA to RNA in the nucleus –
deoxyribose (DNA deoxy) TRANSCRIPTION (RNA can get between DNA)
✓ RNA contains uracil (U) base instead of
thymine (T) (DNA thymine)

Transcription
- transfer of information from DNA’s base
sequence to the complimentary base
sequence of mRNA
- DNA is the template for transcription; mRNA is
the product

Role of RNA
➢ RNA (ribonucleic acid)
➢ It is essential for protein synthesis but not part
of the chromosomes
 26 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Translation
- Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to
an amino acid sequence
> amino acids are the building blocks of
proteins
- Occurs in the cytoplasm and involves three
major varieties of RNA:

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

- Carries the instructions for building a protein
from the nucleus to the ribosome

Body Tissues
- Are group cells similar in structure, arranged
in characteristics pattern, and specialized for
the performance of specific task
Transfer RNA (tRNA) (reads the complimentary)
Histology
- Transfers appropriate amino acids to the
- Study of tissues
ribosomes for building the protein
4 Primary Types:
1. Epithelial – tissue covers surfaces (skin), lines
cavities (mouth/intestine), and forms glands
(wet glands/salivary glands)
2. Connective – supports and forms the
framework of all parts of the body (connects
body parts)
3. Muscle – contracts and produces movement
4. Nervous – conducts nerve impulses (brain >
muscles)

Epithelial Tissues
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – inside ribosomes Found in different areas

- Helps form the ribosomes where proteins are - Body coverings (skin)
built (composed ribosomes) - Body linings of the cavities (mouth)
- Glandular tissue (Sweat glands)

Functions
- Protection (body coverings in your skin
defends infection)
- Absorption (lining of your intestines, good in
absorption)
- Filtration (tissues found in kidneys specializes in
filtrating waste product from the blood)
- Secretion (glandular tissues used in secreting,
release fluids like sweat glands or oil glands)

Characteristics (hallmark)
- Cells fit closely together (no space in
between)
 27 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
- Tissue layer always has one free surface (free Simple epithelium
ends)
- Simple squamous (absorption)
- The lower surface is bound by a basement
- Single layer of flat cells
membrane (attached the epithelium to the
- Usually forms membrane
other types of tissues) ex. It attaches our skin
• Lines body cavities
to the muscles or fats
• Lines lungs and capillaries
- Avascular (have no blood supply/vessels)
- Regenerate easily if well nourished

Classification of Epithelium Simple cuboidal

1. Number of cell layers - Single layer of cube-like cells
➢ Simple – one layer - Common in glands and their ducts (sweat
➢ Stratified – more than one layer (strata – layer) glands/mammary glands)
- Forms walls of kidney tubules (filtration)

Simple columnar
- Single layer of tall cells
2. Shape of cells
- Often includes goblet cells (mucus, lining in
➢ Squamous – flattened
the respiratory tract), which produce mucus
➢ Cuboidal – cube-shaped
- Lines digestive tract (intestine)
➢ Columnar – column-like
 28 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Pseudostratified (false layer) Stratified Cuboidal (multilayer tissue made of
cube-liked cells)
- Single layer, but some cells are shorter than
others - Two or more layers of cuboidal cells
- Often looks like a double cell layer

Stratified columnar
- Surface cells are columnar, cells underneath
vary in size and shape

- Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory

tract
- May function in absorption (in) or secretion
(out)

Stratified Cuboidal and Columnar

Stratified Epithelium - Rare in human body
- Found mainly in ducts of large glands
- Stratified squamous (tissue made of flat cells (mammary)
in multiple layers)
- Cells at the free edge are flattened
- Found as a protective covering where friction
is common
Locations:
✓ Skin
✓ Mouth (lining, good in secretions & ab)
✓ Esophagus

Transitional Epithelium (multiple layers of tissue –

stratified)
- Shape of cells depends upon the amount of
stretching (stretchable tissue)
- Lines organs of urinary system (urinary
bladder)
 29 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Connective Tissues
➢ Found everywhere in the body
Glandular Epithelium
➢ Includes the most abundant and widely
Gland (secretion) distributed tissues

- One or more cells that secretes a particular Functions

product
- Binds body tissues together
- Two major gland types:
- Supports the body
Endocrine Gland (release inside the body) - Provides protection

- Ductless (through diffusion) Characteristics

- Secretions are hormones
➢ Variations in blood supply
Thyroid gland – thyroid hormones • Some tissue types are well vascularized
(muscle tissues to function normally)
Pancreas – insulin
• Some have poor blood supply or are
Ovaries – progesterone & estrogen avascular (tendon, ligament, cartilage)

