Boiler Plant and Distribution

System Optimization Manual

Third Edition
Boiler Plant and Distribution
System Optimization Manual
Third Edition

By Harry Taplin, P.E.

 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Taplin, Harry, 1935-

Boiler plant and distribution system optimization manual / by Harry Taplin, P.E. -- Third
edition.
pages cm
ISBN 0-88173-740-2 (alk. paper) -- ISBN 0-88173-741-0 (electronic) -- ISBN 978-1-4822-
6078-6 (taylor & francis distribution : alk. paper)
1. Steam-boilers--Efficiency. 2. Steam power plants--Design and construction. I. Title.
TJ288.T36 2014
621.1’83--dc23
2014013184

Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual / by Harry Taplin
©2014 by The Fairmont Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, includ-
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ISBN 0-88173-740-2 (The Fairmont Press, Inc.)

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While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher, authors, and
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 Table of Contents
Chapter 1
Boiler Plant Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Modern Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Generating Steam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Types of Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Firetube Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Water Tube Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Superheating of Steam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Superheater Temperature Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Natural Circulation in Boiler Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
The Steam Drum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
High Water Level Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Carryover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Mist Carryover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Foaming Carryover. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Priming Carryover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Start-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Warm-Up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Flame Safety Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Boiler Safety Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Rating Boiler Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Time—Temperature—Turbulence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Turndown Ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Boiler Casualties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
High Efficiency Boiler Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Chapter 2
Optimizing Boiler Plants Establishing the Ideal Scene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
The First Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Loss Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Optimizing Boiler Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Measure to Manage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
An Effective Energy Conservation Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Chapter 3
Energy Management Basics for Boilers and Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Energy Balance and Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
The Higher Heating Value (HHV). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
The Btu (British Thermal Unit). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Input-Output Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Why Steam is Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Steam Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Accounting for Heat in Steam and Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Energy Recovery in the Condensate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Calculating Fuel Savings and Loss Based on Efficiency Change . . . . . . . . . 29
Calculating Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Deficiency Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

v
 Carbon Dioxide Reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Improving Radiant Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Flame Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Chapter 4
Basic Boiler Plant Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fuel Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Fuel Cost. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Annual Fuel Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Analyze Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Stack Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Blowdown Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Surface Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
As-found Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Tune-Up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Reducing Stack Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Blowdown Heat Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Optimized Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Cost of Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Boiler Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Dollar Savings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Additional Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Chapter 5
Distribution System Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Steam System Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Flash Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
High Temperature Hot Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Insulation Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Flash Steam Losses from Insulation Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Bare Piping Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Measuring Insulation Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Condensate System Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
External Steam Leaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Internal Steam Leaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Steam Trap Malfunctions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Chapter 6
Efficiency Calculation Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
ASME Computational Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Comparison of the Input-Output and Heat Loss Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
The Input-Output Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
The Heat Loss Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Combustion Heat Loss Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Heat Loss Due to Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Comparing Methods for Measuring Boiler Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Chapter 7
Combustion Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Combustion Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

vi
 Caution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Stack Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Sources of Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
The Smoke Spot Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Possible Causes of Smoke Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Low Stack Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
The Dangers of Carbon Monoxide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Chimney Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Condensing Flue Gases to Improve Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Sulfur In Fuel Forms Acid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Combustibles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Combustion Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Stoichiometric Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Excess Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
How Do You Achieve Optimum Combustion Efficiency?. . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Flue Gas Heat Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Flue Gas Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Orsat Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Finding Stack Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Paramagnetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Wet Electrochemical Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
In situ vs. Close-coupled Extractive Analyzers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Net Oxygen vs. Gross Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Relative Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Oxygen Deficiency and Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Carbon Monoxide and Combustibles Measurement Methods. . . . . . . . . . . 68
Catalytic Combustibles Sensor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Infrared CO Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Off-stack CO Analyzers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Across-the-stack CO Analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Opacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Stack Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Accuracy of Sampling Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Using Carbon Monoxide to Measure Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Chapter 8
The Control of Boilers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Steam Pressure Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Safety Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Combustion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Feedwater Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Blowdown Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Furnace Pressure Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Steam Temperature Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Cold End Temperature Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Soot Blower Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Safety Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Flame Safety Controls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Safety Interlocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

vii
 Basic Firing Rate Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Parallel Positioning Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Jackshaft Control Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Series Positioning Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Cross Limiting Control Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Metering Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Feedwater Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Blowdown Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Furnace Pressure Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Oxygen Trim. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Carbon Monoxide Trim. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Digital Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Chapter 9
Boiler Tune Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
A Tuneup Starts with an Inspection and Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Stack Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Inspecting Your Boiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Furnace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Fundamental Combustion Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Flame Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
The Ideal Flame. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Problems that Can Occur in a Burner Flame of Ideal Geometry. . . . . . . . . . 98
Combustion of Oil [Figure 9.24]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
The Basics of a Tuneup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Finding the Smoke and CO Threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Minimum Excess Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Control System Linearity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Step-By-Step Procedure for Adjusting Boiler Controls for
Low-Excess Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Review of the Fine Tuning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Tuning Boiler Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
High Efficiency Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Chapter 10
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
High Efficiency Operations (Checklist 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Combustion Systems (Checklist 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Boiler Improvements (Checklist 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Metering and Monitoring (Checklist 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Boiler Water Management (Checklist 5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Capital Investment Projects (Checklist 6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Steam System Improvements (Checklist 7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Heat Recovery Projects (Checklist 8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Process Heating Systems (Checklist 9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Building HVAC Projects (Checklist 10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Standard Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Chapter 11
Boiler Plant Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Finding Excess Air Using Flue Gas Analysis of Carbon

viii
 Dioxide (CO2) and Oxygen (O2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Using Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Using Oxygen Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Boiler Stack Gas Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Calculating Fuel Savings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Estimating Losses and Savings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Reducing Excess Air to Improve Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Air Infiltration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Reducing Stack Temperature to Improve Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Combustible Losses (Carbon Monoxide) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Analyzing Costs and Benefits of an Economizer and an Oxygen
Trim System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Cost of Money. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Programming Boiler Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Introduction to the Steam Tables for Accounting for Energy . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Heat Losses in the Condensate Return System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Distribution System Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Boiler Blowdown Heat Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Saving Energy by Improving Condensate Return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Reducing Blowdown Losses by Increasing Cycles of Concentration. . . . . . . 217
Condensate System Water Leaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Steam Leak Relief Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Distribution System Insulation Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Electrical Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Energy Savings with Adjustable Speed Drive [ASD] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Setting the Fuel Oil Heater for Proper Fuel Oil Viscosity at the Burner . . . . . 220
Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Chapter 12
Waste Heat Recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Waste Heat Recovery Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Where Waste Heat Can Be Used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Acid Formation A Limiting Factor in Waste Heat Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . 228
What is Flue Gas?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Carbon as Fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Dry Gas and Moisture Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Sensible and Latent Heat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Regenerators and Recouperators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Conventional Economizer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Cold-End Corrosion in Economizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Controlling Acid Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Condensing the Moisture in Flue Gasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Chapter 13
Steam System Optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Steam System Optimization, a Huge Opportunity for Savings. . . . . . . . . . 247
Steam Distribution System Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Chapter 14
Steam Traps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Steam Trap Types and Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

ix
 Steam Trap Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Steam Trap Selection Sizing and Installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Steam Trap Selection Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Steam Trap Operating Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Steam Trap Limitation Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Trouble Shooting Steam Traps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Steam Trap Inspection Checkoff List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Inspection Checklist for Steam Trap Misapplication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Chapter 15
Boiler Water Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Impurities in Boiler Feedwater Concentrate in the Boiler. . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Water Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Condensate System Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
The Priming Boiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Water Carryover in Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Mist Carryover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Priming Carryover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Silica Carryover. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Two Key Operating Controls for Deareators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Chemical Removal of Oxygen from Boiler Feedwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Condensate Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
External Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

x
 Acknowledgments
This book evolved from the Association of Energy Engineer’s Boiler Optimization
course and similar courses which I have been presenting for more than 25 years. It was
compiled over the years in response to the need to manage energy as efficiently as possible
and to reduce pollution from combustion sources. This planet’s delicate balance is slowly
being affected by new products being released into the atmosphere by combustion. Some
large plants put out more than 32 different pollutants. Also, every ton of fuel burned each
day requires about fifteen tons of air to support combustion so each one of us is competing
with combustion processes for the very air we breathe. If energy can be managed more
efficiently then there will be less pollution, more profit for companies and fewer undesirable
side effects in general.
The sources of information for this book were many and varied: The Association of
Energy Engineers, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, The American Boiler
Manufacturers Association, The U.S. Department of Energy and research institutions
such as the Navy Civil Engineering Laboratory and Brookhaven National Laboratory all
contributed to the information in this book. Many boiler, instrument, control system, and
burner manufacturers also contributed in one way or another.
I would like to thank Mr. L. Ron Hubbard for his valuable discoveries and information
about education and communication which were ve1y useful in organizing, understanding
and communicating this vast and complex subject.
There are many talented, resourceful and conscientious people involved in the boiler
and related industries who have done a great deal to advance our civilization to its modern
level. Many of them have attended my courses and shared their knowledge and discoveries
with me. I would like to thank each of them for their insights which has contributed in a
major way to this book.

Harry R. Taplin, Jr. P.E., CEM

xi
 Introduction
This book has been designed to make the job of boiler plant optimization at your facility
simple and understandable. This book was written for the plant manager, boiler design
engineer, energy engineer, plant operators, troubleshooters and anyone else interested in
improving the efficiency of combustion processes.
One of the most productive ways to improve efficiency and profits is to expertly
manage the energy costs of utilities, especially in the cost of boiler fuel. Managing an
efficient plant involves a different viewpoint from normal day to day plant operations.
Unfortunately, operational challenges seem more urgent than managing energy efficiently.
One old timer put it well when he said, “improving plant efficiency is not a necessity but
keeping it running is a necessity.”
Most plant personnel focus on the important job of running a dependable plant. They
might need help seeing the challenge from the viewpoint of saving energy and reducing
fuel expenses. That’s what this book is about.
Why is this so important? The answer lies in the fact that your company has to earn
the money it pays for fuel from the sale of some product or service. There are large expenses
involved in production of these products or services and it makes no sense to waste these
efforts in the boiler plant with huge hidden costs from wasted energy.
Let’s examine the situation from another viewpoint. Suppose the net profit of your
operation is 5% and that when you have followed some of the suggestions in this book, you
discover you can save your company more than $250,000 a year in reduced fuel costs. How
much is this really worth? Well, it’s about five million dollars. There are a lot of people who
would be handsomely rewarded if they could boost annual sales by five million dollars.
When you produce “cost avoidance” by increasing the productivity and efficiency of your
plant, you are doing the same thing when the bottom line is examined. Avoided costs means
profits and profits keep your company in business, assuring you a job into the future. It just
may be that your management of boilers and energy systems may have more to do with the
success of your company than you have been lead to believe.
How do you get this job done? It seems like it could be a highly technical matter which
demands a tremendous amount of time, knowledge and experience with boiler plants and
distribution systems. Actually, if this challenge is approached properly, it does not need to
be complex or difficult. Read on and discover for yourself.

Harry R. Taplin, Jr., P.E., CEM

xiii
 Chapter 1

Boiler Plant Orientation

[Fast Track]

Modern Boilers dom detected.

When water is heated to form steam we are
Modern boiler designs go back well over 100 restricted to certain temperatures for the steam.
years. It has been a century of changes in design, This pressure-temperature relationship is called
construction and operation of boiler plants. Pres- the saturation temperature. Simply stated, all of
sure vessel design has advanced from riveted to the heat transferred to the water just generates
welded construction. Natural draft firing using more steam. If we want to raise the temperature
tall brick stacks has given way to forced draft and of the steam above the saturation temperature we
balanced draft operations. Controls have taken take the water out of the process and apply heat
over most of the tedious watchstander functions to steam only. The steam now becomes superheat-
and now computerized systems can almost think ed as shown on the right-hand side of Figure 1.1.
for plant personnel. When steam is generated in a pressure vessel,
the same process occurs but conditions change.
Figure 1.2 illustrates when steam is generated at
Generating Steam 3,000 psi (200 Bar). The saturation [boiling] tem-
perature is now 695°F. It takes a lot more Btus to
Boilers must deliver dry clean steam at a heat the water to the boiling point, but it takes
specified pressure and temperature. Figure 1.1 fewer Btus to form a pound of steam. At atmo-
shows the basic steam generation cycle. The Brit- spheric pressure it takes 970 Btus and at 3,000 psi
ish thermal unit (Btu) is a term used to identify it takes only 213 Btus. The difference is the 802
the heat value of fuel and steam. The scale begins Btus needed to bring the water up to the boiling
at the freezing point for water or 32°F. Adding point at 695°F for this high pressure.
one Btu to a pound of water will raise its temperature Table 1.1 illustrates the relationship of pres-
1°F. It takes 180 Btus to heat water from the freez- sure and energy values. It shows the information
ing point to the boiling point, but we don’t have available from standard steam tables, a source of
steam yet. At atmospheric pressure it takes an essential information about the properties of
additional 970 Btus to form one pound of steam. steam. Engineers use steam table values for the
This steam is the energy that goes to work for us. design and operation of steam plants.
When the pound of steam, with its 970 Btus, gives
up its heat in the steam distribution system and
condenses back into water, its volume shrinks Types of Boilers
tremendously to 1/700 its steam volume. High
pressure replacement steam rushes in to fill the Package boilers are used for most commer-
void caused by the shrinkage in volume caused cial and smaller industrial operations. They are
by the steam to water phase change. Because this built at a factory and then shipped to the plant
process is continuous and the replacement steam via truck, barge and railroad. They are usually
moves in very quickly, pressure changes are sel- complete units which need only be connected up
1
2 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 1.1—This graphic shows the energy [Btu] value of water at atmospheric
pressure as it is heated to superheated steam at 1,000°F from the freeze point
32°F.

Figure 1.2—This graphic shows the energy [Btu] value of water at 3,000 psig
[200 bar] as it is heated to superheated steam at 1,000°F from the freeze point
32°F.
Boiler Plant Orientation 3

Table 1.1—This is an example of energy values [Btu/lb] of steam in various

phases as it is heated to superheated steam at 1,000°F from the freeze point.
Note that as pressure goes up the Btu content of the water rises significantly
and the Btus necessary to form a pound of steam decrease significantly.

to electrical power, fuel piping, steam piping and A long-standing practical limit on their size has
exhaust systems. been about 250 psig and 1,000 HP.
Field erected boilers, because of their large Figure 1.4 illustrates a very important fact
size, have to be built on-site using components of boiler pressure vessel design. The force the
either shipped by the manufacturer or fabricated pressure parts must be designed to withstand is
locally. determined by the product of pressure and area.
The large diameter drum of the fire tube boiler
produces large forces requiring a thick steel shell
Firetube Boilers to retain the pressure limiting their size.
Higher pressure construction requires the
An old and very useful boiler type is the fire- use of the water tube design where smaller diam-
tube boiler as shown in Figure 1.3. It consists of a eter tubes and drums are used. Because they have
large diameter cylinder filled with water. Tubes smaller cross sectional areas which can withstand
extending from end to end serve as the combus- much higher pressures.
tion chamber and path for hot gasses inside the
pressure vessel. It gets its name, fire tube, from
this fact. The firetube boiler design is very useful Water Tube Boilers
because of its large amount of stored energy in the
large cylindrical design. When pressure drops, By using smaller pressure parts, the water
the stored energy converts to steam, meeting sys- tube design can withstand much higher pressures
tem demands. This characteristic makes burner than the firetube boiler. The water tube boiler de-
and combustion control system design simpler sign contains much less water than the firetube
and less sophisticated. Unfortunately, because of design and need much more responsive control
the large drum diameter typical of fire tube boil- systems to safely control water level and firing
ers, it has pressure and horsepower limitations. conditions.
4 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 1.3—Firetube boiler (Courtesy Cleaver Brooks Co.)

Figure 1.4—This graphic illustrates the difference in pressure ves-

sel construction for fire tube and water tube boilers. The large
diameter drum on the left shows how large forces are developed
in the large diameter fire tube boiler drum. The advantage of the
water tube design, shown on the right, is smaller forces being de-
veloped by smaller diameter pressure parts. Fire tube boilers are
generally limited to 250 psig and under 1,000 horsepower.
Boiler Plant Orientation 5

Because the smaller boiler tubes in the water gins. As this occurs there is a condition where tube
tube design can be bent rather easily, numerous metal temperatures begin to peak, approaching
boiler designs have evolved. These designs have their highest operating temperature. Although de-
been named according to the letter of the alphabet signers and manufacturers have compensated for
they resemble. For example there is the “A” type this phenomena in their designs, it is useful to un-
[Figure 1.5] with one larger upper steam drum derstand this condition with regard to boiler tube
and two lower drums or headers resembling the
letter A. The “D” [Figure 1.6] and “0” [Figure 1.7]
types are other examples this convention for clas-
sifying water tube designs.
Early boiler designs utilized a large percent-
age of brickwork in the combustion zone to aid
stable combustion by reflecting energy back into
the wood, coal and oil fires from glowing brick-
work. Modern boiler designs have very little
brickwork by comparison, usually only around
the burner throat in wall fired utility and large in-
dustrial units.
The nomenclature for water tube boiler de-
sign is quite simple. Like a house they have floor
tubes, wall tubes (front, side and back) and roof
tubes.
Figure 1.8 illustrates factors concerning boil-
ing in a typical boiler tube. At low heat flux levels,
small bubbles are formed referred to as nucleate
boiling. As the heat flux Increases more of the tube
is occupied by steam bubbles until film boiling be-
Figure 1.6—A “D” type boiler.

Figure 1.5—An “A” Type boiler. Figure 1.7—An “O” type boiler.
6 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 1.8—On the left, different boiling phases are illustrated. The arrows
on the left represent increasing levels of heat flux. The chart on the right
shows how tube metal temperature rises as film boiling begins and then
falls back from its peak temperature as heat exchange improves with in-
creased velocity due to steam expansion. This peak temperature represents
a danger zone for tube failure due to high tube metal temperatures.

failures. This requires an examination of super- The higher the temperature of steam, the more
heated steam as it is not a problem with saturated efficient the generating unit so it is desirable to
steam, the product of boiling. maintain high superheat temperatures.
The flow path for the production of super-
heated steam is from the top of the boiler drum
Superheating of Steam to the entrance of the superheaters. There are two
basic types of superheaters, one with tubes facing
Dry steam is piped from the boiler drum the flame zone called the “radiant” type and the
to the superheaters, where its temperature is in- “convection” type. In the convection type, the su-
creased to improve efficiency. Figure 1.9 shows perheater is located in the back “pass” of the boiler
the basic superheater design. For example, tem- where the combustion gases are several hundred
perature of the steam leaving the drum varies be- degrees cooler than they are in the radiant furnace
tween approximately 488 °F [253°C] for a boiler section. The gases passing over the outside of these
operating pressure of 600 psig to 670°F [355°C] superheater tubes cause an increase in temperature
tor a boiler operating pressure of 2500 psig. In a superheating of the steam inside the tubes.
modern boiler, the final temperature of the super-
heated steam leaving the boiler is usually 1000°F
[538°C]. Superheater temperature control
The superheater adds several hundred de-
grees to the steam temperature. This superheat- Figure 1.10 shows that when tube tempera-
ing increases the energy of the steam and allows it tures go over 1,000 of [538°C], allowable stress
to be used more efficiently in the turbine systems. for superheater tubes falls off rapidly in various
Boiler Plant Orientation 7

Figure 1.9 Applying more heat to the mixture of steam and water in
the boiler will only produce more saturated steam which is steam at
the temperature at which evaporation occurs at a particular pressure.
To superheat steam, saturated steam from the boiler is piped into the
superheater where its temperature can be raised above its evaporation
temperature.

metals used for high temperature high pressure their energy from hot combustion gasses. As the
superheater tube design. This imposes a general firing rate increases a larger percentage of heat is
safety limit on steam temperatures near 1,000°F transferred to the convection section compared to
[538°C]. Designers and operators have the chal- the heat absorbed by radiant section. The steam
lenge of maintaining safe and stable superheat temperature leaving a radiant superheater de-
temperatures below this limit. creases as the boiler load increases. In a convec-
Figure 1.11 shows how the boiler design- tion superheater the steam temperature increases
er uses the steam temperature characteristics of as boiler load increases. Thus, the two tempera-
convection and radiant superheaters to achieve a ture characteristics tend to cancel each other caus-
constant final steam temperature across the load ing a fairly constant average final outlet steam
range of the boiler. The radiant type superheaters temperature.
are exposed to radiant energy from combustion The major reason for using several types or
flames which transfer an intense level of energy designs of superheaters in one boiler is for control
compared to convection superheaters that receive of final superheat or reheat steam temperature.
8 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 1.10 ASME Allowable stress curves for various tube metals used for
superheater tubes. Note how allowable stress falls off over 1100°F.

Figure 1.11—To achieve a stable final steam temperature a combination of radi-

ant and convection superheater designs are used.

As the steam leaves the primary superheater control superheated steam. temperature. The at-
it passes through an attemperator, into which rel- temperator is installed in the steam header that
atively cold feedwater is sprayed into the steam connects the primary superheater to the second-
to regulate final superheated steam temperature. ary superheater. It consists of a thermal sleeve in-
Figure 1.12 illustrates an attemperator design. side the steam header designed to absorb thermal
The function of the spray attemperator is to shock and an atomizing water spray nozzle ex-
Boiler Plant Orientation 9

Figure 1.12—Many operating variables affect steam temperature such as load,

excess air, feedwater temperature, heating surface cleanliness, fuel and burner
settings etc. Attemperator control is necessary to regulate steam temperature
within required limits to correct fluctuations caused by these operating vari-
ables. This is an attemperator which sprays high purity water into steam to
control its temperature. It can be located at the superheater outlet or between
superheater sections. There is the possibility that water could carry over into
the turbine if control problems develop with the attemperator, however.

tending into the center of the header. valve to open further, injecting more cool water
Attemperator water, often supplied by the into the steam causing a reduction in the final
boiler feed pumps, is sprayed into the hot steam steam temperature leaving the boiler. Similarly,
by a nozzle. Since the water is evaporated by the if the final temperature falls below the design
steam, the water must be free of solids if steam value, the control will reduce the attemperator
purity is to be maintained. The rate of water injec- spray flow to allow the final temperature to in-
tion is regulated by an automatic control system crease.
to maintain the final steam temperature. From the attemperator, the steam flows to the
Water enters the attemperator and passes inlet of the secondary superheater which, like the
through a spray nozzle located at the entrance primary superheater, is a bundle of tubes located
to a restricted venturi section. The steam passing in a higher gas temperature zone of the furnace.
the nozzle picks up the water spray, and flows The primary superheater is located in a zone of
through the venturi. This action evaporates the lower temperature than the secondary super-
water and thoroughly mixes it with the steam. heater. As in the primary superheater, the steam
The temperature control system measures flowing through the inside of the tubes is heated
the final superheated steam temperature going by the hot combustion gases flowing around the
to the turbine system, and adjusts the attemper- outside of the tubes leaving the secondary su-
ator spray flow in order to keep this temperature perheater at the design final temperature. At this
constant. Suppose that the final temperature is to point, the steam in the individual tubes is piped
be kept at 1,000F but that it gradually increases to large manifolds or headers, which tie into one
above this value. When the control senses this or more large diameter pipes which then run to
increase, it causes the attemperator spray control the turbine system.
10 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Natural Circulation in Boiler Tubes 1. Receive feedwater from the economizer and
distribute it to the downcomers.
There is a very large density difference be-
2. Receive the mixture. of steam bubbles and
tween water and steam. This difference is used to
water from the riser tubes.
create natural circulation. As the boiler water is
heated forming steam in the generating tubes the 3. Separate the steam from the water and dry it.
average density in the generating tubes becomes 4. Provide a connection for the dried steam to
less than the water filled downcomer tubes which the superheater.
are maintained at a cooler temperature. In some
cases the downcomer tubes are much larger than 5. Provide a method for distribution of chem-
the generating tubes and are installed outside icals for treatment of the boiler feedwater
of the hotter steam generation zone. Figure 1.13 (chemical feed)
illustrates how natural circulation works. How- 6. Removal of undesirable materials (blow-
ever, above about 3206 psig, the critical pressure down) from the feedwater.
of steam, the density of water and steam are the
same, supercritical boilers operate above this The feedwater inlet line, which comes from the
pressure and need special pumps to insure prop- boiler economizer, is connected to a distribution
er boiler circulation. manifold that extends almost the entire length of
the drum through which the incoming feedwater
discharges into the water space of the drum. Here
The Steam Drum it mixes with the steam and water coming from
the riser tubes. The water in the drum also feeds
The boiler steam drum as shown in Figure the downcomers to the lower water wall headers
1.14 has five basic functions: and mud drum.

Figure 1.13—Natural circulation occurs when steam and hot water rises in the
generating tubes and is replaced with heavier cold water, without steam bubbles,
in the downcomer tubes.
Boiler Plant Orientation 11

Figure 1.14—Boiler steam and water drum is designed to perform a number of functions. It
must insure the outlet steam is dry and free from carryover. It also must provide for chemi-
cal injection, blowdown and for feedwater inlet piping. Maintaining the water level in the
drum within a safe range is critical to safe boiler operation.

A continuous blowdown pipe is also shown. High Water Level Concerns

This pipe runs the length of the drum. It contains
a series of holes through which contaminated Maximum drum levels should not be ex-
boiler water flows to the blowdown system. By ceeded. Higher than permitted drum levels may
regulating the blowdown rate the concentration cause carry over of water droplets with the steam.
of dissolved materials can be controlled. Water carried over in the steam may reduce fi-
To ensure that there is at least one reliable nal steam temperature and be harmful to down-
indication of water level available to the operator, stream equipment (turbines, heaters, etc.). Any
drums are normally equipped with three (3) wa- slugs of water put in motion by the steam can
ter level indicating devices. cause water-hammer and rupture the piping.
12 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

For boilers with superheaters, this carryover ter. Conditions in the drum provides a path for
of water droplets presents an additional problem. introducing solid material into the steam and is
Each water droplet contains solids at the same con- referred to as mechanical carryover which may
centration as the boiler water in the steam drum. be classified under four headings above. This can
When the steam passes through the superheater, result in troublesome deposits in the superheater
these water droplets will evaporate, leaving the or on turbine blades.
solids to form deposits’ on the inside of the super-
heater tubes. These solids reduce the transfer of
heat from the combustion gases through the tube Mist Carryover
wall and into the steam. This layer of insulation
between the hot tube wall and the cooler steam. A fine mist is developed as water boils. A bub-
With this layer of “insulation,” can result in over- ble of water vapor (steam) reaches the water sur-
heating and tube failures. face and bursts, leaving a dent in the water. Liquid
Solids from carry-over may possibly pass collapses in on the dent, with the center rising at
completely through the superheater arid into a faster rate than the edges. This results in a small
downstream equipment. Solids entering a steam droplets being tossed free of the boiler water sur-
turbine can damage the turbine blades. Turbine face. These droplets form a fine mist. This mist is
repairs are not only expensive, but can result in removed to a great extent in various types of sep-
long outages. arators in the steam drum. However, any mist that
High drum level conditions can usually be remains entrained in the steam will have the same
reduced by decreasing the firing rate. Steam bub- level of contamination as the boiler water.
bles below the water level will tend to reduce
causing the water level to fall.
foaming carryover

Carryover The alkalinity, TDS and suspended solids,

can interact to create a foam in the boiler. A heavy
There are two types of carryover; mechanical foam layer is another source of liquid carryover
and vaporous. into the steam. The level of foaming can normally
Mechanical carryover includes: be controlled to a reasonable level by maintaining
the total alkalinity at a level less than 20 percent
of the TDS and maintaining the total suspended
Carryover

Pure steam becomes contaminated Foaming

with boiler water
• Spray & mist Surface layer obstructs steam
• Foaming Caused by
• Priming
• Poor steam separation • Alkalinity
• Organic material
• Oil
The water evaporated to produce steam
should not contain any contaminating materials, • Grease
however there may be water droplets carried into • Suspended Solids
steam due to mechanical carryover of boiler wa-
Boiler Plant Orientation 13

The Causes of Priming

TDS Too High Water Surging

• Corrosive to boiler metal • Sudden fluctuations in steam

pressure [demand]
• Causes foaming and carryover
• Water level too high
• Alters boiling patterns in tubes
leading to deposits. • Operating above boiler rating
• Damaged steam separating equip-
ment

solids at a level less than 8 percent of the TDS. water controls or incorrect blowdown procedures.
Antifoam agents are added to boiler water to help Figure 1.15 illustrates how priming occurs.
control foaming.

Start-up
Priming Carryover
As steam pressure is increased, the water
Priming carryover is caused by liquid surges level should be carefully controlled within nor-
in the steam drum that throw water into the steam mal limits. Prior to picking up load, it is desirable
space where it is carried into the steam header. to keep the water level near the lowest safe lev-
Priming is caused by a mechanical problems or el to allow for thermal expansion of the water as
mechanical properties such as oversensitive feed- the steam generation rate increases. When raising

Figure 1.15—Violent ebullition caus-

es changes in drum water level and
unacceptable discharge of water in
the steam. The upper sketches show
two conditions registering normal
water level. In the right drum the
true water level is higher because it
is being forced up by violent steam
action of steam in the water causing
an undetected water level offset. In
the left sketch a low steam gener-
ation rate does not offset the water
level from the observed level. In the
lower sketch, longitudinal mound-
ing near the steam nozzle is caused
by violent steam formation aided
by low steam pressure in the steam
system piping. Also, dynamic forces
may set up a sloshing action causing
localized high water and wave like
motion contributing to priming.
14 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

the steam pressure on a boiler not connected to a set at the wide open position. In the absence of
header system, the steam line should be warmed a non-return valve, the boiler stop valve should
up along with the boiler by the operation of drain be opened slowly when the pressure in the boiler
valves to remove condensation and create the de- and header are approximately equal.
sired flow of warming steam.
In bringing a boiler on the line with other
boilers on a header system, certain precautions Warm-up
are necessary to avoid water hammer and exces-
sive temperature gradients in the piping. Ade- During the period when steam pressure is
quate drainage and warming of the piping will initially being raised, the boiler, especially the
eliminate the risk of water hammer. The judicious boiler drum which is fabricated from thick metal,
use of bypass valves around main header valves can experience some unusual and possibly dam-
will avoid steep temperature gradients. Header aging stresses. To avoid thermal stress, tempera-
drains should be operated. The steam line from ture changes should be limited. Figure 1.16 is a
the boiler to the· header should be brought up typical chart governing pressure raising in drum
to temperature by operating bypass and drain boilers. These temperature limitations are very
valves. When up to temperature and line pres- critical during the startup and shutdown of the
sure, the header valve may be opened wide and boiler. They are necessary to minimize thermal
the bypass closed. The stem for the non-return stress in the steam drum. Temperature changes
valve should be back off to a position correspond- can be controlled by controlling the firing rate on
ing to about 25% open until the boiler begins to startup and controlling the cooling down of the
supply steam to the header, after which it can be boiler when shutting down. Your boiler may be

Figure 1.16—Thermal stress can

cause serious damage to a boiler.
Most manufacturers provide a curve
similar to this which limits the rate
at which pressure can be raised. Wa-
ter temperature differences can also
cause thermal stresses so it has been
added to this graphic as a reminder
of its possible influence. Usually a
standard of I 00 F or 38 C per hour is
used as a general limit for bringing a
cold boiler up to operating pressure.
Boiler Plant Orientation 15

different so the manufacturers technical manual accumulation of fuel in the furnace. The fuel oil
should be consulted. safety shut off valves will automatically shut
when flame can not be detected in the furnace.

Flame safety control

Boiler Safety Valves
A furnace explosion is the ignition and al-
most instantaneous combustion of highly flam- Safety valves are devices that protect the
mable gasses in the boiler. It can cause great ex- steam and water circuits against accidental over
plosive force on the boiler, minor explosions, pressurization.
called puffs or blowbacks can blow flames from Safety valves are required on every pressure
doors and covers. Anyone in the flame path· can vessel. The boiler and pressure code also requires
be seriously burned. Major explosions can shatter that the safety valves have a total steam relieving
observation ports, blow off doors, and demolish capacity at least equal to the rated full load steam
boilers and buildings. flow of the boiler.
A safety valve setting table is supplied in the
instruction manual for each unit showing the pre-
The main causes of scribed valves and settings.
explosions are: There are a variety of safety valves installed
on systems from over pressurization.
1. Flame failure with no resulting fuel iso-
lation A. There are spring type safety valves supplied
with the boiler main steam and reheat steam
2. Faulty regulating controls
piping.
3. Failure to purge a boiler with at least 4
air volume changes after shutdown or B. There are drum safety valves connected di-
before each attempted light-off. rectly to the steam drum.
4. Fuel shut-off valve leakage C. Superheat safety valves are connected di-
5. Loss of furnace draft rectly to the main steam: line to the high
pressure turbine.

D. Safety valves are connected directly to the

An over pressure condition reheat inlet piping.
can occur in one of two ways:
E. Safety valves are connected directly to the
A gradual increase in pressure due to reheat outlet piping.
improper operation or malfunctioning
equipment. There are electrically or pilot operated pres-
sure relief valves located on the superheater out-
A sudden and rapid increase in pressure let lead downstream from the spring type safety
caused by an immediate loss of steam valves. These relief valves are not included in the
flow. total relieving capacity of the safety valves be-
cause they can be isolated from the boiler. They
are set to open at a pressure below the popping
The flame safety control is designed to pre- pressure of the lowest set superheater safety
vent any condition which could result in a boil- valve. This is to prevent the safety valves from
er explosion. Its basic function is to prevent the opening except on major over pressures.
16 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Rating Boiler Capacity Time—Temperature—Turbulence

Sometimes one can become confused by The type of fuel burned determines the size
the different ways boiler ratings are described. of the combustion chamber and ultimately the
For example firetube boilers are rated by horse- overall size of the boiler. If gas or lighter grades
power, commercial boilers are rated in Btus per of distilled fuel oil are used, the burn out is faster
hour and industrial boilers are rated in thousands than for heavier residual grade oils and coal. The
of pounds of steam per hour. This complicated key is the carbon content of the fuel. The higher
system has a historical background. Originally the carbon content, especially fixed carbon an op-
firetube boilers were used in applications where posed to carbon gasses, the longer the fuel burn-
horsepower was a term commonly where fire out takes requiring larger and larger furnaces.
tube boilers were first used in mining· operations The key to good combustion relies on the three Ts:
and ship propulsion. In buildings; heating and air Time, Temperature and Turbulence. See Figure 1.19.
conditioning requirements are calculated in Btus
and this is commonly used for their boiler speci-
fications. Many industries use pounds or tons of Turndown ratio
steam per hour as a way of expressing energy re-
quirements. Figures 1.17 and 1.18 provide addi- A measure of the quality of a burner and
tional information. control system lies in its capability to modulate
through a firing range, this is known as turndown.

Figure 1.17—The systems for rating boilers has developed with usage over the
years. Firetube boilers were first used to power ships and heavy duty equip-
ment where a horsepower convention was in use. Industrial facilities adopted
the use of thousands of pounds of steam per hour and building architects and
engineers calculate heating needs in terms of Btus and called for boilers rated
in terms of Btus. The EPA has issued rules using millions of Btus per hour.
Boiler Plant Orientation 17

Figure 1.18—Conversion factors for boiler horsepower. In smaller boilers the capac-
ity is measured in steam produced at 212 F. Larger boiler capacity is usually given
in (000)lb of steam evaporated per hour at specified conditions of pressure and tem-
perature. A recent trend for rating large boilers is kW or mw of the turbine generator.

Figure 1.19—The three Ts of

combustion: Time, Temperature
and Turbulence. As the carbon
content of fuel increases the 3 Ts
become more important in the
design and operation of burners
and firing equipment.

Turndown is the measure of the maximum firing rate work it does is replace the heat lost to the envi-
compared to the minimum firing rate. [See Figure ronment during the shutdown.
1.20.] With larger boilers taking a boiler off line When working with other boilers and in re-
can be a complex and time consuming affair. Be- sponding to variable plant steam demands a large
ing able to reduce its firing rate provides an econ- turndown ratio has an advantage. Commercial
omy in fuel, man-hours and maintenance. Each boilers are not required to respond to large load
time a boiler is taken out of service and restarted, ranges and because of economic reasons, first cost
it must be purged with at least four changes of air competitiveness, the turndown is low about, 2-3 to
cooling it down, wasting stored heat and causing 1. Firetube boilers, because of their large water ca-
some thermal stresses from the cold air. The fuel pacity, can store a lot of energy allowing them to
used to bring it back to the point where steam is respond to large short term demands very quickly.
being exported again is wasted because the only This and the fact they are not designed for heavy
18 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

High efficiency boiler operations

In this book you will find a chapter with over

60 ways to improve boiler efficiency, the follow-
ing list contains the key items to reducing the en-
ergy costs of boilers.

The key to
efficient boiler operations

1. [2M] Measure and Manage. Change

Figure 1.20—The turndown ratio of a boiler is from an operational to management
important for efficiency and operations. If a boiler philosophy.
has to cycle on and off because of low load conditions
energy will be lost during the shutdown and purge 2. Operate with minimum excess air
cycles before and after the firing sequence. levels.

3. Reduce boiler exhaust temperature

industrial applications allows them to have a turn- to minimum levels corresponding
down around 4 to 1. Large industrial boilers must to fuel sulfur content.
respond to large demand requirements and chang-
es so a large turndown is desirable. 4. Capture latent heat energy from
boiler exhaust with condensing heat
recovery technology.
Boiler casualties

The insurance companies insuring boilers

and property are very interested in the causes of
boiler casualties as they have millions of dollars
at risk in many plants. So, when a major loss oc-
curs, they investigate the cause very thoroughly.
Here is the result of one such study:

Boiler Casualties

Percentage Cause
%
54 Maintenance
10 Operational
7 External
5 Construction
4 Design
4 Application
2 Repair
14 Undetermined
 Chapter 2

Optimizing Boiler Plants

Establishing the Ideal Scene

Optimizing the performance of boiler plants economic evaluations and justifying additional
and distribution systems is a broad and rewarding personnel and modifications to existing systems.
subject. On the surface you might think it requires The next step will be to tune-up the boiler
a great deal of knowledge and insight. It covers and accomplish any maintenance and repair iden-
many engineering subjects and involves an un- tified during the initial testing to bring it back, as
derstanding of the dynamics of operating systems close as reasonably possible, to its original design
composed of many subsystems and components. performance level.
If the job is approached on a systematic basis, it
is much simpler and you will be more successful. ————————————————————————
This book is organized for a systematic and simple Tuned-up efficiency is the efficiency after operating adjust-
approach to boiler plant optimization. ments, lowering excess air, and minor repairs have been
completed. This will be the baseline efficiency for estimating
———————————————————————— all future savings.
As-found efficiency is the efficiency for a boiler in its exist- ————————————————————————
ing state of repair and maintenance. This efficiency will be
used as the baseline for any later efficiency improvements. There are many minor problems which can
It is very important that the as-found efficiency be recorded develop during the life of a boiler and distribu-
because it will serve as a benchmark to estimate the value of tion systems that cause non-optimum perfor-
a Boiler Optimization program mance. Over time, they can waste a great deal of
———————————————————————— energy.
To make an honest and accurate evaluation
The beginning point for Boiler Plant Optimi- of the potential savings available, all equipment
zation Program is to establish the as­found efficiency must be in a normal state of repair with the boiler
for each boiler and system. This information will air/fuel ratios at designed levels. If this is not the
serve as a datum to show the expected benefits of case, estimates of savings and justifications for
the program. new equipment and modifications will contain
It may be that millions of dollars can be false information leading to poor decisions.
saved by improving plant and distribution sys- It is very important that the tuned-up effi-
tem efficiency. The as-found conditions will serve ciency be accurate, because the economic benefits
as a datum for establishing this fact and also il- of improvement options will be estimated from
lustrate the folly of neglecting boilers and their this efficiency.
energy distribution systems to management and Next, there should be an estimate of the sav-
decision makers. ings if the efficiency were to be improved to a rea-
Also, if the plant is found to be efficient, it will sonable level. This information is used to deter-
bring credit to those responsible for the plant. In mine if further work on a boiler is justified and to
any case the as-found efficiency is important for set priorities for competing projects.
19
20 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

———————————————————————— ————————————————————————
Maximum economically achievable efficiency is the efficien- Maximum attainable efficiency is the result of adding
cy that can be achieved, with efficiency improvement chang- the best available efficiency improvement technology,
es only. if it is economically justifiable. regardless of cost considerations.
———————————————————————— ————————————————————————

Table 2.1 1ists this efficiency level for a wide Also, it might be cheaper to raise efficiency
range of boilers and fuels. Chapter 13 lists more (productivity) of a boiler rather than install an-
than 100 possible ways to improve boiler plant ef- other boiler, at high cost, to keep up with growing
ficiency. plant steam demands.
Next, it might be necessary to know what Table 2.2 shows maximum attainable effi-
the maximum efficiency of a boiler could be if ciency for various size boilers and fuels.
considered. For example, knowing maximum ef-
ficiency would be useful for emergency planning
if fuel were very scarce.

Table 2.1— Maximum Economically Achievable Efficiency Levels

Table 2.2—Maximum Attainable Efficiency Levels

Optimizing Boiler Plants Establishing the Ideal Scene 21

The First Step dollar losses if efficiencies are allowed to drop off
because of neglected maintenance.
The first step is to find the as-found efficiency An efficiency monitoring system is also a
of each boiler. good way to check the work of contractors and
Efficiency improvement potential is based engineering consultants to insure they actually
on the as-found efficiency. For example, it can be improved efficiency or to find out if new prob-
used to show the value of testing the performance lems have been created.
of boilers on a regular basis by identifying losses When one speaks of boiler efficiency, a de-
caused by the drop in efficiency from a well-main- gree of generality is present unless the term effi-
tained or tuned­up condition. ciency is further defined. Boilers normally oper-
This testing can indicate if your maintenance ate over a range of efficiency (Figures 2.1 through
program needs improvement and will show the 2.3).

Figure 2.1 Typical performance of gas fired water tube boilers.

Figure 2.2 Typical performance of oil fired water tube boilers.

22 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 2.3 Typical performance of pulverized coal fired boilers.

The efficiency of a boiler usually falls off as efficiency. Figures 2.4 through 2.6 show typical
the bottom end of the of the turn-down ratio is characteristics that may be found when plotting
approached. This is because the volume of air these curves.
through the burner is greatly reduced affecting Where does the boiler operate typically?
the performance of air­fuel mixing. The excess air Does it stay at full load or some other fixed load
must be increased to compensate for this problem most of the time? Does the load vary quite a bit,
to prevent smoking and incomplete combustion just what is the average load
which could lead lower efficiencies. and average efficiency for a particular boiler?
As the boiler approaches its maximum firing Does it cycle on and off a lot? The more accurate
rate, it’s capability to recover all of the heat from the data, the closer the estimation of efficiency to
the combustion process diminishes and stack actual conditions.
temperature rises. This is the primary reason for These factors argue against arriving at boil-
the fall off of efficiency as the maximum firing er efficiency easily or quickly using the heat loss
rate is approached. method. This being the case, judgments and esti-
Due to the highly diverse range of boiler de- mates are usually applied unless comprehensive
signs over many years, any curve of performance metering exists for accurate input-output efficien-
which might be presented can only be considered cy monitoring.
for general illustration. Figures 2.1 through 2.3 Long-term monitoring with good instru-
are the result of an extensive survey sponsored ments and modern data recording and storage is
by the Department of Energy and are to a large the best way to go.
degree typical for the aggregate boiler population
in the U.S.
A curve of efficiency over the entire load Loss prevention
range should be developed for each specific boil-
er. This curve can serve as an accurate statement A further refinement of boiler optimization
of a boilers efficiency but further examination comes under the heading of “Loss­Prevention”
will be necessary to establish its real operating which is a system of identifying key performance
Optimizing Boiler Plants Establishing the Ideal Scene 23

Figure 2.4—Efficiency curve showing high ex- Figure 2.5—Efficiency curve showing high stack
cess air losses below half load. temperature losses above half load.

oxygen trim systems, heat recovery options and

such to achieve the ideal design for the plant.
The second ideal scene deals with how the
plant is operated and maintained relative to un-
necessary energy losses within the control of
plant personnel.

Optimizing boiler management

Figure 2.6—A typical efficiency curve showing
moderate excess air losses at low firing rates and If tests show an annual fuel savings of
heat exchange losses at high firing rates. $100,000 were possible just by tuning up a boiler
and correcting simple maintenance problems un-
parameters and identifying them with annual fuel covered during a tune up, this fact would present
or dollar losses when they vary from the ideal. a convincing argument for additional personnel,
Once the ideal scene has been defined, loss training or technical support to insure that these
prevention can be indexed to these and other key savings are maintained. Hidden costs from main-
indicators: tenance problems can be a very expensive over-
sight.
a. Stack temperature The term management is not often discussed
b. Excess air in connection with boilers and distribution sys-
c. Percent make up water tems, probably because they are operated, but not
d. Blowdown losses managed in the sense of maintaining optimum
e. Condensate return temperature losses performance.
A good many managers feel that the efficien-
A loss prevention program is an essential cy of a plant should never change. What is missed
part of boiler plant optimization as it deals with is that they are a very dynamic energy consuming
the control of specific elements of boiler and sys- monster that must be managed. If not prevented
tem operation and maintenance. from wasting fuel, they will surely be feasting on
Thus, two ideal scenes are appropriate to your utility dollars.
any plant. The first is ideal design. Efficiency Plant engineering and maintenance staff are
measurements can be used to justify projects such often too busy or undermanned or don’t under-
as economizers, stand the magnitude of losses involved in boiler
24 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

plants and distribution systems to be concerned age energy in a plant to find out what was hap-
about this very real problem. pening.
Too often plants don’t have instrumentation Once you have complete and accurate data,
to measure what is happening with their data, the it’s easy to see what is happening in any plant or
assumption is made that boiler and steam distri- distribution system. Establishing a system to get
bution system losses are negligible. data, interpret it and then controlling unneces-
sary losses is the real challenge.

Accountability
An effective
If you want to be successful in an energy energy conservation program
conservation program, accountability must play
a key role, there must be someone who is account- The essential elements of an effective energy
able for energy. This is just not someone who conservation program are:
checks the utility bills. It may take a professional
who can spot problems and knows how to correct 1. Management commitment
them. 2. Boiler and system testing
Surveys of many plants have shown very 3. Economic evaluation of energy conservation
conclusively that there is usually a lot more atten- projects
tion on “operating” than on “managing” in most 4. Assignment of project priorities
plants. 5. Final plan
This is clearly evident from examining plant 6. Plan implementation
instrumentation, most of it is for plant operations. 7. Loss control management program
There usually aren’t any instruments or means to 8. Monitoring results
measure stack losses, blowdown losses, conden-
sate system losses or to measure over-all system 1. Management Commitment
efficiency. Existing instrumentation is used for One of the most important aspects of an
estimating these values, however typical instru- energy conservation program, often missing, is
mentation errors can produce large errors com- management support. If nobody seems to be in-
pounding the problem. terested in the efficiency or productivity, things
can get very bad.
It was just a few years ago when a vice
Measure to Manage president of a major U.S. corporation addressed
a group of energy engineers at a national con-
The 2M system “Measure to Manage” has ference after receiving an award for being “The
been a very successful approach to reducing plant Energy Manager of the Year.” He stated that the
energy costs. It is too easy to waste energy with- most important contributing fact to his very suc-
out it. cessful energy conservation program was the full
There is usually no accountability system ex- backing of the president of his company. He said,
cept in the some office where the utility bills get “If the boss shows an interest, something is going
checked and paid. Here, the math of the bills is re- to get done.”
viewed and perhaps comparisons of last years bills
to this years are made. Plant personnel are often 2. Boiler and System Testing
left out of the loop and this doesn’t create any in- In the first place, the plant or system may
centive to manage efficiently or to save energy. not have been designed for optimum efficiency.
Savings more than 20% have been achieved Design omissions, deviations from plans by con-
just by installing a system to measure and man- tractors, modifications over the years, changes in
Optimizing Boiler Plants Establishing the Ideal Scene 25

operational requirements and maintenance mod- 7. Loss Control Management

ifications may have all influenced efficiency. It Assign an annual loss value in dollars to in-
is wise not to make any assumptions about per- dicators of system performance. Each operating
formance. Testing and actual measurements will parameter that will have a significant impact on
tell the story about how the system is performing operating cost and energy losses should be moni-
now. tored.
Examples of possible items for loss control
3. Economic Evaluation of management are:
Energy Conservation Projects
Testing and evaluation will form a good (a) for each 10°F rise in stack temperature there
basis for judging the opportunities for saving will be a $10,000 annual loss if not corrected,
energy with the boiler or system as it operates
in “to days” environment. Payback period, re-
turn-on-investment, life cycle costing and other (b) for each 10% change in excess air fuel costs
economic evaluation methods are important mea- will go up $15,000 annually,
surements of the real worth of a project to modify
a boiler or improve a systems performance. When (c) For each 10°F the condensate returns below
faced with many competing projects, econom- the ideal temperature, $40,000 will be lost
ic evaluation will show which is best and which in a year and so on. Each plant will have its
projects won’t pay. own values.

4. Assignment of Project Priorities 8. Monitoring Results

There is usually competition for limited The use of computers and the ease of acquir-
funding to improve efficiency and save energy. ing data from plant operations provides new op-
Management must have data on which choices portunities to actually monitor performance on a
will be most beneficial. The economic evaluation full time basis rather than guessing or making as-
process makes it possible to rank various projects sumptions. Its easy to claim that equipment will
on the strength of their merits. improve performance or repairs were made prop-
erly, a monitoring system will tell the story and
5. Final Plan can be a valuable tool in managing an efficient
A wise man once said, “If you don’t have a plant.
plan, then you plan to fail.” A final plan infers In the following chapters we will go through
that all facts have been considered and a smart a step by step program for a typical facility where
and orderly course will be followed. you will be shown how to identify and deal with
the many problem areas and establish the “ideal
6. Plan Implementation scene” for your plant.
The plan has now become a working tool.
Like many other tools, plan implementation will
get the job done. Responsibility and control are
key words here. The design must be right, the
contractor must install the changes properly,
maintenance personnel can change things so they
don’t work well and operators can make improp-
er adjustments. So, someone needs to “close the
loop” by asserting responsibility and control over
the project.
 Chapter 3

Energy Management Basics for

Boilers and Systems

Energy Balance and Losses The Btu (British Thermal Unit)

Understanding how energy works in sys- ———————————————————

tems is essential to an effective energy manage- “The quantity of heat required to raise the
ment program, so lets examine some basics. temperature of one pound of water one
The purpose behind managing an efficient degree Fahrenheit”
plant is to get as much energy as possible from ———————————————————
the fuel. How much would this be?
A good starting point for establishing the For scientific purposes this is measured at, or
“Ideal Scene” for an efficient plant is knowing near, its point of maximum density of water 39.1
how much energy is being delivered to the sys- Deg F [3.9C].
tem? The term used to express the energy deliv-
ered to a plant in fuel is Higher Heating Value or
(HHV—Table 3.1). INPUT-OUTPUT EFFICIENCY

The starting point for finding efficiency be-

The Higher Heating Value (HHV) gins with accurate knowledge of the amount of
energy “input” into the process. Two things must
——————————————————— be known, how much fuel is being fired and how
The total heat obtained from the combustion many Btu’s are in each pound of fuel. The range
of a specified amount of fuel. of heating values for various fuels is given in Ta-
——————————————————— ble 3.1.
Boiler efficiency is the percentage of the fu-
The HHV represents the total amount of heat el’s higher heating value which is converted to
energy released from the fuel when it is complete- steam. This is sometimes called the Fuel-To-Steam
ly burned, at 60 Deg F [l5.6C] when combustion Efficiency. The formula for Input-Output efficien-
starts and the combustion products of which are cy is:
cooled to 60 Deg F [15.6C] before the quantity of
———————————————————
heat released is measured.
Btu Output x 100
For practical reasons, flue gas is not cooled Efficiency= —————————
down to 60 F because acid will form which can Btu Input
cause severe corrosion problems. Stack tempera- ———————————————————
ture is kept above the acid dew point or acid for- Figure 3.1 Efficiency defined
mation temperature which wastes some of this
heat energy.
Fossil fuel heating values are expressed in Efficiencies are basically limited by the acid
terms of Btu/lb in tables and for standard calcu- dew point arid excess air. The acid dew point is
lations. the temperature at which acid begins to form on
27
28 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 3.1—Higher Heating Value (HHV) of various fuels.

colder metal in the boiler exhaust. This minimum If pressure increases the saturation temperature
temperature does not allow for recovery of all the rises, if pressure decreases the saturation tem-
heat of the HHV of the as-fired fuel. Also, because perature falls. Each pressure has a corresponding
extra air is required to insure complete combus- saturation temperature. The temperature of the
tion of the fuel at the burner the extra volume of steam and water remain constant at each pressure
exhaust gasses carry away additional waste heat. (See Tables 3.2 and 3.4.)

Sensible heat is a rise in the measurable tem-

Why Steam is Used perature of the water before it boils. This is what
thermometers indicate. This is approximately one
Steam is very useful because it automatically Btu per pound of water for degree of temperature
flows to the point of use and does not need to be rise.
pumped. It moves through the piping system to a When the water gets to its boiling point a
point of lower pressure where steam is condens- change occurs, the water begins to evaporate with
ing into water as it gives up its latent heat. no change in temperature. This phase change
from liquid to vapor absorbs energy known as the
Latent Heat of Evaporation.
Steam Properties Steam that is not fully vaporized is called
wet steam and the weight of water droplets in the
The steam has three properties that can be wet steam compared to the weight of the steam
put to work; pressure, temperature and volume. is known as % moisture. Also, when heat is taken
Pressure and volume combine to drive machinery away from saturated steam, condensation takes
and temperature is used in processes using heat. place creating moisture.
In the conversion of water from its liquid phase For example: Steam at 100 psi has a total
to steam, its vapor phase, heat is added to initial- heat of 1190 Btu/lb and water has 309 Btu/lb.
ly increase the water temperature to the boiling The steam has 3.85 times as much Btu content. If
point. you are conducting a heat balance test and don’t
Water heated under constant pressure will measure the percent moisture in the steam, a sig-
rise in temperature until a certain temperature is nificant error will be introduced.
reached when it begins to evaporate into steam Steam that is heated above the saturation
or boil. The temperature at which water boils is temperature is called superheated steam. This
known as saturation temperature and depends steam is dry and does not contain water droplets,
on the pressure under which the water is heated. and it can have any temperature above the satura-
Energy Management Basics for Boilers and Systems 29

tion temperature. This is usually done by apply- 400 Deg F [204C]. The working temperature of the
ing heat to steam after it has been removed from steam is raised by increasing pressure {Table 3.4)
contact with the water.
This phenomena also occurs when steam
pressure is reduced by a pressure reducing valve Energy recovery in the
in the steam distribution system. condensate system

On the condensate recovery side of the steam

Accounting for Heat in system, there is an important rule of thumb to
Steam and Water know about. Heating water for use in the boiler
uses a significant percentage of the total energy
The heat content of water and steam is ex- in the steam, so it is important to get condensate
pressed in British thermal units (Btu) per pound back to the plant as hot as possible.
and is known as Enthalpy expresses by the sym- The water being fed to the boiler must be
bol “h” in tables and formulas. heated to the boiling point to drive off oxygen and
The “Steam Tables” contain the basic informa- carbon dioxide which can cause severe pitting and
tion on the energy properties of steam. The infor- corrosion to the boiler and piping systems.
mation in this book was obtained from works of The hotter the returning condensate is, the
Keenan and Keys “Thermodynamic Properties of higher the efficiency of the system.
Steam” published by John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
The Rule of Thumb for feedwater heating:
Enthalpy of Saturated Liquid (hfg) is the ——————————————————————
heat required to rise the temperature of one pound Every 11 Deg F [6 Deg C) that has to be added
of water from 32°F to the saturation temperature. to the boiler feed water reduces efficiency by 1 %.
This property is sometimes known as the Heat of ——————————————————————
the Liquid.
Starting with the cold water side of the sys-
Enthalpy of Evaporation (hfg) is the amount tem 50 Deg F [10C], water is raised to approxi-
of heat of heat required to change one pound of mately 220 Deg F [104C] in the feed water heater,
water at the saturation temperature to dry satu- depending on the type of system, for injection
rated steam at the same temperature. This is also into the boiler which takes one Btu per pound per
known as the Latent Heat of Evaporation. degree F. In this case 170 Btus per pound of water.
This amounts to 15% of the energy in the steam.
Enthalpy of Saturated Vapor (h,) is the heat Unfortunately, there can be another reason
required to change one pound of water at 32 F for boiling hot water returning to the boiler room.
into dry saturated steam. It is the sum of the en- It is a sure sign that steam traps are leaking steam.
thalpies of saturated water and evaporation. It is
also known as the Total Heat of Steam.
Table 3.1 lists the HHV for fuels and Table Calculating fuel savings and
3.2 shows the Btu values for steam and Table 3.3 loss based on efficiency change
the values for water. This information combined
serves as a common basis for Input-Output ener- There is an important difference between ef-
gy calculations. ficiency improvement and fuel savings. An effi-
The steam tables also show the saturation ciency increase from 80% to 81% is a 1% efficiency
temperature changes with pressure. At atmo- improvement. It is a proportional increase of 1%
spheric pressure water boils at 212 Deg F [100C] out of 80% (1180%) or 1.25. This represents a 1.25%
and at 250 psig the boiling temperature goes up to fuel savings from the 1% efficiency improvement.
30 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 3.2 Typical Steam Table information

Energy Management Basics for Boilers and Systems 31

Table 3.3—Thermal properties of water

32 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 3.4—Saturation or boiling temperature S is the potential fuel savings per year.
change with boiler pressure.
Wf is the fuel use rate in million Btu/Hr
EI is the ideal efficiency
En is the new or existing efficiency
Cf is the cost of fuel per million Btu
Hr is operating hours per year

Because boiler efficiency usually chang-

es with load, the potential for fuel savings will
change with the typical load on the boiler based
on the ideal or reference efficiency at the load be-
ing considered. This formula can be used for es-
timating energy saving at the typical load under
study.

Example: a boiler is firing at 100 million Btu/

Hr and its efficiency had dropped from the ideal
of 83% to 78%. The cost of fuel is currently $6.00
per million Btus and it fires at this load for 6,000
hours a year.
This loss of efficiency will cost an estimated
$230,400 in wasted fuel for the year if this loss of
efficiency remains uncorrected.
The actual fuel savings percentage is always
larger than the efficiency increase. Similarly the
fuel loss percentage is always greater than the Carbon Dioxide Reduction
corresponding efficiency decrease.
The formula for fuel savings or loss resulting The basic data on carbon dioxide emissions
from the change in efficiency is: from different fuels published by the Office of
Global Change of the Environmental Protection
——————————————————————— Agency:
New Efficiency – Old Efficiency
Savings = ————————————————
New Efficiency Lbs per
——————————————————————— Fuel Million Btu
Natural Gas 117
Fuel Oil 173
Calculating performance Coal 215
deficiency costs

The cost benefit of maintaining boiler effi- Quick Reference Charts

ciency at a high level is easily calculated with this It is useful to have a quick way to estimate
formula: potential fuel savings based on improvement in
either net stack temperature or excess-air. Figures
Wf x En – EI x Cf x Hr 3.2 and 3.3 can be used as a quick reference for
S = —————————————
En estimating savings potential
Energy Management Basics for Boilers and Systems 33

The efficiency improvement for each· one The efficiency improvement for each 10 de-
percent change in excess air varies with the stack grees F change in stack temperature varies with
temperature (Fig 3.2). To estimate efficiency the excess air level (Fig 3.3). To estimate efficiency
change, multiply the factor (left) corresponding change, multiply the factor (left) corresponding
to the stack temperature times the change in ex- to the excess air level times each 10°F change in
cess air. stack temperature.
Example, what will the efficiency change be
with a stack temperature of 500°F if the excess Example: What will the efficiency change be
air is reduced by 50%? The factor from Fig 3.2 at with an excess air level of 60% if the stack tem-
500°F is .075; this multiplied by 50% excess air re- perature is reduced by 100°F? The factor from Fig
duction is a 3.75% improvement in efficiency. 3.3 at 60% excess air is 0.325; this multiplied by
100°F/10 a 3.25% improvement in efficiency.

Figure 3.2, Efficiency change(%) for each 1% change in excess air at

various stack temperatures.
34 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 3.3—Efficiency change for each 10°F change in stack

temperature for various levels of excess air.

Improving Radiant Heat Transfer Flame Temperature

The radiation section or that section of the Table 3.5 shows that as the excess air is re-
boiler exposed to direct radiation from combus- duced, flame temperatures rise. Combustion
tion, is the most effective heat transfer zone of a flame temperatures are very complex to analyze
boiler. Figure 3.4 shows that 8% of the heat ex- and this chart should be treated only as an ap-
change surface of a boiler is absorbing about 48% proximation. It can be seen in Table 3.5, at 0%
of the energy from combustion. The convection excess air, the flame temperature is about 3,400 F
section, which comprises 34% of the heat ex- [1,871C] for natural gas and at 100% excess air this
change surface only absorbs about 20% of the temperature drops to about 2,000 F [1,093C]. For
heat of combustion. number 6 oil these numbers are 4,000 F [2,204C]
Energy Management Basics for Boilers and Systems 35

for 0% excess air and 2,300 F [1,260C] for 100% Table 3.5—Excess air flame temperature relationship
excess air. ————————————————————————
The basic equation for radiant heat transfer, Temperature Deg F C
in the flame zone section, is: Excess Natural Propane #2 #6
Air% Gas
Q = ρ ST4 ————————————————————————
Q is Btu/Hr 0% 3,400 3,700 3800 4,000 F

ρ is the Stefan-Boltzman constant, 1,871 2,038 2,093 2,204 C

1.17 x 10–9 Btu/sq ft, hr, T4 25% 2,900 3,100 3,200 3,400 F
S is surface area, sq ft 1,593 1,704 1,760 1,871 C
T is absolute temperature F + 460 50% 2,500 2,600 2,800 2,900 F

1,371, ,424 1,538 1,593 C

It can be seen from the mathematics in-
75% 2,300 2,300 2,400 2,600 F
volved, the higher the temperature of the flame,
the more intense the heat transfer. It becomes ob- 1,260 1,260 1,316 1,427 C
vious that if the temperature of the radiant heat
100% 2,000 2,000 2,200 2,300 F
transfer section of the boiler is lowered by lower
flame temperatures, there will be lower radiation 1,093 1,093 1,204 1,260 C
heat transfer. This will ultimately increases flue ————————————————————————
gas exit temperature and decrease efficiency.
Stack temperatures have been observed to
change over 50 F [28C] due to this phenomena.
Changes in excess air directly affects flame tem-
perature, and radiation heat transfer in the com-
bustion zone.
36 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 3.4—Graph of the ratio of relative heat transfer surface to heat absorbed in a boiler.
 Chapter 4

Basic Boiler Plant Efficiency

This chapter is designed to show the logical the losses by another 20%. It can get quite expen-
steps that should be followed to find basic boiler sive when this circle of losses is escalated by poor
plant efficiency. It covers the basic steps for plant conditions in the distribution system.
survey and testing to identify sources of losses in Figure 4.2 points out an interesting fact
the plant and distribution system. about the real value of fuel savings. When con-
In figure 4.1 the typical cost of 1,000 pounds sidering where the money comes from to pay fuel
of steam [approximately 1 million Btus] is shown. bills, boiler and distribution system optimiza-
Boiler plant operations are fairly fixed. Optimiz- tion should have a very high priority because the
ing boiler efficiency will often offer a good op- money that pays the fuel bill comes from compa-
portunity for improved efficiency and fuel dollar ny profits. It is not unusual to be able to identify
savings. The typical distribution system wastes a a savings of $50,000 a year in a typical plant. The
great deal of energy, about double a boiler’s loss- real question is, how does this relate to profits? If
es. When the distribution system wastes energy, there is a 5% profit one million dollars will have
the boiler load goes up accordingly compounding to be invested in raw materials, production, mar-

Figure 4.1—Typical cost factors for I,000 pounds of steam. The boiler plant operational
costs are fairly constant and predictable. The steam system losses are unpredictable and
can be very large depending on conditions.

37
38 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 4.2—What is the true value of

fuel savings? As the money for fuel
must be earned through production
and marketing of some product, profit-
ability enters the equation. An annual
fuel savings of $50,000 could be worth
1 million dollars in avoided cost at
5% profit to 10 million dollars at 1/2%
profit.

keting and sales to earn the $50,000 in fuel.

If profit falls off to 1%, $5 million in product
sales will be required. Anything with this kind of
an influence on the bottom line of a company’s
profits deserves further inspection.
How would one go about investigating the
potential for improving profits and reducing en-
ergy losses in boilers?

Essential Information
Fuel Consumption and Costs
Boiler Losses Figure 4.3—Fuel use information

with a stopwatch and good fuel meter will tell

the story. Also, making a plot of the fuel delivery
Fuel Consumption
rate verses control system position can uncover
problems with control system linearity. Three ba-
The first requirement is to gather accurate
sic instruments can be very valuable in estimating
fuel use information for each boiler. Figure 4.3
and tracking performance: a totalizing fuel flow
shows the basic information required.
meter, an steam or feedwater flow meter and a
Each boiler should have a separate fuel me-
simple timer
ter so fuel use can be accurately tracked for each
boiler. The 181.7 million Btu/hr represents the
maximum input for this boiler. Without a fuel Fuel Cost
meter, actual firing rate can not be determined
whether 120% [dangerous] or 60% of maximum Figure 4.4 shows the basic data on fuel costs
rated capacity. Measuring the actual fuel rate necessary for financial evaluations. This informa-
Basic Boiler Plant Efficiency 39

tion is important for the analysis of dollar losses

and for evaluating the dollar value of fuel saving
opportunities. The $727 per hour represents the
maximum firing rate.

Figure 4.5—Annual fuel costs

Figure 4.4—Fuel cost information

Annual Fuel Costs

Figure 4.5 gives annual fuel use information

for our typical boiler, this data is essential for
evaluating potential savings and ranking energy
conservation options based on annual fuel con-
sumption. It will also provide data for evaluating
the effectiveness of energy conservation options
4.6—Stack Losses
after they have been identified.

Analyze Performance perature, carbon monoxide, combustibles and ox-

ygen readings that can be very useful in identify-
Analysis of plant performance requires iden- ing the sources of boiler problems. Other chapters
tification of the principal losses. Stack Losses are in this book cover how to measure these losses in
usually the largest single loss in boiler opera- more detail.
tions.[Figure 4.6] By testing the exit gas tempera-
ture and excess air levels, the sensible and latent
heat being lost up the stack can be established. Stack Losses
A rough estimate of boiler efficiency is often ob-
tained by subtracting stack losses from 100 per- As shown in Figure 4.7, stack losses are
cent. It must be noted that many other losses are 18.6% which provides a rough efficiency of 81.4%.
involved in operating boilers and this method of Stack loss is not the only operational boiler loss.
using just one loss for the efficiency determina- Because it is the largest, it provides rough infor-
tion has limited value. There are a number of very mation on efficiency. It involves two very import-
good portable analyzers on the market that give ant parameters, excess air and stack temperature
stack loss efficiency directly, they also show other which are items that should be given first priority
important information like excess air, stack tem- in any boiler optimization program.
40 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

tion from the boiler surface and valves and piping

in the boiler plant. Usually this loss is between 1
and 3 percent but this number can not be general-
ized.
The percentage of this loss grows as boiler
load decreases. When the boiler load starts to
drop off, this percentage continues to go up be-
cause the boiler is still losing the same amount
of heat but the output is less so the loss is a big-
ger percentage at low firing rates could be 8 to 10
percent. This becomes a real significant problem
of their design output capacity. Figure 4.9 shows
Figure 4.7—Stack losses measured using
the percentage loss of this boiler at 100% of its full
the Heat Loss method.
rated output.

Blowdown Losses

Blowdown losses are often overlooked be-

cause they are hard to measure and water chemis-
try work is not always fully understood by plant
personnel. As shown in Figure 4.8., this boiler has
a blowdown rate of 4% of its total steam output.
Hot water is being dumped into a drain or sew-
er system and excess heat is being vented to the
atmosphere as flash steam. This amounts to 6,000
lb/hr of very hot water which is responsible for
an energy loss of 1.57%. Figure 4.9—Radiation and convection losses from the
boilers surface

Figure 4.10 illustrates a method of survey-

ing a boiler for surface losses using infrared mea-
surements. These measurements of both surface
temperature and surface heat losses are useful for
estimating energy losses and for planning main-
tenance. Changing surface temperatures will in-
dicate casing and insulation failures. A modern
spread sheet can be used to determine total and
average heat losses and record changes over time.
Figure 4.11 illustrates how this radiation
and convection losses increase as the boiler load
Figure 4.8—Blowdown losses goes down. The lower plot represents radiation
and convection losses from the boilers exterior
surface, the upper curve shows the effect of on/
Surface Losses off operation at the same loads. When a boiler
stops firing a purge of at least 4 air changes is
Another significant loss is the boiler surface necessary to sweep out any remaining fuel va-
loss (Figure 4.9), caused by radiation and convec- pors. This same purge is required on light off.
Basic Boiler Plant Efficiency 41

These cold air purges act to cool down the boiler

wasting energy.
The cause of unusually hot boiler rooms usu-
ally this heat from hot surfaces. Good design and
maintenance can reduce this loss significantly.

Figure 4.11—As boiler load decreases the percent-

age of losses increase. These losses remain relatively
constant but because the percentage loss is a func-
tion of the actual load, the percentage loss increases
as the load goes down. A 2% surface loss is illustrat-
ed above to show the relationship more dramatically.

As-Found Efficiency

The largest boiler losses are stack losses, boil-

er surface losses and blowdown losses. In our ex-
ample boiler, shown in Figure 4.12, they add up to
22% giving an efficiency of 78%. These losses are
not all of the losses but they represent the major
losses that can be measured easily and corrected
economically.

Figure 4.10—How infrared measurements of boiler

surface temperatures and radiation heat loss mea- Figure 4.12—When the percent losses are subtracted
surements can be used evaluate conditions. This is a from 100% an approximation of efficiency is possi-
chart of one such survey. ble.
42 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Tune-Up
Sources of Air Fuel Ratio Errors
Figure 4.13 shows the first step in dealing
with boiler losses. The Tune-Up is almost always 1. Fuel: gravity, temperature, Btu content
found to be necessary. Problems in the burner
2. Fuel System: pressure variations & wear
system, control system and other components are
often “corrected” by plant personnel by increas- 3. Combustion air: pressure, temperature, hu-
ing excess air. midity fan performance, dampers & duct-
ing
When a boiler is having problems it usual-
ly begins to smoke. Problems have often been 4. Exhaust system: back pressure variations,
“fixed” by increasing excess air. If no one is mon- boiler fouling, stack effect & wind effect
itoring and correcting the excess air level, this sit- 5. Control System: fuel & air positioning ac-
uation can cost a lot of wasted fuel. Be advised curacy, alignment, synchronization, repeat-
that problems that have been “fixed” by increas- ability & linearity
ing excess air will reappear when a tune-up is at-
tempted. Figure 4.14—A troubleshooting table
By reducing excess air from 35.5% to 9.3% in for reducing excess air.
the example boiler, fuel losses have been reduced
by 1.8%. This is a typical fuel savings for many
boilers.

Figure 4.15—Reducing outlet temperature produces

higher efficiency.
Figure 4.13—The first step in improving efficiency is
to reduce excess air losses by tuning up a boiler. Stack Temperature Check List
—————————————————————
1. Check for over firing
Reducing Stack Temperature 2. Firesides deposits of soot and slag
3. Waterside deposits of scale and baked on sludge
Figure 4.15 shows that a fuel savings of 2.7% 4. Gas pass short circuits
can be produced by reducing net stack tempera- 5. Install economizer
6. Install air preheater
ture from 400F [205C] to 250F [121C]. This high
7. Reduce Excess Air
as-found temperature may be caused by soot or
8. Install turbulators
scale deposits in the boiler or by hot gas short cir- 9. Install condensing heat recovery
cuits through defective baffles. Figure 4.16 is a list —————————————————————
of things to check when boiler exit temperatures Figure 4.16
are too high. Check list for reducing stack temperature.
Basic Boiler Plant Efficiency 43

Blowdown Heat Recovery Cost of Steam

Figure 4.17 shows that by using energy from Figure 4.19 shows one of the benefits of im-
the blowdown system to heat incoming makeup proving efficiency. The cost of steam has been re-
feed water, losses can be cut from 1.6% to 0.13%. duced from $5.09 to $4.70 per million Btus pro-
Heat recovery equipment in this case can reduce duced.
blowdown losses from 475 Btu/lb to 60 Btu/lb of
blowdown water.

Figure 4.19—Optimizing boiler performance

reduces steam cost.

Figure 4.17
Blowdown heat recovery improvements. Boiler Productivity

Figure 4.20 shows how the productivity of the

Optimized Efficiency boiler has been increased from the “as found” out-
put of 142.8 million Btu/hr to an optimized 154.5
Figure 4.18 shows that by taking the stan- million Btu/hr, an increase of 7.6%. This represents
dard actions of tuning up the boiler, recovering an increase in steam production from 135.5 to 146.6
blowdown losses and reducing stack tempera- thousands of pounds of steam per hour.
ture, efficiency has been increased from 78% to Increased boiler productivity can save money
85% in two additional ways; first if additional boilers
are being kept on the line at reduced firing rates
to pick up demand surges, this additional capac-
ity may provide a safety margin which will allow
the extra boilers to be shut down. Also, if there is
a need for more capacity because of plant expan-
sion or production requirements, increasing the
efficiency and productivity of existing boilers may
eliminate the need for high capital investment and
pollution compliance costs for new boilers.

Dollar Savings

Figure 4.18—Optimized efficiency Figure 4.21 shows the dollar savings can be
quite impressive. Total savings are $403,989 a
44 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Additional Losses

As this chapter is an introduction to major

boiler energy losses many additional losses were
not included in this chapter and are covered fol-
lowing chapters.

Energy Losses:
- Fuel Oil Atomization
- Soot Blowing
- Oil Heating
- Carbon Monoxide
Figure 4.20 Increased boiler capacity by - Combustibles
7.6% is a direct result of optimizing performance. Operating Losses:
- Partial load operations (large losses)
- Blowers Fans and Pumps
year. The tune up will save $104,673, the lowered - Make Up Water
stack temperature $157,000, the shell loss reduc- - Chemical Treatment
tions $58,786 and reduced blowdown $83,520. - Cost of Water
Each plant is different but this example is not un- - Water Heating
usual. - Blowdown (additional considerations)
- Oil
- Oil Pumping
- Fuel Oil Additives
- Heating
- Inventory Investment
- Fuel Handling [ Coal & Biomass]
- Environmental Compliance
- Maintenance and Repair

Figure 4.21—Fuel savings from boiler optimization

 Chapter 5

Distribution System Efficiency

Steam System Losses more energy lost in the distribution system, the
more energy wasted by the boiler replacing it.
The steam system is ideal for moving energy When energy losses in the steam distribu-
through piping. No pumps are needed because tion system are corrected, boiler plant losses are
when the latent energy in the steam is expended reduced too.
it condenses to approximately 1/700 of its orig- The steam distribution system moves the
inal volume causing instant replacement of the steam from the boiler to perform work at some
use steam. This replacement steam flows to fill distant location. They do not usually exist sepa-
the volume of the steam which has condensed, rately and they work together to establish a com-
often reaching velocities of 8,000 to 12,000 feet per bined efficiency.
minute on the way.
The “pure” water from the condensed steam Example
still contains valuable energy and for efficient The distribution system for our example has
operation it should be recovered and transport- 10,000 feet [3,050 meters] of high pressure piping
ed back the boiler plant where it is reheated into at 600 psig [120 bar] connected to 4,000 feet [1,220
turned back into steam and recycled in the system meters] of 175 psi [12 bar] sub-system piping.
once again. Figure 5.1 shows a typical steam distribution and
condensate recovery system which will serve for
———————————————————— our example.
In this chapter we will examine how a typi-
Rule of Thumb
cal steam system loses energy and becomes ineffi-
Every 11 deg F [6 deg C] that has to be cient. We will examine the following topics:
added to boiler feed water costs 1% in efficiency.
————————————————————
————————————————————
1. Trap flash losses
2. Insulation losses
Boilers and their distribution systems have 3. Condensate system losses
a closely interrelated efficiency. The losses in-
volved in distribution systems have a significant 4. External steam leaks
impact on boiler operations and efficiency. For 5. Internal steam leaks
example, if the hot condensate from the recovery
system does not return to the boiler plant it must 6. Steam trap leakage
be replaced with cold makeup water which must 7. Inactive steam piping.
be heated and also receive chemical treatment. ————————————————————
Every Btu wasted in the distribution system must Figure 5.2—major steam system
be replaced by the boiler which wastes about 20% losses which will be covered.
additional energy. This cycle feeds on itself, the
45
46 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 5.1—A typical steam distribution system used for illustration in this chapter

The steam load on the system in this case is One must be aware of the fact that condi-
100,000 pounds [50 tons] of steam per hour. Total tions in a boiler plant and distribution system are
energy being delivered to the distribution system changing constantly and that instruments either
is 105 million Btus per hour. The cost of steam is don’t exist or have become inaccurate over years
$4.70 per million Btus. in a harsh environment. It was once said by an old
The 600 psi steam has an enthalpy of 1204 and seasoned plant engineer when commenting
Btu per pound. The make-up water for this sys- on his instrumentation: “accurate to two hammer
tem is 62 F [17C], containing 30 Btus per pound. handles—more or less. Numbers have been round-
The energy value for the steam is actually 1174 ed off in this chapter to communicate important
Btu/lb when we subtract the heat value of our information in a less complex way.
“heat-sink”; the 62 F makeup water.
Distribution System Efficiency 47

Flash Steam This is why high pressures are used in dis-

tribution systems and pressure reducing valves
The largest energy loss in steam systems is (PRV) are used close to the point of use of the
flash steam in open condensate recovery systems. steam.
When the hot condensate passes through a trap Let’s look at an open system, in this case
from a high energy level to a lower energy level the 175 psi [12 Bar] steam system in our example
and percentage of the water flashes into steam. which is delivering steam to the points of use.
Figure 5.3 illustrates this energy balance across a Assuming there is a load on this system of 75,000
steam trap. pounds of steam per hour passing through steam
traps, the flash rate is about 17%. This will pro-
duce 12,000 pounds of flash steam per hour cost-
ing over $480,000 a year. This is an 11% system
loss.
This is a basic problem of these systems,
flash steam losses as great as total boiler plant
losses. High temperature hot water systems do
not have a number of problems associated with
steam systems.

Figure 5.3—Flash steam forms on the low pressure

High Temperature Hot Water Systems
side of the steam trap, in this case with almost 3
times as much energy as the condensate.
High temperature water distribution sys-
tems are divided into three categories:
The formula for flash steam is simple; the
difference in enthalpy [Btu/lb] of the water on 1. High Temperature Hot water systems have a
either side of the steam trap is divided by the Btus temperature range from 350 F [177C] to 450
required to form a pound of steam at the lower F [232C).
pressure. 2. Medium Temperature Hot water systems
have a temperature between 250 F [121C]
475 – 180 and 350F [l77C].
———— = 30.4% Flash Steam
970 3. Low Temperature Hot water systems are
usually below 250F [121C].
All steam used by the system must pass
through steam traps, so the whole system is It is interesting to note that one cubic foot of
subject to this loss if atmospheric vents are used. hot water at 350F contains 64 times as much heat
Closed pressurized condensate recovery systems as a cubic foot of saturated steam at 350F [177C].
are used in well designed plants to avoid this When high temperature hot water cools from
problem. 350F to 25°F, it releases 40 times more heat than a
Flash steam percentages vary with pressure cubic foot of steam.
drop across steam traps, for example exhausting Other features of high temperature water
to an open (atmospheric) system: systems are:
1. High Temperature Water systems are closed
—————————————————————
systems and should only use one half of one
600 psi trap has a 30% flash percent make up water compared to boilers
175 psi trap has a 17% flash which use quite a lot; in some cases 100%.
50 psi trap has a 4% flash
2. They do not have the usual losses associat-
—————————————————————
48 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

ed with steam systems, such as steam trap $20,000. Flash steam losses are much less at 72,000
flash losses, steam trap malfunctions [often Btu per hour, worth about $3,000 a year.
as high as 40%], packing gland leakage, wa-
ter hammer damage and high temperature
stresses caused by rapid temperature chang- Flash Steam Losses
es. From Insulation Losses
3. Because of the higher heat content, piping
sizes are smaller saving on construction There is another significant loss resulting
costs. from the insulation losses. When steam in the
4. On the down side, pumps are required to cir- piping loses energy through the pipe wall, it
culate the hot water throughout the system. condenses then goes through the steam trap as
water. In this case of the 600 psi steam, the water
temperature will drop from 489F to 212F across
Insulation Losses the trap.
The Btu content of the water at 600 psi is 475
All sections of hot pipe, valve bodies, unions, Btu per pound before the trap and is only 180
flanges and most steam traps should be insulated. Btu/lb on the low pressure side of the trap. At
Insulation will pay for itself quickly, less than one atmospheric pressure, 970 Btus/lb are required to
half year, as well as prevent the overheating of form a pound of steam. This results in about 30.
working spaces and the elimination of hot and 4% flash steam.
dangerous surfaces. With an average surface loss of 200 Btu per
Steam users should be fully aware of the lineal ft for 10,000 ft [3050 meters] of piping, in-
need to insulate hot surfaces but it takes constant sulation losses from the 600 psi system will form
vigilance to keep steam systems in good condi- 2,743 pounds of water per hour. One pound of
tion. water forms for each 729.1 Btu lost from the pipe.
In our example we have 10,000 ft [3,050 So, with the 30.4% flash rate, 834 pounds of steam
meters] of well insulated piping which has an av- per hour will be produced. This steam will have
erage heat loss of 200 Btus per lineal ft per hour, a heat value of 1120 Btu/lb. If this flash steam is
this works out to 2 million Btus per hour which is lost through atmospheric vents it will cost $39,522
1.9% of the system load costing $82,344 a year. a year.
Our system also includes 10,000 feet [3,050
meters] of condensate return piping plus a num-
ber of tanks and pumps. The criteria for surface Bare Piping Losses
temperature of insulated piping us generally
agreed to be about 140F [60C], so in the case of If the 600 psi [40 Bar] piping system were not
condensate return piping insulation is often not insulated but bare, it would lose about 3,400 Btu
used because it is uneconomical and the surface per lineal foot rather than 200 Btu per ft, a factor
temperature will not normally exceed 140 F [60C]. of 17 greater. In the 175 psi [12 Bar] system the
Under these conditions, surface losses will be value for bare pipe is 1200 Btu per lineal ft per
about 60 Btu per lineal ft per hour. For our ex- hour compared to 120 Btu for economical insu-
ample, this loss will be 0.6 million Btus an hour lation. The increase of losses from bare pipe is a
costing 24,700 a year. factor of 10 greater than economical insulation.
In the 4,000 ft [1,220 meter] system at 175 psi, The North American Insulation Manufactur-
because of lower temperatures and Btu values, ers Association (NAIMA) has developed software
the losses are less; 120 Btu per lineal ft. The insu- applications to calculate heat losses from bare
lation losses in this section are about half a mil- pipe and for various combinations of insulation.
lion Btus per hour with an annual cost of about This software solves these problems rather handi-
Distribution System Efficiency 49

ly and often predicts that insulating bare pipe will ———————————————————————

pay off in less than a month. 120
—————— = 11.7%
1204 x 0.85
———————————————————————
Measuring Insulation Losses

A useful way to measure insulation losses is External Steam Leaks

to weigh the condensate produced by a section
of piping under study. This is sometimes called External steam leaks are usually visible and
the barrel test as it requires a barrel, a scale and the length of the plume can be measured by eye.
a drain connection to the discharge end of the The following chapter on steam systems has more
steam trap. If the piping being tested is typical information on this. In our example system there
of the entire system, then an overall estimate of are 4 visible steam leaks, two 6 foot plumes and
system performance is possible. The effectiveness two 8 foot plumes. This works out to an $84,000
of insulation under different conditions can also a year loss plus the cost of water, chemicals and
be studied by the change in condensate formed fuel wasted heating make up water to operating
when the piping is exposed to variable conditions temperature.
of weather such as changing temperatures, hu-
midity, rain and wind conditions.
Internal Steam Leaks

Condensate System Losses Internal steam leaks are hard to detect but
common sense indicates there could be many
Recycling hot condensate for reuse as boiler such leaks. Steam traps are installed with bypass
feed water is an important way to maintain the valves which can be opened in the event there is
efficiency of the system. The energy used to heat a problem with the trap. The bypass valves are
cold make-up water is a major part of the heat often opened on start up or when water hammer
delivered for use by the steam system. becomes a problem in the system. Steam driven
For example, in the system under study, the equipment such as turbines and pumps often
condensate should return at 182 F [83 C], but if it have drains and warm up systems and these can
returns to the boiler plant at 127 F [53 C]; 55 F [30 be left open too. In our example 10 traps had par-
C] cooler, it will cause a loss of 5 million Btu/hr, a tially open bypass valves averaging 75 pounds
4.8% energy loss costing $242,000 a year. per hour. This was costing $26,500 a year.
If no condensate is returned to the plant and
62 F [17 C] make-up water is used instead, this
will cause a 11.4% loss costing $581,000 a year. Steam Trap Malfunctions
In this example we can see that heating cold
make-up water requires a significant energy in- It is not unusual to find that half of the steam
vestment; 11.7% of the heat in the steam. traps in a plant aren’t functioning properly. They
The formula below illustrates this point: work in a harsh environment and have an uncer-
tain lifetime measured from 3 to 5 years. In our
a. Heat loss 120 Btu/lb, using 62 F water rather example we have uncovered 35 defective traps
than 182 F condensate return. wasting on the average of 50 pounds of steam per
hour costing about $62,000 a year. [See chapter on
b. Heat in Steam 1204 Btu/lb steam traps]

c. Boiler Efficiency 85%

50 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

——————————————————————— For the planner and designer, eliminating

When conditions are not observable or known, life cycle system losses should be a primary con-
the assumption is often made that cern right from the drawing board. For the main-
they are negligible. tenance force, pipe insulation, steam trap testing
and repair, steam leak prevention, and conden-
In steam systems most of the losses sate recovery system maintenance can have a
are not observable. significant impact on operating costs. In the boiler
Unfortunately, the losses are quite plant monitoring the amount of make up water
large and jar from negligible. and the condensate return temperature are im-
——————————————————————— portant indicators of the health of the distribution
system. If the pure hot water is not brought back
In this chapter we have examined infor- to the plant by the condensate recovery system,
mation about various ways steam distribution then the expense of new water, chemical treat-
systems control and ultimately waste energy ment and heating it to operating temperature will
including various energy loss mechanisms and just add to avoidable plant expenses.
their relative costs.

Loss Summary
Distribution System Losses Percent Dollars/yr

Insulation Losses
600 psi (10,000 ft.) 1.90% $82,344
175 psi (4,000 ft) 0.46% $19,763
Condensate Recovery sys (10,000 ft) 0.57% $24,703

Flash Steam Load

600 psi (surface losses) 0.91% $39,522
175 psi (surface losses & 11.14% $481,514
75,000 pph load)

External Steam Leaks 1.94% $84,000

Internal Steam Leaks 0.61% $26,556
Steam Trap Failures 1.43% $61,964
———— —————
18.51% $820,360

What If
(1) All steam piping were bare:
600 psi system surface losses 32.38% $1,399,848
600 psi flash losses 33.32% $1,440,585
175 psi system surface losses 4.57% $197,626
175 psi flash losses 15.75% $680,869
———— —————
86.02% $3,718,928

(2)
Condensate Recovery System
A 55 F [13C] drop
in system Temperature 4.76% $242,131

(3) No condensate returns

100% make up @ 62F [17C] 11.43% $581,115
 Chapter 6

Efficiency Calculation Methods

A key part of a boiler efficiency improve- cedures. However, for practical boiler tests with
ment program is knowing the operating efficien- limited instrumentation, comparisons between
cy of the boiler and the corresponding increase in the two methods are generally poor. The poor re-
efficiency from as-found conditions to the final sults are primarily from the inaccuracies associat-
optimized condition. This may require several ef- ed with the measurement of the flow and energy
ficiency tests over an extended period. content of the input and output streams.
The following paragraphs discuss the vari- The efficiencies determined by these meth-
ous test methods and computational procedures ods are “gross” efficiencies as opposed to “net”
available for measuring efficiency. values which would include as additional heat
input the energy required to operate all the boiler
auxiliary equipment (i.e. combustion air fans, fuel
ASME Computational Procedures pumps, fuel heaters, stoker drives, etc.)
These “gross” efficiencies can be considered
The basis for testing boilers is the American essentially as the effectiveness of the boiler in ex-
Society of Mechanical Engineers Power Test Code tracting the available heat energy of the fuel. It
4.1. is important to take complete data when using
Figure 6.1 shows the ASME Test Form for Ab- this test form to fully document the test results no
breviated Efficiency Test or so called “ASME Short matter what procedure is used.
form” which is used for both the Input-Output
and heat loss methods. Figure 6.2 is the calculation
sheet for the abbreviated ASME efficiency test.
Both Heat Loss and Input-Output boiler ef- The Input-Output Method
ficiency calculations are included in the ASME
short Form. This power test code has become Output
Efficiency (percent) = ———— x 100
the standard test procedure in many countries. It Input
neglects minor efficiency losses and heat credits,
considering only the Higher Heating Value of the This method measures the heat absorbed by
input fuel. the water and steam and compares it to the total
energy input of the higher heating value (HHV)
of the fuel.
Comparison of the Input- This method requires the accurate measure-
Output and Heat Loss Methods ment of fuel input. Also, accurate data must be
available on steam pressure, temperature and
Both methods are mathematically equivalent flow, feed water temperature, stack temperature,
and would give identical results if the required and air temperature to complete energy balance
heat balance (or heat loss) factors were consid- calculations.
ered in the corresponding boiler measurements Figure 6.3 illustrates the envelope of equip-
could be performed without error. ment included in the designation of “Steam Gen-
When very accurate instrumentation and erating Unit.”
testing techniques are used, there is reasonably Figure 6.4 shows the relationship between
good agreement between the two calculation pro- input, output, credits and losses.
51
52 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 6.1—ASME test form summary sheet for abbreviated efficiency testing.
Efficiency Calculation Methods 53

Figure 6.2—ASME calculation sheet for abbreviated efficiency testing.

54 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Because of the many physical measurements 4. Heat loss due to combustibles in refuse. (for
required at the boiler and the potential for sig- coal)
nificant measurement errors, the Input/Output 5. Heat loss due to radiation.
method is not practical for field measurements at 6. Unmeasured losses.
the majority of industrial and commercial boiler
installations where precision instrumentation is This procedure neglects minor efficiency
not available. losses and heat credits and only considers the
Large errors are possible because this meth- chemical heat (Higher Heating Value) of the fuel
od relies on the difference in large numbers. If the as energy input.
steam flow is off by 2-3% and other instrumenta- In addition to being more accurate for field
tion have a similar level of error, then the cumu- testing, the heat loss method identifies exactly
lative error can become unacceptable, producing where the heat losses are thus aiding energy sav-
false information. ings efforts.
The Input-Output test method is also very This method might be termed the flue gas
labor intensive. Precision instrumentation must analysis approach since the major heat losses con-
be specified and installed. Test runs are usually sidered by this method are based on measured
more than four hours and must be rejected for any flue gas conditions at the boiler exit together with
inconsistent data. Trial runs are often required to an analysis of the fuel composition.
check out instrumentation and identify problems This method requires the determination of
with the boiler as well as to train test personnel the exit flue gas excess O2 (or CO2), CO, combus-
and observers. tibles, temperature and the combustion air tem-
Often plants cannot support testing for long perature.
periods because of load considerations. For ex- The heat loss method is a much more accu-
ample, a plant may not be able to provide either rate and more accepted method of determining
full load or partial load conditions for extended boiler efficiencies in the field provided that the
periods for various reasons which can cause pre- measurements of the flue gas conditions are accu-
mature curtailment of tests. rate and not subject to air dilution or flue gas flow
Problems like inconsistent water level con- stratification or pocketing.
trol or variations in outlet steam pressure can pre-
vent the stable thermal balance required for accu-
rate test information. Combustion Heat Loss Tables

Tables for stack gas heat losses for different

The Heat Loss Method types of fuels have been prepared separately and
are available for determining flue gas losses due
Efficiency(%) = 100 % – Heat Loss % to dry gas and moisture losses.
The Heat Loss method subtracts individual
energy losses from 100% to obtain percent effi-
ciency. It is recognized as the standard approach Heat Loss Due to Radiation
for routine efficiency testing, especially at indus-
trial boiler sites where instrumentation quite of- Radiation loss, not associated with the flue
ten is minimal. gas conditions can be estimated from the stan-
dard curve given in the ASME Power Test Code.
The losses measured are: Radiation Joss can also be measured using
1. Heat loss due to dry gas. a simple direct method, using an infrared instru-
2. Heat loss due to moisture in fuel. ment which has specially designed to detect ra-
3. Heat loss due to Hp from the combustion of diation losses from the boiler surface and gives a
hydrogen. read out in Btu/sq-ft/hr.
Efficiency Calculation Methods 55

Figure 6.3—ASME designated envelop for steam generating unit.

56 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 6.4—ASME Heat Balance for steam generators.