➢ Extracellular matrix
• Non-living material that surrounds living
cells (outside plasma membrane)

Exocrine Gland (release outside)

- Empty through ducts to the epithelial surface
- Include sweat and oil glands
 30 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Fibers Reticular Fibers

➢ Produced by the cells (fibroblasts) ➢ A type of fiber in connective tissues
➢ Three types: composed of type III collagen secreted by
• Collagen fibers reticular cells
• Elastic fibers
• Reticular fibers

Collagen Fibers
➢ A type of protein fiber found abundantly
throughout our body (from split ends to
ingrown)
➢ It provides strength and cushioning to many
areas of the body, including the skin
Connective Tissue Types
Bone (Osseous Tissue)
➢ Composed of:
• Bone cells in lacunae (cavities)
• Hard matrix of calcium salts
• Large numbers of collagen fibers
➢ Used to protect and support the body

Elastic Fibers
➢ Bundles of proteins (elastin) found in
extracellular matrix of connective tissue and
produced by fibroblasts and smooth muscle
cells in arteries
➢ Can stretch up to 1.5 times their length, and
snap back to their original length when
relaxed

Cartilage
➢ Made of collagen and elastic fibers
➢ Cells that produce cartilage are chondrocytes
Chrondo = cartilage; cyto = cell
 31 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Hyaline Cartilage Fibrocartilage

➢ Most common cartilage (joints) ➢ High compressible

➢ Composed of: ➢ Example: forms cushion-like disc between
• Abundant collagen fibers vertebrae
• Rubbery matrix
➢ Entire fetal skeleton is hyaline cartilage

Dense Connective Tissue (close fit & baga)

➢ Main matrix element is 80 % collagen fibers
➢ Cells are fibroblasts

femur
Patellar bone

Fibula Tibia

Elastic Cartilage
Example:
➢ Provides elasticity (fold doesn’t broke)
➢ Example: supports the external ear Tendon
➢ Attach muscle to bone (Achilles tendon)
➢ Capable of withstanding tension
 32 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Adipose Tissue (fat tissues)

Ligaments
➢ Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat globules
➢ Attach bone to bone predominate
➢ Many cells contain large lipid deposits
Functions:
➢ Insulates the body (keeps the body warm)
➢ Protects some organs
➢ Serves as a site of fuel storage

Areolar Connective Tissue

➢ Most widely distributed connective tissue
➢ Soft, pliable tissue
➢ Contains all fiber types
➢ Can soak up excess fluid

Reticular Connective Tissue

➢ Delicate network of interwoven fibers
➢ Forms stroma (internal supporting network) of
lymphoid organs
• Lymph nodes
• Spleen (collect rbc)
• Bone Marrow
 33 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Blood (red, white, platelet – suspended in

plasma)
➢ Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix called
plasma
➢ Fibers are visible during clotting
➢ Functions as the transport vehicle for materials

Cardiac Muscle
➢ Found only in the heart
➢ Function is to pump blood (involuntary)
➢ Cells attached to other cardiac muscle cells
at intercalated disks
➢ Cells are striated
➢ One nucleus per cell (uninucleate)

Muscle Tissue
➢ Function is to produce movement by
contraction of its cells (muscle fiber) Smooth Muscle
➢ Three types ➢ Involuntary muscle
- Skeletal muscle ➢ Surrounds hollow organs
- Cardiac muscle ➢ Attached to other smooth muscle cells
- Smooth muscle ➢ Spindle-shaped
➢ No visible striations
➢ One nucleus per cell (uninucleate)

Skeletal Muscle
➢ Can be controlled voluntarily
➢ Cells attach to connective tissue
➢ Cells are striated
➢ Cells have more than one nucleus
(multinucleated)
 34 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
➢ Ability to react to environment or responsive
to slight stimuli
Conductivity
➢ Ability to transmit nerve impulses to different
parts of the body

Nervous Tissue
Neurons
➢ The basic unit of nervous tissue (nerve cell)

Tissue Repair
Regeneration
➢ Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same
kind of cells

Fibrosis
➢ Repair by dense fibrous connective tissue
(scar tissue)

➢ Function is to send impulses to other areas of

the body Determination of method
➢ Type of tissue damaged
➢ Severity of the injury

Events In Tissue Repair

➢ Capillaries become very permeable
➢ Introduce clotting proteins
➢ Wall off injured area
➢ Formation of granulation tissue

Characteristics:
Irritability
 35 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Regeneration of Tissues
➢ Tissues that regenerate easily
✓ Epithelial tissue
✓ Fibrous connective tissue and bone