The technique is to make a drawing of the rately

boiler surface dimensions and make grids of c. Does not locate energy losses
equal areas with the average measured heat loss
for each grid then adding up the losses for all the Heat Loss Method
surface grids. [See Figure 4.10] a. Indirect method (100% – energy losses)
b. Simple and accurate
c. locates and sets magnitude of energy
Comparing Methods for Measuring losses and therefore is a key to efficiency
Boiler Efficiency improvement efforts. d. Allows assess-
ment of potential efficiency improve-
Input-Output Method ments and energy savings.
a. Most direct method
b. Difficult and expensive to measure accu-
 Efficiency Calculation Methods

Standard Radiation Heat Loss Chart. (Courtesy of the American Boiler Manufacturers Association.)
57
58 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual
 Chapter 7

Combustion Analysis

Combustion Analysis • Input gas pressure

• Draft (over fire and boiler exhaust)
Understanding the combustion process is
very important for safe and efficient operation of • Carbon Monoxide
a plant. Perfect combustion is the proper mixture • Stack temperature
of fuel and air under exacting conditions where
both the oxygen and the fuel are completely con- • Smoke
sumed in the combustion process. Having just • Combustibles
the right amount of oxygen (no more, no less) is
called the stoichiometric point, simply the ideal Too much smoke is one of the most com-
air to fuel ratio for combustion. mon indicators of excessive fuel wastage and can
Anything above the ideal amount of air sup- cause major problems.
plied to the combustion process is called Excess
Air, and is wasteful.
A CO2 analysis alone does not provide a safe Stack Fires
indication of the combustion air/fuel setting.
Additional requirements of either smoke or CO Buildup of combustibles in the exhaust sys-
is recommended as the same CO2 measurements tem and chimneys which can cause fires and
can occur on either side of stoichiometric. explosions. To a lesser extent a build up of soot
Excess air is the preferred term to describe in the exhaust system can block the normal pas-
the combustion setting on the safe side of stoi- sage of flue gases further restricting the amount
chiometric. Using oxygen measurements is the of oxygen supplied for combustion progressively
best way find excess air. compounding the problem.
By understanding a few simple instruments
most of the potentially hazardous conditions
can be reduced. The key is to properly measure Sources of Problems
smoke, oxygen, carbon monoxide, draft and gas
pressure. Four basic combustion zone conditions that
prevent clean, efficient combustion are:

Caution • Insufficient combustion air applied to the

flame to permit clean combustion at an ac-
A most dangerous approach, when dealing ceptable combustion efficiency
with combustion systems is thinking the systems
will always be correct and not considering that it • Non-uniform delivery of fuel/or combus-
can be affected by small and seemingly unrelated tion air to the combustion zone.
external forces.
The following is a list of key parameters con- • Insufficient temperature of the combustion
sidered as important safety measurement areas: zone to permit proper burning of the fuel.
59
60 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

• Insufficient flame turbulence or inadequate Use of the Smoke Tester,

mixing of fuel and air during the vaporiza- Three Simple Steps (Figure 7.2)
tion and burning. 1. Clamp the filter strip into the test pump and
insert into the flue.
These points are precisely why the smoke
2. Pump strokes.
test is an indispensable part of oil burner servic-
ing, accurate smoke testing takes less than a min- 3. Remove filter paper strip and place between
ute. smoke scale and white reflective and com-
pare smoke test spot on filter paper with
smoke spots on scale. The smoke reading is
The Smoke Spot Test the closest match.

Interpreting the Results

The smoke test method has long been recog-
Not all kinds of oil burners will be equally
nized as the acceptable standard for oil burners. It
affected by the same smoke content in the flue
is used by Underwriters Laboratories in approval
gas, this fact is shown in Figure 7.3 which inter-
testing of oil burners and it is the test method
prets smoke scale readings in terms of sooting
specified by the National Oil Fuel Institute and by
produced. Depending on the construction of the
the U.S. Department of Commerce, in their stan-
heat exchanger or the boiler, some units will ac-
dard for testing materials; (02156-65) and also in
cumulate soot rapidly with a number 3 smoke
the European standard DIN 51402.
spot number, while accumulation of soot on other
All three components of the smoke test set
units at the same smoke spot reading may be rel-
(pump, scale and filter paper) must meet the U.S.
atively slower.
commercial standards (Figure 7.1).
The ten spots on the scale range in equal
photometric steps from white to black to com- Possible causes of smoke conditions
pletely cover any smoke condition which may be
experienced. Condition
If the Smoke Spot Number is too high, soot
deposits in furnace and on heat exchange surfaces
will lead to poor efficiency.

Cause:
1. If excess air is low 5%-20%
a. Over firing
b. Too little excess air
2. If excess air is high above 50%
a. Faulty nozzle inefficient atomization of
fuel.
b. Combustion chamber trouble
c. Chilling of the combustion process be-
fore complete combustion occurs.

High Stack Temperature

A high stack temperature may indicate any

of the following conditions and ‘should be imme-
Figure 7.1—Bacharach smoke test kit.
diately checked and remedied:
Combustion Analysis 61

Figure 7.2—Smoke spot testing procedure.

Figure 7.3—Smoke spot rating scale.

1. Soot deposits on heat exchange surfaces. Low Stack Temperature

2. Short circuits of hot combustion gases due to If the stack temperature drops lower than
problems with baffles. normal, lower than 250 F for natural gas or 275-
3. Over firing, check fuel rate. 300 F for oil.
4. Water side scale deposits from improper wa-
1. Possible under firing.
ter treatment.
2. Incomplete combustion of gas with danger-
5. High excess air which reduces combustion
ous carbon monoxide production.
chamber heat transfer.
62 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

3. Possible ruptured boiler tube or other com- To prevent over-firing and under-firing the
ponent which is cooling the gases with steam fuel supply pressure must be tested from time to
or water. time to insure the firing rate has not shifted be-
cause of a pressure change.
4. In negative draft units, cold air may be en-
In small boilers or furnaces, a daft measure-
tering boiler through open door or defective
ment is necessary to guard against a gas reversal
wall or skin.
where exhaust gases are escaping to the environ-
ment, which is potentially toxic. A small draft
gage will indicate problems, like building ex-
The Dangers of Carbon Monoxide haust fans pulling gases back down the chimney,
obstructions in the exhaust system, down drafts
An example of the dangers of carbon monox- from high wind conditions and defective stack
ide is evident in a report from Canada. Between covers and other problems.
1973 and 1983 there were 293 reports of carbon
monoxide poisoning, including 145 deaths. Also,
combustion systems caused 238 deaths during Chimney Effect
the same period.
When taking draft readings, insure that
What is Carbon Monoxide? the system is warmed up to normal operating
It is the product of incomplete combustion temperatures. As air is warmed, it expands and
and is a flammable colorless and odorless gas. the same weight of air will take up more space
Carbon monoxide is about the same density as becoming lighter. This warm “light” air will rise
the air that we breath. Therefore, easily mixes to up the chimney decreasing the furnace pressure.
form a deadly atmosphere. If this low pressure is not established, combustion
The major hazards of carbon monoxide are products may escape. If the draft is too high, and
it’s toxicity and flammability. Carbon monoxide the hot gases are creating too much negative draft
becomes a combustible gas when its concentra- heat will be lost up the stack.
tion reaches 12.5% by volume (125,000 ppm).
Carbon monoxide is classified, however, as
a chemical asphyxiant which produces a toxic Condensing Flue Gases to
action by preventing the blood from absorbing Improve Efficiency
oxygen. Since the affinity of carbon monoxide is
200-300 times that of oxygen in blood, even small Fuel is a hydrocarbon which means that it is
amounts of carbon monoxide in the air will cause made up of hydrogen and carbon. Carbon burns
toxic reactions to occur. dry but each pound of hydrogen that enters into
If breathed for a sufficiently long time, a the combustion process forms about 9 pounds
carbon monoxide concentration of only 50 ppm of water. Now, at the 2,000 to 3,000 degree com-
will produce symptoms of poisoning. As little bustion temperature this water is in the form of
as 200 ppm will produce slight symptoms like a steam and it carries a considerable amount of la-
headache or discomfort in just a few hours. A con- tent heat. If this latent heat can be extracted from
centration of 400 ppm will produce a headache the exhaust gases, there is an opportunity to raise
and discomfort in two to three hours. The effect efficiency by 10% or more.
at higher concentrations may be so sudden that a Roughly there will be about 970 Btus avail-
person has little or no warning before collapsing. able from each pound of water that is condensed
It should be noted that all of these values are ap- in the flue gas. In flue gas condensing systems the
proximate and vary as to the individual. exit temperature is typically about 100 F.
Combustion Analysis 63

Sulfur in Fuel Forms Acid Combustibles

Sulfur in some fuels can end up as sulfuric Because combustibles in the flue gas are un-
acid when the flue gas temperatures drop too burned fuels, this represents fuel flowing out of
low. Boiler damage and corrosion from sulfu- the stack.
ric acid has been a problem and a challenge for Scientists have observed on occasion that
many years, causing large (energy wasting) safety combustibles are composed of equal parts carbon
margins in stack temperature to be used to avoid monoxide and hydrogen. Hydrogen has a heating
damage. value of 61,100 Btu/lb. Carbon monoxide has a
In the past, temperatures were maintained heating value of 4,347 Btu/lb.
above the approximate levels listed below to pre-
vent formation of SO2 and SO3 which combines
with moisture to form acids. Combustion Efficiency

In practice combustion efficiency is thought

• Natural Gas 250 F of as the total energy contained per pound of fuel
• No. 2 Heating Oil 275 F minus the energy carried away by the hot flue
gases exiting through the stack, expressed as a
• No. 6 Fuel Oil 300 F
percentage.
• Coal 325 F Combustion efficiency is only part of the
• Wood 400 F total efficiency. Radiation loss from hot exposed
boiler surfaces, blowdown losses and electrical
losses in pumps and fans are examples of other
As the chief concern with acid formation is
kinds of losses that must be considered in de-
cold surfaces, minimum metal temperatures are
termining total efficiency. However in most fuel
used as a more precise means to control corrosion
burning equipment, the most effective way to
Figure 7.4 shows minimum metal temperature
reduce wasted fuel is to improve combustion effi-
guidelines for air heaters.
ciency. To do so, it is necessary to understand the
fundamentals of combustion.

Stoichiometric Combustion

The three essential components of combus-

tion are fuel, air and heat. In fossil fuels, there
are really only three elements of interest: carbon,
hydrogen and sulfur. During combustion, each
reacts with oxygen to release heat:

C + O2 → CO2 + 14,093 Btu/lb.

H + 1/2O2 → H2O + 61,095 Btu/lb.
S + O2 → SO2 + 3,983 Btu/lb.

Pure carbon, hydrogen and, sulfur are rarely

used as fuels. Instead, common fuels are made
Figure 7.4
up of chemical compounds containing these el-
Minimum metal temperatures for air heaters. ements. Methane, for example, is a hydrocarbon
64 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

gas that burns as follows:

CH4 +2O2 →
CO2 + 2H2O + 1,013 Btu/Ft3

Pure oxygen is also rarely used for combus-

tion. Air contains about 21 percent oxygen and
79 percent nitrogen by volume and is much more
readily available than pure oxygen:

CH4 + 2O2 + 7.53N2 →

CO2 + 2H2O + 7.53N2 + 1,013 Btu/Ft3
Figure 7.5—Stoichiometric point and air­rich
In this example, one cubic foot of methane and fuel-rich combustion shown as a function of
(at standard temperature and pressure) will burn the air fuel ratio.
completely with 9.53 cubic feet of air contain-
ing 21 percent oxygen and 79 percent nitrogen. bustibles appear in the flue gas, it is common
This complete burning of fuel, with nothing but practice to supply some amount of excess air. In
carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen as the end the era of cheap energy it was not uncommon to
product is known as stoichiometric combustion run a burner with a large amount of excess air in
(Figure 7.5). The ratio of 9.53 cubic feet of air to order to avoid smoking. Today this is becoming
one cubic foot of methane is known as the stoi- known for the highly wasteful practice it really is.
chiometric air/fuel ratio. The heat released when
the fuel burns completely is known as the heat of
combustion. How do you achieve Optimum
Combustion Efficiency?

Excess Air Too little excess air is inefficient because it

permits unburned fuel, in the form of combusti-
The Importance of Excess Air bles, to escape up the stack. But too much excess
As most combustion equipment operators air is also inefficient because it enters the burner
know, it is extremely undesirable to operate a at ambient temperature and leaves the stack hot,
burner with less-than-stoichiometric combustion thus stealing useful heat from the process. This
air. Not only is this likely to result in smoking but leads to the fundamental rule:
it will significantly reduce the energy released by
the fuel. “Maximum combustion efficiency achieved when the
If a burner is operated with a deficiency of correct amount of excess air is supplied so the sum of
air, carbon monoxide and hydrogen will appear both unburned fuel loss and flue gas heat loss is min-
in the products of combustion. CO and H2 are the imized.”
result of incomplete combustion and are known
as combustibles. Anything more than a few hun- Measuring Combustibles
dred parts per million of combustibles in flue gas Combustible analyzers are available to ac-
indicates inefficient burner operation. curately measure CO and H2 concentrations in
In actual applications, it is impossible to flue gas to (+/–) 10 ppm or less. Carbon monox-
achieve stoichiometric combustion because burn- ide analyzers are often used in control systems
ers can not mix fuel and air perfectly. To insure because of their greater accuracy and calibration
that all of the fuel is burned and little or no com- stability.
Combustion Analysis 65

Flue Gas heat loss Flue gas measurement

Orsat testing
Flue gas heat loss is the largest single energy
loss in every combustion process. It is generally One of the earliest methods of measurement
impossible to eliminate flue gas heat losses be- is still in use today. The Orsat test is a manual-
cause the individual constituents of flue gas all ly-performed test in which a flue gas sample is
enter the system cold and leave at elevated tem- passed successively through a series of chemical
peratures. Flue gas heat loss can be minimized by reagents. The chemicals each absorb a single
reducing the amount of excess air supplied to the gas constituent, usually carbon dioxide, oxygen,
burner. and carbon monoxide. After the sample passes
Flue gas heat loss increases with both in- through each reagent, its volume is accurately
creasing excess air and temperatures. As both the measured. The reduction in volume indicates the
carbon dioxide and oxygen level in flue gases are amount of gas that was originally in the sample.
directly related to the amount of excess air sup- There are several disadvantages to using the
plied, either a CO2 or an O2 flue gas analyzer can Orsat flue gas testing apparatus:
be used to measure this loss. However, in recent
a. It is slow, tedious work
years, CO2 analysis has fallen out of favor.
There are a number of problems when CO2 is b. Its accuracy is affected by the purity of the
used for analysis. CO2 can be measured on both reagents
sides of the stoichiometric mix bringing about c. Operator skill is very demanding and under
confusion about air deficiency or excess air (Fig- field conditions expert control is necessary to
ure 7.6). Also CO2 readings may not be correct prevent data scatter and test rejection.
when different fuels having different hydrocar-
bon ratios are used. d. Most important, the Orsat test measures only
Both of these errors are unacceptable in small samples and an unacceptable amount
modern combustion control systems. The devel- of time can go by before the unit is ready to
opment of improved oxygen analyzers has all analyze another sample, quite possibly miss-
but eliminated the use of carbon dioxide flue gas ing information on the actual dynamics of
analyzers. the combustion systems operation.
e. All data must be hand recorded. Computer-
ized data systems are becoming increasingly
important in combustion system analysis
because of their continuous flow of data and
automatic record keeping capabilities.

Measuring Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ) and Oxy-

gen (O2 ) using chemical absorption instruments.
Because of the complexity and the operator
skills demanded by the Orsat flue gas analyzer,
simpler less complex devices have been devel-
oped using the chemical absorption process.
Notable among the test instruments now in
daily use in many plants using this technique are
instruments like the Bacharach Fyrite CO2 and O2
Figure 7.6—CO2 can be measured on both sides of indicators (Figure 7.7).
stoichiometric. This can lead to questions about the The primary difference between the O2 and
actual air-fuel ratio being either air-rich or fuel-rich. CO2 indicators are the chemicals used to absorb
66 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

on which is in use. The volume change, percent

CO2 or O2, can be read in percent on a convenient
scale.

Finding stack losses

By measuring the net stack temperature

(Stack temperature—combustion air tempera-
ture), combustion tables or slide rule (Figure 7.9)
can be used to determine flue gas losses.

Measuring Flue Gas Oxygen on a

Continuous Basis
There are three common methods of measur-
ing oxygen in flue gas on a continuous basis. The
paramagnetic sensor, the wet electrochemical cell
Figure 7.7—Fyrite CO2 or O2 indicator and the zirconium oxide ceramic cell.

these gases. They are a very practical, simple,

rugged and economical approach to combus-
tion testing. Also, they are very
useful for backing-up the more
complex instruments which
may develop errors and faults
from time to time.
To operate the Fyrite O 2
and CO2 indicators, a flue gas
sample is extracted from an ap-
propriate point, using the hand
operated sampling assembly.
The rubber cap is placed over
a spring loaded plunger valve
which opens when pressure is
applied (Figure 7.8). The aspi-
rator rubber bulb is squeezed
about 18 times in succession to
clear the sampling apparatus,
insuring an undiluted flue gas
sample. When the plunger is
released, the flue gas sample is
trapped in the instrument.
The FYRITE is now invert-
ed twice, thoroughly mixing the
flue gas sample with the chem-
ical reagents which absorb of Figure 7.8—Use of the Fyrite illustrated for testing for carbon dioxide
either the O2 or CO2, depending (CO2 ) and Oxygen (O2 )
Combustion Analysis 67

Figure 7.9—The combustion slide rule

Paramagnetic Zirconium Oxide Cell

In recent years, The zirconium oxide cell
The paramagnetic sensor takes advantage has become the most common oxygen sensor for
of the fact the oxygen molecules are strongly in- continuous monitoring of flue gases. The sensor
fluenced by a magnetic field. Because of this and was developed in the mid-1960s in conjunction
because other flue gas constituents, notably NO, with the U.S. space program and because of its
NO2 and certain hydrocarbons exhibit apprecia- inherent ability to make oxygen measurements
ble paramagnetic properties this instrument is in hot, dirty gases without sample conditioning,
usually limited to the laboratory. it was quickly accepted by industrial users. The
sampling element itself is a closed end tube or
disk made from ceramic zirconium.
Wet electrochemical Instruments The zirconium oxide cell has several signif-
icant advantages over the other oxygen sensing
Wet electrochemical cells, of which there are methods. First, since the cell operates at high
many designs, all use two electrodes in contact temperatures, there is no need to cool or dry flue
with an aqueous electrolyte. Oxygen molecules gases before it is analyzed. Most zirconium oxide
diffuse through a membrane to the cathode where analyzers make direct oxygen measurements on
a chemical reaction occurs. the stack with nothing more than a filter to keep
The electrochemical cell is essentially a bat- ash away from the cell. The cell is not affected
tery with an electrical current that is directly by vibration and unlike other techniques, the
proportional to the flow of oxygen through the output actually increases with decreasing oxygen
membrane. concentration. In addition the cell has a virtually
These cells are designed to be replaced eas- unlimited shelf life.
ily, however as the flue gas sample is extracted
from the stack and brought to the sensor, sample
conditioning is required as well as periodic main- In situ vs. Close-coupled
tenance on the sampling system which becomes Extractive Analyzers
fouled with combustion products and a high
moisture level. The high maintenance required There are two basic types of flue gas oxygen
for these sensors is a definite drawback. analyzers that employ the zirconium oxide cell: in
situ and closed coupled extractive.
68 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

In situ Analyzer to measure on a dry basis. The difference between

In an in situ analyzer, the zirconium oxide wet and dry measurements can result in readings
cell is located at the end of a stainless steel probe that may differ by as much as 0.5 percent oxygen.
that is inserted directly into the flue gas stream. A If the condition occurs where the combus-
small heating element encompasses the cell, and tibles concentration increases to a point where
a thermocouple provides feedback to an external there is no net oxygen in the flue gas, it becomes
temperature control circuit. a sensor of net combustibles. The voltage gener-
ated by the cell increases sharply as the flue gas
Close-coupled Extractive Analyzer changes from a net oxygen to a net combustibles
A close-coupled extractive analyzer is de- condition. This property of a zirconium cell is
signed somewhat differently. The zirconium ox- extremely useful on some combustion processes
ide element and temperature controlled furnace because it permits measurement on both sides
are housed in an insulated enclosure mounted of stoichiometric combustion, either excess air or
outside, but immediately adjacent to, the flue gas excess fuel.
stack or duct.
While in situ analyzers are limited to flue
gas temperatures of about 1100 F [593 C] or less, Relative Humidity
close-coupled sensors can be used with high tem-
perature probe materials up to 3,200 F [1760 C]. Relative humidity can change the amount of
In general, close-coupled units respond much oxygen in air at 70 F [21 C] from 20.9% at 0% RH
faster to changes in the flue gas stream because to 20.4% at 100% RH. This 0.5% change will effect
they do not rely on diffusion to carry the sample excess air settings and efficiency (0.2% or more).
to the sensing cell. A close coupled sensor can be
fitted with a catalytic combustibles sensor in the
same flow loop as the oxygen cell, thus making a Oxygen Deficiency and Safety
combination oxygen/combustibles analyzer.
In measuring oxygen O 2 , here are some
important points to keep in mind. Normal air
Net Oxygen Vs. Gross Oxygen contains 20.9% oxygen and 79.1% nitrogen; the
Measurements usual alarm point is 19.5% unconsciousness oc-
curs at 15%; brain damage at 10%, and death at
As burners cannot mix fuel and air perfectly, 5%. (These are approximate figures and may vary
both oxygen and unburned combustibles are in with the individual.
the flue gas. zirconium oxide analyzers indicate
net oxygen; i.e., the oxygen left over after burning
whatever combustibles are present on the hot zir- Carbon Monoxide and Combustibles
conium oxide cell. Orsat, paramagnetic and wet Measurement Methods
cell oxygen analyzers measure gross oxygen.
Usually the difference between net and gross There are three prevalent methods for on­line
measurements are small since combustibles are monitoring of flue gas combustibles: wet electro-
generated in the parts per million range. Occa- chemical cell, catalytic element, and non-disper-
sionally conditions may occur where net and sive infrared absorption.
gross readings are significantly different. Differ-
ences may also occur because zirconium oxide Electrochemical cell
measures oxygen on a wet basis; i.e. the flue gas The wet electrochemical cell technique is
contains water vapor. The other measuring tech- used only for carbon monoxide. It works on the
niques all require cool, dry samples and are said principle that current flowing between the anode
Combustion Analysis 69

and cathode is directly proportional to the flow of systems requiring CO/combustibles measure-
carbon monoxide through the membrane. There ment as an active input generally utilize infrared
are problems that occur with this type, flow rate carbon monoxide analyzers.
as affected by the ambient pressure, temperature
and humidity. Furthermore, the membrane can
become coated with flue gas condensation, thus Infrared CO Measurement
reducing its effectiveness. Because of this, these
sensors are prone to zero and span drift. Carbon monoxide is one of many gases that
are known to absorb infrared energy at specific
discrete wavelengths. The amount of energy ab-
Catalytic Combustibles Sensor sorbed is a measure of the concentration of car-
bon monoxide.
Catalytic element sensors have been widely There are two types of carbon monoxide an-
used for detecting combustible gases in ambient alyzers: off-stack (sampling) and across the stack
air in mine shafts, parking garages, and other (in situ).
closed areas. High quality sensors with carefully
selected elements, can be used to measure carbon
monoxide in flue gas. Catalytic sensors are avail- Off-stack CO Analyzers
able with full scale ranges as sensitive as 0-2000
ppm combustibles and with accuracies of (+/–) Off-stack analyzers are housed in enclosures
100 ppm or better. suitable for the environmental conditions and are
The principle behind all catalytic sensors is usually located at easily accessible places near
the same, if combustibles and oxygen are both the combustion process. In most cases a sampling
present in a gas stream, they will not normally system is required to clean, dry, and cool the sam-
burn together unless the temperature is elevated ple before it enters the analyzer. Provision for the
something above 1000 F [638 C] However, if the introduction of calibration gases are usually an
same gas mixture comes in contact with a solid integral part of the design of the sample condi-
catalyst, such as platinum, combustion will occur tioning system.
at temperatures as low as 400 F [204 C].
There are two elements present, one with a
catalyst in an inert binder the other is inert. The Across-the-stack CO Analyzers
entire housing is heated to over 400 F, when the
flue gas sample containing both oxygen and com- Across-the-stack CO analyzers are based on
bustibles pass through the housing, combustion the same technical principles as off-stack analyz-
occurs on the active element but not on the refer- ers but their design is somewhat different. The
ence element. This causes the temperature of the infrared source is housed in an enclosure that
active element to rise and its resistance to change. mounts directly on the stack or duct. The infrared
Some close-coupled extractive oxygen analyzers beam generated by the source passes completely
have been modified to incorporate a catalytic through the stack into a similar enclosure mount-
combustibles sensor in addition to the oxygen ed on the other side.
sensor. There are two major advantages of the
The catalytic sensor has the advantage of be- across-the-stack systems. First, the speed of re-
ing both low cost and sensitive to hydrogen and sponse is nearly instantaneous. Off-stack sys-
carbon monoxide. These sensors make it ideal tems, conversely, can take several minutes to re-
for flue gas monitoring and recording. However, spond to a change in flue gas conditions. Second,
the zero and span stability of the sensor is not as across-the-stack systems provide a measurement
good as that of the infrared sensor. Combustion of the average CO concentration in the stack.
70 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Unlike off-stack analyzers, which sample from a Waterside deposits caused by improper wa-
single point, they are unaffected by stratification ter treatment also can lead to high stack tempera-
or stagnation of flue gases in various areas of the tures, but tube failures due to overheating gener-
stack. ally occur before any substantial efficiency losses
The measurement of carbon monoxide or are evident from these internal tube deposits.
combustibles is an important part of achieving
maximum combustion efficiency. The result will Rising Stack Temperatures
be less fuel wasted and more money saved. Indicate a Problem
Stack-temperature measurements are an
easy and effective means for monitoring boil-
Opacity er-tube fouling. This is done by comparing the
present temperature to the start up temperature
Smoking with oil and coal fuels indicates or a temperature recorded when the boiler was in
the presence of flue-gas combustibles or unac- a clean condition.
ceptable flame conditions, and always should be Since stack temperatures usually increase
avoided. Some boilers, especially larger ones, are with firing rate and excess air, make your com-
equipped with smoke detectors, which can indi- parisons at similar boiler operating conditions.
cate poor stack conditions. Ultimately, stack con- In the absence of previous data, flue gas tem-
ditions should be checked by visual observation. peratures normally are about 150 to 200 F above
Accurate spot check type smoke measure- steam temperature for a boiler producing saturat-
ments can also be made with the inexpensive, ed steam at high firing rates.
portable hand pump with filter paper testers de- Boilers equipped with economizers and air
scribed above. preheaters should be judged by observing the
These devices use the smoke spot number or flue gas temperature immediately after leaving
ASTM (American Society for Testing & Materials) the last of these heat recovery units.
smoke scale(standard D-2156), and can be very
helpful in establishing optimum boiler condi-
tions. Accuracy of Sampling Techniques

For oxygen, CO and smoke analyzers the

Stack Temperature portion of the gas analyzed must be representa-
tive of the total gas stream. Location of the sam-
Deposits and fouling of external tube surfac- pling site can be as important as the selection of
es with soot, ash and other products inhibit the the proper measurement device.
absorption of heat in the unit and lead to lower To illustrate: on negative draft boilers, the
efficiencies. Deposits are indicated by flue-gas gas sampling point should be upstream of the air
temperatures that are high compared to clean preheater, if one is installed, or upstream of any
conditions. The efficiency loss resulting from known air leaks. Reason is that air leakage into
dirty tubes can be estimated with the RULE OF the gas ducts can dilute flue gas and resultant
THUMB: measurements won’t give a true indication of fur-
nace conditions. Air leakage in preheaters poses
—————————————————————— the same problem.
EVERY INCREASE OF 40 DEG F IN Sample conditions immediately down-
STACK TEMPERATURE REDUCES stream of bends, dampers, or induced fans
EFFICIENCY BY ABOUT 1%. should be avoided. Gases in such areas can strat-
—————————————————————— ify or form pockets leading to errors, especially
when samples are withdrawn from a single
Combustion Analysis 71

point in a duct. The situation is further complicated by the

When a single-point probe is to be used, possibility of some CO monitoring instruments
compare several readings in the duct first, to find becoming insensitive and going off scale requir-
the most representative probe location. When ing a waiting period for them to come back to
existing ports are not satisfactory, drill or cut out operating range. During this period you may be
new ports and run traverse measurements. Re- blind to what is actually happening to the CO
member, unless you get truly representative data, level. One precaution that may be taken is to use a
your testing program will be of little value. combustibles analyzer along with the CO instru-
Flue-gas temperatures are subject to strat- ment, the combustibles analyzer is less sensitive
ification in ducts and a representative location and will indicate the actual situation over a wider
of thermometers or other temperature sensors range.
should be verified. Carbon monoxide measurements on oil and
Position them close to the boiler outlet, coal fired equipment is less often used because
because thermal losses can occur in the flue gas smoking or excessive carbon carryover usually
duct, especially in uninsulated sections. precedes the formation of large quantities of CO.
This is not always the case, however.
High CO levels have been measured on units
Using Carbon Monoxide where burner equipment had deteriorated or
to Measure Performance malfunctioned, impellers had burned off, oil tips
plugged, over fire air was too low, etc. Also, CO
On gas fired boilers carbon monoxide is the can be caused by chilling the combustion process
primary indicator of incomplete combustion and before the fuel is completely burned, two ways
usually determines the lowest practical level of this can happen is chilling of the flame with ex-
oxygen. The concentration of CO in the flue-gas cessive (cold) concentrations of combustion air in
should not exceed 400 ppm or .04% (the limit part of the flame and through flame impingement
established by many state and city ordinances, on the (cooler) boiler tubes.
industry codes and insurance companies). Knowing the CO level is very valuable, The
Once the final adjustments are made. It is CO analyzer should be capable of measuring
wise to observe the operation of a boiler for an from less than 100 to more than 2,000 ppm. While
extended period to insure that your adjustments Orsat analyzers have traditionally been used to
are final and there is no condition present that can determine CO, difficulties in accurate reading
increase the CO level above the acceptable limit. of concentrations less than 1000 ppm have pre-
When performing tests, occasional CO levels sented problems in the modern environment.
of up to 1000-2000 ppm may be encountered. Ad- Portable or permanently installed electronic type
equate boiler monitoring and flame observation CO analyzers have the ability to measure CO
are very important to assure stable conditions. Use continuously, having the advantage of indicating
caution at these levels because even a slight lower- excursions in CO that may not be detected with
ing of excess air can cause the CO level to skyrock- occasional spot readings.
et, which can lead to smoking, flame instability,
furnace pulsation and possibly an explosion.
 Chapter 8

The Control of Boilers

Controlling boilers can be a complex subject. Safety Controls

The intent here is to summarize, simplify and
clarify the subject of boiler controls. There are The purpose of the boiler safety control sys-
many very good companies specializing in boiler tem is to prevent explosions and other damage to
controls who have been continually improving the boiler. If an accumulation of unburned fuel
control system technology for many years. vapor suddenly ignites, explosive levels of ener-
The field of boiler controls is an advancing gy can be released and cause severe damage to
rapidly especially since the introduction of dis- the boiler and surrounding countryside.
tributed digital systems, the latest in a long string If the water level in the boiler drops below a
of advances. However, the basics of boiler control certain point, it could have a melt down. If there
are straight forward and subject to less change. are disruptive fuel pressure changes, the ensu-
ing flame instability could cause an explosion or
heavy smoking. These and several other condi-
Steam Pressure Control tions must, for the sake of safety, be controlled at
all times.
The steam pressure is the balance point be-
tween demand for energy in the distribution sys-
tem and the supply of fuel and air to the boiler for Combustion Control
combustion.
As energy is used by the steam system, pres- The energy is supplied to the boiler by the
sure drops, creating a demand for more energy. combustion process and the combustion control
Several interacting control loops are used to system regulates the firing rate by controlling
insure steam pressure is maintained and that the amount of air and fuel delivered to the burners.
flows of water, air and fuel are managed to insure Combustion control systems are regulated
safe, efficient and reliable operation. to maintain the desired steam pressure and they
These control loops are: must be able to respond the many dynamic as-
pects of the burner, fuel and air control sub-sys-
———————————————————————— tems in a coordinated way to maintain the steam
• Boiler Safety Controls pressure set point in spite of demands of the
• Combustion Control steam distribution system.
• Feedwater Control
• Blowdown Control
Feedwater Control
• Furnace Pressure Control
• Steam Temperature Control The purpose of the feedwater control system
• Cold End Temperature Control for air heat- is to maintain the correct water level in the boiler
ers and economizers during all load conditions.
——————————————————————— Feedwater control must be able to regulate
73
74 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

water level under very dynamic conditions when Cold End Temperature Control
the heat rate changes in the boiler causes the water
level to shrink and swell, due to steam bubble vol- When economizers and air heaters are used
ume changes in response to firing rate changes. to remove heat from flue gases, sulfur oxides
The boiler feedwater control system must can form sulfuric and sulfurous acids which can
also respond to momentary changes in steam de- cause damage to boiler and exhaust system com-
mand replacing steam that has left the boiler with ponents.
feedwater.
If the feedwater control system fails, there
may be serious problems. A high water level can Soot Blower Control
cause severe damage to the distribution system
and machinery like turbines. A low water level can The accumulation of soot, fly ash and other
allow the high flame temperatures to weaken and deposits on heat exchange surfaces lowers the
melt the boiler steel causing a catastrophic high heat transfer and efficiency of a boiler raising the
energy release of steam from inside the boiler. stack temperature (Figure 8.1). It is an economic
consideration to keep boilers as clean as possible.
On many boilers soot blowing operations are
Blowdown Control automated and since the accumulation of soot is
roughly proportional to the number of hours the
As water in the boiler is evaporated to pro- boiler has been operated, automatic sootblow-
duce steam, impurities are concentrated. Unless ers are usually activated on a simple time clock
the concentration of these impurities is kept un- mechanism.
der control, severe scaling of the heat transfer
surfaces and tube failure can occur.
Impurities can also be carried over into the
distribution system and depending on conditions
at the steam water interface, can cause surges of
water into the steam system.
Blowdown is also controlled to eliminate the
waste of energy by preventing more hot water
than is necessary from being dumped from the
operating boiler.

Furnace Pressure Control

Some larger boilers have been designed

for balanced or negative draft and requiring a
furnace pressure slightly below atmospheric for
proper combustion and safe operation.

Steam Temperature Control

In boilers where superheaters are used to

raise steam temperature above the saturation
point, the temperature of this superheated steam
must be regulated. Figure 8.1­—Effect of soot on fuel consumption
The Control of Boilers 75

Safety Valves Flame Safety Controls

The purpose of safety controls is to prevent Flame safety controls continuously monitor
explosions. Safety devices are installed for the the pilot and main flame zone to detect the un-
pressure vessel which usually consists of safety interrupted presence of the flame (Figure 8.2). If
valves sized to carry away steam faster than it can unburned fuel is allowed to accumulate in the
be generated by the boiler in the event an over boiler there could be an explosion, so this system
pressure situation exists. This is a mechanical must have the capability to shut down the fuel
system consisting of safety valves and exhaust system almost immediately. These systems were
piping to vent the escaping steam harmlessly developed from studying lessons learned from
through the roof. boiler explosions and disasters over the years.
Boiler controls also sense overpressure and Flame safety controls are designed to shut
override the main control system and shut off the off the fuel to prevent explosions that can occur
flow of fuel to the boiler. when:

Figure 8.2—Flame safety diagram showing safety shut off valves

76 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

1. An ignition source could be introduced into Safety Interlocks

a furnace that contains air and accumulated
fuel vapors that could become an explosive • Automatic start up sequencing has been
mixture. designed to insure fuel air and combustion
occur under controlled and safe conditions.
2. Fuel is discharged into the furnace during
Each boiler must be equipped with an ap-
start up without proper ignition taking place.
proved safety system which has the capa-
3. The burner flame is extinguished during bility to shut it down in the event an unsafe
normal operation without the fuel supply condition develops during start up. This
being shut off. system coordinates with safety interlocks for
4. A major malfunction in the burner or feed- shutdown if an unsafe condition is detected.
water systems. Shutdown is accomplished by stopping the
start up sequence and closing the Safety Shut
5. Variations exist in fuel pressure which could Off Valves (SSV).
cause flame instability.
• Loss of flame interlock; if there is no flame in
Purging Combustible Gasses on Light-off the combustion zone, the boiler must be shut
The start-up condition presents perhaps the down immediately to prevent the accumu-
greatest danger from explosion. It is essential that lation of combustible vapors, which when
the furnace be purged of all combustible gases conditions are right, could cause a powerful
before any source of ignition is introduced and explosion. Pilot flame ignition, main flame
that once fuel flow is initiated, ignition take place ignition and main flame monitoring are all
quickly. important to the prevention of combustibles
Purging the furnace is usually accomplished build up. The Safety Shut Off Valves (SSV)
with the combustion air fan. A purging air timer close to stop fuel supply to burners when the
does not allow ignition until the fan has been op- flame scanners do not sense a flame at the
erated for a specific period of time. For watertube burner.
boilers the purge airflow must be sufficient for at
least eight air changes to occur. • Purge interlock; the combustion products
For firetube boilers, the purge is conducted and possible accumulations of explosive fuel
with wide open dampers and four air changes is vapors must be purged from the boiler be-
normally required. In either case, air flow is ver- fore each light off and after each shut down.
ified by providing limit switches on the dampers
and a pressure switch at the fan discharge, or by • Low air interlock; if air supply is less than
providing airflow measurement devices such as required for safe combustion, the boiler must
differential pressure switches. be shut down to prevent an accumulation of
Once fuel has been initiated to the pilot a fuel rich and possibly explosive mixture in
flame or the main burner, flame verification is the boiler.
usually achieved by means of a flame scanning
device. These flame scanners may be either the • Low fuel supply interlock; loss of fuel de-
infrared flicker type or the ultraviolet type. livery can cause flame instability, erratic
Recently manufacturers of flame safety combustion, poor atomization of some fuel
control components have introduced integrated oil equipment and the possibility of an ex-
flame safety systems based on microcomputer plosion. If low fuel pressure is detected the
technology with self diagnostic features. They boiler is shut down.
are programmed to perform boiler start up and
shutdown sequences, alarm communication and • Low water interlock; The combustion flame
perform energy conservation functions. may be more than 3,000 F which is above the
The Control of Boilers 77

melting point for boiler steel. The pressure Parallel Positioning Control
vessel is normally kept cool by the water and
steam which carries away the energy from Parallel positioning control is probably the
combustion. If the water level becomes low, most common control scheme for small industrial
metal temperatures can rise beyond a safe boilers. With this type of control the signal from
point, melting boiler components allowing the steam pressure sensor goes simultaneously to
a catastrophic release of energy from the the fuel flow and air flow regulating devices. The
steam and hot water contained in the pres- position of these regulating devices is determined
sure vessel. by the magnitude of the signal from the steam
pressure sensor (Figure 8.3).
• Other interlocks are used for specific boiler Parallel positioning systems offer the advan-
applications which override the control op- tages of fast response and simplicity of operation
eration when necessary. and have been found to be very reliable. Individ-
ual components can be adjusted independently,
so control system tuning is facilitated.
Basic Firing Rate Control Parallel positioning systems do have a short-
coming. The master signal operates on feedback
There are several methods of controlling from of the actual steam pressure.
steam flow, the most common method uses steam The individual air and fuel regulators do not have
pressure to generate a master control signal. The a feedback loop to assure that the air to fuel ratios
master control signal is usually utilized by one are in the desired range.
of two types of control methods: parallel control Parallel positioning control systems employ
positioning or series control positioning. mechanical, pneumatic, electronic and digital
control elements.

Figure 8.3—Parallel positioning control system

78 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Jackshaft Control Systems tioning control provides a margin of safety that is

not available in parallel positioning control.
The jackshaft control system (Figure 8.4) For example, if the damper positioner is the
is a simple form of parallel positioning control. first controlled device, then the fuel flow cannot
Figure (8.5) is a functional schematic of the logic increase unless the air damper actually opens.
of this type of system. This logic path becomes This prevents a hazardous condition from oc-
more sophisticated with the increase of boiler size curring should the damper drive fail to operate
where response time of different elements such as correctly.
fuel and air require special consideration. Control of the air and fuel regulators in a se-
ries positioning system is open-loop, just as in the
parallel type system. A series positioning system
Series Positioning Control can develop a temporary upset in the fuel to air
In a series positioning control system (Figure ratio during rapid load changes. This upset can
8.6), the control signal from the steam pressure be corrected by adding “cross-limiting” or “lead-
sensor is not simultaneously sent to the fuel and lag” to the control.
air regulating devices. Rather, the signal is sent to
only one of the regulating devices. The displace- Cross Limiting Control Features
ment of this first device is then measured and
used to control the position of the second device. Cross limiting control prevents a fuel rich
By using the actual displacement of one mixture on load changes. This is needed because
regulating device to control the other, series posi- fuel response is much faster than air system re-

Figure 8.4—Jackshaft type burner control system, basic parallel control

The Control of Boilers 79

Figure 8.5—Functional schematic of jackshaft burner control system

sponse to load changes. The lag in response of air Metering Control Systems
delivery is caused by the compressible nature of
air and the slow response of damper positioners Metering control systems overcome both the
and the speed change characteristics of some shortcomings of parallel and series positioning
types of blowers. Low and high selectors are used control, but the added cost and complexity of me-
to insure there is more than enough combustion tered control has generally restricted their use to
air available to insure there is no smoking on load large boilers (Figure 8.8).
changes. With metering control, the control of the fuel
For example, as in Figure 8.7, the high selec- and air regulators is a closed loop. The steam
tor [>] receives the firing demand signal [60%] pressure is measured and feedback is provided to
and actual fuel flow signal [55%]; it sends the the master controller which adjusts the fuel and
higher value to the air damper positioner. The air flows. The fuel and airflows are also measured
low selector [<] compares the firing demand sig- and feedback is provided to their control devices
nal [60%] and the air flow signal [55%] and sends to insure they are in accord with the master con-
this lower signal to control the fuel flow valve. troller.
80 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 8.6—Series positioning control system

Feedwater Control With the “shrink-swell” phenomena it is dif-

ficult to measure drum level accurately. As steam
The purpose of feedwater control is to main- demand increases, the steam pressure decreases
tain the correct water level in the boiler during lowering drum pressure. This decrease in pres-
all load conditions. The simplest control systems sure plus the increased firing rate to meet this
use one variable, water level as the input to the higher demand increases the volume of steam
control system as illustrated in Figure 8.9. bubbles in the drum water, increasing its water
The controllability can be improved by add- level temporarily. This swelling of water level
ing information about steam flow and feedwater sends a false signal to the drum level controller
flow rates. This is called a three element feedwa- indicating a need for less water rather than more,
ter control system (Figure 8.10), the flow rates of as the circumstances actually require. Converse-
steam and water are compared to overcome any ly, as steam demand decreases, drum pressure
momentary false water levels caused by the shrink increases and there is less combustion heat for
and swell affects due to rapid load changes. steam formation. This contracts the volume of
The Control of Boilers 81

Figure 8.7—Cross limiting control features

Figure 8.8—Metering control system using flow

sensing elements to insure accuracy of fuel and air positioners.
82 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 8.9—Single element feedwater control system

Figure 8.10—Three-element feedwater control system.

The Control of Boilers 83

steam bubbles in the drum water which the drum Boiler blowdown water is often passed
level controller interprets as a need for more through a heat exchanger to recover the energy
water, which is colder than the boiler saturation which would otherwise be wasted. Heat from
temperature causing further shrinking. the boiler blowdown is usually used to heat the
The three element control loop is very pre- incoming boiler makeup feedwater.
cise and stable because of the closed­loop control
of the feedwater valve. It measures steam flow
and water flow as well as drum water level. This Furnace Pressure Control
system can adjust for actual steam and water flow
conditions balancing this information against Furnace pressure conditions must be closely
measured water level. controlled to establish safe and efficient firing
Feedwater controllers are available in pneu- conditions. Air fuel mixing for the burner systems
matic, analog electric and digital electronic mod- depends to a great degree on the differential pres-
els. sure across the burner.
Different challenges apply to different siz-
es of boilers. Figure 8.11 shows a natural draft,
Blowdown Control balanced draft, induced draft and forced draft
systems. Each configuration will require special
Blowdown is done either intermittently or control considerations.
continuously. On many smaller boilers blow- Damper openings, forced draft fans, induced
down is performed manually after an analysis draft fans and stack effect all play an important
of the boiler water indicates that the water is ex- role in various furnace pressure control systems.
ceeding impurity limits.
If too much hot boiler water is blown down Steam Temperature Control
from the boiler an excessive amount of energy is Superheaters are used to raise the steam
wasted. If the concentration of impurities in the temperature above the saturation point for super-
boiler is allowed to get to high, carry-over and heated steam. In doing so, the temperature of the
scale formation can occur. superheated steam must be regulated. The main
Control systems are available which will au- control loop is to regulate the superheated steam
tomatically perform the operations necessary to temperature by a desuperheater steam valve.
blow down the boiler. This control loop is enhanced by a feed forward,
Automatic blowdown controllers use electro- usually air flow, signal into the loop plus an in-
chemical cells to measure the concentration of ner loop cascade signal for spray water flow to
minerals by measuring electrical conductivity eliminate the effects of spray valve performance
and acid (PH) levels. variations.
The signal corresponding to the impurity
level is compared to the setpoint and when ex- Cold End Temperature Control
ceeded, blowdown is initiated. Cold end corrosion occurs when metal tem-
Boilers operated at a steady load may be peratures fall below the dew point for sulfurous
equipped with a continuous blowdown system. and sulfuric acids. The most critical point for the
A continuous blowdown system removes a con- economizer is the feedwater entrance point to
tinuous, usually small amount, of water from the the heat exchanger where metal surfaces can be
steam drum to keep the concentration of undesir- cooled below the acid dew point.
able chemicals at a safe level. In air preheaters a steam or glycol heating
Manual blowdown to remove sludge which system is used to regulate the cold end tempera-
has settled in the mud (lower) drum is still neces- ture. A single element control of the heating con-
sary. trol valve may be adequate. However, the three
 84

Figure 8.11—(A) Natural Draft, (B) Balanced Draft,(C) Induced draft and Forced Draft Systems
Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual
The Control of Boilers 85

element air heater cold­end temperature control desired value, the control system will take no ac-
may have to be used. tion to correct it. For this reason it is highly desir-
able to modify a boiler control system to include
Controls to Improve Efficiency feedback of information on the air to fuel ratio.
To a great extent, the efficiency of a boiler is This is done by adding either an oxygen trim or
dependent on the design of the burner, heat ex- carbon monoxide trim system to the boiler con-
changer and other design parameters which can- trols.
not be easily changed. However, changes in fuel The effect on air/fuel ratio on flue gas anal-
composition, air temperature, pressure and hu- ysis is shown in Figure 8.12, knowing the rela-
midity, boiler load and equipment condition all tionship of measured flue gas oxygen, carbon
introduce changes in boiler performance which dioxide, carbon monoxide, combustibles, special
can be accommodated for with improved control. instruments can be used to measure and control
In general “improved control” means better the boiler for efficient air fuel ratios.
control of the air fuel ratio. The simple parallel
positioning and series positioning systems have
open-loop control of the fuel and airflows. There Oxygen Trim
is no feedback into the control system which tells
the system what the actual fuel and airflows are. The idea behind oxygen trim controls is to
Feedback maximize boiler efficiency by operating at the
is provided only by the steam header pressure. point where the combined efficiency losses due to
If the header pressure is at the control set unburned fuel and excess air losses is minimized.
point but the fuel to air ratio is nowhere near the An oxygen trim system measures the excess

Figure 8-12—Composition of boiler flue gases with changes in air/fuel ration for natural gas.
86 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

oxygen in the combustion products and adjusts tems are that it is independent of fuel type and it
the airflow accordingly for peak combustion effi- is almost unaffected by air infiltration common in
ciency (Figure 8.13). the negative draft type of boilers.
Carbon monoxide systems must be viewed
with caution because the carbon monoxide lev-
Carbon Monoxide Trim el is not always a measure of excess air. A dirty
burner, poor atomization, flame chilling, flame
Carbon monoxide (CO) trim systems are also impingement on boiler tubes and poor fuel mix-
used to excess air. Carbon monoxide trim sys- ing can also cause a rise in carbon monoxide lev-
tems, in fact offer several advantages over oxygen el.
trim systems.
In the carbon monoxide system trim system,
the amount of unburned fuel (in the form of CO) Digital Control
in the flue gasses is measured directly and the air
to fuel ratio control is set to actual combustion The latest developments in automatic boiler
conditions rather than pre-set oxygen levels. This control systems have been in the technology of
way the carbon monoxide trim system is contin- distributed digital control (DDC) of boilers. DDC
uously searching out the point of maximum effi- systems are based on microcomputer technology
ciency (Figure 8.14). and control the boiler by means of “software”
Other benefits of carbon monoxide trim sys- rather than fixed interconnections or “hardwired

Figure 8-13—A jackshaft control system with oxygen trip control.