➢ Tissues that regenerate poorly

✓ Skeletal muscle

➢ Tissues that are replaced largely with scar

tissue
✓ Cardiac muscle
✓ Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal
cord
➢ Regeneration of surface epithelium

Developmental Aspects of Tissue

o Epithelial tissue arises from all three primary
germ layers
o Muscle and connective tissue arise from the
mesoderm
o Nervous tissue arises from the ectoderm
o With old age there is a decrease in mass and
viability in most tissues
o Growth through cell division continues through
puberty
o Cell populations exposed to friction (such as
epithelium) replace lost cells throughout life
o Connective tissue remains mitotic and forms
repair (scar) tissue
o With some exceptions, muscle tissue becomes
amitotic by the end of puberty
o Nervous tissue becomes amitotic shortly after
birth
o Neoplasms, both benign and cancerous,
represent abnormal cell masses in which
normal controls on cell division are not
working
o Hyperplasia (increase in size) of a tissue or
organ may occur when tissue is strongly
stimulated or irritated
o Atrophy (decrease in size) of a tissue or organ
occurs when the organ is no longer stimulated
normally
 36 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Skeletal System Functions of Bones

Parts of the Skeletal System • Support of the body

- As a firm framework for the entire body
➢ Bones (skeleton) • Protection of soft organs
➢ Joints • Movement due to attached skeletal
➢ Cartilages muscles
➢ Ligaments - To serve as levers

Divided into two divisions:

Axial Skeleton
➢ Consists of 80 bones
➢ Includes the body framework of the head and
the trunk

• Storage of minerals (calcium salts) and fats

• Blood cell formation (in the red marrow)

Appendicular Skeleton
➢ Consists of 126 bones
➢ Forms the framework for the extremities and
for the shoulder and hip

Bones of the Human Body

Two basic types of bone tissue:

Compact Bone (Homogenous)

➢ Hard and dense
➢ Makes up the main shaft of a long bone and
the outer layer of other bones

Axial Skeleton – 80
Appendicular Skeleton – 126
Total # of bones = 206
 37 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Spongy Bone (Cancellous) Short Bones

➢ Has more spaces than compact bone • Generally, cube-shape
➢ Made of a meshwork of small, bony plates • Contain mostly spongy bone
filled with red marrow Examples:
➢ It is found at the epiphyses (end) of long - Tarsals
bones and at the center of other bones - Carpals

Flat Bones
• Thin and flattened
• Usually curved
• Thin layers of compact bone around a
layer of spongy bone
Examples:
- Ribs, sternum
- Skull

Irregular Bones
Classification of Bones
• Irregular shape
Long Bones • Do not fit into other bone classification
categories
• Typically, longer than wide
Example:
• Have a shaft with heads at both ends
- Vertebrae
• Contain mostly compact bone
- Hip
Examples:
- Femur, humerus
 38 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

• Lacunae
- Cavities containing bone cells
(osteocytes)
- Arranged in concentric rings

• Canaliculi
- Tiny canals
- Radiate from the central canal to
lacunae
- Form a transport system

Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

• Osteon (Haversian System)
- A unit of bone

• Central (Haversian Canal)

- Opening in the center of an osteon
- Carries blood vessels and nerves

• Lamellae
- Rings around the central canal
- Sites of lacunae

• Perforating (Volkman’s) Canal

- Canal perpendicular to the central
canal
- Carries blood vessels and nerves
 39 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Changes in the Human Skeleton Types of Bone Cells

• In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline • Osteocytes
cartilage - Mature bone cells

• Osteoblasts
- Bone-forming cells

• Osteoclasts
- Bones-destroying cells
- Break down bone matrix for remodeling
and release of calcium

• During development, much of this

cartilage is replaced by bone
• Cartilage remains in isolated areas
- Bridge of the nose
- Parts of ribs
- Joints

Bone Growth
• Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long
bone during childhood
• New cartilage is continuously formed

• Older cartilage becomes ossified

- Cartilage is broken down
- Bone replaces cartilage
• Bones are remodeled and lengthened until
growth stops
- Bones change shape somewhat
- Bones grow in width
 40 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Skeletal System: Gross Anatomy ➢ Sharpy’s fibers

• Secure periosteum to underlying bone
Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone
➢ Arteries
• Diaphysis
• Supply bone cells with nutrients
- Shaft
- Composed of compact bone

• Epiphysis
- Ends of the bone
- Composed mostly of spongy bone

➢ Medullary Cavity
• Cavity of the shaft
• Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in
adults
• Contains red marrow (for blood) in infants.