The Control of Boilers 87

logic.” Digital control systems often combine 1. The control instructions and set points can
the functions previously performed by separate be easily changed.
hardware systems such as combustion control,
2. The systems are easily expanded to include
safety controls and interlocks, and monitoring
more control features or more boilers.
and data acquisition.
In a typical DDC system, input devices such 3. Low cost control redundancy.
as sensors, switches and position encoders are ac- 4. Boiler operation diagnostics and perfor-
cessed at very short intervals insuring any prob- mance data acquisition.
lem is dealt with almost immediately.
The advantages of distributed digital based 5. Control system self-diagnostics.
control systems include: 6. Easy access to important real­time or histori-
cal information by telecommunication links.

Figure 8.14—A carbon monoxide trim system is capable of maintaining the most effi-
cient air fuel ratio because it does not need a buffer zone. It locates the most efficient
operating level automatically.
 Chapter 9

Boiler Tuneup
[The Importance of Operating Boilers with Minimum Excess Air]

Reducing excess air is one of the most ef- adding something new to a boiler if it can be cor-
fective boiler improvement techniques one can rected by maintenance and repairs or a tuneup.
apply without high capital cost. When excess air
is reduced, several things are accomplished:
A Tuneup Starts With
• When hot combustion gases leave a boiler,
an Inspection and Testing
they have the potential to carry away a lot
of waste energy. The less volume of exhaust
Efficiency improvements obtained under a
gas, the less loss there is.
deteriorated state of the boiler can be substan-
• Flue gas velocity is reduced increasing the tially less than the improvements achieved under
time available for heat transfer in the boiler. proper working conditions. Therefore, it is essen-
• Flame temperature is raised, increasing ra- tial that the boiler be examined prior to testing
diant heat transfer in the combustion zone and that necessary repairs and maintenance be
walls. Heat transfer in the combustion or ra- completed.
diant heat transfer zone is very efficient and One of the first questions in tuning up an
becomes more efficient as flame temperature operating boiler is whether or not is necessary to
goes up. This increase of heat exchange effi- take the boiler out of operation and go through
ciency reduces stack temperatures. the expense of opening it up for a formal inspec-
tion.
• Pollution is reduced because less fuel is re- A preliminary efficiency test and review
quired to meet the same demands. of records might provide valuable information
about a boilers operating condition and whether
The increase in efficiency available from or not a more detailed inspection is necessary.
tuning up a boiler has three direct and related The condition of the burner system and
benefits: combustion process can be judged by the excess
(1) it saves fuel dollars, oxygen level. Boiler start up records and records
of previous tuneups provide a valuable reference
(2) it reduces the cost of energy at the point of
point for your tuneup program. Even a call to the
use and
manufacturer can provide useful information on
(3) it increases the steam output available from the boiler’s expected performance characteristics
a boiler (increased productivity). and minimum expected excess air levels.
The two important goals of a boiler tuneup
When evaluating boiler efficiency improve- are minimum excess air and stack temperature.
ment projects, cost and benefit calculations must Figure 9.1 shows the zone of highest efficiency
be based on the tuned up efficiency of the boiler where excess air [oxygen] is lowest and just be-
to prevent false estimates of benefits. It doesn’t fore carbon monoxide and combustibles, in the
make sense to attempt to correct a problem by form of carbon monoxide, hydrogen and un-
89
90 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

burned hydrocarbons, begin to show up. cleaning, to identify any deviations from baseline
If this information is not available, then levels. Since stack temperature usually increases
general information can be used based on infor- with firing rate and excess air, make your com-
mation from typical minimum oxygen settings parisons at similar boiler operating conditions.
in similar boilers. The following general infor- If previous information is not available or if
mation on minimum excess oxygen is based on a temperatures seem excessive, the following graph
large number of boiler tests and is applicable to (Fig 9.2) can be used for general estimates. Tem-
high firing rates. As firing rate decreases burner perature readings to measure boiler performance
performance falls off and more excess air may be must be taken before economizers or air heaters
needed for some burners. cool down the flue gases but overall performance
is judged from the temperature after these units.

Target Oxygen Levels

• Natural gas boilers, 0.5% to 3% Inspecting Your Boiler
• Liquid fuels, 2% to 4%
• Pulverized coal, 3% to 6% Boiler components that you should inspect
• Stoker fired coal, 4% to 8% before conducting efficiency tests include burn-
ers, combustion controls and furnace. Typical
things to look for are shown below (Figure 9.3
Stack Temperature through Figure 9.5). Consult your boiler manu-
facturer for a more complete list appropriate to
Stack temperature measurements are an the specific equipment in your plant.
easy and effective means for monitoring boiler
tube cleanliness and the general effectiveness Oil burners
of the heat exchange process in a boiler. Exist- • Make sure the atomizer is suitable for your
ing temperatures can be compared to values ob- present firing conditions; for the type of oil
tained during start up or after maintenance and being burned and burner geometry.

Figure 9.1—CO-Oxygen relationship showing CO control range and the effect

of CO and oxygen levels on combustion efficiency.
Boiler Tuneup 91

• Make sure that the burner diffuser (impeller)

is not damaged, and is properly located with
respect to the oil gun tip.
• Check to see that the oil gun is positioned
properly within the burner throat, and the
throat refractory is in good condition.

Gas burners
• Be sure that filters and moisture traps are
in place, clean and, operating properly to
prevent gas orifice plugging. Inspect gas­
injection orifices and verify that all passages
are unobstructed.
• Look for any burned off or missing burner
parts. Confirm location and orientation of
all parts. (Viewing ports are very helpful to
identify faulty flame patterns or other prob-
lems)

Pulverized-coal burners
Figure 9.2—Boiler exhaust temperature above tem- • Verify that fuel and air components, pul-
perature of water-steam temperature in boiler. verizes, feeders, primary and tempering-air
dampers etc are all working properly.
• Verify proper flame pattern through the • Clear coal pipes of any coal and coke depos-
viewing ports located at the sides and back its.
of the boiler, if installed. • Check burner parts for any signs of excessive
• Inspect burners for warping or overheating, erosion or burn-off.
coke and gum deposits. Clean or replace
parts as appropriate. Spreader-stoker firing
• Check grates for wear. Check the stokers and
• Inspect oil tip passages and orifices for wear
the cylinder-reinjection system for proper
and scratches or other marks. Use proper
operation.
size drill or machine gages for testing.
• Confirm the proper positioning of all air-pro-
• Verify proper oil pressure and temperature portioning dampers.
at the burner. This may include resetting the
• Verify proper coal sizing.
fuel oil heater to the grade of oil presently
being fired, calibrating gages and instru-
Combustion controls
ments and resetting pressures to manufac-
• Be sure that all safety interlocks and boiler
tures values or values indicated in engineer-
trip circuits operate.
ing records. If changes are made, careful
observation of actual effects they produce is • See that all system gages are calibrated and
important in the case a problem develops. functioning.
• Verify proper atomizing-steam pressure. • Eliminate play in all control linkages and
Also, be aware a defective steam trap may air dampers. Also check to see if there is
introduce unwanted water into the flame accurate repeatability when load points are
zone. approached from different directions.
92 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 9.3—Preliminary Burner Equipment Checklist I

Boiler Tuneup 93

Figure 9.4—Preliminary Boiler Inspection Checklist II

Figure 9.5—Troubleshooting guide for small oil burners. (Bacharach Co.)

94 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

• Check control elements for smooth accu- flame will cause recirculation patterns which pro-
rate operation. Correct unnecessary hunting duce longer residence time, better air fuel mixing
caused by improperly adjusted regulators and stable flame conditions. Figure 9.6 is an ex-
and automatic master controllers. ample of the swirl pattern developed in register
type burners.
• Inspect all fuel valves to verify proper move-
Basic factors that must be considered when
ment, clean and repair as necessary.
working with burners is burning velocity as influ-
enced the air/fuel ratio and the use to toroids in
the combustion zone. Figure 9.7 shows how burn-
Furnace
ing velocity changes as the air/fuel ratio varies
from stoichiometric conditions.
• The firesides should be clean, check for soot-
Figure 9.8 shows the use of toroids to sta-
blower cleaning efficiency. Consider period-
bilize the combustion zone. The recirculation
ic water-washing if firesides are not being
patterns developed in the toroid zones have a
kept clean by normal soot-blowing.
great influence on combustion behavior. Swirl im-
• Inspect and repair internal baffling. Defec- proves flame stability by forming toroidal recir-
tive baffling allows hot combustion gases to culation zones that recirculate heat and unburned
escape without giving up heat causing high fuel constituents back to the base of the flame. At
stack temperatures. A traverse of the breach- every point in the flame a balance exists between
ing with a temperature indicator may point the velocity of flame propagation and the stream
out local hot spots behind baffle defects. of incoming air and fuel. This also includes off­
Once hot spots are identified, the defects can stoichiometric mixtures of forming gases made
be corrected. up of partially burned mixtures of air and fuel
• Repair any casing leaks and any cracked or and at varying levels of combustion activity. The
missing refractory. trick is to get a complete but stable burn with no
fuel energy wasted and the least amount of excess
• Clean furnace-viewing ports and make sure air possible. Figure 9.9 is a sketch of the final re-
that burner throat, furnace walls and leading sult of such a design.
convection passes are visible. Being able to Various flame types have been developed
see the condition of the flame, burner, refrac- for different applications Figures 9.10 through
tory zone and furnace is essential to detect- Figures 9.16 The topic of NO x control figures
ing and correcting problems. into these various flame types as shown in figure
Figures 9.17, the peak in NOx production belongs
to the ball shaped flame which has extensive re-
Fundamental Combustion circulation. It can be seen that as the surface area
Characteristics of the flame increases relative to volume, the tem-
perature and NOx production falls off.
The chemistry and physics of combustion
very intricate and very difficult to define and de-
scribe. Combustion is notoriously elaborate and Flame appearance
complex field of study. An attempt will now be
made to put a simple face on the subject. The flame is the heart of the combustion
One of the main challenges faced by boiler process, if it isn’t right you will have a serious
and burner manufacturers is to design a compact challenge tuning-up a boiler.
and stable combustion system. Compactness, for The appearance of a boilers flame offers a
lower first cost, and stability for trouble free and good preliminary indication of combustion con-
efficient operations. It has been well known for ditions. It is difficult to generalize the character-
many years that a swirling motion of a burner
Boiler Tuneup 95

Figure 9.6—An illustration of the

swirling motion developed in burn-
ers to increase flame stability, better
mixing and to shape the flame to fit
into the combustion zone with out
either rear wall or side wall impinge-
ment.

velocity
Figure 9.8—The toroid or vortex is used extensively
Figure 9.7—Illustrates the change in burning veloc- in burner design for flame zone stability. They are
ity or flame propagation rate relative to the air/fuel used to create recirculation patterns, to anchor flames
ratio. Maximum rate is at a stoichiometric mixing of and to recirculate partially consumed fuel back into
air and fuel under proper conditions. the active combustion zone insuring good efficiency

istics of a “good” flame because of the variations • Reduced oxygen levels leads to increased
due to burner design and operating conditions. flame length because it takes more time to
As the ideal situation is to operate with burn completely. It actually grows in size,
low-excess air, one must be familiar with the filling the furnace more completely.
conditions this will create compared to higher
• It exhibits a lazy rolling appearance. Instead
excess-air conditions which may be favored by
of intense, highly turbulent flames, low-ox-
operators. Low excess-air operations demands
ygen flames may appear to move somewhat
that plant personnel pay close attention to the
more slowly through the furnace.
combustion process.
96 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 9.9—The combustion re-

circulation pattern established
by main flame swirl to recircu-
late combustion products for
more complete and stable com-
bustion.

• It has an over-all color that may change The combustion problems which typically occur
as excess oxygen is decreased. Natural gas will be due to one or more of the following.
flames for instance, become more visible Observing oil flames provides important
or luminous with yellow or slightly hazy, information concerning the combustion process.
portions. Coal and oil flames become darker The combustion problems which typically occur
yellow and orange and may appear hazy in will be due to one or more of the following.
parts.
Sources of Problems
Although low excess-air operation is import- 1. Excess oxygen level.
ant, it is sometimes not possible to operate this 2. Oil temperature or pressure.
way because of combustion related problems. 3. Oil gun tip.
Observing oil flames provides important 4. Air register setting.
information concerning the combustion process. 5. Oil gun position.

Figure 9.10—Conventional feather or “jet” flame for

all purpose combustion chambers.
Figure 9.11—Headpin flame in which some slight
swirl is introduced for stability especially at low
firing rates.
Boiler Tuneup 97

Figure 9.12—The ball flame with considerable swirl Figure 9.14—Flat flame created by very high swirl
for stability, used in cube type combustion cham- number used to avoid flame impingement, to enhance
bers, produces high NOx wall radiation and to focus refractory radiation.

Figure 9.13—High swirl type flame with intense

mixing. Figure 9.15—Long luminous fire hose type flame for
uniform coverage of long chambers and to reach long
distances. Lower NO x output because of delayed
and slow diffusion.
98 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figures 9.18 through 9.24 demonstrate vari-

ous problems that may develop with typical burn-
ers.

Figure 9.16—A governing reaction in flames and

burners is the diffusion of oxygen into the fuel rich
zone to sustain combustion. In low excess air opera-
tions the rate of evaporation may exceed the mixing
of fuel and oxygen by turbulent diffusion yielding a
process of rich limit ignition. Figure 9.18—Shows the flame pattern for a nearly
ideal flame geometry.

The ideal flame

• Flame barely clears burner throat.

• Flame is bright and smooth with light smoke
wisps on the end.
• Problems, none.

Problems that can occur in a

burner flame of ideal geometry
Figure 9.17—This graphic shows how nitric oxide
Flame contains ragged sparks
concentration changes with swirl patterns, the peak
point in this graph corresponds to the ball type flame • Excess oxygen too high.
in figure 9.12. On the left we have the long luminous • Oil too hot.
or fire hose type flames and on the right the conical
and flat type flames. • Ash in fuel.

Flame very smoky looking

• Excess oxygen too low.

Flame black and oily-looking with no burning

near throat.
• Air register closed.
Boiler Tuneup 99

Figure 9.19—Flame is narrow and does not fill the Figure 9.20—Flame pattern with intermittent oil
throat. Possible thin stream of oil present in the mid- slugs coming out of the tip.
dle of the flame.
Problem:
Problem: • Atomizer problem, tip partially plugged, tip
• Low oil pressure delta-p or return oil line worn or other burner tip problem.
plugged.
• Air register open too far.

Figure 9.21—Flame blow off. May be continuous or Figure 9.22—Flame clears throat, but rolls back, im-
pulsating on and off the tip. pinges and rolls up the furnace wall.

Problem: Problem:
• Air register open too far. • Air register closed too far.
• Oil gun positioned too far in toward the furnace.
100 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Combustion of oil [Figure 9.24]

A. The oil is atomized into fine spherical parti-

cles to develop the largest possible surface
area for vapor formation. The vapor actually
is what burns, not the oil.
B. Next the intense heat in the combustion zone
ignites the vapor and oxygen supports com-
bustion.
C. The vapor and carbon continues to burn re-
ducing the size of the char as it moves away
from the burner. Oxygen infuses in to the
envelope around the burning particle and
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water
Figure 9.23—Flame impinges on burner throat. are given off by the combustion process.

Problem: D. All fuel should be burned in the furnace with

• Oil gun not fully extended into firing position. no impingement on furnace walls.
• Wrong tip or worn tip orifice.

Figure 9.24—Combustion of oil.

Flame appears to be less bright and dense, some- The Basics of a Tuneup
what transparent.
• Oil pressure delta-p too high. Too much re- Keep in mind, the basic criteria for good
turn flow. combustion:
—————————————————————
• Worn tip returning too much oil flow. • Time
• Temperature
• Turbulence
• Sufficient air
—————————————————————
Figure 9.25 Criteria for good combustion
Boiler Tuneup 101

Table 9.1—Troubleshooting chart for problems with smoke.

Note: These tests and adjustments should only be surement of average conditions for the burner
conducted with a through understanding of the being adjusted. When the maximum smoke spot
test objectives and following a systematic, orga- number, for oil or the maximum carbon mon-
nized plan. oxide level for natural gas is reached it should
be noted along with the corresponding burner
Instruments settings. Flame instability is sometimes a limiting
The minimum limits of excess air should be factor on reducing excess air. In stoker fired boil-
approached cautiously with flue gas analyzers ers, the onset of clinkering or overheating of the
which continuously provide an accurate mea- grate sometimes precedes the formation of smoke
102 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

or carbon monoxide. • Consult the boiler operation and mainte-

nance manual supplied with the unit for
Safety details on the combustion control system or
methods of varying burner excess air.
• Extremely low excess oxygen operation can
result in catastrophic results.
• Know at all times the impact of the modifi-
Finding the Smoke and CO Threshold
cation on fuel flow, air flow and the control
system.
Once your boiler is in good working order,
• Observe boiler instrumentation, stack and the next major step in improving efficiency and
flame conditions while making any changes reducing emissions is to establish the lowest level
engineering personnel or the boiler manu- of excess oxygen at which the unit can operate
facturer. safely and meet clean air laws.

Figure 9.26—Desirable smoke spot numbers for various fuels

Figure 9.27—The effect of smoke spot number on soot build up rate

Boiler Tuneup 103

Since most boilers operate over a reasonably posits generally accumulate. The SSN is directly
broad range, tests must be run at several firing related to excess-oxygen levels and burner per-
rates to determine the minimum excess-oxygen formance.
level for each. Only then can the combustion-con-
trol system be tuned for optimum fuel economy.
At each firing rate investigated, excess­ ox- Minimum Excess Oxygen
ygen in the flue gas should be varied from 1-2%
above the normal operating point down to where A proven method for determining the mini-
the boiler just starts to smoke, or to where CO mum amount of excess oxygen required for com-
emissions vary between 150 to 250 Parts per mil- bustion involves developing curves similar to the
lion (PPM). The level of 400 PPM is the legal limit smoke/oxygen and CO/oxygen curves shown
established in many states and by insurance com- in Figures 9.28 and 9.29. Based on test measure-
panies. This condition is referred to as the smoke ments, these curves show how boiler smoke and
or CO threshold, or simply as the minimum oxy- CO levels change as excess oxygen is varied.
gen point. Each of these figures depicts two distinct
The smoke threshold generally applies to curves, illustrating the extremes in smoke and CO
coal and oil firing, because smoking usually oc- behavior that may be encountered. One curve ex-
curs before CO emissions reach significant levels. hibits a very gradual increase in CO or smoke as
The CO level pertains to gaseous fuels. The smoke the minimum excess oxygen condition is reached.
threshold for solid and liquid fuels represents the The other has a gradual slope at relatively high
lowest possible excess-oxygen level at which ac- oxygen levels and a steep slope near the mini-
ceptable stack conditions can be maintained. mum oxygen point. For cases represented by this
The Smoke Spot Number (SSN) is a scale of second curve, unpredictably high levels of smoke
smoke density which can be related to the soot and CO, or potentially unstable conditions, can
accumulation in a boiler Figure 9.26 shows the occur with very small changes in excess air.
desirable SSN for various fuels. Figure 9.27 shows Caution is required when reducing air flow
the relationship of SSN to the rate at which de- near the smoke point or CO threshold. Care-

Figure 9.28—Characteristic curve identifies minimum excess air and tuneup con-
trol settings for oil fired boilers. Curve 1 gradual smoke/O2 relationship. Curve 2
is a steep smoke/O2 relationship. The type of curve is dependent on burner oper-
ating characteristics and varies with the firing rate and particular type burner.
104 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 9.29—Characteristic curve identifies minimum excess air and tuneup

control settings for oil fired boilers. Curve 1 gradual carbon monoxide/O2 rela-
tionship. Curve 2 is a steep carbon monoxide/O2 relationship. The type of curve
is dependent on burner operating characteristics and varies with the firing rate
and particular type burner.

fully monitor instruments and controls, flame

appearance and stack conditions simultaneously.
Decrease the level of excess oxygen in very small
increments until you find out what kind of a
curve is developing. It can be steep and possibly
unstable or gradual. Some boilers have a gradual
characteristic at one firing rate and a steep charac-
teristic at another.

Control System Linearity

Before a tuneup of the boiler control system

is started a check for system linearity should
be done. This requires a measurement of either
steam output or fuel input be compared to con- Figure 9.30—Control system Linearity
trol system position. Often systems have not been
linearized and this causes trouble when trying to
run several boilers together. Figure 9.30 shows Step-By-Step Procedure for Adjusting
the situation you could run into. Imagine trying Boiler Controls for Low-Excess Oxygen
to drive a car on a fast and crowded highway
with a vehicle speed control response similar to 1. Establish the desired firing rate and switch
either the quick response or slow response curve. combustion controls from automatic to man-
Such a condition would make driving very diffi- ual operation. Make sure all safety interlocks
cult and dangerous, the same goes for boilers. are still functioning.
Boiler Tuneup 105

2. Record boiler and stack data (pressure tem- in appearance and remember to observe
perature etc.), and observe flame conditions local air pollution ordinances.
after the boiler operation stabilizes at the • Incomplete burning of solid fuels. Rec-
particular firing rate selected. If you find ognize this by high carbon carryover to
that the amount of excess oxygen in the flue dust collectors or increased amounts of
gas is at the lower end of the range of typical combustibles in the ash.
minimum values and the CO and the smoke • Equipment-related limitations such as
are at acceptable levels, the boiler is already low windbox/furnace pressure differen-
operating at a near optimum air to fuel ratio. tial, built-in air­flow limits, etc.
This may not be so at other firing rates. It
may still remaining portion of this proce- 6. Develop O2/smoke or O2/CO characteristic
dure, to practical. curves, similar to those shown in Figures
9.28 and 9.29 using the excess oxygen and
3. Increase air flow to the furnace until read- CO or smoke-spot number data obtained at
ings of excess oxygen at the stack increase each air-flow setting.
by 1-2%. Again, be sure to take readings
after boiler operation stabilizes and note any 7. Find the minimum excess-oxygen level for
changes in flame conditions. the boiler from the curves prepared in step
6, but do not adjust the burner controls to
4. Return air flow to normal level and begin to this value. Though this may be the point of
slowly reduce it further, in small increments. maximum efficiency, as well as minimal NOx
Watch the stack for any signs of smoke and emissions, it usually is impractical to operate
constantly observe the flame and stack. Re- the boiler controls at this setting, because of
cord stack excess-oxygen reading, smoke the tendency to smoke or to increase CO to
spot number, the concentration of CO in the dangerously high levels as load changes.
flue gas and the stack temperature after each
change. Compare this minimum value of excess oxy-
gen to the expected value provided by the boiler
Do not reduce air flow by throttling the manufacturer. If the minimum level you found is
burner air registers, because this alters the fuel air substantially higher then the manufacturer’s re-
mixing characteristics and complicates the tests. pairs or parts replacement probably can improve
Also, if you run tests at low firing rates, which is fuel and air mixing, thereby allowing operation
not generally recommended, keep a close watch with less air.
on the windbox/furnace differential. If it drops
too low, a fuel trip may be activated by the burner 8. Establish the excess oxygen (buffer zone)
safeguard system. margin above the minimum value, required
for fuel variations, load changes, and atmo-
5. Continue to reduce the airflow step- wise spheric conditions. Add this to the minimum
until you reach one of theses limits: value and reset burner controls to operate
• Unacceptable flame conditions­ such as automatically at the higher level-the lowest
flame impingement on furnace walls or practical setting at the particular firing rate.
burner parts, excessive flame carryover,
or flame instability. 9. Repeat steps 1-8 for each firing rate being
• High level of CO in the flue gas. tested. For some control systems, it is not
• Smoking at the stack. Do not confuse possible to establish the optimum excess-ox-
smoke with water vapor, sulfur or dust ygen level at each firing rate. The reason is
plumes which are usually white or gray that control adjustments at one firing rate
106 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

may also affect conditions at other firing excess oxygen levels for both fuels at all firing
rates. In such cases, choose the settings that rates. Based on information gained from the tune-
give the best performance over a wide range up procedure, a judgment can be made as to the
of firing rates. A trial-and-error approach, best conditions which are practical.
one involving repeated tests, may be neces-
sary. Evaluation of the New Low O2 Settings
If energy gains are to be realized, the new
Many experts agree that it generally is best low O2 settings must be realistic and they must
not to make any adjustments to your control be maintained. Pay extra attention to furnace
system in the lower control range of your boiler and flame patterns for the first month or two
without being very careful. Air flow requirements following implementation of the new adjust-
at low-fire conditions usually are dictated by ments. Thoroughly inspect the boiler during the
flame ignition characteristics and stability rather next shutdown. To assure high boiler efficiency,
than by efficiency. Air/fuel ratios at low loads periodically make performance evaluations and
and at or near light off conditions are very sensi- compare with the results obtained during the test
tive and any changes may jeopardize safe light- program.
off characteristics. If boiler load requirements
force a boiler to operate at low loads much of the
time, check with the boiler manufacturers service Review of the Fine Tuning Process
group or a qualified combustion consultant be-
fore establishing excess-oxygen levels. It is sometimes possible during the optimi-
zation program to lower the CO or smoke limits,
10. Verify that the new settings can accommo- to achieve even lower excess air levels achieving
date the sudden load changes that may occur greater efficiency gains. If the burner and fuel
in daily operation without adverse affects. systems are not functioning properly your best
Do this by increasing and decreasing the efforts at lowering excess air may be wasted. The
load rapidly while observing the flame and approach to this procedure is to insure that every-
stack. If you detect undesirable conditions, thing is in conformance with the manufacturers
reset the combustion controls to provide a recommendations and then conduct organized
slightly higher level of excess oxygen at the “trial-and-error” (Table 9.2) adjustments in such a
affected firing rates. Next verify these new way that meaningful comparisons can be made.
settings in a similar fashion. Then make sure Items that may result in lower minimum ex-
that the final control settings are recorded at cess O2 levels include:
steady-state operating conditions for future
reference. • Burner register settings
• Oil gun tip position
Repeat these checks at frequent intervals un- • Diffuser position
til it becomes obvious that the boiler is not having • Fuel oil temperature
problems that cause it to exceed smoke or CO lim- • Fuel oil atomizing pressure
its or that control, burner or fuel system problems • Coal spreader adjustments
are not causing unsafe conditions to develop. It is • Coal particle size
easy to hide such problems my making high ex-
cess oxygen adjustments. Trying to optimize per- The effect of these adjustments on minimum
formance will cause these problems to reemerge. O2 are variable from boiler to boiler and difficult
When an alternative fuel is burned, perform to predict.
these same tests and adjustments for the second The principal method used for improving
fuel. It is not always possible to achieve optimum boiler efficiency involves operating the boiler at
Boiler Tuneup 107

Table 9.2 Boiler Tuneup Procedure.

the lowest practical excess O2 level with an ade- — Boiler safety systems
quate margin for variations caused by fuel prop- — Casualty procedures
erty changes, changes in ambient conditions, and
— Combustion theory
the repeatability and response characteristics of
the combustion control system. — Burner design and operation
The important elements of boiler perfor- — Control system theory and operation
mance optimization: — Air handling systems
— Fuel systems
• Scientific approach
• Proper analytical test equipment and proce- How often should a boiler be tuned up? The
dures simple answer to this question is “It depends.”
The object of a “tune-up” is to insure that a boiler
• Keep good records
is running efficiently and safely on a permanent
• A total system knowledge of the boiler and basis, so another factor enters the situation:
the following:
108 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

————————————————————————
Perhaps this is the most important part of tuning up
a boiler—you have to do it until it’s right.
A proper tuneup requires follow-up checks
and readjustments until it is proven satisfactory.
A quick brushoff often won’t work and could
actually be dangerous.
————————————————————————

The important elements of boiler perfor-

mance optimization:
• Be Scientific
• Identify dollar losses connected with per-
formance so that reasonable judgments can
be made about investments of time and re-
sources.
• Use good instruments
• Do regular spot checks
• Set allowable limits for performance
Figure 9.32—Another very important record is one
• Keep records that gives a clear record of boiler exhaust tempera-
— Ideal performance ture conditions.
— Tuned-up performance
— Performance history
— Track excess air performance [Figure
9.31]
— Track CO, combustibles and smoke be-
havior
— Track exhaust temperature [Figure 9.32]

Figure 9.33—On large boilers with multiple burners,

test port locations are usually established with the
original design. Records of conditions at these loca-
tions are necessary to establish oxygen, combustibles
and pollution levels. In this case indications are that
the burners need adjustment because oxygen and CO
are out of range for good and efficient operations.

Figure 9.31—One of the records that should be es-

tablished for a boiler is the percent oxygen [or excess
air] in the exhaust
Boiler Tuneup 109

————————————————————————
Tuning Boiler Controls
Large, Interactive, Non-linear Control Loops

Important Impacts
• Efficiency
• Ramp Rate
• Turndown
• Low load operations
• Unit availability
• Ability to survive upsets and equipment fail-
ures
————————————————————————
Figure 9.36—Tuning boiler controls, important im-
Figure 9.34—This figure shows that differences exist pact
between the performance of individual burners, the
reasons should be established and corrected if pos-
sible. ————————————————————————

———————————————————————— Tuning Boiler Controls

The Reasons for Deviations Between Burners Basics
• Start from the bottom up
1. Gas. Gas port dimension differences & Piping
— Control drives
differences — Valve operators
2. Oil. Atomizer port tolerances, surface finish & — Final control elements
erosion. Piping differences.
All measurements must be accurate beyond any doubt
3. Air. Variations in air flow to burners. and backed up by duplicate Instruments
4. Variation in pressure drops across burners. ————————————————————————
[Air doors, swirl vanes, flow splitters, surface Figure 9.37—Tuning
­­ boiler controls, basics
finish & refractory damage.

5. Wind box symmetry & cross flow. ————————————————————————

6. Windbox air temperatures and buoyancy forc- Tuning Boiler Controls
es. Deadband and Repeatability
———————————————————————— Controlling Process Variables
Figure 9.35—Reasons for deviations between perfor-
mance of otherwise identical burners as illustrated • No amount of upper loop tuning will fix 5%
in Figure 9.34 deadband

• Over 3% to 5% deadband is unacceptable

Tuning Boiler Controls
Process variables: feedwater flow, gas flow, air
The following section is composed of figures flow, fuel flow, spray valve, etc.
which cover the subject of tuning boiler controls.
They are designed for a classroom presentation ————————————————————————
and make up a simple presentation of a complex Figure 9.38—Tuning
­ boiler controls, deadband and
repeatability
subject.
110 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

———————————————————————— ————————————————————————

Tuning Boiler Controls Tuning Boiler Controls

Measurement and Control Response Time Superheat and Reheat Thermocouples

1. Fast measurements improves quality and sta-

bility of control loops • Check for good thermocouple contact with the
bottom of the thermowell
2. Fast response times improves quality and sta-
bility of control loops • At 80% load increase spray valve position 5%
as a step function. Observe steam temperature
3. Valve stroking rates of 2 to 3 seconds Is re- time constant.
quired in many cases.
• Time constant should be less than 30 seconds.
4. If one loop Is upsetting other loops, a compro-
mise must be reached ————————————————————————
Figure 9.4—Tuning boiler controls, superheat and
5. In the final analysis, good engineering judg- reheat thermocouples
ment Is required for tuning loops

———————————————————————— ————————————————————————
Figure 9.39—Tuning boiler controls, measurement
and control, response time
Tuning Boiler Controls
Steam Temperature Control

• Fast accurate temperature measurements are

———————————————————————— desirable

Tuning Boiler Controls • Slow temperature constants can be compen-

PID sated for with derivative action at the tem-
Proportional Gain-Reset-Derivative perature controller

• It is desirable to use as little PID as possible ————————————————————————

Figure 9.42—Tuning boiler controls, steam tempera-
• Stability Is more Important than quality of ture control
control

• Excessive reset action is deadly for most con- ————————————————————————

trol loops
Tuning Boiler Controls
————————————————————————
Figure 9.40—Tuning boiler controls, PID proportion-
Adaptive Tuning
al Gain­-Reset-Derivative
• Final steam temperature controller must be
tuned at 5 points.

————————————————————————
Figure 9.43—Tuning boiler controls, adaptive tuning
Boiler Tuneup 111

———————————————————————— ————————————————————————
Tuning Boiler Controls
Tuning Boiler Controls
Feed Forward Signals
Fuel Flow
1. The necessary influence of feed forward sig-
nals should be calculated from steady state • Fuel should never lead air supply
tests.
• Fuel and air should move together
2. No more than 80% - 90% of actual influence
should be set • Adaptive tuning is most often required for
fuel and air to synchronize variations over
———————————————————————— turn-down range
Figure 9.44—Tuning boiler controls, feed forward
signals ( ————————————————————————
Figure 9.47—Tuning boiler controls, fuel flow re-
quirements
————————————————————————
Tuning Boiler Controls

Feed Forward Signals ————————————————————————

Example: superheat spray set point Is 15 F for 100 Tuning Boiler Controls
psi of first stage pressure
Drum Level Stability
— Use only 12 -13 F/100 psi feed-forward sig-
nal • Drum level instability can de-stabilize an en-
tire boiler
— Let feedback control handle last 2 degrees to
eliminate Instability • Smaller drums may need 3-element control

———————————————————————— • Extended range of feedwater and steam flow

Figure 9.45—Tuning boiler controls, feed forward measurement may also be needed to measure
signals low and high range temporary excursions In
boiler operations

———————————————————————— ————————————————————————
Figure 9.48—Tuning boiler controls, drum level sta-
bility
Tuning Boiler Controls

Fuel Flow

• During the first 30 to 90 seconds after a load

change the required energy comes from storage
[boiling water in the drum]

————————————————————————
Figure 9.46—Tuning boiler controls, fuel flow
112 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

———————————————————————— ————————————————————————

Tuning Boiler Controls Tuning Boiler Controls

Drum Level Stability Runbacks

Drum level stability is needed for: • Runbacks must be tuned and demonstrated or
disconnected.
1. Good ramp rate
• A single equipment failure could cause a Domino
2. Minimum load operations Trip Effect.

3. Runback capability (Staying on the line after ————————————————————————

an upset] Figure 9.51—Tuning boiler controls, runbacks

————————————————————————
Figure 9.49—Tuning boiler controls, drum level sta- ————————————————————————
bility Tuning Boiler Controls
Why?
————————————————————————
• Improved ramp rate

Tuning Boiler Controls • Lower excess air

• Higher final steam temperatures

• Adaptive tuning
Every critical loop should be tuned at 6 dif- • Economic payback
ferent positions
————————————————————————
• Tuning requires Figure 9.52—Tuning boiler controls, why?
a. Time
b. Patience
c. Good engineering judgment ————————————————————————

• Tuning is the art of selecting acceptable compro-

Reducing Excess Air
mises

1. Oxygen Trimming
————————————————————————
a. Compensates for Many Variations of Buffer
Figure 9.50—Tuning boiler controls, requirements
Zone Required
b. Does not Maintain “Optimum” A/F Ratio

2. CO Trimming
a. Establishes ‘Best’ A/F Ratio
b. No Buffer zone Required.

————————————————————————
Figure 9.53—Oxygen trim systems vs. carbon monox-
ide trim systems
 Chapter 10

Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency

This chapter introduces over 100 ways to 10. Fuel flow meter for each boiler
reduce the costs of operating boilers and distri- 11. Track performance of small heating units
bution systems. These options are the result of automatically
tests and investigations at over a thousand com- 12. Recover hot condensate
mercial, institutional, industrial and utility plants
13. Minimize makeup water consumption
around the world.
14. Isolate unused hot steam piping sections.
Although more than 100 efficiency improve-
ment options are listed in this chapter, only a few 15. Reduce venting Steam from the Deareator
will be appropriate at any one plant. In most cas- 16. Boilers converted from Heavy Fuel Oil to
es a understanding of a plant’s operation is neces- Natural Gas
sary to identify the causes of wasted energy and 17. Shut off steam coil ahead of air preheater
to identify the most cost effective remedy. 18. Soot blower operations
This chapter has been written with two goals 19. Shut-down backpressure steam turbine
in mind. First it serves as a guide to assist in iden- during low steam load periods
tifying energy wasting problems for any size boil-
20. Utilize fuel additives to improve operating
er. Second, it can serve as a valuable educational
conditions and economy
tool, showing the logic of how to approach this
21. Shut off boilers during weekends and sum-
complex problem.
mer months when not needed
22. Consider thermal mass when planning
boiler operations
Section 10-1 23. Check economizer operation
High Efficiency Operations
1. Maintain Optimum
Boiler Efficiency levels
CHECKLIST – 1
High Efficiency Operations

1. Maintain optimum boiler efficiency levels

2. The 2M System: measure and manage.
3. Keep boilers tuned-up.
4. Operate boiler at highest efficiency levels.
5. Lead–Lag boiler configuration
6. Operate boilers at lower steam pressures
7. Avoid low firing rates
8. Maintain low boiler exhaust temperatures
9. Keep accurate statistics Figure 10.1—A civilization built on energy.
113
114 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 10.2—Excess air wastes a great deal of energy Figure 10.5—Only 20% of the air for combustion is
and money. actually used. The remaining 80% is nitrogen which
escapes up the stack as an invisible and expensive hot
gas.

Figure 10.6—These losses climb rapidly as excess air

increases.

Figure 10.3—Smoke is unburned fuel that fouls the question is, “Are the switches thrown and the
boiler and the environment valves managed responsibly?”
Large savings have been recorded just from
monitoring energy use, no black boxes were in-
volved. Flow meters and other instruments were
installed and monitored. The most remarkable
discoveries were made. Pumps and motors ran
when they weren’t needed, steam to process
equipment wasn’t turned off when the shift left
for the day and boilers were being fired with no
load on them, etc. This is a partial listing, but the
lesson is clear, without accountability for ener-
gy use, without incentives to save utility dollars,
waste and indifference will exist.
Figure 10.4—The key to good efficiency is maintaining
The key to discovering this type of loss is
low excess air.
having instruments installed and monitored. It
becomes very clear in a short period, when and
where energy is being squandered. Without prop-
2. The 2M System: Measure er instrumentation and monitoring you will be
and Manage running blind. The Gas and Electric Utility Com-
panies don’t give away energy, they use meters
There is virtually unlimited access to energy and monitor them closely. It’s a good practice to
by its users, just throw a switch or open a valve follow when you consider the money spent pur-
and energy is available for immediate use. The chasing their energy.
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 115

Advantages/disadvantages
Instruments are often expensive and in them-
selves do not account for any energy savings,
they are however, the only way to find problems.
Manpower that may be needed elsewhere must
be assigned to collect and interpret the data from
field measurements. It’s just good management to
know what is happening with energy, assigning
responsibility for its use and controlling it in a
sensible way

3. Keep Boilers Tuned-Up Figure 10.8—Carbon monoxide limit vs. oxygen

relationship for adjusting controls for optimum
efficiency. Point A is the minimum oxygen control
Description
point, B is the chosen set point based on a buffer zone
A good tuneup, using precision test equip-
for estimated system errors and influences.
ment, can detect and correct excess air losses,
smoking, unburned fuel losses, sooting, fire side
fouling and high stack temperatures.
By using real time instruments to measure
flue gas oxygen, carbon monoxide, carbon di-
oxide, combustibles and temperatures, the cur-
rent state of boiler operation can be diagnosed.
These findings can be used to restore the boiler to
its normal efficient operating condition (Figures
10.1-1 to 10.6). This allows the control system and
burner to be adjusted and repaired for optimum
performance with immediate feedback of results
for gas fuels, (Figure 10.7) and oil (Figure 10.8).
(Figure 10.9) shows the same information for oil
Figure 10.9—Smoke limit (dashed line) vs. oxygen
and coal based on smoke limit criteria. When a
relationship for adjusting controls for optimum
efficiency on oil and coal fired plants. In this case
point A is minimum oxygen control point. Point B
is the chosen set point based on the estimated buffer
zone needed to compensate for control system errors
and other outside influences affecting combustion.

tune-up is completed there should be a good re-

cord of a boiler’s excess air and efficiency across
the load range for managing boiler operations.
After the initial tune-up, recheck results un-
til assured that the boiler can stay tuned-up for
a reasonable amount of time. Tune-ups may be
Figure 10.7—The carbon monoxide vs. oxygen needed more than twice a year. Periodic checks
relationship showing CO control range and operating will tell the story; often boiler efficiency will fall
range for highest efficiency. by over 5% within 6 months or sooner.
116 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Advantages/Disadvantages Most boilers do not have a straight line ef-

If you intend to manage a boiler plant and ficiency and operate at different efficiencies de-
control losses, regular tuneups and combustion pending on their firing rate and this must be con-
efficiency checks are necessary. It takes skilled sidered when programming their operation (Fig-
manpower to run these checks and this is an ad- ure 10.10).
ditional expense so judgment should be applied Boilers can have different efficiency levels
to establish the benefit to cost ratio of such a pro- at different load points. At the high end the effi-
gram. ciency may fall off because of high exhaust tem-
peratures. At low loads efficiency may go down
(Very Important: All energy conservation options because of higher excess air needed for proper
should be evaluated from the tuned-up condition to air-fuel mixing. At mid range the efficiency is
eliminate false estimates of the benefits of retrofit op- very good; so what efficiency do you pick to de-
tions.) scribe its efficiency?

4. Operate Boiler at 5. Lead – Lag Boiler Configuration

Highest Efficiency Levels.
When setting up automatic operations make most
Description efficient units “Lead” elements and less efficient
Having specific efficiency information for units “Lag” elements.
each boiler, they can be matched to loads for most
efficient utilization. Also, by using smaller boil-
ers, which maintain high efficiency during very 6. Operate Boilers at
light load periods, losses associated with larger Lower Steam Pressures
boilers can be eliminated. The general answer is
to use the most efficient boiler combinations pos- Lowering Steam Pressure
sible to match system demands. 1. Boiler exhaust temperatures are lower

Figure 10.10—Boiler efficiency often varies with load and other operational influenc-
es. Long term information comparing fuel burned to steam or hot water generated is
needed to understand the true operating efficiency. Quick snap-shot tests are not suit-
able for obtaining the true efficiency.
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 117

2. Steam system pipe temperatures are lower shell losses become higher percentage of fuel use
3. Steam leaks are less and frequent “on” and “off” cold air purge cycles
4. Steam trap flash losses are less send a lot of valuable heat out the exhaust. Boilers
typically have very poor efficiency at low loads
Possible Disadvantages so this type of operation can be quite inefficient.
1. Excessive piping velocities due to higher Often boilers with measured efficiencies over 80%
volume of steam flow have been found to be operating at less than 60%
2. Pressure to emergency pumps and genera- efficiency on an annual basis.
tors may not be high enough There are many solutions to this problem,
which usually starts with the original design
3. Boiler priming [dangerous slugs of water
where large safety factors were employed to in-
entering the steam system]
sure against inadequate steam supply on the cold-
4. Noisy steam valves [essential element of est windiest day of the year. However, insulation
steam valve design] improvements, energy conservation measures
5. Temperature sensitive traps may start to and mild weather can put these over-designed
blow through steam high capacity systems into the energy wasting
6. Cavitation noises in feedwater valves mode.
7. Atomizing steam pressure may be too low The answer to managing boilers efficiently is
simply stated: “You have to know the efficiency
8. Differential pressure across steam traps
of your boilers at all firing rates and you have to
may change capacity of some types of
take into account these standby losses.”
traps
9. Steam traps will have to handle more con- Advantages/Disadvantages
densate Knowing the losses incurred at each level
10. Pumping capacity of original design may of operation and having a plan to minimize the
change inefficient levels is a good management practice.
11. Calibration of flow meters may change Although it may be take extra effort to get the real
time performance data required for true operat-
One way to approach lowering steam pres- ing efficiencies of boiler systems, it must be done
sure is to do it gradually over a period of time if energy dollars are to be saved. In some cases a
and watching for changes in system operation continuous computerized monitoring of the sys-
and correcting them if possible.. tem may be required.

7. Avoid Low Firing Rates 8. Maintain Low

Boiler Exhaust Temperatures
Some boiler plants are oversized for their
current loads, or small boilers are not available Figure 10.11 and 10.12 show the influence of
to handle light loads of summer or partial plant exhaust temperature on efficiency. Boilers usually
production schedules. This is caused by the boil- run 24 hours a day month after month running
er cycling on and off continually because of the up very expensive fuel bills. Keeping a watchful
low load factor. Each time the boiler starts up or eye on shifts in exhaust temperature can really
shuts down cold air is blown through it to purge pay off. Heating oil and heavy fuel oils are espe-
out any possible accumulations of unburned fuel cially prone to fouling which retards heat transfer
as a safety precaution. This plus normal heat pushing temperatures up. This can happen very
loss to the environment can add up to a signifi- quickly, within a few hours and staff must be alert
cant percent of its operational fuel demand. The for this.
118 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

10. Fuel Flow Meter for Each Boiler

1. Detects over-firing
• high exhaust temperatures
• dangerous over firing-exceeding safety valve
capacity

Figure 10.11—Rule of thumb for exhaust tempera- 2. Detects under-firing

tures • under utilization requiring additional boilers

3. Detects non-linear response in control system

• Under-response in control system
• Over-responding in control system

4. Individual boiler fuel consumption

• Vital for performance analysis
• Often required by EPA for emissions calcula-
tions

11. Track Performance of Small

Figure 10.12—Tracking exit temperatures Heating Units Automatically

Figure 10.14 and Figure 10.15

9. Keep Accurate Statistics A handy way to monitor changes in exhaust
temperatures of small boilers and furnaces. A
thermometer with a maximum indicating arm
continuously indicates the latest (highest) ex-
haust temperature even when the boiler or fur-
nace is not firing. The green tape shows original
“clean” condition and as the exhaust temperature
creeps up over time this change is shown by the
red maximum indicating needle. In the first case
the temperature has risen by 40F for a 1% efficien-
cy loss and in the second figure a 200F change
has occurred representing a 5% loss. It would be
very time consuming for plant personnel to ob-
tain this information without this special type of
thermometer.

Figure 10.13—How do you keep score? In the field of 12. Recover Hot Condensate
professional competition like baseball and basketball
for instance, statistics and good record keeping are Potential Savings
vital to understanding individual and team perfor- High
mance. With the cost of energy having so much influ-
ence on the bottom line of business and industry good The loss of hot condensate wastes energy
statistics become very valuable to decision making. and money in several ways:
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 119

Figure 10.14—Tracking exhaust temperature 1 Figure 10.15—Tracking exhaust temperature-2

(a) The condensate should return at

160°F-190°F. If it doesn’t return, this heat
is lost.
(b) Makeup feedwater must be chemically
treated and heated from 50°F to 160°F-190°F
to replace the lost condensate.
(c) Condensate is essentially pure water.
Having to replace it with “makeup” wa-
ter containing impurities increases the
amount of blowdown required.
(d) Chemical treatment of the makeup feed-
water and the cost of the water itself can Figure 10.16—Rule of thumb for boiler water tem-
be avoided. perature.

There is an additional factor here, and that is

if the condensate system has leaks or is not func-
tional and steam traps have failed and are blow-
ing steam, all of this high energy steam is also dis-
appearing.
Electric pumps have an uncertain lifetime in
environments which occasionally can flood, also
centrifugal pumps have difficulty handling con-
densate near the boiling point. These electrical
units can be replaced with pump sets which use
steam pressure to pump condensate back to the
boiler plant.

Advantages/Disadvantages
Repair and replacement of condensate return Figure 10.17—A steam powered pumping unit over-
systems can be quite expensive. The economic comes the reliability problems of electrical powered
gain or savings available from keeping conden- pumps with a longer life, less expensive installation
sate systems well maintained is also very high. and lower operating costs.
120 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

13. Minimize Makeup Water system so it won’t attack the steel piping and boil-
Consumption er components which usually shows up as severe
pitting of the metal. However, some plants have
The water leaving each steam trap is at the been found to be operating with very big steam
boiling point of 212F in the case of the atmospher- blows, sometimes hundreds of feet long which is
ic return systems. The temperature is higher in excessive, wasting a lot of steam and energy.
the case of pressurized return systems. In many
cases we have the water reaching the main plant
at much lower temperatures a case by case situ- 16. Boilers Converted from
ation depending on the design and condition of Heavy Fuel Oil to Natural Gas
the individual system. For the sake of example
let’s say the water is arriving back at the plant has There are still older boilers around that were
an ideal temperature of 185F. The total heat in a designed to burn heavy fuel oil with high sulfur
pound of steam is 1150 Btus and the makeup wa- content which required high exhaust tempera-
ter temperature is 50F. So we have a difference of tures to avoid acid formation on cold metal sur-
135F. faces in the exhaust system. The use of this high
sulfur fuel oil is becoming restricted by modern
Condensate return temperature 185F pollution regulations and being replaced by very
Makeup water temperature 50F low sulfur distillate heating oil and by natural gas
Total heat of atmospheric steam 1150 Btu/lb with extremely low levels of sulfur. These being
the case, much lower exhaust temperatures are
possible which the boilers were not originally de-
Formula 10-1 signed for.
There is an inherent energy loss of 11.7% For example you might come across a boiler
with each pound of condensate that doesn’t find designed for heavy fuel oil with a 400F exhaust
its way back to the condensate receiver at the temperature now burning natural gas requiring
plant under these conditions. As the condensate an exhaust temperature of only 200F. Following
is distilled from pure steam there are additional the rule of thumb that every 40 degrees you can
water consumption and chemical treatment ex- drop that temperature will improve efficiency by
penses to consider too. 1%, there is a 5% savings opportunity available.
As a bonus, the capacity of the boiler will be im-
proved by the same amount.
14. Isolate Unused Hot
Steam Piping Sections
17. Shut off Steam Coil Ahead
If a section of steam piping is not in use it of Air Preheater
should be isolated from the active steam sys-
tem as it still represents a significant energy loss You may sometimes find a heating coil in
whether or not it is transporting steam and con- the air intake to a boiler; this is another hangover
densate. Insulation losses remain the same. from the days when heavy residual, high sulfur
oils were burned. It served two purposes, (a) to
keep smoke levels down under cold light off con-
15. Reduce Venting Steam ditions and (b) bringing the cold metal tempera-
From the Deaerator tures up above the acid dew point temperature
quicker shortening the exposure of this section
The deareator has an open vent to allow oxy- of the boiler to acid formation during initial light
gen removed from the feedwater to escape from the off.
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 121

These heating coils may still be active or may Advantages/Disadvantages

just be sitting there in the air intakes obstructing Soot blowers can do an effective job of keep-
air flows. A check with the boiler manufacturer ing heat exchange surfaces clean and have been
may disclose that these old air preheating sys- used for years. The cost of steam and compressed
tems can be removed saving on steam, mainte- air to run soot-blowers can be very high so close
nance and fan power. control of their use is recommended.

18. Soot Blower Operations 19. Shut-Down Backpressure

Steam Turbine During Low
Cost Steam Load Periods
Routine operational activity
There may be a risk of over pressurizing the
Potential Savings exhaust system of a backpressure turbine being
Moderate used to let steam down to a lower pressure head-
er or system. In the case where this exhaust steam
Description can not be utilized it may well be being dumped
The rule of thumb applies: every 40 degree to atmosphere through a pressure relief valve.
decrease in net stack temperature saves about Occasionally this is evident by a large plume of
one percent in fuel consumption. Soot is an ex- steam venting out through the roof of a plant.
cellent insulator which can retard heat transfer to This is especially evident when standby turbines
a great degree, so soot blowers are used to keep are kept spinning at a low load, the exhaust steam
heat exchange surfaces clean to maintain lower has got to go somewhere.
stack temperatures and higher efficiencies. Also,
there is more of a tendency to form soot with the
heavier residual type fuels. On the other hand, 20. Utilize Fuel Additives to
soot blowing is an expensive proposition when Improve Operating Conditions
you consider the loss of energy involved to just and Economy
keep the tubes clean. It can cost from 50 to 200
thousand dollars a year for a single boiler, so it is Class I—Improved storage and handling
important to manage soot blowing properly. Both • Sludge and gum inhibitors
too little and too much soot-blowing can waste • Detergents
significant amounts of energy. When low excess • Metal deactivators
air levels are maintained, keeping heat exchange • Corrosion inhibitors
surfaces clean becomes a greater challenge be- • Pour-point depressors
cause the burners are operating closer to their • Anti-static
smoke point. Soot blowers are usually installed • Anti-icing
on water tube boilers, but they are also available • Color stabilizers
for fire tube type units on special order for appli-
cations such as black liquor and other dirty fuel Class II—Improved Combustion
type service. Some plants have even had success- and pollution reduction
ful results with a large ship’s fog horn to remove • Smoke
deposits with low frequency vibrations. They are • Particulates
less expensive to operate than the conventional • Carbon monoxide
units, but their performance has had mixed re- • Hydrocarbons
views. • Nitrogen oxides
• Sulfur oxides
122 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Class III—Post-Flame treatment of interruption of steam service in facilities such as

pollutants, slag and soot hospitals if the active boiler goes down for some
• Soot removal reason. Because none of this the fuel us used to
• Control slag build up provide steam to the facility it is essentially wast-
• Corrosion reduction ed with zero efficiency. When you consider fuel is
• Particulate collection enhancement being used to just keep a boiler hot 24/7 year in
• Sulfur oxide scavengers and year out, this represents a substantial savings
to eliminate this type of energy loss and wear and
tear on the boiler. Flash boilers have proven to be
21. Shut Off Boilers During Weekends quite dependable and relatively efficient.
and Summer Months When
Not Needed
23. Economizer Operation
For long layup periods consider the wet lay
up or dry lay up options suggested by the manu- An economizer is a simple device that gets
facturer. hardly any notice and is not expected to have any
problems. One problem that could occur with
high sulfur fuels is “cold end corrosion” where the
22. Consider Thermal Mass tubes are attacked by acids having a dew point in
When planning Boiler Operations the range of water inlet temperatures to the econ-
omizer. The sulfur in the fuel forms SO2 and SO3
which combines with water to form sulfuric acids
Low feedwater temperatures will cause this prob-
lem to accelerate.
The economizer also comes equipped with
bypass piping in the event it springs a leak or
some other problem. On rare occasion the bypass
valve has been left open. This could cause exhaust
temperatures to go up as high as 200F and bring
efficiency and capacity down by as much as 5%.

Section 10-2
Figure 10.18—The fire Tube type boilers with big Combustion Systems
drum capacity contain many thousands of pounds of
water which must be heated to operational tempera- CHECKLIST – 2
tures at a safe rate of about 100F per hour to avoid
Combustion Systems
unusual stresses on the boiler. This takes time on the
order of 2 to 3 hours and wastes all the energy in-
vested in this action until the boiler can be brought
1. Fuel selection
on line. The smaller flash boilers can be producing 2. Oxygen trim
steam in 5 to 15 minutes using far less energy and 3. Carbon monoxide trim
time to get started. 4. Control system linearity
5. Characterizable fuel valve
In many applications a large stand-by boiler 6. Over fire draft control
is kept on hot standby status to insure there is no 7. Cross limiting controls
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 123

8. Improve control system accuracy with ing the cost advantages and problems associated
strong precision parts with different fuels can lead to informed deci-
9. Stack dampers sions.
10. Slow down exhaust flow
11. Wind deflector for boiler room vents Table 10.1—Energy conversion efficiencies with dif-
12. Vent caps on stacks ferent fuels. These numbers are typical but may vary
13. Low excess air burner with specific application.
——————————————————————
14. Oxygen enrichment Fuel Oil No. 6 85% Lignite 80%
15. Oil-water emulsions Fuel Oil No. 2 84% Bituminous 87%
16. Replace atmospheric burners with power Natural Gas 80% Anthracite 90%
burners Propane 84% Methane 81%
17. Flame retention head type burners Wood 72% Hydrogen 77.5%
18. Multi-stage gas valves ——————————————————————
19. Reduction of fuel firing rate
20. Replace On/Off controls with modulating
controls
21. Convert to air or steam atomizing burners
22. Fuel oil viscosity management
23. Intermittent ignition devices
24. Prevent heat transfer surface fouling
25. Air preheaters Economizers and other
heat recovery equipment
26. Reduce radiation losses

1. Fuel Selection
Table 10.2—The price of steam per million Btus can
vary to a large degree considering basic fuel cost and
Cost
conversion efficiency. Unfortunately, this analysis is
Low cost, basically analysis and decision
only the tip of the iceberg and additional study may
making. be needed. Each type of fuel requires different trans-
High cost, if major equipment change-out is portation to the plant and some like heavy oil, coal
involved. and wood require additional conditioning before
they can be burned.
Potential savings
Large When confronted with the choice of switch-
ing from natural gas to residual oil, a more de-
Description tailed study should be made. Notice that there are
The bottom line is producing steam for heat many hidden costs in the conversion to heavy oil
and power at the lowest cost possible. At first that should be considered. Figure 10.19 is a plus-
glance you might think that the “best buy” would point minus-point evaluation example. The (+) in
be using the fuel with the most Btus per dollar. front of an item means that it generally will be
This type of ranking would show that wood, coal a benefit and a (-) indicates that there are draw-
and heavy oil would be the best buy. backs or additional costs involved.
There is more to know about the situation Different costs will be appropriate for each
than Btus per dollar. There is also the conversion of these items at individual plants. The important
efficiency (Table 10.1) and related problems with thing is to be aware of the fact that a complete
transportation and pollution to consider. Know- analysis is needed. A simple overlooked fact is
124 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

2. Oxygen Trim

Cost
Moderate to low

Potential Savings
Moderate

Description
There are many factors that can influence
and introduce errors into the air/fuel ratio such
as fuel property changes, air temperature, control
system response, fuel pressure and burner perfor-
mance (Table 10.3). An oxygen trim system can
automatically and continuously compensate for
the variables in the combustion process, insuring
that the boiler is programmed to operate at near
optimum efficiency.

Sources of Errors in Control Systems

Figure 10.19—Plus point minus point evaluation ta-
ble for conversion from natural gas to residual fuel
oil.

that you pay for natural gas after it is used and

fuel oil must be purchased and stored for many
months or years before it is used. This ties up cap-
ital which can be used for other purposes. Anoth-
er real problem is the cost of environmental com-
pliance in some regions as well as the uncertainty
of future environmental requirements for storage
tanks and underground piping.
Although the use of electricity to generate
steam would seem to be an unwise choice, the Table 10.3—The sources of errors in control systems
whole picture should be considered. Distribu- with a rough estimate of how large they could be-
come without an oxygen trim system to automatical-
tion systems can waste a very large percentage
ly compensate for some of the problems. An oxygen
of heat, especially if they are lightly loaded. It
trim system can compensate for many system errors,
may be more cost effective to use electric boilers
allowing a lower excess air level to be maintained
at those locations with only intermittent or light on an automatic basis. However, many boiler plants
steam use, especially if long or inefficient steam have not taken full advantage of this potential and
and condensate runs are involved. are maintaining a higher than necessary set point for
excess oxygen. The O2 trim system can also be used
Advantages/Disadvantages as a tool to diagnose and control system problems.
A complete analysis could be time consum-
ing, especially if the plant would have to be re- Advantages/Disadvantages
configured to burn another type of fuel, but on Without oxygen trim, high levels of excess
the other hand going through the trouble could oxygen are necessary to compensate for many
be quite profitable. sources of errors in the combustion process; this
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 125

Figure 10.20—An oxygen trim system compensates for many control system errors.

excess oxygen can waste a great deal of energy. most efficient operating level on a continuous ba-
Oxygen trim systems are set to a level of excess sis, insuring the most efficient operation possible
oxygen established by tests using a carbon mon- (Figure 10.21).
oxide or smoke limit. Some latitude must be given
in making this operational setting, so it does not
end up at the most efficient fuel/air ratio because
it includes this buffer zone too. Also, the oxygen
trim system must be maintained in good operat-
ing condition and calibrated, adding to the plant
maintenance workload. Figure 10.20 shows how
an oxygen trim system improves excess air levels.

3. Carbon Monoxide Trim

Cost
High
Figure 10.21—A carbon monoxide trim system con-
Potential Savings tinuously seeks the optimum air/fuel ratio. In con-
Moderate trast, the O2 trim system must be set to a fixed value
and does not sense poor combustion, combustibles
Description or formation of carbon monoxide.
A major problem with the oxygen trim sys-
tem is that it cannot seek out the most efficient op- Advantages/Disadvantages
erating point and it must operate at fixed oxygen Carbon monoxide trim is more expensive
set points. For this reason a fuel wasting buffer and requires more maintenance than other control
zone is programmed into the operation of oxygen system components. In the past CO trim has had
trim systems. A carbon monoxide measurement a poor reliability record in the harsh combustion
and trimming system is designed to seek out the flue gas environment, but under the right condi-
126 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

tions it can save a great deal of money. These are Other conditions poor control system linear-
sensitive instruments that require special atten- ity may cause, are that a boiler may only operate
tion in maintenance and calibration. The CO trim between certain restricted loads, like from 40% to
system delivers its best performance and payback 65% or from 80% to 100%. This is often a hidden
when all other parts of the combustion process error which makes smooth boiler control almost
are working perfectly. impossible and it takes a good analysis to uncover.
This is one of the many good reasons for
equipping boilers with good instrumentation, in-
4. Control System Linearity cluding fuel meters. This condition will cause a
boiler to cycle on and off or it may cause a boiler
Cost to operate below rated capacity making it neces-
Low sary for additional boilers to carry the load. Both
conditions waste fuel and make it very difficult to
Potential Savings do a good tuneup.
High When a boiler is first put into service, con-
trol system response should be checked to insure
Description that its operation is linear. Many boilers have this
When control systems have not been de- hidden problem which interferes with efficient
signed or calibrated for linearity they do not re- operation and makes life very frustrating for op-
spond properly especially when programmed to erators.
work in coordination with other boilers. If you
could compare a boiler’s control system to an au- Advantages/Disadvantages
tomobile’s accelerator, linearity error is like just It takes time and additional expense to in-
resting your foot on the gas pedal and having it sure that a boiler’s firing system is linearized and
accelerate to full speed with very little foot mo- operating in its rated operating range. It’s one of
tion. In another case, having your car not respond those things taken for granted when equipment
to large change in position of the gas pedal and is new. Unless this problem is resolved, it may be
only getting a response on the last sixteenth of an difficult to optimize the performance of a boiler to
inch of travel (Figure 10.22). the fullest extent.

Figure 10.22—Control system linearity. Non-linear response can cause control problems
and inefficient operation
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 127

5. Characterizable Fuel Valve

Cost
Low

Potential Savings
2% to 12%

Description
Characterizable fuel valves (Figure 10.23 and
10.24) have a series of adjustments that are used
to match the air/fuel ratios across the load range.
Without this type of valve, a precise tuneup is al-
most impossible. It also serves as a valuable tool Figure 10.23—Characterizable fuel flow control valve
to correct mechanical problems that can develop
in the burner and control systems. One valve is
needed for each fuel. The reason a characteriz-
able fuel valve can be so useful becomes appar-
ent when the fuel delivery curve and air delivery
curves are compared (Figure 10.25). Often they do
not match and many control systems have no way
to adjust one to the other in a precise way without
sacrificing excess air and lost energy.

Advantages/Disadvantages
This is a low cost option and one of the best
investments you can make for boiler optimization
and troubleshooting. There should be a character-
izable fuel valve for each fuel fired if the control
system has no other means to balance fuel flow Figure 10.24—Characterizable Fuel Oil Valves in-
with air flow. stalled for dual fuel operations

Figure 10.25—Different delivery

rates from air and fuel systems
make characterizable valves a ne-
cessity.
128 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

6. Over Fire Draft Control 7. Cross Limiting Controls

Cost Cost
Low Moderate

Potential Savings Potential Savings

Moderate (2% to 10%) Moderate

Description Description
One of the first and simplest devices used to Fuel delivery responds almost immediately
control excess air was with over fire draft control. to control system positioning whereas it takes lon-
Because of the change in draft on cold and hot ger for the air to respond, so on upward swings
days and the lack of precise draft control expe- you can get a black smoking condition until the
rienced with barometric dampers, over fire draft air catches up with the fuel.
control systems are used to maintain a constant This smoking on load changes is a waste of
negative pressure in the fire box. This establishes fuel and the soot deposit it leaves behind fouls the
predictable conditions for air fuel ratio control. heat exchange surfaces causing higher stack tem-
Also, when the boiler shuts down, the over fire peratures. This is one of the reasons that pneu-
draft control system damper closes, preventing matic and electronic controls are used. They can
heat from escaping up the stack (Figure 10.26). be designed for this cross limiting feature which
prevents smoking. If a boiler is smoking on load
Advantages/Disadvantages swings, then it is changing load too fast, and cross
The over fire draft control is a simple, low limiting is needed.
cost ($1,500) device and much cheaper than oxy- Cross limiting systems simply do not allow
gen trim. the fuel valve positioning signal to be greater
than the actual measured air flow requirement,
thus eliminating smoking on load changes.

Figure 10.26—Over Fire Draft Control system

Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 129

Advantages/disadvantages and smoking and soot formation prevented, the

It may be expensive to install a completely linkage should be precise with no play. Some-
new control system just to have cross limiting. times pins are lost and threaded bolts are substi-
However, if this condition is not corrected, the tuted instead and over time, these sharp threads
price in unburned combustibles and higher stack cause elongated holes and a tremendous amount
temperatures will surely be taking an undesirable of play. Also, non-precision parts are used to sub-
share of your fuel budget. stitute for lost or damaged parts. Control linkag-
es also bind, warp, shear pins and otherwise lose
their precision over the years and the only solu-
8. Improve Control System Accuracy tion is to restore it to a precision system.
with Strong Precision Parts
Advantages/Disadvantages
Cost You may have a burner and control system
Low that can’t be adjusted to maintain low excess air
levels and high efficiency. If so, some custom re-
Potential Savings building may be necessary. It’s a cheap enough
Moderate (2% to 12%) solution but you may have to be innovative and
use aircraft grade precision parts as shown in Fig-
Description ure 10.27.
If your control system is flimsy and does not
have strongly built precision parts, the chances
are that you can’t get a good tuneup or repeatabil- 9. Stack Dampers
ity. If control system linkage has any play at all,
precise excess-air levels cannot be maintained. Cost
For example, only 1/100 of an inch play in control Low
system linkage can cause the need for a 5% excess
air buffer zone. Potential Savings
If low excess air levels are to be maintained Moderate (5% to 20%)

Figure 10.27
130 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Description umes of high temperature exhaust gasses. Years

When a boiler isn’t firing, a great deal of en- ago, slots were cut in the stack and metal damp-
ergy can be lost up the stack due to the chimney ers inserted, but these often were unsatisfactory.
effect when the lighter hot air formed in the boil- A modern adjustable design has been developed,
er internals and in the hot stack pull cold air in a special exhaust gas buffer that has shown good
through the boiler. This situation is most common results (Figure 10.29).
on atmospheric burner units, but may be present
on some older equipment too. Advantages/disadvantages
A damper automatically closes off the stack This inexpensive device can slow down the
when the boiler isn’t firing, holding the heat in escape of hot gases up the stack. It can also be
the boiler (Figure 10.28). adjusted to a specific location.

Advantages/Disadvantages
Stack dampers have full safety approval and
should be installed to curb this unnecessary loss.

10. Slow Down Exhaust Flow

Cost
Low

10. Savings
Moderate to low

Description
In many cases the size of stacks and exhaust
systems is excessive allowing unrestricted and
often excessive negative draft “draw” to exist.
Oversized exhaust systems offer little resistance
Figure 10.29—A fixed damper buffers high velocity
to the varying conditions of stack “draw” and
escape of flue gas without limiting cross sectional
cause excess air to be pulled into the burner as area of stack
well as aid the unrestricted escape of large vol-
11. Wind Deflector for
Boiler Room Vents

Cost
Small, basically a design consideration

10. Savings
Moderate

10. Description
Boiler rooms are required to have a certain
square footage of free ventilation access per boil-
er horsepower. In some locations wind driven air
pressure can cause draft control problems. One
Figure 10.28—Stack dampers used to block heat loss-
es.
has only to try to walk into a strong wind to grasp
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 131

the magnitude of the force involved. When the are, or how fancy the trim system, the burner will
wind is driven into the outside vents boiler room ultimately control the level of excess air that can
pressure can rise, when on the sheltered side of be achieved. Older burners may not have been
a building a partial vacuum can form. This con- designed with low excess air in mind or they may
dition can cause burner adjustment problems. have worn out to a point where low excess air
The simple solution is to be aware of the poten- levels are no longer possible. The solution is to
tial problem and protect the boiler room from this install a burner which has been designed for low
wind effect or set the excess air high enough to excess air operation, or to repair or refurbish the
stay out of the smoking zone. This may seem like one you have so that it is capable of dependable
a small thing, but when low excess air levels are low excess air operation.
to be achieved a condition like this can become a
big challenge. Advantages/Disadvantages
High cost and redesign of boilers to accom-
modate these new burners may be a problem.
12. Vent Caps on Stacks However, low excess air operation may not be
Cost possible without burner conversion.
Low

Savings 14. Oxygen Enrichment

Low to Moderate
Cost
Description
Varies
Something as simple as a vent cap on the
stack is not an obvious candidate for fuel savings.
Savings
A strong wind and a bent or damaged stack cover
Moderate to small
can produce some wild draft effects. These draft
effects will change the air/fuel ratio and cause
Description
large swings towards excess air conditions and
Substitution of oxygen for combustion air,
possibly cause smoking.
which contains only 20.9% O2 reduces the vol-
With the lack of good draft control, excess air
ume of heat absorbing nitrogen flowing through
adjustments must be made to compensate for this
the combustion process and therefore reduces
effect which can be excessive causing wasted fuel.
flue gas loss. Energy savings must be measured
It has always been a mystery as to just how vent
against the cost of oxygen and the cost involved
covers get bent and pushed over to one side, but
in additional safety precautions.
they have been known to deflect air into the boiler
The usual oxygen enriching practice in in-
or furnace in a good wind and cause serious prob-
dustrial heating is to increase the oxygen in the
lems and can even back smoke into a building.
combustion air from its normal 21% to 25% or
30%. It is preferable to premix it with the combus-
13. Low Excess Air Burner tion air, but lances are sometimes used. Economic
justification of the use of oxygen is often marginal
Cost unless the user has oxygen facilities with spare
Moderate to High capacity.
Potential Savings
Advantages/Disadvantages
Moderate to High
Good energy savings are possible but safety
Description will be a paramount factor in mixing oxygen with
It doesn’t matter how good your controls fuel oil.
132 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

15. Oil-Water Emulsions 16. Replace Atmospheric

Burners With Power Burners
Cost
Moderate Cost
Moderate
Potential Savings
Low Potential Savings
Moderate
Description
This is a process where very small amounts Description
of water, usually less than 6% of the fuel, of mi- An atmospheric type of burner has practical-
cron sized droplets are evenly mixed with fuel to ly no excess air control and loses a lot of heat up
cause additional atomization action in the com- the stack during the off cycle if a damper is not
bustion zone. (Figure 10.30) installed. On the other hand, excess air and stack
The benefit from oil/water emulsions is lim- losses can be more easily controlled with a power
ited, but is of great value in those plants where burner which has electrically positioned control
serious burner problems are causing smoke and linkage, motor driven fans and automatic damp-
excessive particulate emissions. When exposed to ers.
the intense heat in the fire box, the micron sized
droplets of water expand rapidly causing the oil Advantages/Disadvantages
droplets to break into smaller particles, enhanc- Atmospheric type burners have no excess
ing atomization. This reduces the smoke level al- air control. Excess air levels have often been mea-
lowing lower excess air and the elimination of the sured at extremely high levels. In addition, be-
sooting of the heat exchange surfaces. cause they use air that is pulled into the combus-
tion zone by the chimney effect there is no pos-
Advantages/disadvantages itive way to prevent cold air from being sucked
This is an effective way to reduce particu- through the boiler when it is not firing, which
late generation and change the smoke threshold wastes a lot of energy up the stack. A power burn-
so less excess air can be used. The equipment is er has two clear advantages, it can be adjusted for
expensive and the water used in this process es- excess air control and its dampers close during
capes up the stack carrying away a high level of the off cycle, keeping heat in the boiler.
energy.

17. Flame Retention Head

Type Burners

Cost
Moderate

Savings
Figure 10.30—Oil-water emulsions, micron sized wa-
Low (with new units)
ter droplets are mixed with fuel. This figure shows
typical atomized oil droplet with water mixed in fuel:
(a) water droplets are too small, Description
(b) water droplets uniform and the proper size Without good air-fuel mixing, oil fired burn-
(c) non-uniform mixing of water droplets. ers require higher amounts of excess air. Flame
retention head burners, however, provide better
mixing of oil and combustion air, thereby reduc-
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 133

ing excess-air requirements (Figure 10.31). The ap- temperature and eliminate to some of the standby
plication of this option depends to a great degree losses.
on existing excess-air levels. This option should
be considered when replacing old equipment or Advantages and Disadvantages
in the design phase of mechanical systems. U. S This option requires additional pressure reg-
Department of Energy tests found an improve- ulating valves and possibly burner modifications
ment in seasonal efficiency from 5.9 to 12.7 per- to produce stepped firing rates.
cent when high speed flame retention head burn-
ers were used on standard heating units.
19. Reduction of Fuel Firing Rate
Advantages/Disadvantages
This is a small boiler and furnace option. Cost
Flame retention head burners should be specified Low to Moderate
for any new purchases. They may be available
as a retrofit option if the manufacturer has rede- Savings
signed older models. It is a low cost item that can Low to Moderate
reduce excess air.
Description
Conditions change, many burners have been
18. Multi-Stage Gas Valves found to be grossly oversized for their applica-
tions. Successful energy conservation actions,
Cost changes in load requirements and other factors
Low may be producing far less demand for heat. If fuel
firing rate can be reduced, then stack losses will
Saving decrease along with standby losses.
Moderate
Advantages/Disadvantages
Description The cost of installing new burners and the
Gas fired furnaces and boilers having only cost of engineering and other fees for redesign of
one fuel delivery rate can be a disadvantage an existing system may not be justified. A study
which wastes fuel because the only firing rate is of the economics of the issue will show if it will
full fire and off. Having the option of intermedi- pay. It makes no sense to drive a lot of heat into
ate firing rates (high, low and off) can lower stack a boiler with high exhaust gas temperatures and

Figure 10.31—Flame retention head burner.

134 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

then let it sit idle for long periods; this is wasteful. Advantages/Disadvantages
A longer firing time with lower losses makes more On/Off Controls are simpler, with a lower
sense. Caution may be needed at low firing rates first cost and can be tuned up easily. However,
where the exhaust gas temperature is depressed they waste energy with higher stack temperatures
below the acid dew point which can cause dam- and standby losses. The more complex and more
age to the boiler, breechings and stack. expensive modulating controls can overcome this
problem.

20. Replace On/Off Controls with

21. Convert to Air or Steam
Modulating Controls.
Atomizing Burners.
Cost Cost
Moderate Moderate

Potential Savings Potential Savings

Moderate Moderate 2%-8%

Description
Description Steam or air atomization allows the firing
Replace on/off type of burner control with of a wide range of fuels and high turndown ap-
controls that can modulate and match load con- proaching 20:1 instead of 4:1, and good efficiency.
ditions, reducing higher stack temperatures and Air and steam atomization produces an aerosol in
standby losses. On/off equipment must be set to which fine droplets are supported by an expand-
match the highest expected demand and when ing cone of air/steam and there is less sensitivity
the demand has been satisfied the equipment to oil viscosity changes. It also allows more flexi-
must shut off. Exhaust temperatures are lowered bility in shaping the flame to conform to furnace
by matching the firing rate to actual demand. conditions.
Also, the losses associated with purging the boil-
er before and after each firing cycle could be elim- Advantages/Disadvantages
inated by having fewer on/off cycles. Table 10.4 The cost of installing and operating a com-
shows typical efficiencies and the enhancements pressed air or steam atomizing system may be
of this type of load matching. a disadvantage. The steam used for atomization
is lost up the stack and its energy must be con-
sidered. Offsetting this is improved performance
turn down ratio and fuel versatility, especially if
fuel quality tends to vary.

22. Fuel Oil Viscosity Management

Cost
Low

Savings
Moderate

Description
The design of the atomization system is
Table 10.4—Control system Performance comparison. based on certain fuel oil properties, primarily
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 135

viscosity. Viscosity is the relative ease or difficul- 23. Intermittent Ignition Devices
ty with which oil flows or is pumped. Viscosity
affects the quality of atomization and the smoke Cost
point which determines the minimum excess air Low
possible. Because of this, the viscosity of fuel oil
must be closely controlled at all times. Since oil Savings
is obtained on the open market, its source of ori- Moderate
gin can be uncertain. Therefore, the properties of
one batch will not likely be the same as those of Description
another batch. Oil viscosity is controlled by tem- It doesn’t make any sense to keep a flame lit
perature, the oil temperature necessary at the in a furnace or boiler if heat isn’t needed; it wastes
atomizer depends on the particular fuel. Some energy. Especially with gas fired equipment, there
heavy fuels are very fluid and require little or are many smaller sized boilers and furnaces with
no heating. A viscosity of 180 to 200 Saybolt Sec- continuous pilot flames. On a 24-hour-a-day ba-
onds Universal (SSU) often gives best results for sis, year after year, these small flames can use a
atomization and if the oil at ordinary tempera- lot of Btus. Intermittent ignition technology has
ture is of higher viscosity, it must be heated to a been proven to be reliable and safe, so these older
temperature which will reduce viscosity to this continuous pilot lights should be replaced with
point. Intermittent Ignition Devices.
The temperature control of the fuel oil heat-
er is a key element in controlling atomization and Advantages/Disadvantages
smoke point for excess-air control. Fuel batches Intermittent ignition devices are proven, re-
should be sampled to determine the temperature liable equipment. They have been designed to ret-
set point. If the heater does not maintain an ac- rofit on most boilers and furnaces and are not ex-
curate set point, close excess-air tolerances may pensive. Their payback period is relatively short
not be possible. Automatic viscosity controllers
will feed back information on viscosity to the
heater and maintain a proper temperature. 24. Prevent Heat
Transfer Surface Fouling
Advantages/Disadvantages
In general, the lowest fuel temperature per- Cost
mitting good furnace conditions and low ex- Low
cess-air is most desirable. Too high a tempera-
ture may cause carbonization of fuel oil heaters Savings
and atomizer tips, sparking in the furnace and a Moderate
tendency for the flame to become unsteady and
blow off the tip. Description
Burner performance controls the minimum With the increased use of natural gas, com-
possible excess-air levels which can be held bustion source fouling has become much less of
consistently. The burner depends for its perfor- a problem, however with distillate fuels, heavy
mance on oil being at the proper viscosity. Poor fuel oils and coals heat exchange surface fouling
viscosity (temperature) control can prevent is still a constant threat which requires diligence
high efficiency. A properly working and main- to keep under control. Inadequate air supply to
tained fuel oil heater and good viscosity control the burner or localized poor air fuel mixing can
either through regular tests on oil batches or cause small smoke sources that over time foul
with an automatic controller is the key to low heat exchange surfaces raising exhaust tempera-
excess-air. tures. This can take just a few minutes or occur
136 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

over months; the stack temperature will tell the 26. Reduce Radiation Losses
story. The possible causes are many and varied
and may take a detailed investigation once the Cost
higher exhaust temperatures become apparent, Low
especially when firing at Maximum Rated Capac- Savings
ity. Moderate

Advantages/Disadvantages Description
Keeping heat exchange surfaces clean pre- Hot surfaces can waste a lot of energy by means
vents wasted fuel, increased pollution and un- of radiation. Radiation is a very effective heat trans-
necessary carbon emissions. It is a matter of being fer medium. Unlike convection and conduction ra-
able to spot this condition when it is developing. diation losses may not be obvious because it does
not heat up the local area but may transfer its ener-
gy to surfaces quite a distance away and because of
25. Install Air preheat or Other the much greater surface areas affected at a distance
Heat Recovery Equipment this way the actual energy transfer can be great-
ly under estimated. Some older boilers have large
Cost metal doors that radiate heat like this, flame on one
Varies side and a much cooler plant on the other side with
rather forceful blowers cooling things down with
Savings people moving around in their shirt sleeves on very
Moderate cold days; its radiation just like the sun. The real
problem can often be picked up with infrared scans
Description or surface thermometers.
This option comes under the general heading
Advantages/Disadvantages
of what to do when other options don’t appear to
This is not an obvious problem and a condi-
be workable or cost effective. There are two wide-
tion commonly taken for granted in boiler plants;
ly used choices to improve efficiency effective-
their hot! It may be awkward and challenging
ly; put excess heat into an economizer or into a
to correct this situation or even convince some
combustion air preheater. Let’s say the fuel is the
people this represents a significant loss of ener-
problem and frequent cleaning is not possible, a
gy especially at low firing rates as this condition
combustion air pre heater might be the solution.
becomes a much larger percentage in the losses
The rule of thumb for this option is that every 40F
column. Good insulating materials are available
you bring the exhaust temperature down rais-
with experts that know how to apply them.
es efficiency by 1% and every 11F the feedwater
is raised improves efficiency by 1%. So in some
cases you may find this to be the most workable
solution to investigate. In some cases it might be Section 10-3
cost effective to put the energy from high exhaust
losses through an older inactive boiler as a hot Boiler Improvements
water source.
CHECKLIST - 3
Advantages/Disadvantages Boiler Improvements
This comes under the heading of initiatives,
a fall back position if fuel becomes very expensive 1. Replace binding or worn control system
or scarce or if regulatory constraints block other linkages
conventional options like installing new boilers. 2. Conduct infrared scans of boiler shell to
identify poor refractory and insulation
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 137

3. Oxygen sensors and feel for unusual vibrations and noises. You
4. Repair a leaking seals on combustion air pre- might be surprised at what can be found even
heaters disconnected linkages and burners not securely
5. Install turbulators bolted to the furnace.
6. Chemically clean internal boiler scale to im-
prove heat transfer
7. Clean fire-side deposits to improve heat 2. Conduct InfraRed Scans
transfer of Boiler and Steam Lines.
8. Check for hot gas short circuits indicating
defective baffles There are some good instruments available
for conducting infrared scans of boiler and steam
lines to identify poor refractory and insulation.
1. Replace Binding or Worn
They can identify hot spots and energy losses
Control System Linkages.
quickly and easily identify unusual energy loss-
Boilers seem to operate for years on a 24/7 es. Figure 10.32 shows the graphic results of such
basis with no problems while all this time parts a scan.
are wearing and vibrating with continuous use.
Nothing seems to go wrong. Boilers are not like
engines that begin to vibrate and make strange 3. Excess Air Indicators
noises when they begin to have problems. It’s a
good idea to check the control linkages for open- Oxygen sensors provide information for ex-
ing clearances and play, just a little bit of play can cess air indications on a continuous basis which
start costing money. A good check is to test for can be quite helpful for tracking boiler efficien-
flue gas oxygen levels at selected load points, this cy trends. This is a prime indicator of operating
and a hand over hand examination of parts will efficiency and also as a trouble indicator for the
tell the story. Cycle the controls with the boiler off burner and combustion control systems.

Figure 10.32—Shows a sample

of a graphic scan of a boiler
surface which has been dis-
played on a spreadsheet grid
for easy summation of results.
This scan was done with an in-
frared instrument that directly
measured Btus radiated from
the boiler surface in Btus per
square ft per hour; a handy
number to use in a grid like
this. Using this and surface
temperature information, trou-
ble spots can easily be identi-
fied.
138 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

4. Repair leaking Seals Description

on Combustion Air Preheaters Turbulators are a very effective way to re-
duce stack temperatures and increase efficiency
The combustion air preheater (Figure 10.33) of fire tube boilers (Figure 10.34). In a firetube
lowers exhaust temperatures by pre heating in- boiler the hot gasses must pass through relatively
coming combustion air. The unit slowly rotates long narrow tubes where heat is given up to the
through the hot exhaust ductwork gaining heat side walls causing the gasses to contract and slow
which is then released into the incoming combus- down forming layers of colder gas along the heat
tion air. After extended use the seals need fixing exchange surfaces. This condition prevents good
because of wear. Leaking seals can introduce cold heat transfer, so turbulators are used break up
air into exhaust gases causing dew point corro- this insulating film. Turbulators are thin strips of
sion problems besides putting an additional load metal that have been bent to break up the flow of
on the combustion air fans. hot gasses in the tubes and are designed for min-
imum obstruction of the passages. They are usu-
ally installed in the last pass. By using longer tur-
5. Turbulators bulators in the upper tubes of the last pass, hotter
gasses are forced through lower tubes eliminating
Cost to some degree the stratification of hot gasses at
Low the end of the boiler.

Potential Savings Advantages/Disadvantages

Low Turbulators may cause condensation of flue
gasses when a boiler is first lit off. Generally, they
are a good inexpensive way to lower flue gas
temperature. They are not recommended for high
particulate loading options such as coal and re-
sidual fuel oil.

6. Chemically Clean Internal

Boiler Scale to Improve
Heat Transfer

Impurities in boiler feedwater tend to con-

centrate in the boiler. All boiler water contains
dissolved solids. When the feedwater is heated,
it evaporates and goes off as distilled steam leav-
ing impurities behind. As more and more water is
distilled from the boiler, more feedwater is added
to replace it. As a result the amount of solids dis-
solved in the boiler water gradually increases. Af-
ter a while these highly soluble solids in solution
cause problems like scale accumulation on the
tube metal retarding heat transfer and a number
of other problems. (For further details see Chap-
Figure 10.33—Large Air Heater (Lungstrom) installa- ter 15 of this book.)
tion at an electric station
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 139

Figure 10.34
Various types of firetube boilers with turbulators installed

7. Clean Fire-Side Deposits 8. Check for Hot Gas Short Circuits

to Improve Heat Transfer Indicating Defective Baffles

Fireside deposits are quite varied depending Boilers are designed to absorb heat from
on the fuel source, especially Coals and Heavy combustion gases with great efficiency. These hot
Fuel Oils (HFO). Slags get so bad sometimes they gases are guided on their way through the boiler
have to be removed with dynamite or shotgun by baffles that on occasion break down and let hot
blasts. In lesser cases, high pressure water wash gasses pass without giving up their heat.
can be used. Also, fuel additives are used to help Hot gas short circuits can be detected by
with this process. doing a temperature traverse across the out-
The key here is rising exhaust temperatures; let breechings. Wherever the gases are leaking
every 40°F the temperature rises costs 1% in boiler through the baffles they are causing a hot flow
efficiency so it is an basically an economic judg- lanes which can be detected by taking tempera-
ment when to curtail operations and do a clean- ture measurements. So it is a matter of system-
up. This could have an important impact on the atically probing the cross section of the exhaust
economy of operations and profits. section searching for hot spots. Specific repairs
140 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

can be made after shutting down the boiler and Description

inspecting the path indicated for the gases caus- There is a difference between “operating”
ing the hot spot. and “managing” a boiler. To manage a boiler you
need more information than is generally avail-
able with standard instrumentation which only
gives information about “operating” conditions.
Fuel flow, steam flow, temperatures and make up
Section 10-4 water use all play an important part in knowing
Metering and Monitoring what is happening and tracking trends. A boiler
with only 5% utilization or with 300% excess air
or a stack temperature of 750°F will not be effi-
CHECKLIST - 4 cient but it will produce steam and for all practi-
Metering and Monitoring cal purposes be operating satisfactory. Likewise, a
sudden increase in make up water use may indi-
1. Improved instrumentation and analysis cate a large loss of energy in the distribution sys-
2. Monitor and manage with a microproces- tem somewhere. Good instrumentation is need-
sor based system. ed to identify these efficiency related problems.
3. Add a fuel flow meter to the boiler plant Plants should have the following instruments:
for each fuel.
4. Provide a steam flow (or feedwater flow) 1. Stack thermometers.
meter for each boiler. 2. Fuel meters for each boiler.
5. Monitor excess air, carbon monoxide and 3. Make up feedwater meters.
combustibles either continuously or by 4. Oxygen analyzers.
regular checks with portable analyzers 5. Run time recorder.
6. Install an opacity monitor for oil fired 6. Energy output-input metering,
units (smoke is unburned fuel) 7. Return condensate thermometers.
7. Monitor flame conditions by visual checks
through viewing ports The ideal scene would to employ a modern
8. Install fuel cost indicator on each boiler computerized monitoring system to continuous-
front (i.e.-$/year) ly check on performance. If this cannot be done,
9. Maintain calibration for steam flow me- then this minimum instrumentation should be
ters. considered. Performance should be tracked to
10. Insure make-up water meter is meet fuel reduction objectives. A simple formula
working and accurate can be used if proper instrumentation exists:
11. Insure condensate line thermome-
Btu OUTPUT x 100
ters are in place and accurate EFFICIENCY % = ——————————
12. Keep instrumentation and chart re- Btu INPUT
corders in good repair.
There are portable boiler efficiency analyzers
available which can be used to help assess the ef-
1. Improved Instrumentation ficiency of your boilers. These range from simple
wet chemical analyzers to electronic flue gas ana-
Cost lyzers that can measure excess air, stack emissions
Low and stack (heat loss) efficiency at the touch of a
button. These instruments measure stack losses
Potential Savings but do not give information about overall plant
Moderate to 25% (plus) performance. Because the instrumentation at
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 141

most plants does not provide continuous or com- croprocessor is a powerful new tool that can take
plete information, there are a lot of blank spaces the pulse of your plant, detect problems and cal-
and assumptions about actual plant performance. culate efficiency every few seconds.
The computerized system (Figure 10.35) can
Advantages/Disadvantages store a tremendous amount of data and provide
Instruments add extra cost to plants and in clear and simple reports and graphics. With “In-
many cases they have not been installed or have telligent Programs” the computer can train your
been neglected. They must be kept calibrated and personnel and help them to diagnose problems
someone must record and analyze the data and very quickly. With a telephone connection, a plant
then take positive steps to correct energy wast- can be monitored by experts thousands of miles
ing conditions. This takes time, effort, money and away.
skill. However, there may be a large pay back The computer is truly the answer to tracking
in knowing what is happening and discovering plant performance. Let’s face it, a boiler is only a
where the fuel wasting conditions are. means of getting heat and power so the facility can
accomplish its mission. If steam could be brought
into a plant like electricity, many managers would
2. Monitor and Manage With be very happy because a great burden and liabili-
a Microprocessor Based System ty would be lifted from their shoulders. Until this
is possible, the next best thing to aid trouble free
Potential savings: large and efficient boiler plant operation is the use of the
There is a definite reduction in manpow- computer as a tool to help keep the operation of
er requirements for monitoring energy use with the plant smooth and trouble free as well as identi-
modern microprocessor based systems. The mi- fy where energy (dollars) are being wasted.

Figure 10.35—Quality plant information

is available for engineering, operations
and management needs when micropro-
cessor base systems are used.
142 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Many boilers are unattended or are operated of its fuel just being ready to take the load if the
by a staff with many other jobs. With a computer- on line boilers encounter problems.
ized system, the boiler is monitored automatical-
ly which can mean a large savings in manpower
and energy. (Figures 10.36 and 10.37) 4. Provide a Steam Flow (or Feed-
Water Flow) Meter for
Advantages/Disadvantages Each Boiler
High cost and increased complexity are
drawbacks. Properly used and maintained, a mi- Flow meters do not save energy and they are
croprocessor can save a great deal of money by not necessary for producing steam but they are
reducing labor costs, identifying fuel wasting vital for managing an efficient plant. Once steam
problems, diagnosing plant and system problems leaves the boiler plant control is lost, it goes some-
and eliminating many service calls. where but does anyone have an accurate picture
Some of the features of the microprocessor of how it is used with no metering systems down-
based system are accuracy of data which can be stream. The American Society of Mechanical En-
stored and evaluated providing: gineers (ASME), in their boiler test code indicates
that a positive displacement feedwater flow me-
1. Continuous data sampling ter serves as a accurate substitute for a steam flow
2. Immediate alarms meter. In order to assess boiler performance you
3. Remote surveillance must know what the boiler is producing.
4. Accurate records
5. Energy and steam system modeling using
“what if” scenarios 5. Monitor Excess Air, Carbon
6. Typical days per month simulation with Monoxide and Combustibles
energy and cash forecasting
7. Production planning tool, economic hourly Monitor excess air, carbon monoxide and
plant operation combustibles either continuously or by regular
8. Optimal plant operating strategies checks with portable analyzers.

1. Excess air is an accurate indicator of chang-

3. Provide a Fuel Flow Meter es in stack losses. The rule of thumb is that
for Each Boiler and Each Fuel every 2% increase in Oxygen in the flue gas
represents a 1% loss in efficiency. (2% oxygen
Fuel flow meters do not save energy and is about 10% excess air).
they are not necessary for producing steam and
often are not installed but they are vital for man- 2. Carbon monoxide is incompletely burned
aging an efficient plant. If you know how much carbon which is unburned fuel. Every pound
fuel a boiler is using then you have a key to its of carbon monoxide has a value of 4,368.
real efficiency, especially when information is col- Btus which is 20% of the energy in a pound
lected over a long period of time. Boiler efficiency of natural gas.
testing can give you a snapshot of the operating
efficiency at specific loads, but a number of sig- 3. Unburned hydrocarbons are actually un-
nificant losses have different causes that are not burned fuel too, containing a lot of Btus. Ex-
measured in these tests. For example, if the boiler ample: with 5% oxygen in the exhaust gas a
is oversized for its demands, it can lose a lot of en- 2% hydrocarbon reading represents an 8%
ergy when it cycles frequently. Another example energy loss.
is the hot standby boiler that essentially wastes all
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 143

Figure 10.36—typical screen showing vital data for safe efficient operations.

Figure 10.37—These graphic displays are quite handy for training and remote troubleshooting
144 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

There is a lot to lose here, someone should be ed with carbon or the glass is broken or someone
keeping a check on what is going out the stack. bricks over the viewing ports during repair activ-
ities. These ports are a very good troubleshooting
tool, if something goes wrong it can usually be
6. Install an Opacity Monitor seen during observation of the flame and burner
for Oil and Coal fired Units components. Actually it is a good idea to take pic-
(smoke is unburned fuel) tures or make sketches so you have something to
refer to as a comparison.
Oil and coal plants usually have opacity
monitors but if you have an interruptible gas sup-
ply contract you need to know if the plant begins 8. Install fuel cost indicator on
to smoke when it has to switch back to oil. Staff each boiler front (i.e.-$/year)
is often reduced with gas operations, and the op-
erators are not used to checking to see if the stack Boilers operate on a 24/7 basis consuming
is clear. This is particularly important during the great quantities of expensive fuel. Many people do
fuel switch when people are performing an unfa- not realize this and do not assign much importance
miliar tasks and are prone to make mistakes. to the amount of money spent on fuel. Company
officers work very hard to make a profit which
boilers can nullify with their inefficiencies.
One solution to this lack of recognition of the
money that boilers can gobble up is to install a
meter that indicates the dollars’ worth of fuel the
boiler has used during the past year. The numbers
might be a surprise to everyone and attract help
in creating some higher efficiency.

9. Maintain Calibration for

Steam Flow Meters

Your steam flow meters tell you where the

money is going. Would you allow the cash regis-
ters to be inaccurate?
Figure 10.38—You need to know when you are smok-
ing, its unburned fuel. Many regulatory agencies
have maximum opacity limits and levy fines for 10. Insure Make-up Water Meter
smoking. An opacity monitor can keep a plant out is Working and Accurate
of trouble. They were once standard equipment on
all boilers. If you spring a steam leak, a water leak or
other serious problem with the distribution sys-
tem, this meter will tell you right away.
7. Monitor Flame Conditions by
Visual Checks Through 11. Insure Condensate Line Thermo-
Viewing Ports meters are in Place and Accurate

When you can’t see things they become a If steam traps have failed or if the piping
mystery. Boiler manufacturers usually design system has flooded the temperature of the return-
viewing ports into standard boiler construction. ing condensate will change indicating a problem
However, as time passes, the glass becomes coat- needs fixing.
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 145

12. Keep Instrumentation and gallons of water in 24 hours producing over 30

Chart Recorders in Good Repair. pounds of minerals behind every day. This adds
up and causes problems by forming foam on the
A lot of things happen in the typical thermal steam-water interface a cause of carry over, scale
plant that can’t be seen, in boilers covered with on tube surfaces and suspended sludge which
ibricks and insulation, in piping systems and at usually sinks to the bottom of the lower drum.
remote locations served by the piping systems. These dissolved solids are kept at a manageable
Plants don’t necessarily run on observable data level by draining a portion of the contaminated
the instruments tell the story about efficiency. water from the boiler, called blow-down. This
People need correct data to make safe decisions water contains a lot of heat, not to be wasted.
too; there are a lot of dangers connected to ther- The scale when formed retards heat transfer also
mal plant operations. wasting energy and causing possible boiler dam-
age, so this area is a good target for energy sav-
ings activity. See Chapter 15 for more details.

2. Use Water Softener

Section 10-5
Boiler Water Management Hardness in water is caused by dissolved
calcium and magnesium which precipitates out
of the feedwater. As the temperature of the water
CHECKLIST 5 is raised calcium and magnesium precipitate out
Boiler Water Management of the water and adhere to surfaces such as boiler
tubes. The softener is used to remove calcium and
1. Improve water treatment magnesium from the make up water. This reduc-
2. Water pretreatment softener es the potential for scale deposit formation in the
3. Boiler water chemistry improvements in- boiler allowing the boiler to carry higher cycles of
crease cycles of concentration concentration producing both water and energy
4. Install automated blow down control system savings. Another important benefit of this water
5. Mechanical scale removal softening process is the prevention of boiler tube
6. Chemical scale removal failure caused by overheating of the tube metal
7. Boiler blow down heat recovery caused by these scale deposits
8. Use hot blow down water to keep idle boil-
ers warm
3. Increasing cycles of
concentration
1. Boiler Water Management
to Conserve Energy Cost
Low
When boiler feedwater is heated, it evapo-
rates and goes off as distilled steam leaving im- Potential Savings
purities behind. As more and more water is dis- Moderate
tilled in the boiler, more feedwater containing
dissolved solids is added to replace it. As a result Description
the amount of these solids dissolved in the boil- Cycles of concentration is the ratio of impuri-
er water gradually increases. A boiler as small as ties being maintained in the boiler water divided
100 horsepower, can evaporate more than 10,000 by the impurity level of the boiler feedwater. This
146 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

level of concentration is regulated by the percent- 4. Automatic Blowdown Control

age of blowdown. If a low level of concentration
is maintained, then the blowdown rate could be Cost
very high, wasting energy (Figure 10.39). High Moderate
cycles of concentration require less blowdown Potential Savings
and less energy for make up water heating. Moderate (2%-3%)

Advantages/Disadvantages Description
The higher the cycles of concentration to be When high temperature, high energy blow-
maintained, the closer the scale formation limit down water is not closely controlled, energy is
is approached so good control is required. If this wasted by dumping too much water out of the
process is not closely regulated, there is a chance boiler at one time (Figure 10.41). This water then
for scale to form in the boiler which could lead must be replaced by cold make up water. Lack
to tube failure or costly cleaning. The general of control may also cause the dissolved solids
practice has been to stay away from higher lev- concentration to rise above the scaling level. Au-
els of concentration if good control could not be tomatic control eliminates these problems and
assured, this can waste money, energy and water saves water, chemicals and energy.
(Figure 10.40) so the pros and cons should be care-
fully evaluated. Feedwater purity is another issue Advantages/Disadvantages
which must be evaluated to really understand This option requires good reliable equip-
the situation. If make-up feedwater has high im- ment which must be kept calibrated.
purities, then higher cycles of concentration will
be approached more quickly whereas very pure
5. Mechanically Scale Removal
feedwater allows very high cycles of concentra-
tion, eliminating blowdown losses and make up Cost
water heating to a large degree. Low (essential maintenance)

Figure 10.39—Cycles of Concentration.

The purer the feedwater, the less blow-
down required and the higher cycles of
concentration that can be maintained.
For example, if feedwater quality is
improved to increase the concentration
from 3 to 6 times, the blowdown rate for
a 100,000 lb/hr boiler is reduced from
33.3 to 16.7 percent, or about 30,000 lb/
hr of hot water drained from the boiler.
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 147

Figure 10.40—Increasing Cycles of Concentration saves on energy, water and chemicals.

Figure 10.41—Automatic blowdown control enables a 33% reduction in blowdown.

Potential Savings Steam generators normally have very high

Moderate (2%-3%) temperature flames and gases heating boiler wa-
ter and generating steam through the tube walls.
The buildup of boiler scale constitutes a The metal tubes in the boiler are kept cool by the
growth of crystals on waterside heat transfer sur- boiler water. When scale forms, it acts like an in-
faces and is most severe in those areas of the boil- sulation material between the water and the met-
er where maximum heat transfer occurs. (Figure al. This results in tubes operating at higher tem-
10.42) shows the relationship between heat trans- peratures. The greater the thickness of the scale,
fer efficiency and scale deposit thickness. the greater the insulating effect, and the higher
148 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

the temperature of the tube metal. At sufficiently was quite possibly plugging an existing hole. At
high temperatures, in the neighborhood of 1,000°F some point these holes would start to leak, possi-
the tubes begin to lose strength and rupture. bly causing an expensive shutdown.
The chemical cleaning process is straight for-
ward for a Fire Tube boiler about 10-12 hours is
6. Chemical Scale Removal required; cleaning a water tube boiler may take 18
to 24 hours.
Cost
Moderate (essential maintenance)
7. Blowdown Heat Recovery
Potential Savings
Moderate (2%-3%) Cost
Low to Moderate
Even a thin layer of scale lowers boiler ef-
ficiency. On water-tube boilers the water side Potential Savings
scale blocks heat transfer so the tubes may over- Moderate (2% to 5%)
heat, lose strength and rupture. Scale also creates
a breeding ground for under-deposit corrosion Description
which can cause expensive equipment outages Blowdown water temperature is usual-
and repairs. If you do not acid clean your boiler ly over 300°F depending on the pressure and it
you may have to replace tubes at some point [ex- contains a lot of energy that can be wasted if it
pensive repairs]. is not put back to work in the boiler somehow.
Once the scale is removed an inspection will About 15% of the blowdown water will flash to
reveal the true condition of your boiler, 90% of the low pressure steam so it is a very good source
time leaks do not occur because of chemical clean- of low pressure steam and is usually used in the
ing. In those cases where leaks develop, the scale deareator/feedwater heater. This steam can be re-

Figure 10.42—Shows how scale build up reduces heat transfer efficiency 2%

to 8%. Scaling is most prevalent in the hotter zones in a direct line of sight
from the flame.
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 149

covered in a flash tank and the rest of the heat 4. Replace an existing feed-water heater or
in a heat exchanger. If steam is not needed, than de-aerator with a new more efficient
a simpler heat exchanger recovery configuration de-aerator.
can be used to make-up heat feedwater. 5. Install a back pressure control valve to re-
duce carryover during extreme load con-
Advantages/Disadvantages ditions
Proven technology. Perhaps the simplest and 6. Install a steam separator
cost effective approach to recapturing blow down 7. Heat Pumps
heat. 8. Cogeneration - Combined Heat and Power
9. Satellite boilers
10. Combined Cycle electrical generation
8. Use Blowdown to Keep 11. Install backpressure turbines
Idle Boilers Warm 12. High temperature hot water systems
13. Adjustable speed drives for electric mo-
Cost tors.
Low 14. Infrared heaters
15. Submerged Combustion
Savings 16. Solar augmented water heating
Low 17. Use flue gas as a source of carbon dioxide
18. Run Around heat recovery systems.
Description 19. Install a hydronic system
If you are using steam to protect idle boil- 20. Pulse combustion systems
ers from freezing or need to keep them warm, hot 21. Install a direct contact water heater.
blowdown water can be diverted through idle 22. Ceramic wool furnace liner
boilers. Check with the manufacturer

Advantages/Disadvantages
This is a good use of low grade energy. First 1. Replace Inefficient
cost, maintenance and operating costs are in- Boilers Beyond Economical
volved. Repair.

Boiler systems have many losses connected

with their operation that are not obvious at first.
The stack loss analysis is a good first look but a
Section 10-6 longer test period over several months or even
Capital Investment Projects a year with accurate measurement of Btus input
and Btus output will provide the true story. Un-
fortunately, this information is not always avail-
CHECKLIST - 6 able and many units perceived to be efficient will
Capital Investment Projects be found to be quite inefficient.

1. Replace inefficient boilers beyond econom-

ical repair. 2. Install a Small Boiler for
2. Install a small boiler for light load opera- Light Load Operations
tions.
3. Replace oversized boilers to match existing Under light loading operations a small boiler
loads. is much more efficient than a larger unit because a
150 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

lot of fuel is expended to keep the boiler hot when to swell up, causing priming or excessive carry-
it has no real load comparable to its rated capacity over. Priming is the introduction of slugs of water
especially during off-hours. into the steam piping, moving over 100 miles per
hour or more. When these high velocity masses of
water slam into a sharp turn they can burst pip-
3. Replace Oversized Boilers to ing. In the case of excessive carryover, the boiler
Match Existing Loads. water contains a lot dissolved solids which can
contaminate steam piping and cause blockages.
There are many reasons for finding oversized This dirty boiler water which gets into the
boilers. The first question that must be answered steam system can foul heat exchange surfaces and
is how you would even know it was oversized. mess up heat exchange equipment in general.
This would take some instrumentation to mea-
sure steam demand or even length of on cycles
verses off cycles with attention to the fact of a cer- 6. Install a Steam Separator to
tain investment of Btus just to keep the system Maintain Clean Dry Steam
operating. Without adequate instrumentation
and information this condition is hard to detect. One way to keep boiler water and carryover
Consider that in the original design the de- out of the steam piping is to install a steam sep-
mands for steam were not know so a large safety arator (Figure 10.43) near the boiler outlets. They
factor went into the original design. Then an ad- have proven to be 99.9% efficient at eliminating
ditional safety margin was built into the facility priming and carryover, so they have a vital func-
beyond what its highest demands might be. Then tion to perform keeping heat exchange equipment
add efficiency improvements over the years and clean and functioning.
other possible load reductions and oversizing
becomes a real possibility. This is not normally
checked for and more or less guessed at. 7. Heat Pumps

Cost
Moderate
4. Replace the Existing FeedWater
Heater or De-aerator with a Savings
New More Efficient Deaerator Moderate

Earlier units were not insulated and often Description

insulation has been stripped away for inspection Heat pumps have high efficiencies when mea-
and repairs. If oxygen pitting of pipes and boil- sured against engines, boilers and turbines (Figure
er tubing is showing up, then the effectiveness of 10.44). In the example below the Heat Pump can
the deareator is slipping. In any case it should be bring the apparent efficiency of a boiler up to 128%
checked out. using waste heat or low pressure steam available
in a boiler plant or they can be used to augment old
5. Install a Back Pressure Control steam systems with air source heat pumps. (Figure
Valve to Reduce Carryover 10.45) Heat Pumps can raise efficiencies signifi-
During Extreme Load Conditions cantly when combined with low grade waste heat
from engines, boilers and turbines.
When steam demands exceed plant capaci- Waste heat can be put to work at a higher
ty there is a tendency to reduce boiler pressures temperature by the use of heat pumps. One sys-
caused by lower pressures in the distribution pip- tem design circulated 150°F water from a waste
ing. This will cause the water levels in the boilers heat recovery system throughout a plant using
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 151

Figure 10.43—Steam separators keeps steam piping system clean and dry.

heat pumps to raise the water temperature for lo-

cal heating and process demands.
The key to how this operates is in the term:
Coefficient of Performance (COP), a measure of
the ratio of energy output to energy input. Some
heat pump units have a COP of over 5 which
means the energy to operate them is only about
20% of the energy produced. (Figure 10.46)

Advantages/Disadvantages
This is one of those options that take imag-
ination and initiative. There appears to be many
applications where the efficiency of the Heat Figure 10.44—Heat Pumps can introduce high effi-
Pump has not been applied; for example for heat- ciencies when combined with other technologies.
ing make up water or to augment old low pres-
sure steam systems. First cost, operation and
maintenance expenses are involved which must
be worked out. It is a good way to recover low
grade waste heat or provide heat to isolated lo-
cations without resorting to extensive piping sys-
tems and the heat losses they represent.

Figure 10.45—the Coefficient of performance (COP)

8. Coegeneration— of Heat Pumps has the potential to raise the efficien-
Combined Heat and Power cy of some systems over 100%.

Cost
High tive to use a cogeneration plant to provide steam
Potential Savings and power while producing electricity. A utility
High plant usually wastes about 68% of the input en-
ergy and another 5-8% can be lost in transmission
Description and distribution of the power.
Because of the high price of electricity in Some cogeneration facilities are over 80% ef-
some sections of the country, it is very cost effec- ficient. This plus the high cost of electricity puts
152 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Advantages/Disadvantages
This option may take an extensive analysis
but should not be overlooked as a way to improve
the bottom line of your operation. High cost, load
matching, utility intertie, red tape and pollution
control are a few of the challenges that must be
faced with cogeneration. It is a very good way to
reduce steam and electrical power costs and may
be well worth the trouble.
Figure 10.46—Heat Pumps can raise efficiencies sig-
nificantly when combined with low grade waste heat
from engines, boilers and turbines. 9. Combined Cycle Electrical
Generation

a cogeneration facility at a good economic ad- Cost

vantage. Peak shaving is another consideration, a High
large part of many electric utility bills is for “de-
mand” charges which is a charge based on the Potential Savings
peak demand for electricity and not actual energy High
use. Often the peak demand for electricity occurs
at the same time as the demand for other types of Description
energy such as heat and cooling, so if the onsite Because of the high price of electricity in some
generation of electricity can reduce electrical de- sections of the country, it is very cost effective to
mand and provide other forms of energy at the use a Combined Cycle plant to provide steam and
same time, large savings are possible. The key to power while producing electricity. A utility plant
effective cogeneration is to have both electrical usually wastes about 68% of the input energy and
and heat demands occur at the same time. (Figure another 5-8% can be lost in transmission and dis-
10.47) tribution of the power to the plant.

Figure 10.47—Cogeneration is
best suited for a location where
both the electrical load and waste
hear load are consistent like in
this case where the electric pow-
er requirement and the require-
ment for steam, a product of the
heat from the cogeneration ex-
haust both exist uninterrupted
for a maximum number of hours
a year. The economics of cogene-
ration declines to the degree that
either the demand for steam or
electricity is not consistent.
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 153

Some Combined Cycle facilities (Figure 10. Install Backpressure Turbines

10.48) are over 80% efficient. This plus the high
cost of electricity puts a Combined Cycle facility Cost
at a good economic advantage. High
Peak shaving is another consideration, a
large part of many electric utility bills is for “de- Potential Savings
mand” charges which is a charge based on the High
peak demand for electricity and not actual energy
use. Often the peak demand for electricity occurs Description
at the same time as the demand for other types of Steam systems extract the most heat from
energy such as heat and cooling, so if the onsite steam sources when pressure is reduced to match
generation of electricity can reduce electrical de- needed temperatures of pressures.(Table 10.4) In
mand and provide other forms of energy at the a larger facility with sufficient steam flows, tur-
same time, large savings are possible. bo-generators can be used instead of PRV valves
The key to effective cogeneration is to have to do the same function while generating electric-
both electrical and heat demands occur at the ity at high efficiency. A electrical utility plant has
same time. an efficiency of about 32%; by using turbo-gener-
ators this way an efficiency of 80% is possible.
Advantages/Disadvantages This is a design option requiring a high pres-
This option may take an extensive analysis sure boiler up front. Backpressure turbines are in-
but should not be overlooked as a way to improve stalled from the high pressure header to the me-
the bottom line of your operation. High cost, load dium pressure and low pressure headers. When
matching, utility intertie, red tape and pollution steam pressure is reduced this way more heat
control are a few of the challenges that must be becomes available and the steam is used more
taken into account. It is a very good way to re- efficiently. This is the same reason why pressure
duce steam and electrical power costs and may be reducing valves are used. The reason for the high
well worth the trouble. efficiency is that the turbo-generators do not con-

Figure 10.48—Combined Cycle electrical generation.

154 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

sume steam but send it on to do additional work

in the plant as opposed to an electrical generating
plant where the steam is dumped into a condens-
er to turn it back into water wasting a great deal
of heat present in the final steam stages.
This is generally practical on 50 KW units
on up and with steam flows of 3,000 pounds of
steam per hour significantly reducing local elec-
trical costs.

Table 10.5
Why We Reduce Steam Pressure
Pressure Latent Heat % of Total
PSIG Btu/lb Heat
———————————————————————
125 868 73.5
50 912 77.5
5 961 83.5
———————————————————————

Figure 10.49—The Pressure Reducing Valves (PRV)

When steam pressure is reduced, more heat
are the (hour glass shaped symbols) which can be
becomes available and the steam is used more ef- augmented by turbogenerators (cone shaped) which
ficiently. This is why pressure reducing valves are perform the same function with the added benefit of
used wherever possible. producing electrical power at high efficiency.

11. High Temperature Hot Advantages/Disadvantages

Water Systems Losses with a high temperature hot water
system are much less than steam because:
Cost 1. It is a closed system and leaks are usually
High less than one half of one percent whereas a
steam system can require up to 100% make
Potential Savings
up feedwater. The actual requirement for
High
makeup water can vary widely.
Description: 2. It minimizes losses associated with steam
1. High temperature hot water has a system traps, valve stem and packing gland leakage,
temperature from 350°F to 450°F. Medium blowdown and flash losses associated with
temperature hot water is between 250°F and open condensate receivers.
350°F and Low temperature hot water is be- 3. It can pack more usable heat into a given vol-
low 250°F. ume than a steam system and needs smaller
2. One cubic foot of water at 350°F contains 50 diameter piping.
times as much heat as a cubic foot of saturat- 4. Return water temperature must be main-
ed steam at 350°F. tained above a certain limit to avoid thermal
3. When a high temperature hot water system stress and piping system damage.
cools a cubic foot of water from 350°F to
250°F, it releases approximately 27.6 times A recent study has shown that in a 20 Mil-
more heat than a cubic foot of saturated lion Btu/hr system, comparing HTW at 350°F to
steam at 350°F. saturated steam, showed that there is a $300,000
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 155

a year savings with HTW. Over a life cycle of 25 In Europe energy engineers have come up
years the savings was over $14 million. with the rule of thumb that it takes 49 times more
energy to move a unit of thermal energy from
point A to point B than to move the same ener-
12. Satellite Boilers gy as fuel. This may not be the specific case in
all applications, but it is definitely something to
Cost consider in the case of satellite boiler projects in
Moderate to High old central steam systems.

Potential Savings Advantages/Disadvantages

Very High The cost of installing satellite boilers and the
permitting process can be quite high, but the sav-
Description ings can be very high in both maintenance costs
Once during the days when coal was King and and in energy savings.
after Heavy Fuel Oil took its place, large central
plants and extensive steam distribution systems
were built to accommodate the central fuel supply 13. Adjustable Speed Drives
and need for skilled plant operators for safety and
reliable operations on a 24 hour basis month after Cost
month year after year. Distribution system losses Moderate
can be very high and it has been found the best
way to eliminate distribution system losses is to Potential Savings
eliminate the distribution system. Originally, cen- Moderate to high.
tral plants were designed around the use of coal
because it was the only fuel available and now Description
many facilities have miles of old and questionable When pumps and fans operate at higher rpms
distribution systems which were built before the than required for a particular load, electrical en-
day of the reliable and safe satellite boilers. When ergy is lost. The pump and fan laws apply which
you see brown grass above buried steam lines in states that the energy used varies with the cube of
the summer and melted snow over the distribu- the rpm. Large savings can be accomplished by
tion system in the winter, you are probably looking reducing the rpm of rotating equipment. Variable
at heat losses from buried steam and condensate speed drives are a new dimension in the cost ef-
piping. Every foot of piping is a possible source fective management of plants. For example, if the
of leaks, energy losses, acid corrosion and other speed of a pump or fan is reduced by one half,
maintenance problems. Rain soaked and degraded there is a 88% reduction in energy use.
insulation, flooded systems, steam plumes along
the steam mains in streets and fields and cold or Advantages/Disadvantages
lost condensate are all indicators of major distribu- Many plants have successfully applied ad-
tion system problems. justable speed drives to boiler operations. Ad-
The central steam plant can be a huge lia- justable Speed Drive (ASD) is becoming a proven
bility; one only has to analyze steam production way to save electrical costs.
during warm weather or holidays to discover that
large losses exist. Reliable and safe control tech-
nology and the availability oil and gas supplies 14. Convert to infrared Heaters
now make individual satellite boilers a safe and
efficient way to avoid these large distribution sys- Cost
tem losses. Moderate
156 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Potential Savings Description

Moderate The rule of thumb of each 11 degrees that you
can heat the water going into a boiler will improve
Description efficiency by 1%, applies in this case. In some rare
Infrared heaters have a high combustion applications, make up feedwater is a good candi-
efficiency and an ability to heat selected line of date for solar augmentation. Also, domestic hot
sight areas efficiently, such as hangars, warehous- water heating efficiency can be improved by this
es, gymnasiums and maintenance facilities. They option. There are applications where it can pay
put the heat where it’s needed and do not heat up off such as reducing fuel use with renewable en-
a large volume of air that may uselessly float up ergy for credits towards CO2 or other air pollu-
to the top of a large open building. People below tion compliance reductions
these units are comfortable in their shirtsleeves in
an otherwise cold space. Advantages/Disadvantages
This application would be most unusual,
Advantages/Disadvantages but possible. Financial analysis and air pollution
The infrared heater is usually self contained compliance requirements would be reasons for
and mounts in the overhead, out of the way. They justification.
may be an intelligent replacement to old steam,
hot water and hot air systems.
17. Use Flue Gas as a source of
Carbon Dioxide
15. Submerged Combustion Cost
Cost Moderate
Moderate

Potential Savings
High

Description
The combustion process takes place un-
der-water with direct contact heat exchange. Typ-
ical use is for heating swimming pools and laun-
dry water (Figure 10.26).

Advantages/Disadvantages
Fuel and air must be pressurized to over-
come submersion. Efficiencies approaching 95%
are possible.

16. Solar Augmentation for

Water Heating

Cost
Moderate

Savings
Moderate Figure 10.50—Submerged combustion burner unit.
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 157

Figure 10.51—Submerged water heating unit capable of efficiencies in the

mid 90% range.

Potential Savings 18. Run Around System

Moderate

Description 19. Use Hydronic Systems for Effi-

In some locations flue gas, with its high CO2 cient Heating.
content, has been used as a source of CO2 for var-
ious purposes. Hydronic systems operate with a higher en-
ergy density than steam systems and have several
Advantages/Disadvantages other advantages:
There would need to be a market for the CO2
such as oil recovery and the boiler would have to 1. It is a closed system and leaks are usually
be a reliable source less than one half of one percent whereas a

Figure 10.52—When you need

to change the air in a space, heat
can be conserved using a Run
Around system similar to the
sketch above which removes
heat from exhaust air and heats
up incoming air.
158 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

steam system can require up to 100% make 21. Direct Contact

up feedwater. The actual requirement for Hot Water Heater
makeup water can vary widely. (Figure 10.54)
2. It minimizes losses associated with steam
traps, valve stem and packing gland leakage, Cost
blowdown and flash losses associated with High
open condensate receivers.
3. It can pack more usable heat into a given vol- Potential Savings
ume than a steam system and needs smaller High 15% Range
diameter piping.
4. Water temperatures can be lowered during Description
low heat demands reducing pipe insulation 12%-15% of the waste energy in the exit flue
losses. Boiler exhaust temperatures are low- gas is stream formed from the combustion of hy-
ered by this also. drogen in the fuel and other moisture. For every
pound of hydrogen that is burned with the fuel,
Disadvantages nine pounds of water is formed which escapes
Circulating pumps must run continuously. out of the stack as vapor carrying with it a great
Return water temperature must be maintained deal of energy. This flue gas moisture is usually
above a certain limit to avoid thermal stress and accepted an inevitable energy loss energy loss as
piping system noise and damage. it is difficult to recover the latent heat from this
vapor, this method successfully recovers this en-
ergy. (Figure 10.23).
20. Pulse Combustion Units (Figure 53)

Figure 10.53—Gas fired Pulse Combustion units operate very efficiently because
they condense the latent heat energy usually in combustion exhaust producing very
high operating efficiencies. They are practical for hot water circulating systems and
hot water heaters. They don’t need special exhaust systems but do produce water
that must be drained away somehow.
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 159

produces inherently lower smoke numbers on

light off. This should be considered for low use
boilers.

Advantages/Disadvantages
The obvious disadvantage is high first cost
if retrofit is required. The use of light refractory
improves combustion performance on initial light
off and soaks up less heat on/off cycles.

Section 10-7
Steam System Improvements

CHECKLIST 7
Steam Systems Improvements

Figure10.54—Direct fire hot water heater is very ef- 1. Target steam system losses
ficient because it reduces stack moisture losses im- 2. Insulate hot bare-metal surfaces
proving efficiency about 15% into the high 90% 3. Steam trap maintenance
range. The Manufacturer claims approvals from EPA 4. Repair existing insulation.
and other government monitoring agencies indicat- 5. Optimize condensate recovery
ing that the hot water produced is safe for
humans and food processing.

21. Use Soft Firebrick

in Combustion Chambers

Cost
Moderate (usually a design choice)

Potential Savings
Moderate

Description
If there is a choice in combustion
chamber materials for original pur-
chase, for redesign or for repairs, light
weight fire brick or ceramic fiber mate-
rial should be considered. This material
heats up faster taking the combustion
zone through its cold smoky period Figure 10.55—The effect the choice of combustion chamber mate-
rials has on smoke and soot production on startups.
more quickly (Figure 10.55). Its use
160 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

6. Repair condensate receivers, pumps and

piping
7. Repair steam leaks
8. Optimize deaereator vent rate
9. Insulate feedwater System
10. Use high pressure condensate to make low
pressure steam
11. Pressure reducing valves
12. Utilize backpressure turbine generation to
augment pressure-reducing valves
13. Have a steam system survey done by a pro-
fessional contractor
14. Install pump traps eliminating electric
pumps
15. Repair heat exchanger drains to permit
condensate return.
16. Implement a pressurized condensate return
system.
17. Separate H.P. and L.P. condensate returns. Figure 10.56—Primary energy losses in steam distri-
18. Isolate un-used sections of steam lines. bution systems
19. Insulate condensate return piping systems
20. Flash steam utilization Description
21. Use hot condensate to keep storage tanks Boilers and steam systems have surface tem-
warm (local use) peratures from 350°F to 450°F and higher and
22. Measure steam loads must have effective insulation to prevent heat
23. Insulate oil storage tanks heated with from escaping from boiler and piping surfaces
steam. (Figure 10.57). Often insulation is removed from
24. Modulate vacuum pressure in vacuum re- valves, piping and boiler parts, for repairs and
turn systems not replaced. This bare surface is a potential safe-
25. Steam compression ty hazard as well as a source of lost energy. One
26. Use steam to drive equipment to reduce danger associated with poor insulation is that
electrical demand. fuel and oil leaks have been known to ignite off
these hot surfaces and start fires.

1. Target Steam System Losses Advantages/Disadvantages

Asbestos may be encountered in older sys-
Points of attack: tems. Insulating bare steam piping is usually a
quick pay back item.

2. Insulate all Hot Bare

Metal Surfaces 3. Steam Trap Maintenance

Cost Cost
Moderate Low

Potential Savings Potential Savings

Good return on investment High
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 161

question is, “How much of this expensive steam

is really being put to productive use and how
much is being lost?” When the potential for loss
is documented, it often has become obvious that
a good maintenance programs are required.

Advantages/Disadvantages
Until the potential savings of good steam
trap maintenance is realized by management, big
energy dollars will be silently lost in distribution
systems.

4. Repair Existing Insulation

Cost
Moderate

Potential Savings
Good return on investment

Description
Boilers and steam systems have metal sur-
Figure 10.57—Bare pipe heat losses
face temperatures from 350°F to 450°F and above
and must have effective insulation to prevent
heat from escaping from boiler and piping sur-
Description faces. Some older systems have many miles of
Steam traps can waste a tremendous amount piping which has been exposed to harsh weather
of energy; even when working properly steam conditions for decades. Infrared instruments are
traps are inefficient when you consider the flash useful in determining these losses and some are
losses. Traps may go through millions of cycles a calibrated to indicate Btu losses per hour from
year and develop leaks and many types have high hot surfaces which is very useful for cost/benefit
failure rates. Industrial studies have shown that analysis. Figure 10-…… can be used to assist in
large savings are possible with proper steam trap estimates.
maintenance programs.
Many condensate systems are “open” which Advantages/Disadvantages
means that they vent to atmosphere. Because of Asbestos may be encountered in older sys-
the high pressure on the working side of the trap tems. Insulating bare steam piping is usually a
and the low pressure on the outlet side, over 10% quick pay back item.
of the condensate going through healthy traps
will flash into steam representing a lot of heat
that eventually gets lost from the system. Add to 5. Optimize Condensate Recovery
this the many problems found in traps, like clos-
ing slowly, allowing steam to escape, leaky seats The “pure” water from the condensed steam
or just not closing at all and it becomes obvious still contains valuable energy after it leaves steam
there is a potential for large hidden steam losses, traps and for efficient operation it should be re-
maybe over 50%. Extensive studies have shown covered and arrive back the boiler plant where it
that in most plants, a very high percentage of is reheated into turned back into steam and recy-
traps have failed one way or the other. The real cled in the steam system over and over again.
162 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

All steam used by the system must pass heating make up water to system operating tem-
through steam traps, so the whole system is sub- perature. One point often overlooked is that boil-
ject to this loss if atmospheric vents are used. er inefficiencies are doubled in this case, because
Closed pressurized condensate recovery systems the steam in these leaks must be generated twice
are used in well-designed plants to avoid this to use it once.
problem. If the pure hot water is not brought back
to the plant by the condensate recovery system, Internal Steam Leaks
then the expense of new water, its chemical treat- Internal steam leaks are hard to detect, they
ment and heating it back to operating tempera- are inside the piping system, and common sense
ture will just add to avoidable plant expenses. indicates there are such leaks. Steam traps are in-
stalled with bypass valves which are often opened
Advantages/Disadvantages in the event there is a problem with the trap like
If you are not getting the condensate back plugging. The bypass valves are often opened on
from your steam system you are incurring about start up or when water hammer becomes a prob-
a 17% loss from that fact alone. lem in the system to drain water from the system.
—————————————————— Steam driven equipment such as turbines and
Rule of Thumb pumps have drains and warmup systems and
Every 11 deg F [6 deg C] that these can be left open too. The fact is steam can be
must be added to boiler slipping through the system without doing any
feedwater costs 1% in efficiency. work
——————————————————

8. Optimize Deaereator Vent Rate

6. Repair Condensate Receivers, (Figure 10.58)
Pumps and Piping

Water seems to be such a common and cheap 9. Insulate the Feedwater System
commodity and it is not assigned its real value to
steam system management. The water in the feedwater system is at the
boiling point which could be 212F or higher de-
When conditions are not observable or
pending on the pressure in the system. The deare-
known, the assumption is often made
ator and reserve feedwater tank are typical of
that they are negligible.
such systems. The large surface represents a large
loss of heat if not insulated. (Figure 10.59)
In steam systems, most of the losses are
not observable. Unfortunately they are
quite large and far from negligible.
10. Use High-Pressure Condensate to
Make Low-Pressure Steam
7. Repair Steam Leaks The high pressure condensate recovery sys-
tem can be a source for low pressure steam use in
External Steam Leaks the plant or for other uses.
External steam leaks are usually visible and
the length of the plume can be measured by eye.
For example, if there are 4 visible steam 11. Pressure Reducing Valves
leaks, two 6-foot plumes and two 8-foot plumes,
this would work out to nearly $100,000 a year loss Potential Savings
plus the cost of water, chemicals and fuel wasted Moderate
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 163

Figure 10.58—Shown are two steam plumes, the one on the right shows
normal venting and the larger plume on the left indicates a lot of energy
is being wasted when you consider these systems are active year after
year for 24 hours a day.

Figure 10.59—Insulate hot surfaces to preserve system heat.

164 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Description Advantages/Disadvantages
Installing pressure reducing valves near the It is a more complex system to manage but
point-of-use can reduce flash steam losses. Also, produces electric power much cheaper than com-
high pressure steam has a higher temperature, mercial power.
lower specific volume and is economical to dis-
tribute through steam mains requiring smaller
sized piping. As a general rule, steam is most eco- 13. Have a Steam System Survey
nomically distributed at high pressure and if re- Done by a Professional
duced to the lowest pressure that will satisfy the Contractor
temperature requirements at the point-of-use, the
least amount of energy will be lost. Steam system surveys can be quite informa-
Advantages come with lowering steam pres- tive and useful but requiring special skills, judg-
sure; a 600 psig system will have a 30% flash ment and background. Their usual product is a
steam rate, at 175 psi this reduces to a 17% flash map of your steam system with all traps iden-
and at 50 psi its 4%. This represents a consider- tified as to type and manufacturer, quite useful
able amount of energy because every pound of for ordering parts and replacements. The traps
steam flashed contains about 1,100 Btus where are given identification tags and you also get a
the condensate contains only 180 Btus per pound condition report on each trap with misapplication
a difference in energy levels of about 6. information and such. It’s a good way to identify
any problems with your steam system as a start to
Advantages/Disadvantages putting it right and a successful energy conserva-
The cost of installing and maintaining pres- tion program.
sure reducing valves and possible replacement of
steam traps will have to be balanced against pre- Advantages/Disadvantages
dicted savings. It might seem a little expensive or unusual
but it is a good way to find out exactly what is
going on with your steam distribution system.
12. Utilize Backpressure Turbine Good reports and successful energy savings are
for Steam Pressure Reduction the usual case concerning these special surveys.

Description
The use of turbogenerators as an option for 14. Install Pressure Pump Returns
reducing steam pressures in large plants instead Eliminating Electric Pumps
of pressure reducing valves is an efficient way to
generate electricity. It starts with relatively high Electrical pumps have a number of draw-
pressure steam boilers on the high pressure end of backs. Being electrical in a wet environment
the steam system. The steam pressure is reduced sometimes gets unhealthy for the electrical end
to intermediate and low pressure steam systems of things. They have centrifugal impellers that
through the turbines before it enters the plant’s can form a partial vacuum at the water inlet with
steam distribution system. This is a very efficient the water near the boiling point. This can cause
way to generate electricity at 80% efficiency rath- steam flashing and the loss of suction and effec-
er than efficiencies in the 33% range by electrical tiveness and of course there is the electrical load
generating plants which have no way to utilize and the need to have electricians prowling your
their turbine exhausts. The usual design is 50 steam system’s tunnels vaults and confined spac-
KW and up with a minimum steam flow of 3,000 es checking on things and making repairs.
pounds per hour. The industry has come up with an alterna-
tive pump (Figure 10.60) without these draw-
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 165

17. Separate H.P. and

L.P. condensate returns

There are certain economies in separating

high pressure and low pressure recovery systems.
It will provide a source of two levels of tempera-
ture and pressure available for specific applica-
tions.

18. Isolate un-used sections

of steam lines.

Steam piping loses the same amount of heat

whether it is transporting steam or not so if a sec-
tion of piping is not in use, valve it off or perma-
nently blank it off.
Figure 10.60—Pumping steam trap does not need
electrical support and are quite trouble free.
19. Insulate Condensate Return
Piping Systems
backs which uses the local steam supply to do
the pumping without the hazards of an electrical Some insulation programs do not consider
supply with confidence that the valuable conden- it cost effective to insulate condensate recovery
sate will be returned to the boiler plant. piping because of its low temperature and low
heat loss. They do not take into consideration the
Advantages/Disadvantages face that for every 11F the condensate loses get-
Requires investment but delivers reliability ting back to the plant costs 1% in overall system
and large savings. efficiency. For example if the condensate tem-
perature drops from 190F to 120F a difference of
70F this represents a 6.3% loss in efficiency; total
15. Repair Heat Exchanger Drains boiler plant fuel use. So if a plant is burning $2
to Permit Condensate Return million worth of fuel a year, this represents about
$126,000 a year.
Sometimes things are just not piped up prop-
erly and steam condensate is lost to the environ-
ment. 20. Flash Steam Utilization

Cost
16. Implement a Pressurized Moderate
Condensate Return System
Potential Savings
A pressurized condensate return system gets Moderate
steam and condensate back to the plant where
both can be utilized instead of causing steam and Description
water damage in an office building, school or lab- Use a flash steam recovery vessel to collect
oratory. condensate from high pressure sources. It sepa-
166 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

rates steam from condensate and the low pressure

flash steam is piped off to some useful purpose.
Only as a last resort should flash steam be vented
to the atmosphere and lost.

Advantages/Disadvantages
New coils or heat exchangers may be re-
quired to utilize the flash steam for heating and
other uses. Flash steam possibilities are becoming
recognized.

21. Use Hot Condensate to Keep

Storage Tanks Warm (local use)
Figure 10.61—Heating unit drains supply flash steam
In this case the heat in steam trap drains is to a heating coil to augment unit capacity. This is an
used to augment local heating in a process or stor- example of utilizing flash steam locally.
age tank.
Description
There are some older steam systems around
22. Measure Steam Loads that are of the condensing type, where steam is
circulated back to a condensing unit in the boil-
Getting an understanding of the steam de- er room. By modulating the steam pressure, the
mands of various components in your system temperature of the distribution system can be
provides you with vital information on managing matched to the demand for a particular weather
your steam system and data necessary for deci- condition. For example, on a cold day the steam
sion making for projects under consideration. pressure and temperature can be allowed to rise
to meet a higher demand for heat and on warmer
days the pressure and steam temperature can be
23. Insulate Oil Storage Tanks controlled below atmospheric pressure and tem-
Heated With Steam peratures, below 212°F, to supply less heat.

Uninsulated tanks lose a lot of heat, especial-

ly tanks out in cold winter weather. If they get too 25. Steam Compression
cold there are wax formation and viscosity prob-
lems and it becomes very difficult to pump the Cost
oil. Moderate to High

Potential Savings
24. Modulate Vacuum Pressure High
in Vacuum Return Systems
Description
Cost If you have low pressure waste steam or if
Original Design (low) you need higher pressure steam at some remote
location in the distribution system, then steam
Savings compression may serve to your advantage. With
High a source of low pressure steam that would other-
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 167

Figure 10.62—Example of method to measure steam loads on various equipment

in the steam system; a simple way to find out what is happening in your system.

wise be wasted, it can be salvaged and brought Potential Savings

back up to working pressure without large loss- Moderate to high
es using steam compression. In cases where a
large distribution system must be maintained at Description
a high pressure to just serve a small high pressure Electrically driven pumps and blowers are
load, the pressure for the system can be reduced usually installed because they are simpler and re-
and the small high pressure demand can be met quire less maintenance, however when the cost of
with steam compression. Screw compressors and electricity is considered, steam driven auxiliaries
steam eductor sets have been developed for steam may be more economical. If there is a place touti-
compression which are driven by either electric lize the full volume of exhaust steam from steam
or engine type prime movers. driven equipment, then a situation similar to co-
generation exists, where the rejected heat can be
Advantages/Disadvantages utilized improving over all cycle efficiency. Steam
Using steam compression to satisfy require- driven equipment is especially attractive where
ments in otherwise low pressure systems makes electrical demand charges are very high. (Figure
sense. These systems are cost effective. 10-63)

Advantages/Disadvantages
26. Use Steam to Drive Equipment to High first cost, maintenance requirements
Reduce Electrical Demand and the need for more operator skill work against
this option. Energy and cost savings could be
Cost very significant, you may have some of these old
Moderate to high units around.
168 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 10.63—Steam driven feedwater pump.

Section 10-8 Description

One of the most effective ways to recover en-
Heat Recovery Projects ergy from flue-gas is to use an economizer (Figure
10.19) to heat the feedwater going into the boiler.
At 100 PSIG the temperature of the steam and wa-
CHECKLIST 8 ter in the boiler is about 334°F. The temperature
Heat Recovery Projects approach of the flue gas to steam temperature is
in the range of 50°F to 150°F, depending on firing
1. Install economizers on existing boilers. rate. This can result in a stack temperature from
2. Spray tower heat recovery system 385°F to over 480°F providing a good source for
3. Heat reclaimer heat recovery.
4. Air preheater Hot flue gas contains a lot of wasted energy
5. Heat recovery using plate exchangers and it is very beneficial to put this energy back
6. Waste heat recovery boilers into the boiler with heat recovery equipment. The
7. Blowdown heat recovery rule of thumb for reducing stack temperature is:
8. Use blowdown to keep idle boilers warm for every 40°F the temperature is reduced, a 1%
9. Vent condensers efficiency increase occurs. In this case lowering
10. Waste heat for process applications stack temperature by 200F will result in efficiency
11. Recover steam and heat from high pressure increase of 5%.
condensate recovery systems. Preheating the incoming feedwater also im-
12. Install a condensing economizer to heat proves efficiency. The usual temperature of in-
make-up water. coming feedwater is 212 F to 220 F or higher. This
13. Extract combustion air at the roof level of water can be heated in the economizer improving
the plant. efficiency on the water system side. The Rule of
Thumb for feedwater entering a boiler, is the effi-
ciency goes up by one percent for each 11F rise in
1. Economizer temperature so, if you can heat the water 220°F to
275°F, will result an efficiency increase of 5%.
Potential Savings
~5%
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 169

Figure 10.64—The Economizer lowers boil-

er exhaust from 500F to 300F for an efficien-
cy and capacity improvement of 5%. At the
same time the boiler feedwater temperature
goes up about 57F. Two Rules of Thumb ap-
ply here (a) for every 40F the exhaust tem-
perature is brought down the boiler efficien-
cy goes up 1% and (b) for every 11F the boil-
er feedwater goes up efficiency of the boiler
improves 1%. The 5% savings (and capacity
increase) can be counted only once however.

Advantages/Disadvantages content, produces higher efficiency increases with

Once installed, they are usually trouble free this method than oil.
and require little maintenance. If stack tempera- When flue gas temperatures can be dropped
ture or incoming economizer water temperature below the dew point, thereby extracting latent
is too low, an acid formation problem may devel- heat from the flue gas moisture, efficiencies above
op with fuels containing sulfur. 95% can be expected. Examples of this technology
are: pulse combustion, advanced fiber burner de-
signs, special coated plate exchangers, glass tube
2. Spray Tower Heat Recovery System exchangers, Teflon coated tubes and spray tower
direct-contact heat exchangers.
Cost
High Advantages/Disadvantages
This emerging technology is the only way to
Potential Savings get efficiencies in the mid 90% range. Special de-
High 15% Range signs are required; most installations have been
highly successful. Acid formation does not seem
Description to be a problem in proper designs.
12%-15% of the waste energy in the exit flue
gas is superheated stream is formed from the com-
bustion of hydrogen in the fuel and other mois- 3. Heat Reclaimer
ture. (Table 10.5) For every pound of hydrogen
that is burned with the fuel, about nine pounds of Cost
water is formed which escapes out of the stack as Moderate/Low
superheated vapor carrying with it a great deal of
energy Potential Savings
The acid dew point temperature is the tem- Moderate
perature at which sulfuric acid and other acids
form. An efficiency increase of 11% to 15% is pos- Description
sible with most boilers if the flue gasses can be The heat reclaimer (Figure 10.67 and Figure
cooled below the dew point.(Figures 10.65 and 10.68) is similar to the economizer, except that it
10.66) Natural gas, because of its higher hydrogen is used on smaller hydronic or hot water systems.
170 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 10.5—Sources of vaporized water in boiler exhaust. Combustion pro-

cesses create lots of moisture which turns to superheated steam leaving the
stack with a lot of energy; a major loss of efficiency.
——————————————————————————————————
Sources of Vaporized
Water in Boiler Exhaust
Every pound of hydrogen burned forms 9 pounds of water

Natural gas is 22.5% hydrogen (2 lb/lb fuel)

Distillate oil is 12.5% hydrogen (1.25 lb/lb fuel)
Residual oil is 9.5% hydrogen (0.86 lb/lb fuel)
Bituminous coal is about 5%
hydrogen but may contain
5% to 25% fixed moisture by wt. (0.45 to 2.25 lb/lb fuel)

Other Sources:
1. Atomizing steam at burners
2. Soot blowers
3. Tube leaks
4. Surface moisture on coal [rain]

Figure 2.65—As the exhaust tem-

perature drops to approximately
135F a 3% efficiency increase oc-
curs. As the exhaust temperature
drops to 50F, caused by the cold
water spray, another 11% efficien-
cy increase is possible. Actual re-
sults depend upon specific condi-
tions.

Figure 10.66—Hot boiler exhaust enters the spray tower where

the steam vapor from combustion moisture sources condensed
back into water liberating about 3,000 Btus per pound of fuel.
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 171

It can also be used on boilers for heating process 4. Air Preheater

or domestic hot water. A heat exchanger is in-
stalled in the stack with its own pump and regu- Cost
lating valve and is basically an additional heat ex- Moderate to High
change surface for the heating unit. The flue gas
temperature can be controlled by regulating the Potential Savings
flow of water through the heat reclaimer. Many Moderate
of the older hydronic boilers have high stack tem-
peratures and high excess air levels, making this Description
option very attractive. Another means to recover the wasted ener-
gy resource in the flue gas is the air preheater,
Advantages/Disadvantages (Figure 10.69) which is used to heat the incoming
Design and installation costs on the smaller combustion air. This is an excellent way to cap-
units may be hard to justify, otherwise they are ture energy which would otherwise be lost and
relatively trouble free low cost units. The heat re- to put it back to work in the boiler. The rule of
claimer has two advantages, (a) it recovers waste thumb which applies to this type of heater is that
heat and (b) it lowers excess air on atmospheric you can expect a one percent efficiency increase
type boilers by cooling exhaust gasses creating for every 40 degrees that you can decrease the net
less furnace draw in both the on and off condi- stack temperature (outlet stack temperature mi-
tion.

Figure 10.67—Heat re-

claimer installed in a hy-
dronic boiler exhaust.

Figure 10.68—Heat reclaimer assembly displayed

172 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

nus inlet combustion air temperature). There are 5. Heat Recovery Using
several types of air heaters: The tubular type air Plate Exchangers
heater (Figure 10.69) circulates cooler combustion
air around hot tubes which are heated by exhaust Cost
gases. Several novel but effective designs have Moderate
emerged for this type of heater; glass tubes have
been used for applications where corrosion is a Potential Savings
problem. Also, Teflon coated tubes are used if you Moderate to High
wish to bring flue gas temperatures below the
dew point. Heat pipes are also being introduced Description
as an effective means to capture as much heat as Plate type heat exchangers (Figures 10.70
possible. Plate type heat recovery units also offer and 10.71) can be used to recover waste heat for
another excellent way to recover latent heat from air preheating as well as feedwater heating. Be-
the flue gas stream. They are good heat exchange cause the plates can be fabricated from materi-
devices and can be constructed of various mate- als such as stainless steel, titanium and Teflon
rials including stainless steel, Teflon coated steel coated steel, units can be designed to bring ex-
and titanium to name a few. haust gas temperatures well below the acid dew
point. This allows the recovery of latent heat
Advantages and disadvantages from the flue gas, increasing efficiency from 5 to
Air heaters are usually very large and the 15 percent. One manufacturer has made a break-
need for large supporting ducting systems to the through with their plate exchanger which is not
burners is expensive. They are an excellent way welded, but torqued together with resilient sec-
to capture low grade heat. Also, using hot air for tions. This type of construction allows the unit to
combustion raises the furnace temperature and experience thermal expansion without cracking
there is a possibility that the refractory may be af- welds or causing other stress related damage.
fected.
Advantages/Disadvantages
Materials must withstand acid condensate.
Efficiencies approaching 97% possible.

Figure 10.69—Air preheater also brings exhaust tem-

perature down by heating incoming combustion air.
The Rule of thumb applies to this method too. Every
40F drop in exhaust temperature increases efficiency
and capacity by 1% Figure 10.70—Plate type combustion air preheater
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 173

Figure 10.71—Combustion air preheater and feedwater heater

unit installed in processing plant boiler exhaust system.

6. Waste Heat Recovery Boilers an excellent source of free energy.

The “combined cycle” uses high temperature
Cost turbine exhaust to generate steam for a second
High generator utilizing a waste heat recovery boiler.
The steam from the turbine exhaust is also used
Savings making a very efficient operation.
High

Description
There are many processes and appli-
cations where heat is wasted that could
be captured in a waste heat recovery
boiler (Figure 10.72) especially where ex-
haust temperatures are 500°F and above.
This type of system has been with us for
a long time, but opportunities still exist to
tap this virtually free source of steam and
heat. The classic use of waste heat boil-
ers is on reciprocating engines (Figure
10.73 and Figure 10.74) and gas turbines
which have exhaust temperatures near
the 1,000°F range.

Advantages/Disadvantages
First cost, additional maintenance Figure 10.72—Waste Heat boiler that captures the gas turbine
and operational costs are involved in exhaust heat to generate steam for a second generator and for
waste heat boiler planning. They can be other steam applications for Heat and Power.
174 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

over 300°F depending on Boiler pressure and it

contains a lot of energy that can be wasted if it
is not put back to work in the boiler somehow.
About 15% of the blowdown water will flash to
low pressure steam so it is a very good source
of low pressure steam and is usually used in the
deareator/feedwater heater. This steam can be re-
covered in a flash tank and the rest of the heat
contained in the hot water in a heat exchanger. If
steam is not needed, than a simpler heat exchang-
er recovery configuration can be used to just heat
feedwater. (Figure 10.75)

Advantages/Disadvantages
Figure 10.73—This waste heat recovery configuration It’s a proven technology.
is suited to hot water applications utilizing jacket wa-
ter cooling and exhaust gasses for a heat source in ad-
dition to the engine-generator set electrical output.
8. Use Blowdown to Keep
Idle Boilers Warm

Cost
Low

Savings
Low

Description
If you are using steam to protect idle boil-
ers from freezing or need to keep them warm, hot
blowdown water can be diverted through idle
boilers. This is a tricky option and boiler water
levels and chemical build up must be watched
Figure 10.74—An alternate waste heat boiler config- carefully.
uration for applications where overhead clearance is An alternative is to use a heat exchanger
limited. with a circulating system or a special pipe in the
mud drum for the hot water to circulate through.

7. Blowdown Heat Recovery

Advantages/Disadvantages
This is a good use of low grade energy. First
Cost
cost, maintenance and operating costs are in-
Low to Moderate
volved also.

Potential Savings
Moderate (2% to 5%)
9. Vent Condensers

Description
Cost
Blowdown heat recovery system (Figure
Moderate
10.75). Blowdown water temperature is usually
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 175

Figure 10.75—Blowdown heat exchanger application. On larger

high capacity boilers there is a surface blow system in the steam
drum used to discharge contaminated boiler water containing a
high level of dissolved solids. This blowdown water contains a
lot of heat that when recovered is used to heat the cooler incom-
ing and much less contaminated makeup water.

Potential Savings exchangers and pumps are an additional cost and

Moderate complexity for the steam system. They are proven
energy savers.
Description
Wherever steam is being vented to the at-
mosphere, a vent condenser (Figure 10.76) can be
used to capture this high level energy (~1,040 Btu/
lb). Not only is the energy in the steam involved,
but the energy lost by the boiler and steam system
in getting the steam to the point where it is being
lost. The boiler may be 70% efficient with a 30%
loss just producing the steam that is being lost
through a vent. Locations for vent condensers are
deareators, feedwater heaters, receivers and con-
densate system vents. Make up water is usually
heated in vent condensers, but domestic hot wa-
ter and process water can also be heated.(Figure
10.77) A vent condenser can keep this type of loss
from large trap leaks to a minimum until repairs
can be made.
Figure 10.76—It adds up, a lot of lost energy and pure
Advantages/Disadvantages water when you consider lost steam on a 24/7 basis
The design and installation of piping, heat with an energy value of about 1040 Btu per pound.
176 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 10.77—Vent condenser opportunities. Sometimes there

is a lot of pure steam available leaving plants containing a lot
of energy.

10. Waste Heat for Process 11. Recover Steam and Heat from
Applications High Pressure Condensate
Recovery Systems
Cost
Moderate This is usually a design function but if low
pressure steam or hot water is being wasted, it
Potential Savings may be a good candidate for heat recovery.
High
12. Install a condensing Economizer
Description to Heat Make-up Water
If waste heat can not be recycled into the
With natural gas fuel a deep economizer Tef-
boiler process, then it can be transferred for other
lon coated tubes, glass, stainless steel or titanium
applications like water heating and warm air for
that condenses flue gas water vapor can capture a
drying processes. The best choice is to return the
lot of wasted energy.
heat to the boiler itself, to eliminate load match-
ing and other complications.
13. Extract Combustion Air at the
Advantages/Disadvantages Roof Level of the Plant
The complexity of transporting the heat to its
point of use may be expensive. When waste heat The high locations in boiler rooms can get quite
is returned to the boiler, automatic load matching hot. Hot air from this location and from around the
usually occurs. When using waste heat for pro- exhaust stacks can be drawn into the combustion
cess loads, the demand may not always match the air system. A percent or so efficiency improvement
boiler loads and special controls may be needed might be available from such measures.
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 177

Section 10-9 4. Modify the furnace system or use

a separate heating system to
Process Heating Systems recover furnace exhaust gas
heat. [regenerative heat recovery]
CHECKLIST 9
Find a place to invest the heat lost from the
Process Heating Systems
process like preheating the next batch. Recover
1. Minimize air leakage into the furnace by part of the furnace exhaust heat for use in low-
sealing openings er-temperature processes.

2. Maintain proper, slightly positive furnace

pressure

3. Reduce weight of or eliminate material han-

dling fixtures [reduce thermal mass] Section 10-10
4. Modify the furnace system or use a separate Building HVAC Projects
heating system to recover furnace exhaust
gas heat. [regenerative heat recovery]
CHECKLIST 10
5. Other Check Lists apply to process heating. Building HVAC Projects

1. Use heat pumps

1. Minimize Air Leakage Into the 2. Condensing furnaces, water heaters &
Furnace by Sealing Openings boilers
3. Install temperature setback to operate in
One of your best tools for identifying heat
off hours.
losses are infra red scanning instruments which
will identify hot spots that need fixing. High en- 4. Close shipping/hangar doors when not in
ergy losses are produced by high temperature lo- use.
cations. 5. Reduce make-up air, increase re-circulated
air.
6. Convert steam air make-up units to natu-
2. Maintain proper, slightly ral gas.
positive furnace pressure 7. Reduce infiltration air.
8. Shut-down exhaust fans during off pro-
You don’t want to be drawing in cold outside
duction periods
air that is heated up then exhausted from the pro-
cess as wasted heat. 9. Install heat recovery ventilators.
10. Install run around heat recovery units be-
tween exhaust and intakes
3. Reduce weight of or eliminate
material handling fixtures
[reduce thermal mass] 1.Use Heat Pumps with Source Heat
From Waste Energy or Steam
Invest heat into your product not into heat- from Boiler Plant
ing and cooling of massive support equipment.
Use soft ceramic furnace liners instead of fire Savings
brick. Keep the massive weights down. Some of the highest savings possible
178 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Description Table 10.7—Heat Pumps can introduce high efficien-

Heat pumps have high efficiencies when cies when combined with other technologies.
measured against engines, boilers and turbines. In
the example below theh heat pump can bring the
apparent efficiency of a boiler up to 128% using
waste heat or low pressure steam available from
a boiler plant or they can be used to augment old
steam systems with air source heat pumps.
Waste heat can be put to work at a higher
temperature by the use of heat pumps. One sys-
tem design circulated 150°F water from a waste
heat recovery system throughout a plant using
heat pumps to raise the water temperature for lo-
cal heating and process demands.
Table 10.8—The Coefficient of performance (COP) of
The key to how this operates is in the term:
Heat Pumps has the potential to raise the efficiency
Coefficient of Performance (COP), a measure of of heating systems to over 100%.
the ratio of energy output to energy input. Some
heat pump units have a COP of over 5 which
means the energy to operate them is only about
20% of the energy gained. See Table 10.6 and Fig-
ure 10.78.

Advantages/Disadvantages
First cost, operation and maintenance ex-
penses involved. It is a good way to recover low
grade waste heat.

2. Condensing Furnaces,
Table 10.6—Heat Pumps can raise efficiencies sig- Water Heaters & Boilers
nificantly when combined with low grade waste heat
from engines, boilers and turbines. Cost
———————————————————————— High
Comparing Efficiencies of Available Heat Sources
Heat Efficiency Potential Savings
Heat pump CoP 4 128% High
Condensing Boiler 95%
Coal fired boiler 83% - 90% Description
Oil fired boiler 84% - 89% A greater percentage of the waste energy in
Gas fired boiler 84% – 86% the exit flue gas stream is in the form of super-
Gas Turbine ~50% heated steam formed from the combustion of hy-
Diesel ~40% - 50% drogen in the fuel and other moisture. For every
pound of hydrogen that is burned with the fuel,
Comparing Efficiencies Electrical Sources vapor carrying with it a great deal of energy. It is
Electrical Efficiency difficult to recover the latent heat from this vapor
Combined Cycle Gas 50% without dropping the flue gas temperature below
Diesel Generator sets 30% - 40% the acid dew point temperature (Figure 10.78 and
Gas Turbine 25% - 40% Figure 10.79). The acid dew point temperature is
Generating Station 32%
————————————————————————
Over 100 Ways to Improve Efficiency 179

the temperature at which sulfuric acid and other below the dew point, thereby extracting latent
acids form. An efficiency increase of 11% to 15% heat from the flue gas moisture, efficiencies above
is possible with most boilers if the flue gasses can 95% can be expected. Examples of this technology
be cooled below the dew point. Natural gas, be- are: pulse combustion, advanced fiber burner de-
cause of its higher hydrogen content, produces signs, special coated plate exchangers, glass tube
higher efficiency increases with this method than exchangers, Teflon coated tubes and spray tower
oil. When flue gas temperatures can be dropped direct-contact heat exchangers.

Figure 10.78—Condensing flue gases. As the combustion system exhaust goes down
below ~135F the steam in the combustion gases begins to condense out liberating a
lot of latent heat into the spray water.

Figure 10.79—Condensing flue gases. As the combustion system exhaust

goes down below ~135F the steam in the combustion gases begins to con-
dense out liberating a lot of latent heat into the spray water.
180 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Advantages/Disadvantages 6. Convert steam air make-up units

This emerging technology is the only way to to natural gas
get efficiencies in the mid 90% range. Special de-
signs are required, most installations have been
highly successful. Acid formation does not seem 7. Reduce infiltration air
to be a problem in proper designs

8. Shut-down exhaust fans

during off production periods
Standard Practices
3. Install temperature setback to 9. Install heat recovery
operate in off hours ventilators

10. Install run around heat

4. Close shipping/hangar doors recovery units between
when not in use exhaust and intakes
(See Figure 10.52)

5. Reduce make-up air, Increase

re-circulated air
 Chapter 11

Boiler Plant Calculations

Finding Excess Air Using Flue tionship for excess air for oxygen levels
Gas Analysis of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) between 0% and 4%. See Table 11-1.
and Oxygen (O2) (Ans.: Multiply oxygen by 5 to get excess
air or divide excess air by 5 to get oxygen)
The purpose of this section is to demonstrate
how to find excess air when either the carbon di- 5. Why is the maximum CO2 level at 0% ex-
oxide (CO2) or oxygen (O2) content of the com- cess air higher for no. 6 fuel oil than for
bustion products is known. Natural Gas? See Tables 11-1 and 11-2.
The use of a greater amount of combustion (Ans.: There is more carbon in heavier
air than is necessary constitutes a major waste of fuels.)
energy. Measuring the excess air of a combustion
process is necessary to control this loss.
Using Carbon
Explanation: Dioxide (CO2) measurements
a. In the Combustion Tables find the table for
the fuel being fired. 1.Find the excess air when firing natural gas
for a carbon dioxide (CO2) level of 10%. See
b. In the three left hand columns, find either Table 11-1.
the carbon dioxide or oxygen content of the (Ans.: 14.8%)
combustion products and read the corre-
sponding excess air level. 2.Find the excess air when firing no. 2 fuel oil
for a carbon dioxide (CO2) level of 15%. See
1. The measured oxygen level in a natural Table 11-3.
gas boiler is 8%, what is the excess air? (Ans.: 4.6%)
See Table 11-1.
(Ans.: 54%) 3.Find the excess air when firing no. 6 fuel oil
for a carbon dioxide (CO2) level of 15.5%. See
2. The measured CO2 level for a boiler Table 11-1.
burning natural gas is 9%, what is the ex- (Ans.: 7.2%)
cess air? See Table 11-1.
(Ans.: 28%)
Using Oxygen measurements
3. The measured CO2 level for a boiler
burning No. 6 fuel oil is 15%, what is the 1.Find the excess air when firing natural gas
excess air? See Table 11-2. for an oxygen (O2) level of 10%. See Table 11-
(Ans.: 10%) 1.
(Ans. 80 %)
4. Rule of thumb. Using the oxygen scale,
can you develop a rule of thumb rela- 2. Find the excess air when firing no. 6 fuel oil
181
182 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

for an oxygen (O2) level of 2%. See Table 11-2. Boiler Stack Gas Losses
(Ans.: 9.9%)
The purpose of this section is to learn how to
determine combustion efficiency using prepared
3.Find the excess air when firing bituminous
tables.
coal for an oxygen (O2) level of 5%. See Table
11-4. Explanation:
(Ans.: 29.9%) Using the Heat Loss Tables:
(a) Look up the fuel type being fired.
4. What is the ultimate CO2 value for the fol- (b) Locate the page with the closest exit gas tem-
lowing fuels? perature.
(c) Find in the table where the excess air and
Table Page (Ans.) net stack temperature intersect. This point
a. Natural Gas 11-1 226 (11.7%) will be the value of the dry gas heat losses,
b. No. 6 fuel oil 11-2 227 (16.7%) heat losses due to the formation of moisture
c. No 2 fuel oil 11-3 228 (15.7%) (steam) from the hydrogen in the fuel and
d. Kerosene 11-5 230 (15.1%) the losses from the moisture in the fuel.
e. No. 5 fuel oil 11-6 231 (16.3%)
f. Anthracite coal 11-7 232 (19.9%) Determine Heat Loss Efficiency of the fol-
lowing examples using the combustion tables.

Example 1.
Fuel Type No. 6 [See Table 11-2]
Carbon Dioxide 9.1%
Stack Temperature 560F [293C]
Air Temperature 60F [16C]
Net Temperature 500F [260C]

Efficiency ———— (Ans.: Loss 20.7% Efficiency 79.3%)

Example 2.
Fuel Type No.2 [See Table 11-3]
Oxygen 9%
Stack Temperature 420F [216C]
Air Temperature 80F [27C]
Net Temperature 340F [171C]

Efficiency (Ans.: Loss 16.5% Efficiency 83.5%)

Example 3.
Fuel Type Natural Gas [See Table 11-1]
Carbon Dioxide 8.9%
Stack Temperature 580F [304C]
Air Temperature 60F [160C]
Net Temperature 520F [271C]

Efficiency (Ans.: Loss 20.6% Efficiency 79.4%)

Boiler Plant Calculations 183

Example 4.
Fuel Type Wood 30% Moisture
[See Table 11-8]
Oxygen 10%
Stack Temperature 680F [360C]
Air Temperature 80F [27C]
Net Temperature 600F [316C]

Efficiency (Ans.: Loss 30% Efficiency 70%)

Calculating Fuel Savings e. Wood Moisture

f. Bagasse Moisture
The purpose of this section is to show how to g. Condensate ad Feedwater System Tempera-
compute fuel savings based on change in efficien- ture Changes
cy. h. Changing rpm of Pumps and Blowers

New Efficiency –
As Found Efficiency
Fuel Savings (%) = ——————————— a. Changing excess air by 10% or oxygen by 2%
New Efficiency changes efficiency by 1%.
Example. Excess air has been improved (re-
Example 1. duced) by 15%, what is the estimated effi-
The as-found efficiency of a Natural Gas ciency improvement? ____________
fired boiler is 73%, the boiler is tuned up to a new (Ans. 1.5%)
efficiency of 75%. What is the percent fuel sav-
ings? ____________
(Ans.: 2.67%) b. Each 40F Change in exhaust temperature
changes efficiency by 1%.
Example 2. Example. Burner problems are causing soot
The Maximum Achievable Efficiency for this accumulations and the exhaust temperature
boiler is about 81.7%. What will the % fuel sav- has risen by 120F. How has this changed effi-
ings be when this is achieved? –––––––––– ciency? ____________
(Ans.: 10.6%) (Ans. lower by 3%)

Example 3.
The Maximum Attainable Efficiency for this c. 0.5% or 5,000 ppm carbon monoxide changes
boiler is about 86.2%. What will the % fuel sav- efficiency by 1%.
ings be when this is achieved? ____________ Example. A small boiler is found to have
(Ans.: 15.31%) 1/4% CO (2,500 ppm). What is the energy
loss? ____________
(Ans. 1/2%) (Note- The legal limit in many areas
ESTIMATING LOSSES AND SAVINGS is 400 ppm CO)

a. Excess Air & Oxygen Changes

b. Exhaust Temperature d. A 10% moisture change in coal changes effi-
c. Carbon Monoxide & Combustibles ciency by 1%.
d. Coal Moisture
184 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Example. Heavy rains have soaked the coal does this reduce the boiler firing rate?
supply and surface moisture is over 15%, (Ans. 5%)
how will this change the capacity and ef-
ficiency of a 200,000 pph (100 ton) boiler? h. Power used in pumps and fans varies with
____________ the cube of the rpm.
(Ans. efficiency will drop by 1.5%, capacity will Note: Tests have shown that power reduction
drop by 3,000 pph or 1.5 tons/hr) may vary with the square of the rpm when a
static head is involved.
e. A 10% change in wood/bark moisture
changes efficiency by 1.5% Example. Estimate the power demand re-
Example. Moisture has changed from 30% ductions produced by the following rpm
to 60%, how will this change efficiency and changes using the “cube” relationship.
output? ____________
(Ans. efficiency and capacity will drop by 4.5%) Reduction of rpm to 90% 80% 50%
Power Reduction —— —— ——
f. A 10% change in Bagasse moisture will
change efficiency by 3.0%. Ans. (90% Cubed—73% of original power)
Example. A new system to dry bagasse is be- (80% Cubed—51% of original power)
ing evaluated, it can reduce moisture from (50% Cubed—12.5% of original power)
50% to 15%, how will this change efficiency
and capacity? ____________
(Ans. Efficiency and Capacity change by 10.5%. REDUCING EXCESS AIR TO
Fuel savings if the original efficiency is 65% will IMPROVE EFFICIENCY
be 14%)
The purpose of this section is to show how
g. A 11°F condensate temperature change im- changing excess air changes heat losses.
proves efficiency by 1%.
Example. Condensate temperature drops 1. A Natural Gas boiler has a stack tempera-
from 195F [91C] to 160F [71C] during a cold ture of 600F [316C]. What will the efficiency
period. How has this changed system effi- increase and fuel savings be if the average
ciency? ____________ excess air is reduced from 90% to 15% (CO2
(Ans. 3.2%) from 5.9% to 10.1%)?

Example. Condensate temperature suddenly As found efficiency 73.8%

rises from 160F [71C] to 200F [93C], estimate Net stack temperature
the amount of steam trap leakage if no make 600F-80F 520F [271C]
up water is being used. CO2 5.9%
(Ans. 3.6% of system load)
Efficiency with reduced
Example. High pressure feedwater heater excess air 80.6%
temperature drops from 350F [177C] to 320F Net stack temperature
[160], how will this change boiler firing rate? 600F-80F 520F [271C]
(Ans. 2. 7% more capacity will be needed to heat CO2 10%
the feedwater)
Fuel savings ____%
Example. If an economizer raises the feed- (Ans.: 8.4%)
water temperature 55F [13C], how much
Boiler Plant Calculations 185

2. What will the fuel savings be with the same 7. A tune-up has reduced the oxygen level in
excess air reduction with a stack tempera- the combustion gases of a wood (40% mois-
ture of 300F [149C] instead of 600F [316C]? ture) fired boiler from 14% to 5% with the net
stack temperature remaining at 400F [204C].
As found efficiency 83.3% What is the change in stack loss? See Table
Net stack temperature 11-10.
300F-80F [149-27C] 220F [104C] (Ans.: Losses from 31.8% to 20.8%; a 11.0%
CO2 5.9% change)

Efficiency with reduced 8. The measured oxygen level in the flue gas-
excess air 86.2% es of a boiler firing bituminous coal has in-
Net stack temperature creased from 2.5% to 14% with the net stack
300F-80F [149-27C] 220F [104C] temperature remaining at 600F [316C]. What
CO2 10% is the change in stack loss? See Table 11-4.
(Ans.: losses from 16.5% to 36.4%; a 19.9% in-
Fuel savings _____% crease)
(Ans.: 3.4%)
9. The measured oxygen level in the flue gas-
3. What conclusion can you draw from these es of a boiler firing number 6 fuel oil has in-
examples? ________ creased from 6% to 15% with the net stack
(Ans.: There is 5%greater opportunity for fuel temperature remaining at 700F [371C]. What
savings at the higher temperature) is the change in stack loss? See Table 11-6.
(Ans.: losses from 22.1% to 46.9%; a 24.8% in-
4. A tuneup has reduced the excess air for a crease)
natural gas fired boiler from 60% to 12% with
the net stack temperature remaining at 600F 10. The measured oxygen level in the flue gases of
[316C]. What is the change in Stack Loss? See a boiler firing number 2 fuel oil has increased
the Table 11-1. from 2% to 9% with the net stack tempera-
(Ans.: Losses from 25.8% to 20.7%; a 5.1% ture remaining at 500F [260C]. What is the
change) change in efficiency? See Table 11-13.
(Ans.: losses from 16% to 21.4%; a 5.4% in-
5. A tune-up has reduced the excess air for a crease)
natural gas fired boiler from 60% to 12% with
a net stack temperature remaining at 300F
[149C]. What is the change in stack loss? See Air Infiltration
Table 11-9.
(Ans.: losses from 17.7% to 15.2%; a 2.5% The infiltration of cold air into a boiler or fur-
change) nace can represent a serious energy loss. This usu-
ally occurs in negative draft boilers and furnaces
6. A tune-up has reduced the oxygen level in where dampers, doors and inspection ports are
the combustion gases of a wood (40% mois- inadvertently left open or no longer form a tight
ture) fired boiler from 14% to 5% with the net seal after years of use. Because these boilers are
stack temperature remaining at 750F [399C]. usually constructed of brick and are often quite
What is the change in stack loss? See Table old, cracks from thermal expansion and other rea-
11-10. sons allow cold air to be pulled into the boiler to
(Ans.: Losses from 49.5% to 28.8%; a 20.7% mix with the hot combustion gases.
change)
186 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

1. The over-fire draft control system for a natu- firing No. 6 fuel oil which has a combustion
ral gas fired boiler with a very tall stack has gas oxygen level of 5% and the average net
failed and the change in the negative over- stack temperature has dropped from 600F
fire draft pressure has caused a problem. [316C] to 420F [204C]. How has this affected
The oxygen level in the exhaust combustion losses? See tables on pages 12 and 24.
gases has risen from 5% to 13%, with the net (Ans.: Flue gas losses have dropped from 18.7%
stack temperature remaining at 500F [260C]. to 14.5% with a 4.2% improvement)
What losses have been created by this condi-
tion? See Table 11-1. 3. The purpose of the following example is to
(Ans.: losses from 20.2% to 30.5%; efficiency demonstrate the loss of fuel dollars caused
loss 10.3%) by the gradual fouling of heat exchange sur-
faces.
2. In a boiler burning bituminous coal, the
damper doors have become warped and can The stack temperature has risen from 480F
not be shut. This and other problems have [249C] to 680F [360C] since the boiler firesides
caused the carbon dioxide in the flue gas to were last cleaned. How much is this costing in
drop from 12.3% to 6.6%. With a net flue gas terms of the monthly fuel bill?
exit temperature of 730F [388C], how is this
affecting efficiency? See Table 11-4.
(Ans.: Losses have gone up from 24% to 40.9% Fuel No. 2 Fuel Oil
with an efficiency change of 16.9%) Monthly fuel costs $400,000

Tuned Up Conditions:
Reducing Stack Temperature Flue gas oxygen 2%
to Improve Efficiency Stack temperature 480F [249C]
Air Temperature 80F [28C]
Because it represents a measure of the unre- Net stack temperature 400F [204C]
coverable heat being wasted to the atmosphere, Tuned up Efficiency 86%
the temperature of the stack gas is an important
indicator of boiler efficiency. Present Conditions:
Exit gas temperature, should be measured at Flue gas oxygen 2%
the boiler outlet, after the economizer or air heat- Stack temperature 680F [360C]
er depending on which is last before the gasses Air Temperature 80F [28C]
exit to boiler. If the measurements are not typical, Net stack temperature 600F [316C]
being cooled by wall losses of the duct or stack Efficiency 82.1%
or by the infiltration of cold air, the resulting heat
efficiency measurements will be erroneous. 1.Percent efficiency loss _______%
(Ans.: 3.9%)
1. In a natural gas fired boiler with 6% flue gas
oxygen, recent maintenance has resulted in 2. Percent fuel loss _______%
the net stack temperature going down from (Ans.: 4.75%)
600F [316C] to 400F [204]. How has this af-
fected losses? See Table 11-1 and 11-9. 3. Monthly dollar loss $_______
(Ans.: losses drop from 23.1% to 18.6% a 4.5% (Ans. $19,000/Mo)
improvement)
4. Annual dollar loss $_______
2. An economizer has been installed in a boiler (Ans.: $228,000/Yr)
Boiler Plant Calculations 187

5. Would it be cost effective to clean the heat ex-

change surfaces?

“It would depend on plant conditions.

(a) A production shutdown could be quite expen-
sive.
(b) If the boiler is not vital and could be spared,
it would cost effective”

Table 11-1.

NATURAL GAS—450°F to 600°F

188 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 11-2.

fuel oil no. 6—450°F to 600°F

Boiler Plant Calculations 189

Table 11-3.

fuel oil no. 2—300°F to 450°F

190 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 11-4.

bituminous coal—600°F to 750°F

Boiler Plant Calculations 191

Table 11-5.

kerosene—450°F to 600°F
192 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 11-6.

fuel oil #5—750°F to 900°F

Boiler Plant Calculations 193

Table 11-7.

anthracite coal—300°F to 450°F

194 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 11-8.

wood 30% moisture—450°F to 600°F

Boiler Plant Calculations 195

Table 11-9.

natural gas—300°F to 450°F

196 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 11-10.

wood 40% moisture—600°F to 750°F

Boiler Plant Calculations 197

Table 11-11.

wood 40% moisture—300°F to 450°F

198 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 11-12.

fuel oil #5—60°F to 750°F

Boiler Plant Calculations 199

Table 11-13.

fuel oil #2—450°F to 600°F

200 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 11-14.

fuel oil #6—300°F to 450°F

Boiler Plant Calculations 201

Combustible Losses Explanation

(Carbon Monoxide) See Tables 11-15 and 11-16. Using the excess
air level in the left column and the measured Car-
When combustion is incomplete, unburned bon Monoxide (CO) in parts per million (PPM)
fuel can escape with the exit flue gases. One mea- along the top, the intersection of the two mea-
surement of this loss is the Carbon Monoxide surements will provide a value for the losses in-
(CO) level. Carbon Monoxide also has a toxic ef- volved.
fect on humans so its deadly presence could mean
much more than an energy loss. 1. Burner repairs have lowered the carbon
monoxide level in the combustion gasses of

Table 11-15

Carbon, Monoxide Energy Loss Table for Natural Gas

202 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 11-16

Carbon Monoxide Energy Loss Table for Fuel Oil

an oil fired boiler from 1400 PPM to 200 PPM 2. In a natural gas fired boiler, the Carbon Mon-
The excess oxygen level is steady at 6%. How oxide level has been lowered from 1000 PPM
has this changed the efficiency? ________ to 100 PPM with a constant 10% oxygen in
(Ans.: combustible losses have dropped from the flue gases. How has this affected efficien-
0.58% to 0.08% with an efficiency increase of cy? ________
0.5%) (Ans.: losses have dropped from 0.54% to 0.05%
for an efficiency improvement of 0.49%)
Boiler Plant Calculations 203

Analyzing Costs and Benefits of an Part II: Economic analysis, Payback Period
Economizer and an Oxygen
Trim System FC
Payback Period PP = ————
S–C
Part 1: Economic Analysis, Estimating Percent
Savings and Dollar Savings PP = Payback period
PC = First cost
As found conditions: S= Annual fuel savings
Fuel Natural Gas C= Annual maintenance costs
Annual Fuel Bill $100,000
Oxygen O2 11.0% Option 1. Calculate payback period for the oxy-
Net stack temperature 600F [316C] gen trim system if the maintenance cost is $1,000/
Efficiency 70.3% yr.

Option 1. Install an Oxygen Trim system with an 10,000

PP = —————— = ————YR.
installed cost of $10,000 to reduce excess air to 11,700-1,000
2.0%.
(Ans.: .93 YR.)
New oxygen O2 level 2%
Net stack temperature 600F [316C]
New efficiency 79.6% Option 2. Calculate payback period for an econo-
mizer if the maintenance cost is $1,000/yr.
1. Efficiency Improvement ______%
(Ans.: 9.3%) 30,000
PP = —————— = ————YR.
16,000-1,000
2. Percent Fuel Savings ______%
(Ans.: 11.7%)
(Ans.: 2.0 YR.)
3. Fuel Savings Dollars $______/YR
(Ans.: $11,683/YR)
Part III: Economic Analysis,
Return on Investment
Option 2. Install economizer with an installed
cost of $30,000 to reduce stack temperature to
Return on investment
200F.
S-DC
Oxygen O2 level 11.0% ROI (%) = ——— x 100
Net stack temperature 200F [93C] PC
New efficiency 83.7%
ROI = Return on Investment
4. Efficiency Improvement ______% S= Annual fuel savings $/Yr
(Ans.: 13.4%) DC = Depreciation charge
First cost/Estimated Lifetime
5. Percent Fuel Savings ______% PC = First Cost
(Ans.: 16%)
Option 1. Calculate the ROI for the oxygen trim
6. Fuel Savings Dollars $______/YR system if the estimated lifetime is 15 years:
(Ans.: $16,000/YR)
204 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

11,700 – 667 economizer were both installed as the same proj-

ROI (%): —————— = —————% ect?
10,000
(Ans.: 110%) As found efficiency 70.3%
Optimized efficiency 86.8%
Option 2. Calculate the ROI for an economizer if Optimized fuel savings (%) 19.0%
the estimated lifetime is 15 years: Optimized fuel savings ($) $19,000/Yr

16,000 – 2000 30,000 + 10,000

Payback Period ——————— = —————
ROI (%): ——————— = ————% 19,000-2,000
30,000
(Ans.: 46.7%) (Ans.: 2.35 Yr.)

Return 19,000 – 2,667

Part IV: Economic Analysis, Installing on = —————— = ————
Oxygen Trim and Economizer Investment
40,000
Separately and Together
(Ans.: 40%)
Option 3. Assuming the oxygen trim system has
been installed, what are the benefits from install-
ing the economizer under the new operating con- COST OF MONEY
ditions?
The cost of money may affect energy saving
Efficiency with oxygen projects. The purpose of this section is to illus-
trim system 79.6% trate how the longer payback periods are affected
Efficiency with economizer 86.8% by the cost of money and also how interest rates
Annual fuel savings(%) 8.3% change the time needed to recoup investments.
Annual fuel savings ($) Your company must borrow money at vari-
$8,295/Yr ous interest rates, how long will it take to recoup
30,000 the investment required for energy conservation
Payback Period = —————— = ———— projects with different payback periods and for
8,295- 1,000 various interest rates? (See page ___)

(Ans.: 4.1 Yr.) (1) Find the discount rate column.

(2) Locate simple payback period under the as-
Return 8,295-2,000 sumed interest rate.
on = —————— = ———— (3) The approximate time to recoup investment
Investment
30,000 will be found in the left column under the
“lifetime” heading.
(Ans.: 21%)
(Note. These values are approximate and are giv-
Option 4. What would the payback period and en only to illustrate relative values)
return on investment be if the oxygen trim and
Boiler Plant Calculations 205

Time to
Payback Discount Recoup
Period Rate Investment
————————————————————————————————————————
Option 1. 1.5 Yr. 20% ————— (Ans.: <2 yr.)
Option 2. 2.6 Yr. 20% ————— (Ans.: <3 yr.)
Option 3. 5.0 Yr. 20% ————— (Ans.: >25 yr.)
Option 4. 5.0 Yr. 15% ————— (Ans.: 10 yr.)
Option 5. 5.0 Yr. 10% ————— (Ans.: 8 yr.)
Option 6. 5.0 Yr. 5% ————— (Ans.: 6 yr.)
————————————————————————————————————————

Replacing an Old Inefficient Boiler

Size: 20 Million Btu/hr (20,000 PPH) (10 Ton/hr)
Fuel: No. 2 Distillate
Cost: $1.00/Gallon
250,000 Gallons Fuel per year
137,000 Btu/Gallon
Net Stack Temperature 750F, The economizer needs replacement.
Oxygen 9.5%, Excess Air 76%
Stack losses 30%
Surface losses 2.5% of full rating—(500,000 Btu/hr)

Table 11-17 is calculated from the following equation:

1 – (1 + D) –EL
PWF ————————
D

where D is discount rate expressed as a fraction and EL is the expected lifetime of the
project in years.

1. The boiler is fired for 6,000 hours a year, what is its utilization rate?

20 MBtu/hr x 6,000 hr/YR

Theoretical fuel usage = ———————————— = 896,000 gallons/YR
137,000 Btu/gallon

Actual Fuel Usage 250,000 gallons

—————————— = ———————— = about 30% (Utilization)
Theoretical Fuel Usage 896,000 gallons

2.5%
2. Corrected surface losses —— = 8.3%
30%

3. How much fuel is being wasted each year with this old boiler?

(30% Stack Loss + 8.3% Surface Loss) x 250,000 gallons/yr = $95,750 gallons or
($95,750/yr)
206 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 11-17

Present Worth Factors (PWF)

4. If a smaller boiler with an efficiency of 83% (17% stack loss) and with a corrected
standby loss of 2% were installed, how much fuel would be saved?

(17% Stack Loss+ 2% Surface Loss) x 250,000 gallons/yr = $47,500 gallons or

($47,500/yr)

As Found Losses – New Losses = Savings/yr

$95,750 – $47,500 = $48,250/yr
Boiler Plant Calculations 207

5. If the estimate to install a new boiler is $72,000, what is the payback period and
return on investment if the new boilers life is 20 years.

First Cost 72,000

Payback Period = ————— = ————— = 1.5 yr.
Savings $48,250

Savings - Cost/life yrs

Return on Investment = ———————————
First Cost

48,250 – 72,000/20
ROI = ————————— = 62%
72,000

Programming Boiler Operations 1. At 100 psig what is the total heat in the
steam?
The purpose of this example is to show the (Ans.: 1189.6 Btu/lb)
wisdom of conducting efficiency tests of boilers
2. What is the latent heat of 100 psig steam?
then setting up a program for the most econom-
(Ans. 880.7 Btu/lb)
ical operation possible. For this example three
100,000 Pounds Per Hour (PPH), (50 Ton) (100 3. What is the sensible heat in boiler water at
million Btus/hr) units are used. 100 psig?
(Ans.: 308.9 Btu/lb)
1. Review the efficiency profile of Boiler #1.
(Figure 11-1)

2. Review the efficiency profile of Boiler #2.

(Figure 11-2)

3. Review the efficiency profile of Boiler #3.

(Figure 11-3)

4. Review the combined efficiency profile of

boilers #1, #2 and #3. How would you pro-
gram these boilers to insure maximum econ-
omy in the boiler plant? (Figure 11-4)

5. Review the graphic of combined boiler op-

eration between 20 and 300 thousand PPH.
(Figure 11-5)

Introduction to the Steam Tables

for Accounting for Energy

The purpose of the following examples is to

illustrate how to account for energy in steam sys-
tems. (See Tables 11-18 and 11-19.) Figure 11-1
208 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 11-2
Figure 11-4

4. What is the temperature of the steam and

water at 100 psig?
(Ans.: above 338 F)

5. Condensate is returning to the boiler plant at

120F [80C] instead of 185 F [85C], how many
Btu’s are being lost in each pound of water?

185 F water [85C] 153 Btu/lb

120 F water [49C] 88 Btu/lb
Difference 65 Btu/lb

Comment: Starting at 32F, adding 1 Btu raises the

temperature of water 1F. (185F-32F = 153 Btus). More
exact tables exist.

6. If the boiler’s efficiency is 80% how much

fuel energy (Btus) will it take to replace the
65 Btu/lb in the example above?

65 Btu/lb
———— = 81.25 Btu/lb
Figure 11-3 80%
Boiler Plant Calculations 209

Figure 11-5

7. If a boiler is operating at a pressure of 100 Calculate the percentage of flash steam

psig and the total heat in the steam is 1190 formed at 5 psig when dropping pressure
Btu/lb, what percentage of the total heat in from 300 psig. Use values from 8 and 9 above.
the steam is being lost because of the cold
condensate in the example above? 398.7 – 195.5
—————— = 21%
(Ans.: 81.25 Btu/lb 11190 Btu/lb = 6.8%) 960.5
8. How much heat is in boiler water at:
(Ans.) 11. What is the temperature of steam at different
a. 300 psig (398.7 Btu/lb) pressures? See Table 11-19.
b. 5 psig (195.5 Btu/lb)
Pressure

9. What is the latent heat of 5 psig steam? ____ (PSIG) Temperature (Ans.)

(Ans. 960.5 Btu/lb) —————————————————————————

15 ________ 249.8 F [121C]

10. In a steam system, all the steam should con-
dense back into water and must go through 75 ________ 320.1 F [160C]

a steam trap which lowers the pressure from 100 ________ 337.9 F [170C]
system pressure to a lower pressure. Blow-
down water from the boiler also undergoes 150 ________ 369.9F [187C]

this same pressure reduction. As can be seen 200 ________ 387.8 F [197C]
from the above data, the water at the lower
pressure contains less heat. This heat differ- 600 ________ 488.8 F [253C]

ence is given off as flash steam. —————————————————————————

210 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 11-18
Boiler Plant Calculations 211

Table 11-19

Heat Losses in the City Water 50F 18 Btu/lb

Condensate Return System Hot condensate 194 F 162 Btu/lb
Water heating (50F to 194F) 144 Btu/lb
The purpose of this section is to illustrate Fuel energy used to heat city
how energy is lost in the condensate recovery sys- water to 194 F with 80%
tem serving a 100 psig steam system. efficient boiler 180 Btu/lb

Example 1. Assuming that condensate should re- Water heating (194F-338F) 144 Btu/lb
turn to the receiver at 194F, what losses are in-
volved for each pound of cold make-up water Fuel energy used to bring water
used to replace steam and condensate lost from to saturation 338F with boiler 180 Btu/lb
the system?
Latent Heat of 100 psig steam 880 Btu/lb
212 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Fuel energy used to form steam Actual condensate 120F 88 Btu/lb

with 80% efficient boiler 1100 Btu/lb Energy loss 74 Btu/lb
Fuel energy loss includ-
Fuel Energy invested ing boiler (80% Eff) 93 Btu/lb
in making steam
(180 + 180 + 1100 = 1460 Btu/lb) 1460 Btu/lb Fuel energy used to make original steam with
80% efficient boiler using condensate @

Fuel energy used to make original steam with 1190 – 162

194F [162 Btu/lb] —————— 1285 Btu/lb
80% efficient boiler .8
(1189 Btu/lb – 162 Btu/lb)/80% = 1283 Btu/lb
93 Bu/lb
1460 – 1283 Fuel Loss = ————— = 1285 Btu/lb
Fuel Loss = ————— = 13.7% 7.2%
1283
Comment: a 74 F Temperature drop of the condensate
Comment: A 144F temperature loss (194 – 50F) cost a cost a 7.2% fuel loss, about 1% per each 10.3 degrees.
13.7% fuel loss, about 1% per each 10.5F.
Example 4. Derive the “Rule of Thumb” relation-
ship about how boiler feedwater temperature
Example 2. What is the total loss involved in influences boiler efficiency. How many degrees
steam leaks? must the feedwater or condensate change to cause
approximately a one percent change in boiler sys-
Replacing Lost Steam tem efficiency?
City Water SOP 18 Btu/lb
Heat in 100 psig steam 1190 Btu/lb Given for water
Net Heat 1172 Btu/lb 1 Degree F = 1 Btu/lb
Fuel energy used to make 100 PSI steam 1190 Btu/lb
replacement steam with 150 F Condensate 118 Btu/lb
80% efficient boiler 1465 Btu/lb ——————
1070 Btu/lb
Fuel energy used to make original steam with 1% of 1070 Btu/lb = 10.7 F
80% efficient boiler using condensate @

1190 – 162 Rule of Thumb: “A 1% increase in efficiency oc-

194F [162 Btu/lb] ————— 1285 Btu/lb
.8 curs with each 11°F rise in condensate return or
feedwater input temperature.
1465 Btu/lb =
Fuel Loss —————— = 114% Example 5. What is the efficiency of recovering 5
1285 Btu/lb psig flash steam per pound?
100 psi steam 1190 Btu/lb
Fuel energy invested to
Example 3. Assume the condensate should be re- make 100 psig steam
turning to the plant at 194F, it has been returning with 80% boiler 1487 Btu/lb
at 120F instead. What losses are involved? Heat in 5 psig steam 1156 Btu/lb
Fuel energy saved by
Heat in 100 psig steam 1190 Btu/lb recovering steam in a
Hot condensate 194F 162 Btu/lb 80% boiler system 1445 Btu/lb
Boiler Plant Calculations 213

1445 Btu/lb Steam system average input 22.1 MBtu/hr

Savings ————— = 97% Condensate system pressure Atmospheric
1487 Btu/lb
Condensate return temperature 120F
Make up water temperature 60F
Boiler Efficiency 60F
The recovered steam has 97% of the energy
of the original 100 psig steam.
1. What is the flash loss?
Heat in the condensate on the
high pressure side of the
Distribution System Losses
steam trap 325 Btu/hr
Heat in condensate
The purpose of this section is to illustrate the ma-
atmospheric pressure 180 Btu/lb
jor losses in steam distribution systems.
Latent heat of flash steam @
atmospheric pressure 970 Btu/lb
Distribution system pressure 125 PSIG
Steam system average load 20,000 lb/hr 325-180
Net energy in steam (1193 – 88) 1105 Btu/lb Flash = ———— = 15%
970

Figure 11-6
214 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 11-7

Table 11-20. Flash Steam Table

Boiler Plant Calculations 215

Energy lost with flash steam:

15% x 20,000 lb/hr x 970 Btu/lb = 2.91 million Btu/hr
Steam Energy loss = 2.91/22.1 = 13.2%
Fuel Energy Loss = 13.2%/80% = 16.5%

Note: The flash steam mingles with condensate in the piping and gives up heat to the
cooling condensate before it vents to atmosphere so the loss is less and depends on the
actual situation. This is a theoretical illustration.

2.Average trap leakage is 10% live steam in the system.

Energy loss = .1 x 20,000 PPH x 1105 Btu/lb = 2.2 Million Btu/Hr
2.2/22.1 = 10%

3. Because of steam and condensate leaks, 35% make-up feedwater at 60°F is re-
quired.

Energy loss = 35% x 20, 000 lb/hr x 60 Btu/lb = 0.42 Million Btu/hr
Steam Energy Loss 0.42/22.1 = 1.9%
Fuel Energy Loss 1.9%/80% = 2.4%

4. Condensate system losses. Condensate reaches the receiver at 120F, having cooled
from 212F losing 92 Btu/lb. (35% makeup water)

.65 x 20,000 lb/HR x 92 Btu/lb = 1.2 Million Btu/hr

Energy loss 1.2/22.1 = 5.40%

Fuel Energy Loss 5.4/.8 = 6.75%

Steam System Fuel Energy

Loss Loss
——————————————————————————————————
Flash steam loss 13.2% 16.5%
Trap losses 10.0% 12.5%
Makeup water heat loss 1.9% 2.4%
Cold condensate return 5,4% 6.15%
Total system losses 30.5% 38.15%
Efficiency 69.5% 62%
——————————————————————————————————
216 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Boiler Blowdown Heat Recovery Btu/Day x cost/gal

$ saved/day = ————————— =
Btu/gal x E
The purpose of this section is to demonstrate
the potential savings available from managing
(E = Boiler efficiency = 75%)
the boiler water system.
Dollar savings =...............................................
[Answer: 13.9 Million Btu/Day x
1. Flash Steam Recovery:
$1.00/140,000 x.75 = $132.90/Day]
What percentage of blowdown will flash to
steam at 5 psig from the blowdown of a boiler op-
4. Heat exchanger recovery
erating at 150 psig?
The heat exchanger now reduces the blow-
h1 – h2 down water temperature to 90F, how many
% Steam Flashed = ——— Btus a day can be recovered from this water?
V1
Btu/DAY recovered = Blowdown (lb/day) x
h1 Heat in water leaving boiler. 1- % flashed x h2-h4 =
h2 Heat in water at flash pressure.
V1 Latent heat of steam at flash pressure. Heat in water at flash pressure (5 psig)...........h2 =
_______
[Answer: 195.5 Btu/lb]
Steam Table Information
Heat in water at heat exchanger outlet (90F)....h4
Boiler pressure 150 psig h1 = ____ = _______
[Answer: 338.4 Btu/lb] [Answer: 58 Btu/lb]

Flash tank pressure 5 psig h2 = ____ Btu/day recovered = ....................... = ..............

[Answer: 195.5 Btu/lb] [Answer: 9.35 Million

Latent heat of steam at 5 psig V1 = ____

Dollar Btu/Day] x $1.00
[Answer: 960.5 Btu/lb] savings/= —————————— = ————
day 140,000 Btu/GAL x .75
% Steam Flashed= ______ [Answer: 15%]
[Answer: $89.05/Day]
2 How many Btu/day will be recovered from
the flash tank if the daily blowdown is 80,000 5. Total value of blowdown heat recovered:
lb/day.
Flash steam $—————/day
Btu/day = % steam flashed x blowdown lb/ [Answer: $132.90/Day]
day x (Btu/lb @ 5 psi Steam) = (At 5 psig the
energy in the flash steam is 1156 Btu/lb) Heat Exchanger $—————/day
Btu/day=...................................................... [Answer: $89.05/Day}
[Answer: Btu/Day = .15 x 80,000 x 1156 =
13.9 Million Btu/day] Total $—————/day
[Answer: $221.95/Day]
3. If you are firing a boiler with no. 2 oil with
140,000 Btu/gal which costs $1.00 per gallon, Annual Savings $—————/Yr
how much money can be saved in a day? [Answer: $81,011.75/Yr]
Boiler Plant Calculations 217

Saving Energy By Improving C2-C1

Condensate Return Formula A = ———————— = 0.08
(C1 x C2)- C1
In this case there is no blowdown heat re-
Cl =Present cycles of concentration =7
covery system and the challenge is to conserve
C2 =Anticipated cycles of concentration = 14
energy by reducing the blow-down as much as
possible. There are several ways to do this such as
Figure 11-8 indicates a savings of 3.00 mil-
repairing system leaks, improve feedwater quali-
lion Btu per 100,000 lb of makeup reduction. With
ty and increasing cycles of concentration.
a cost of steam of $8.00 per million Btus, estimate
Calculate the savings possible in a plant ex-
the dollar savings.
porting 2 million pounds of 100 psig steam a day.
Existing Blowdown 280,000 lb/day
Savings = 18.75 x $8.00 x 3 = $450/day
Target Blowdown 160,000 lb/day
= $164,250/Yr
BR x H x C
$ Savings = ———————
V x %E Condensate System Water Leaks

BR = blowdown reduction lb (280,000 -16,000 = Situation: Leaks are developing in the steam and
120,000) condensate systems and the make-up water us-
H = Heat content of blowdown (100 psi) age has risen from 50,000 gallons to 750,000 gal-
H = h1 - h5 lons per month. How much fuel is it costing to
heat make-up water?
h1-heat in war leaving boiler as blowdown.
(100 psig – 309 Btu/lb)
Fuel is natural gas costing $5.00 per million
h5-heat in makeup feedwater (60F - 28 Btu/lb) Btus.
= h 1h 5 (309 – 28) = 281 Btu/lb Condensate weighs 8.34 pounds per gallon.
C = Cost of fuel $1.00/Gal Boiler efficiency 78%
V =Heating Value of Fuel (No.2 fuel – 140,000
Btu/lb) Makeup water 50F 18 Btu/lb
E = Boiler Efficiency - 80% Normal condensate
return 180F 148 Btu/lb
120,000 1h/day x 281 Btu/lb x $100/Gal
$Savings = —————————————————— Btu loss per pound of
140,000 Btu/Gal x .80 make-up 130 Btu/lb
Fuel energy to heat water
$Savings = $301/day
with boiler 80% eff 162.5 Btu/lb
$Savings = $109,865/Yr
How much fuel are the system leaks costing?
Reducing Blowdown Losses bY 700,000 gallons x 8.34lb/gallon
Increasing Cycles of Concentration = 5.81 million lb
5.81 x 162.5 Btu/lb
Example 1. A 300 psi boiler rated at 250,000 = 944 million Btus/month
pounds of steam per hour uses 50% make-up
water averaging 1,875,000 pounds a day. It is an- 944 MBtu/mo x 5.00
ticipated that the cycles of concentration can be = $4,720/mo
raised from 7 to 14. What will the savings be? $56,640/yr (plus chemicals & water costs)
218 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 11-8
Btus Saved by Increasing Cycles of Concentration
Boiler Plant Calculations 219

Steam Leak Relief Valve 1,165 lb/hr x 837 Btu/lb = 975,000 Btu/hr
(Ans.: $8.00 x 0.975 MBtu/hr = $7.80/h,($187.20/
A relief valve on a low pressure, 30 psig, day) ($5,616.00/mo) ($67,392.00/yr)
header has started to blow steam. An examina-
tion of the make-up water readings indicates an 4. The condensate temperature drops from
increase of 28,776 gallons per day starting when 200F to 155F returning to the boiler plant,
the relief valve began blowing steam. how much is this costing?

Fuel is distillate no. 2 costing Average condensate return 100,000 lb/hr

$4.50 per million Btus
City water 50F Heat loss 45 Btu/hr
18 Btu/lb
Fuel Btus needed to make 30 psig steam with Replace heat with 80%
a boiler efficiency of 80% efficient boiler 56 Btu/lb
(1172 – 18)/.80 = 1443 Btu/lb)
(Ans.: 56 Btu/lb x $8.00 MBtu x
1.How many pounds of steam is escaping from 100,000 lb/hr = $44.80/hl
the steam system a day? ($1,075.20/day) ($32,256/mo) ($387,072/yr)
28,776 gallons/day x 8.34lb/gal =
240,000 lb/day
Condensate Losses $387,072/yr
2. How much is this costing in fuel dollars? Steam Pipe losses $ 67,392/yr
240,000 lb. x 1443 Btu/lb = ——————
$454,464/yr
346 MBtus/day
346 x $4.50 = $1,557/day
ELECTRICAL LOSSES

Distribution System Insulation Losses The purpose of this section is to show how
electrical losses play a pmt in the overall energy
Situation: You are investigating putting a new consumption of a boiler plant. Operating electri-
boiler in a building 2,500 ft from the boiler plant cal equipment, especially if it is oversized for the
to cut losses. You need to know how much money load on the plant can add to unnecessary plant
you can save by eliminating the 2,500 ft of6,” 250 losses. The examples in this section are based on
psi steam piping and 2” condensate piping. nameplate data, field measurements of electrical
loads should be taken to confirm actual condi-
1. How would you find out how much heat is tions.
being lost in the steam piping?
(Ans.: You weigh the water formed in its steam Example 1. You find a grossly oversized 40 hp
traps and collect 1,165 pounds an hour.) blower in your plant. A 5 hp could do the same
job how much money could be saved by changing
2. How much energy was given up by the out the 40 hp unit?
steam to form this water? With a cost for electrical power of 10 cents
(Ans.: The latent heat of 250 psi steam is 837 per kilowatt hour, what will the difference in cost
Btu/lb.) be to run with the smaller blower?

3. Steam costs $8.00/MBtus, how much is the A. How much does it cost to operate the 40 hp
steam piping insulation losses costing? blower per hour? (Ans.: $3.50/hr)
220 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

B. How much does it cost to operate the 5 hp Energy Savings With

blower per hour? Adjustable Speed Drive [ASD]
(Ans.: $0.45/hr)
RPM 100% 90% 85% 80% 75%
C. Assuming 8,000 hours of operation a year, Energy
how much more will it cost to operate the 40 Required 100% 81% 72% 64% 56%
hp blower than the 5 hp blower? Savings 100% 19% 28% 36% 44%
(Ans.: $3.05 x 8,000 HR = $24,400/YR)

Example 2. A plant keeps a 100 hp feed pump on Setting The Fuel Oil Heater
the line continuously where a 30 hp pump could For Proper Fuel Oil Viscosity
be used, how much can be saved in a 8,000 hr year at the Burner
by installing a 30 hp pump?
A. How much does it cost to run the 100 hp When the fuel oil temperature is not set to
pump per year? deliver oil at the proper viscosity, the burner can
(Ans.: $10.00/hr x 8,000 hr = $80,000/yr) smoke and foul heat exchange surfaces. Also,
B. How much does it cost to run the 30 hp pump higher levels of excess air will be needed to com-
per Year? pensate for this problem. If the fuel oil heater
(Ans.: $2.75 x 8,000 hr = $22,000/yr) temperature is too high the flame is affected also,
C. What will the annual savings be if the 100 hp becoming ragged with sparklers.
pump is replaced by a 30 hp pump?
(Ans.: $58,000/Yr (approx.)) Situation:
As an economy measure, you have been giv-
As a practical matter you will never get any- en some heavy oil to burn which has a viscosity
one in a boiler plant to downsize equipment. The rating of 4,000 Sabolt Universal Seconds (SUS) at
boiler feed pumps must be able to maintain prop- 100 degrees F. You notice that you have to use a
er water levels and even increase boiler water lot more excess air with this fuel and you have to
level at maximum firing rates and during emer- use your soot blowers more often.
gency conditions. Blowers must be able to pro- Your burner technical manual indicates that
vide enough backup capacity to prevent fuel-rich your burner requires a viscosity of about 150 SUS
firing under all conditions. An adjustable speed for proper atomization.
drive (ASD) controllers will probably be the most What new temperature is required for the
practical and safest approach. fuel oil heater?

Example 3. Pumps and fans follow certain laws Solution:

known as the “Affinity Laws”: Use the Viscosity-Temperature Chart.
1. Flow varies with RPM
2. Head Varies with RPM- [Squared] 1. Find 4,000 SUS at 100 degrees F.
3. Horsepower varies with RPM- [Cubed*] 2. Move down a line parallel to the No. 6 fuel
oil line to 150 SUS and read the correspond-
*Experience has shown that actual horsepower requirements may
ing temperature for the fuel oil.
with the square function rather than the cube junction when static
back pressure is present. Answer: 220°F

What savings are possible by controlling a Note: If there is a significant piping run between
boiler feed pump with ASD rather than modu- the heater and the burner the actual temperature
lating the Feed Control Valve using the “square” at the burner may be lower and the heater may
relationship? have to be set for a higher temperature.
Boiler Plant Calculations 221

Figure 11-9
Hourly Electrical Operating Cost
222 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 11-10
Hourly Electrical Operating Cost
 Boiler Plant Calculations 223
Figure 11-11
224 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Conversion Factors

S.I. Units [Metric Units}

S.I. units are the International system Units that were adopted by the
General conference on weights and Measures in 1960 and subsequently en-
dorsed by the International Organization for Standardization.

The Base units of the‑ S.I. system

S.I Units Symbol

(1) Length meter m
(2) Mass kilogram Kg
(3) Time Second s
(4) Electric Current Ampere A
(5) Thermodynamic Temperature Kelvin K
[°C + 273 = °K]
(6) Luminous Intensity Candela cd

The following frequently used units are derived from the base ones.

S.I Units Symbol

(1) Force Newton N =Kg-m/s2
(2) Pressure Pascals P=N/m2
(3) Work, Energy, Heat Joule J=N-m
(4) Power Watt W=J/s

Other Important Units

Symbol
(1) Enthalpy H= j/Kg
(2) Entropy, Heat Capacity s = J/Kg-°k
(3) Dynamic Viscosity µ = N-s/m2
(4) Thermal Conductivity K=W/m–°k
(5) Heat Transfer Coefficient h =W/M2–°k

Prefixes
10–6 micro
10–3 milli
103 kilo
106 mega
109 Giga
Boiler Plant Calculations 225

Conversion Factors
226 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Conversion Factors
 Chapter 12

Waste Heat Recovery

The value of waste heat comes from the fact On the average the temperature of flue gas-
that it supplants additional input energy, reduc- ses leaving boilers is about 400°F ranging between
ing overall energy costs. 350°F and 650°F. Flue gas leaves the boiler at a
temperature higher than the steam temperature
for heat transfer to take place.
Waste Heat Recovery Opportunities The boiler exhaust approach temperature,
in general, will rise from 400F to 150°F from low
Flue gasses from a boiler represent a 17% to load to maximum (Figure 12.1). Many tests have
30% (plus) opportunity for savings investments. shown these numbers to vary widely, so each
This chapter will cover the technology for waste boiler should be tested for its characteristic ex-
heat recovery including practical approaches to haust temperature, preferably after a cleaning
boiler efficiency improvement and other concepts and tuneup, to establish the ideal temperatures
for utilizing the recovered energy from flue gas- for that particular boiler.
ses.

Figure 12.1— Typical exit gas temperature above steam temperature.

227
228 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Where Waste Heat Can Be Used when the energy wouldn’t be needed thereby
wasting it. Using the boiler for waste heat recov-
A suitable use for waste energy is critical to ery provides an uninterruptable use of this ener-
any waste heat recovery project because it doesn’t gy.
matter how much energy you can recover, the
only thing that is going to save you money is to
actually use the energy in your facility, and by do- Acid Formation a Limiting Factor
ing so, decrease the amount of outside energy you in Waste Heat Recovery
have to purchase.
Typical uses for waste heat energy are: One of the most important factors influenc-
ing stack gas heat recovery is the corrosion prob-
a. Boiler feedwater heating lem accompanying the cooling of the gas. Because
b. Makeup water heating the sulfuric acid dew point is higher than the wa-
c. Combustion air preheating ter vapor dew point, heat recovery efforts must
d. Process heating eventually contend with the acid dew point prob-
e. Domestic hot water lem (Figure 12.2).
f. Generating electricity The acid dew point is that temperature at
which acid begins to form (Figure 12.3). This tem-
If waste heat can be utilized in the boiler it- perature varies with the sulfur content of the fuel
self, a considerable advantage is gained by the (Figure 12.4). To avoid the corrosive effects of ac-
fact that it is a self-controlling process requiring ids the traditional practice has been to limit the
simple or no controls to regulate its application. heat recovery to a minimum stack gas exit tem-
If this same energy were to be used in a plant or perature of 350°F. Within the past decade, howev-
building, it would be supplying a demand which er, corrosion-resistant materials have been devel-
would vary from the typical boiler operation and oped and applied to heat recovery systems, many
need additional controls. There might be periods of which operate below the acid dew point.

Figure 12.2. —The relationship of acid dew point and water dew point to
the formation of acids from the sulfur in fuel.
Waste Heat Recovery 229

Figure 12.3. —The relationship of acid dew point to the sulfur content of fuel.

Figure 12.4. — Minimum recommended feedwater temperature to avoid econo-

mizer tube corrosion.
230 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

What is Flue Gas? Cp = Specific heat BTU/LB/F

T1 = Stream temperature
Before we go on, let’s explore some basics in T2 = Reference temperature
the field of waste heat recovery. The first applies
to the nature of flue gasses which contains both Latent heat is the heat required for phase
dry gas and moisture. The amount of moisture in change, i.e. to change a liquid to a vapor (water
flue gasses varies with the amount of hydrogen to steam) or vice versa, without a change in tem-
in the fuel, each pound of hydrogen in the fuel perature.
combines with oxygen to form approximately 9 The formula for latent heat transfer is:
pounds of water (Table 12.1). This water is in the
superheated state containing more than half the Q=M H
energy in the flue gas stream. As each fuel has a
different carbon to hydrogen ratio the energy in Q1 = Heat content Btu/hr
the moisture in the flue gas stream will vary from M = Flow rate lb/hr
fuel to fuel. H = Heat of vaporization Btu/hr

Carbon as Fuel Fuel

The dry gas in the flue gas is formed from Combustion products from burning fuels
the combustion of carbon to carbon dioxide plus with higher hydrogen content contain more wa-
nitrogen which does not take part in the combus- ter vapor and larger amounts of latent heat loss
tion process and any excess air above and beyond potential. Gas fired boilers are inherently less effi-
the amount needed for combustion. cient than heavy oil fired units and represent bet-
ter candidates for heat recovery. The type of fuel
will also affect the maintainability and service life
Dry Gas and Moisture Losses of a heat recovery system.
Natural gas is a clean-burning fuel and caus-
The carbon and hydrogen composition of es minimal corrosion problems in heat recovery
various fuels determines the dry gas and mois- hardware.
ture losses. Table 12.2 shows how this affects flue Fuel oil contains varying amounts of sulfur,
gas losses and the minimum stack losses that can which leads to acid corrosion problems.
be expected.

Regenerators and Recouperators

Sensible and Latent Heat
Different terminologies have developed over
Sensible heat is that heat which can be sensed the years in different industries referring to heat
with a thermometer or other temperature sensing recovery process. The term regenerators has come
instrument. to refer to the alternate heating and cooling of a
The formula for sensible heat transfer is: media, such as plates or brickwork or other heat
absorbing material with hot exhaust gasses, and
Q = M Cp (T2 – T1) then recapturing the heat by warming combus-
tion or process air over the same media by ma-
Q = Heat content Btu/hr nipulating gas and air streams.
Recuperators refers to the continuous op-
M = Flow rate LB/HR erating (static) type or heat recovery unit using
Waste Heat Recovery 231

Table 12.1— percentage weight by species and higher heating values for fuel types.
————————————————————————————————————————
Species Percentage Weight by Species for
Fuel Types
————————————————————————————————————————
Natural Gas No. 2 Oil Coal
————————————————————————————————————————
Carbon 74.7 87.0 75.1

Hydrogen 23.3 12.5 4.8

Higher Heating (Btu/lb) 22,904 19,520 13,380

————————————————————————————————————————

Table 12.2—flue gas losses due to dry gas and moisture.

————————————————————————————————————————
Fuel Min. Dry Min. Min.
Gas loss Moisture Stack Gas
Loss (%) Loss (%) Loss (%)

————————————————————————————————————————
Natural Gas 2.9 10.1 13.0

No.2 Oil 5.1 6.4 11.5

No.6 Oil 6.6 6.2 12.8

Coal 5.5 10.0 15.5

————————————————————————————————————————

an intermediate wall between the hot and cold 40°F the stack temperature is reduced there is a
streams. corresponding 1% efficiency increase. On the wa-
In boiler plants it is more common to hear ter side, an increase of approximately 1% in effi-
the heat recovery apparatus referred to by name, ciency is expected for each 11’F rise in feedwater
(i.e. air preheater, economizer, etc.) than regener- temperature.
ator or recuperator. Economizers have been in use for a long time
and it has been found that boilers operating at
pressures of 75 psig or greater are excellent appli-
Conventional Economizer cations. One of the strongest points for installing
an economizer is its compact size compared to
An economizer performs two functions, it other options.
reduces stack temperature and also heats boiler Some general guidelines for economizer in-
feed water (Figure 12.5). stallations are:
A practical rule of thumb is that for every
232 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 12.5—Economizer used to reduce stack temperature and raise feedwater temperature.

a. Average stack gas temperature of 450°F savings. The flue gas temperature can not
b. More than 2,500 operating hours a year. be reduced below the temperature of the
c. Stack flow rate more than 15,000 lb/hr incoming feed water or the acid formation
temperature.
The maximum benefit that can be safely
achieved is governed by a number of technical d. It may be possible that a controlling limita-
and physical limitations. tion may be imposed by the space available
for the installation of an economizer.
a. Economic considerations. Many economiz-
ers have paid for themselves in two years or e. When a boiler operates with a stack for in-
less, the economizer then continues to return duced natural draft on a negative pressure
dividends from reduced energy costs long furnace, a limitation is imposed on the fur-
after it has been paid for. nace draft due to the cooler exhaust gasses
caused by the economizer. In this case an
b. When limited fuel availability or steam pro- induced draft fan may be required. In other
duction threatens plant production an econ- cases of balanced draft or forced draft sys-
omizer can increase boiler capacity from tems, the additional boiler efficiency can off-
4% to 10%. If there is a need for more steam set the additional draft requirement caused
capacity, this may be the most cost effective by the lower stack temperatures and pres-
way to do it rather than invest in a new boil- sure drop across the economizer.
er.
f. Outlet water temperature is a limitation to
c. By the law of diminishing returns, an in- prevent steam formation and water hammer
crease in heating surface does not provide, in the economizer. An approach temperature
in equal proportion, for an increase in fuel of 40°F is customary for variable boiler load
Waste Heat Recovery 233

conditions. The outlet water temperature Table 12.3.

may be the dominant limitation in selecting Typical design parameters for a
economizer size. conventional economizer.
————————————————————————
Maximum
g. Acid formation and condensation on the gas
Minimum Exit Flue Fin
side of the heating surface is determined
Fuel Inlet Water Temperature Density
solely by the temperature of the surface
Type Temperature (°F) (Fins/In)
which is essentially the same as the water ————————————————————————
temperature. Natural
Gas 210 300 5
h. A minimum gas temperature of 250°F in the
stack is desirable. Basically, this is to assure No. 2
that the flue gas will be sufficiently buoyant Fuel Oil 220 325 4
to escape into the atmosphere and not mush-
room around the stack and cause smoke or No 5 & 6
acid rain nuisance. Fuel Oil 240 350 3

Coal 240 350 2

Cold-End Corrosion in Economizers ————————————————————————

The major portion of sulfur in fuel is burned feedwater preheat system. The system is illustrat-
and forms sulfur dioxide (SO2) in the flue gas; a ed in Figure 12.6. It is essentially a feedwater pre-
small portion, 3 to 5 percent, is further oxidized heater with sensors controlling the steam admis-
to sulfur trioxide (SO3). These oxides combine sion valves to the heater.
with moisture to form sulfurous (H2SO3) and sul- The steam admission valve sensors measure
furic acid (H2SO4) vapors (Figure 12.2). When in the water temperature entering the economizer
contact with a surface below the Acid Dew Point and the temperature of the stack metal. Both of
(ADP), condensation takes place. The ADP is di- these surfaces are subject to corrosion from tem-
rectly related to the amount of sulfur in the fuel as perature exposure below the ADP. Using the heat-
shown in Figure 12.3. er insures neither surface will cool to that point.
Because of the higher heat transfer coeffi- As an additional protection, the portion of the
cient in liquid-metal than in gas-metal heat trans- stack exposed to very cold weather conditions
fer, the gas side metal temperature of an econo- could be insulated to keep the metal temperature
mizer is closer to the water temperature than the from becoming too cold, approaching the ADP.
gas side temperature.
Design parameters for a conventional econ- Reduce Excess Air
omizer are shown in Table 12.3, illustrating the Reducing excess air raises the dew point
minimum recommended feedwater temperature temperature in the stack gas (Figure 12.7). Re-
and flue gas exit temperatures. search has shown a direct relationship between
excess air and the formation of sulfur trioxide.

Controlling Acid Formation Use Corrosion-resistant Materials or Sleeves

Corrosion-resistant alloy steels can be used
Controlling Economizer Inlet in preventing corrosion, however their high cost
Temperature normally prohibits their actual use. Interlocking
The most efficient and effective means of con- cast iron sleeves over carbon steel tubes can also
trolling economizer metal temperature is with a be used where severe acid conditions are antici-
234 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 12.6—Feedwater preheater used to control cold end corrosion in the economizer
and acid dew point n the stack. The steam energy used for heating is not lost as it recy-
cles back into the boiler as heat in the feedwater.

Figure 12.7. Relationship be-

tween initial water vapor dew
point of flue gasses and the ex-
cess air level.
Waste Heat Recovery 235

pated. The cast iron sleeve will corrode, but it can the metal, or stack wall, that is in contact with the
be replaced at normal maintenance intervals. The flue gas that will determine the extent of acid cor-
cast iron sleeves protect the carbon steel tubes rosion. Stack insulation will aid in keeping stack
from contact with corrosive gases. temperatures above the ADP.
Alternatives to insulation are high tempera-
Improve Fluid Flow Arrangement ture corrosion-resistant stack material such as
Using parallel-flow tube arrangements rath- Cor-Ten or Fiberglass reinforced plastic.
er than counter-flow arrangements increases
economizer skin temperature. With the parallel
flow arrangement, cold feedwater enters where Condensing the Moisture in
the stack gas is the hottest, thus raising the tube Flue Gasses
surface temperature slightly.
The major limitation to increased boiler effi-
Modulate Feedwater ciencies Is the amount of energy tied up in latent
Flow through the Economizer heat. Until recent years equipment has not been
The feedwater flow rate through the econo- available to capture and use this large source of
mizer economizer can be controlled by diverting waste energy. Figure 12.9 shows the energy avail-
feedwater flow around the economizer during pe- able in combustion products for natural gas at dif-
riods of low flue gas temperatures (Figure 12.8). ferent excess air levels as the temperature drops
from 600°F to the point of flue gas condensation
Insulate Stack Metal and full recovery of latent and sensible heat.
Just as with metal temperatures in the econ- For example, 400°F flue gasses from a natu-
omizer, flue gas temperatures will not necessar- ral gas fired boiler contains 18% of the total en-
ily determine the severity of acid corrosion, the ergy from the HHV of the input fuel in the form
same is true for the stack. It is the temperature of of both sensible and latent heat. Almost 62% of

Figure 12.8—Economizer corrosion control by feedwater bypass.

236 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 12.9—Enthalpy of combustion products as a percent of the higher heat-

ing value of natural gas as a function of temperature and excess air.

this energy which would otherwise be lost up the. at 450°F 18% for natural gas, 15% for coal-water
stack, requires cooling the exhaust gasses below slurry, 14% for no.2 fuel oil and 11% for coal.
the ADP and water dew point. This temperature
is a function of excess air (Figure 12.10). For nat- Indirect-contact Condensing Heat
ural gas with 10% excess air the initial condensa- Exchanger
tion temperature is 137°F. The indirect-contact condensing heat ex-
The condensation of flue gasses is also a changer is generally fabricated from corrosion-re-
function of temperature as well as excess air as sistant materials like Teflon and glass.
shown in Figure 12.10. Note that after the initial Since Teflon can only be extruded over
condensation temperature is achieved, the per- smooth surfaces and glass tubes cannot be fab-
cent of water condensed depends on lowering the ricated as finned tubes, an indirect contact heat
temperature even further, ranging roughly from exchanger requires a greater number of tubes
140°F to below 80°F. and will occupy a greater volume. However, the
Boiler efficiencies above 95% are possible weight may not be greater since thinner tube
if the moisture in flue gasses can be condensed, walls can be used.
Figure 12.11 shows how the recoverable energy Glass tube heat exchangers are limited to ap-
increases dramatically with the condensation of plications where the flue gas temperatures do not
flue gasses. The straight line characteristic of sen- exceed 4000F and the water pressure does not ex-
sible heat recovery bulges from a 2-5% efficiency ceed 50 psig.
increase to 11-15% with latent heat recovery. Teflon can be extruded over tubing as a thin
Various fuels, because of their hydrogen con- film (.015 inch). It can operate with flue gas tem-
tent, offer different opportunities for waste heat peratures up to 500°F, but 400°F is recommended
recovery as illustrated in Figure 12.12. It shows for continuous operation.
Waste Heat Recovery 237

Figure 12.10—Enthalpy of combustion products during condensation, as a function of temperature

and excess air for natural gas.

Teflon coated heat exchangers are capable of cleaning solvent vapors, so storage of chloride
raising water temperature to 200 to 250°F. containing material near the boiler combustion
Another less common heat exchanger uses air inlets could cause problems.
stainless steel tubes. Stainless steel heat exchang- Metals have a very wide range of corrosion
ers were installed in 25 hospitals with gas fired resistance. As sulfuric and sulfurous acid is the
(very low sulfur fuel) boilers, and many of these most likely attack to be encountered, material
heat exchangers have operated trouble free for selection must take this into account. Stainless
more than 8 years. This type 304 stainless steel steel, for example does not stand up well under
has been proven to be a durable material in the this attack. Carbon steel or “open hearth” steel is
stack gas environment for natural gas boilers. The most commonly used for economizer construc-
presence of chlorides can cause metal failure due tion, giving long and reliable service. It has a
to stress corrosion however. A common source is corrosion rate superior to many more expensive
238 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 12.11—This figure demonstrates the heat recovery potential from a natural
gas fired boiler by reducing exit gas temperature below the condensing point where
latent heat is given up by the flue gas. The potential to recover heat depends on the
hydrogen ratio of the fuel and excess air. Typically for natural gas boilers, a 11 to 15
percent efficiency increase is possible.

alloys. Cor-Ten may be another good choice for covery unit (Table 12.1).
economizer material, which has a corrosion rate The indirect-contact condensing heat ex-
corresponding to titanium. changer also acts as a stack gas “scrubber”. Re-
The most prevalent systems to operate con- searchers report that condensing heat exchangers
tinuously below the ADP to capture the large greatly reduce stack emissions.
amount of latent heat usually lost with other
systems include borasilicate glass tubes, ceramic Direct Contact Flue Gas Condensing
coated steel or copper tubes, and coated-coated Heat Exchanger
copper tubes. In a direct contact heat exchanger, heat is
Since corrosion is not a factor with these ma- transferred between the two streams, typically
terials, stack gas can be cooled to well below the flue gas and water, without intervening walls.
traditionally recommended safe temperatures. This is typical of other heat transfer equipment.
Lowering temperatures below the water vapor It is a vertical column in which the two streams
dew point promotes the recovery of latent heat move in a counterflow direction. The flue gasses
from the flue gas and the recovery of large quan- enter at the bottom and water is either sprayed or
tities of low grade energy. cascades over trays or travels through a packed
The higher the hydrogen ratio in the fuel the bed from the top to the reservoir at the bottom of
higher the efficiency of the condensing heat re- the column.
Waste Heat Recovery 239

Figure 12.12—Flue gas enthalpy as a function of temperature for various fuels.

The direct contact heat exchanger is very ef- peratures.

ficient because there are no heat exchange surfac- Figure 12.13 shows a direct contact flue gas
es exposed to clogging, corrosion or fouling. The condensing heat recovery system in operation.
elimination of an interfering wall greatly increas- The primary water circuit includes the piping
es the heat transfer rate. from the reservoir, a pump and the spray nozzles
The direct contact heat exchanger is an ide- at the top of the column. A heat exchanger is used
al candidate for transferring latent heat from flue to transfer heat from the primary system to a sec-
gas because the spraying of fine “mist­like” water ondary system which could be any low tempera-
droplets can produce a large heat transfer surface ture water use such as domestic hot water, boiler
in the presence of relatively small temperature make up feed water or heating applications.
differences between heating and cooling streams. Figure 12.14 shows the three types of col-
The packed tower design also enhances the umns used for direct contact heat recovery. The
available heat exchange surface, providing a open spray tower presents the least obstruction
highly effective scrubbing action which improves to exhaust gas flow, less than one tenth inch-of
heat transfer efficiency and raises reservoir tem- water column; but has the lowest reservoir tem-
240 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

perature from 100°F to 110°F. the cycle is repeated.

The tray type tower has a resistance to gas A thermosyphon type heat pipe does not uti-
flow between 0.5 and 1.0 inches of water column lize a wicking material, instead the pipe is placed
and an outlet temperature from 130°F to 140°F. in a vertical position with the condenser placed
The packed tower type has excellent heat above the evaporator section. As the vapor con-
transfer but also has a high pressure drop in ex- denses, it returns to the evaporator section by
cess of 5 to 10 inches water column, but the res- gravity. Even with wicking material it is advan-
ervoir temperature is as high as 150°F depending tageous to locate the evaporator -section-- below
on conditions. the condenser so condensed fluid is aided by
gravity.
Heat Pipe Heat pipes have the advantage that they can
A heat pipe is composed of a sealed pipe par- be constructed of corrosion resistant materials.
tially charged with water, Freon, ammonia or oth- They are mostly applied to transfer heat from one
er suitable substance. It can be divided into three gas stream to another, but have been used suc-
sections (Figure 12.15), the evaporator section, the cessfully in fluid streams also. The gas streams
adiabatic section and the condenser section. must be adjacent to each other because of the loss
In the evaporator section, heat is absorbed of performance from routing streams of working
by the internal working fluid by evaporation. fluid and vapor through an unusually long adi-
Pressure differential causes the vapor to abatic section. Heat pipes can be compact, oper-
flow to the cooler condensing section where the ate at low temperature differentials and have no
latent heat is given up to the cooler environment moving parts to malfunction.
condensing the working fluid.
The internal circumference of the heat pipe Plate Type Heat Exchanger
is lined with a thin layer of wicking or mesh type Plate type gas-to-gas heat exchangers can be
material and the working fluid migrates by capil- used in counterflow or crossflow through adja-
lary action back to the evaporator section where cent passages separated by heat conducting walls

Figure 12.13—Direct contact flue gas condensing heat recovery tower with heat exchanger.
Waste Heat Recovery 241

Figure 12.14—Three popular designs of direct contact flue gas condensing heat recovery tower.

(Figure 12.16). It is possible to preheat combus- hot section where the matrix or plates are heat-
tion air, process fluids, building make up air, etc. ed by the flue gasses, then on the other side of a
by this type of heat exchanger. It is a relatively sealing section it rotates through a cold air section
simple system, but the gas streams must pass in giving up its heat.
close proximity. Heat wheels can exceed 50 feet in diameter.
One manufacturer has overcome several Matrix materials can include aluminum, stainless
problems with this type of exchanger. A unit has steel, and ceramics for higher temperatures.
been designed to be torqued together using resil- Disadvantages include cross contamination
ient mountings, eliminating thermal stress and of the two streams due to sealing and purging
cracked welds associated with expansion and problems, clogging of passages, gas and air flow
thermal shocks. Also, these plate units can be con- restriction and drive motor horsepower. The large
structed of corrosion resistant materials or coat- size of the units and supporting ducting is anoth-
ed with Teflon to insure a long useful life. These er disadvantage. These units can be used to pre-
units are also designed to benefit from latent heat heat combustion air, but cannot be used to heat
recovery and to cope with acid corrosion and con- building air because of cross contamination of
densation problems. combustion products.

The Heat Wheel Tubular Heat Exchangers

The heat wheel is a regenerative type of heat Tubular heat exchangers are also used for
exchanger which extracts heat from one source, combustion air preheating. The heater is arranged
briefly stores it and then releases it to a cooler for vertical gas flow through a nest of tubes. The
stream {Figure 12.17). It consists of a large rotat- air passes horizontally across the tubes in sections
ing wheel frame, packed with a heat absorbing of the air heater defined by built in baffles.
matrix. Its primary application is for combustion In contrast to regenerative designs, tubular
air preheating. As it rotates it passes through the or recuperative air heaters have more severe cold
242 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 12.16—Gas-gas plate heat exchanger.

Figure 12.17—Outline of rotary air heater.

end corrosion problems.

To avoid corrosion, it is necessary to limit the
Figure 12.15—Design of a heat pipe.
air temperature entering the heat exchanger to a
minimum value. This can be achieved by:

a. recirculating some of the air from the pre-

heater outlet back to the inlet.
Waste Heat Recovery 243

b. bypassing part of the inlet air around the Table 12.4—Cold-end air preheater temperature
heating surfaces. material selection guide.
———————————————————————
Incoming
c. using a recuperating steam coil in the air Fuel Air Temp Material
duct upstream of the air preheater. Type Range Specification
———————————————————————
Oil 190-205°F Carbon steel components.
With high sulfur fuel, the expected life of an
air preheater is short. The strategy is to extract as Corrosion resistant low alloy steel
much energy as possible from the flue gas regard- for the cold-end element.
less of the corrosion potential and to specify ma-
Oil 155-190°F Corrosion resistant low alloy steel
terial to keep the problem to a minimum (Table intermediate element
12.4).
Enameled cold-end element.
Combustion Air Preheating Low alloy steel for rotor and
Although preheating of combustion air is structural parts in the cold-end to
not generally recommended for smaller boilers, the same level as the enameled
it could be the only way to significantly improve elements.
boiler efficiency. As a retrofit, the cost may be Oil Below 175°F Enameled intermediate element.
high because of bulky ductwork, and possibly a
long distance between the stack and air inlet. Enameled intermediate element.
Increasing combustion-air temperature
Corrosion resistant low allow
worsens emissions of NOx, typically from 20 to steel rotor and supports to same
100 ppm for a 100°F rise. Reductions in SOx, car- level as enameled elements.
bon monoxide and particulate emissions result Below 155°F
Bituminous
from improved combustion. Coal Carbon steel components.
In addition to making use of waste heat from
flue gasses, lower excess air can be maintained Corrosion resistant low allow
owing to improved combustion at the high inlet steel cold-end element.
Below 150°F
air temperature. Higher combustion tempera- Pulverized Carbon steel components
tures also increases heat transfer and reduces Anthracite
sooting. Corrosion resistant low allow steel
cold-end element.
Gas-to-air inefficient heat exchangers are very
Gas Fuel
in comparison to gas-to-water exchangers. This is Sulfur Free
due thermal characteristics comparison to air. ———————————————————————
In summary, unless corrosion resistant ma-
terials are used, combustion air entering the pre-
heater must be suitably high to avoid cold-end This system can be applied to transfer heat to
corrosion. A steam coil heater, on the cold side, to combustion air, process air, or building air. Since
raise the temperature of the incoming fresh air is the heat exchanger requires some temperature
recommended. differential to transfer heat to or from the inter-
mediate fluid, it is inherently less efficient than
Run-around Coil a direct exchange between two primary fluids.
The typical run-around coil system is com- However this system is relatively simple and
posed of two heat exchangers coupled together more compact than a direct air/fuel gas system. A
by the circulation of an intermediate fluid (Figure run-around system eliminates the problem of the
12.18). The circulating fluid is heated by the hot close proximity of exhaust and inlet ducts. It is
stream and then piped to the second heat exchang- able to transfer heat from one location to another
er where its heat is given up to a cold stream. without great retrofit costs.
244 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

once again enters the compressor and the cycle

continues.
The effectiveness of all mechanically driv-
en vapor compression heat pumps is specified in
terms of coefficient of performance (COP) defined
as:

Useful thermal energy output

COP = ———————————————
Work input to the compressor

A COP of 5 means using one unit of work

Figure 12.18—Run-around heat recovery system. input (in the form of electrical energy to power
a compressor) to deliver 5 units of heat output,
of which four units come from the waste heat
Organic Rankine Cycle source. All five output units being at the raised
The Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) is one output temperature.
method to convert thermal waste streams to elec- The heat pump is becoming increasingly
trical energy (Figure 12.19). It is a closed loop sys- popular because of this ability to raise the tem-
tem filled with an organic fluid having a low boil- perature level of recovered energy.
ing temperature. The working fluid is vaporized Although heat pumps are most often driv-
at an elevated pressure by the waste heat stream en by electrical motors, heat pumps driven by
in a boiler. combustion engines have the advantage of being
The vapor expands across a turbine which powered by fuels costing a fraction of electrici-
is directly coupled to an electrical generator. The ty and the added advantage of using waste heat
low pressure exhaust vapor from the turbine is generated by the engine.
condensed and pumped back to pick up more Both turbines and internal combustion en-
waste heat. gines can recover 70% to 80% of their own waste
Both initial investment and annual mainte- heat to add to system efficiency. Driving a com-
nance can be relatively high. The application of pressor with a fuel-fired engine rather than an
an ORC system would depend heavily on the im- electric motor becomes attractive when the elec-
portance and value of electricity as a commodity. tricity costs are high and natural gas or fuel oil
costs are low.
Heat Pump
Heat pumps have the ability to raise low­ Preheating Air or Water?
temperature energy to a higher temperature level. Due to the superior heat transfer qualities
The most common heat pump system is a closed of water, preheating feed water is more efficient
loop filled with refrigerant (Figure 12.20). and economical than preheating combustion air.
The heat pump cycle begins with a compres- However, air is always available at ambient tem-
sor raising the temperature of the working fluid, perature with good potential for accepting flue
in vapor form. This hot vapor goes to a heat ex- gas heat.
changer (condenser) where its heat is transferred
to heat air or water. The high pressure liquid re- Fire Tube Boiler Air Preheating
frigerant then passes through an expansion valve In general, fire tube boilers are not designed
and its pressure is suddenly lowered causing it to operate with preheated combustion air, and it
to cool. In the evaporator, this low temperature would be impractical to attempt to improve boil-
vapor absorbs energy from the waste heat stream er efficiency with this type of system.
raising its temperature. The refrigerant vapor
Waste Heat Recovery 245

Figure 12.19—Organic Rankine cycle system.

Figure 12.20—Closed-cycle vapor compression heat pump.

246 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Which Option Is Best? a. The conventional economizer

Based on a number of general assessments b. The indirect-contact condensing heat ex-
considering all facts involved in economic bene- changer
fits, engineering criteria, installing and operating c. Direct contact flue gas condensation heat re-
waste heat recovery systems; three primary sys- covery
tems have evolved as being very good prospects
for waste heat recovery. The waste heat recovery Table 12.5, summarizes the merits and lim-
systems which showed the most promise and ap- itations of various heat recovery alternatives.
plicability are:

Table 12.5—Merits and limitations of heat recovery equipment and approaches.

 Chapter 13

Steam System Optimization

Steam System Optimization, water up to boiling temperature. This sensible

a huge opportunity for savings energy may be lost through a phenomena known
as “Flashing” when hot condensate is formed at
According to the Department of Energy, a high pressure and escapes to a lower pressure
nearly 160 billion dollars is spent creating steam through the steam trapping system.
in a single year. Steam generation accounts for Figure 13.2 shows what happens to the con-
fully one half of the industrial and commercial en- densate when it escapes from a higher pressure
ergy dollar. When you consider that steam plays to a lower pressure. Illustrated here is a trap for
a major role in generating electricity this number a heat exchanger which is forming condensate
can be much higher. Energy conservation mea- at the rate of 100 pounds per hour. The system
sures described in this chapter can play a signifi- pressure is 100 psi and the corresponding steam
cant role in saving over 15 billion dollars annually temperature is 353°F. This 100 lb of condensate
which is lost in steam distribution systems. contains 32,500 Btu.
The cost of operating a steam system in- On the low pressure side of the trap, which
cludes: is atmospheric pressure in this case, the satura-
tion temperature is 212°F. Of the 100 pounds of
a. Boiler operating costs condensate, 14.8 lb will form flash steam with
b. Steam distribution system losses a heat value of 17,100 Btu. The remaining 85.2
c. Trapping system losses pounds of condensate formed will contain 180
d. Condensate return system losses Btu per pound for a total heat content of 15,400
e. Operation and maintenance of the systems Btu. Notice that the 32,500 Btu in the condensate
involved. on the high pressure side of the trap has formed
steam and water with the same total heat content
Boiler Plant Optimization of 32,500 Btu.
Boiler plant operating costs and losses have Table 13.1 shows the percentage of steam
been covered in the earlier chapters of this book. that will form at the new lower pressure. This
An important fact to keep in mind is that every low pressure flash steam will, in fact, contain
Btu wasted in the steam distribution system has more heat than the condensate. There is a great
to be replaced by the boiler and the boiler has potential for half of the energy going through the
large losses of its own. If a boiler is 80% efficient, trapping system to be lost as flash steam, espe-
then at least 20% of the original fuel used to gen- cially in condensate recovery systems that vent to
erate steam for the distribution system is lost and atmosphere.
does no useful work. The higher the steam system pressure, the
higher this flash steam loss will be, so one im-
Getting the Most Energy from portant factor that should be examined is how to
Steam Systems reduce this loss.
Energy in steam consists of sensible and la- Table 13.2 shows that the higher the steam
tent heat (Figure 13.1). It is apparent that a sig- system pressure, the less latent heat is available in
nificant amount of heat is invested in bringing the steam. This latent heat is what does the work,
247
248 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 13.1—Heat in one pound of saturated steam at various pressures.

Table 13.1—Percent flash steam generated by condensate or boiler water when pressure
is lowered.
Steam System Optimization 249

Figure 13.2—Flash Steam Energy Balance.

the rest is lost through the trap. If we were able Table 13.2 shows why steam pressure should be
to drop the working pressure on a piece of equip- reduced at the point of use. It conserves the loss of
ment from 125 psig to 5 psig, the latent heat would energy through the steam trap.
be 83.5% of the total energy instead of 73.5%. ———————————————————————
Significant steam savings can be realized by Latent Percent
Pressure Heat of Total
reducing steam pressure as low as possible using
psig Btu/lb Heat
pressure reducing valves in new as well as exist-
———————————————————————
ing installations. 125 868 73.5
As shown in Table 13.3, the percent heat sav-
ings available from reducing pressure is signifi- 50 912 77.5
cant. For example, there will be a 13% savings by
reducing the pressure from 150 to 20 psig. 5 961 83.5
———————————————————————

A Rule of Thumb for Optimizing Steam Table 13.3—Heat savings available from reducing
System Pressure pressure at the point of use. (To calculate these
———————————————————————— numbers, flash steam reduction and the latent heat of
a. System steam pressure should be distribut- the steam and the heat in the condensate at the old and
new pressure is considered)
ed at high enough pressure as is practical to
———————————————————————
overcome line losses and satisfy the highest
Original Pressure
pressure user.
(psig)
Reduced 125 150 200
b. Steam pressure should be reduced at the Pressure (Steam Savings %)
point of use to as low a pressure as is practi- ———————————————————————
cal.
———————————————————————— 100 psig 2.1 3.6 6.8

75 psig 4.4 5.9 9.0

Two general points to consider in the steam
distribution system is, design requirements limit 50 psig 7.2 8.6 11.6
steam velocities to less than 6,000 to 12,000 feet
per minute and the system pressure drop should 20 psig 11.5 13.0 15.8
not exceed 20 percent of the total maximum pres-
10 psig 13.7 15.0 17.8
sure of the boiler. ———————————————————————
250 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Heat Transfer Efficiency These gases take up volume and don’t con-
Accumulations of air and noncondensible dense into a liquid as readily as steam, hence the
gases in the steam system can also limit steam term noncondensible. If allowed to accumulate
flow, steam temperature and heat energy release. for long periods, they take up enough volume to
Air is present in the system on start up and effectively block steam flow and energy transfer.
is also introduced by vacuum breakers on heat Bellows type thermostatic steam traps can
exchangers and process equipment. Nonconden- be used as automatic air vents on heat exchange
sible gases are liberated in the boiler by bicarbon- equipment. Air and noncondensibles in the sys-
ates which forms CO2. Oxygen is carried through tem tend to be lighter than the steam and accumu-
the system. These noncondensible gases, when late in quiet zones. If installed at these locations,
released, flow with the steam and can create heat the thermostatic device can sense the temperature
transfer problems. reduction caused by the air.
The gases cause a temperature reduction by Batch process cookers, large shell and tube
contributing to total system pressure. heat exchangers and large steam coils should in-
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure states that a corporate automatic air vents to eliminate air ac-
mixture of steam and other gases is equal to the cumulations.
sum of the