Structures of a long bones

➢ Periosteum
• Outside covering of the diaphysis
• Fibrous connective tissue membrane
 41 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Projections: ➢ Crest
• A distinct border or ridge, often rough
➢ Head
• Such as over the top of the hip bone
• A rounded, knob-like end separated from
the crest of the bone by slender region, the
neck

➢ Process
• A large projection of bone, such as the
upper part of the ulna in the forearm that
created the elbow
Example:
• Olecranon process

➢ Spine
• A sharp projection from the surface of a
bone
• Such as the spine of the scapula

➢ Condyle
• A round projection
• A small projection above a condyle is an
epicondyle

Depressions or Holes
➢ Foramen (Foramina)
• A hole that allows a vessel or a nerve to
pass through or between bones
 42 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
➢ Sinus The Axial and Appendicular Skeleton
• An air space found in some skull bones
The Axial Skeleton
• Forms the longitudinal part of the body
• Divided into three parts:
- Skull
- Vertebral Colum
- Bony thorax

➢ Fossa (fossae)
• A depression on a bone surface

The Skull
• Two sets of bones
- Cranium
- Facial bones
• Bones are joined by sutures
• Only the mandible is attached b a freely
movable joint

➢ Meatus
• A short channel or passage way
• Such as the channel in temporal bone that
leads to the inner ear
 43 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Paranasal Sinuses
• Hollow portions of bones surrounding the
nasal cavity

The Hyoid Bone

• The only bone that does not articulate with
another bone
• Serves as a moveable base for the tongue
(lingual bone)

The Vertebral Column

• Vertebrae separated by intervertebral
discs
• The spine has a normal curvature

The Fetal Skull

• The fetal skull is large compared to the
infant total body length
• Fontanelles –
- Fibrous membranes connecting the
cranial bones
✓ Allow the brain to grow
✓ Convert to bone within 24 months

• Each vertebra is given a name according

to its location
 44 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
The Appendicular Skeleton
• Limbs (appendages)
• Pectoral girdle
• Pelvic girdle

The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle

• Composed of two bones
- Clavicle – collarbone
The Bony Thorax - Scapula – shoulder blade

• Forms a cage to protect major organs • These bones allow the upper limb to have
exceptionally free movement

• Made-up of three parts

- Sternum Bones of the Upper Limb
- Ribs
- Thoracic vertebrae • The arm is formed by a single bone
- Humerus
 45 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
• The forearm has two bones • The total weight of the upper body rests on
- Ulna the pelvis
- Radius - Reproductive organs
- Urinary bladder
- Part of the large intestine

• The hand
- Carpals – wrist
Bones of the Lower Limbs
- Metacarpals – palm
- Phalanges – fingers • The thigh has one bone
- Femur – thigh bones

• The leg has two bones

- Tibia fibula
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
➢ Hip bones
• Composed of three pair of fused bones
- Ilium
- Ischium
- Pubic bone
 46 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
• The foot Structural Classification of Joints
- Tarsus – ankle
- Metatarsals – sole ➢ Fibrous joints - Generally immovable
- Phalanges – toes ➢ Cartilaginous joints - Immovable or slightly
moveable
➢ Synovial joints - Freely moveable

Arches of the Foot

• Bones of the foot are arranged to form Fibrous Joints
three strong arches
➢ Bones united by fibrous tissue
- Two longitudinal
Examples:
- One transverse
• Allow the foot to support the weight of the Sutures
body in the erect posture with the least Syndesmoses
weight Allows more movement than sutures

Joints
➢ Articulations of bones
➢ Functions of joints
➢ Hold bones together Cartilaginous Joints
➢ Allow for mobility ➢ Bones connected by cartilage
➢ Ways joints are classified Examples:
➢ Functionally Pubic symphysis
➢ Structurally Intervertebral joints

Functional Classification of Joints

➢ Synarthroses – immovable joints
➢ Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints
➢ Diarthroses – freely moveable joints
 47 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Synovial Joints Types of synovial joints based on shape
➢ Articulating bones are separated by a joint ✓ Plane joint
cavity ✓ Hinge joint
➢ Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity ✓ Pivot joint
✓ Condylar joint
✓ Saddle joint
✓ Ball-and-socket joint

Features of Synovial Joints

✓ Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage)
covers the ends of bones
✓ Joint surfaces are enclosed by a fibrous
articular capsule
✓ Have a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid
✓ Ligaments reinforce the joint

Structures Associated with the Synovial Joint

➢ Bursae
• Flattened fibrous sacs
• Lined with synovial membranes
• Filled with synovial fluid
• Not actually part of the joint
➢ Tendon sheath
• Elongated bursa that wraps around a
tendon
48 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY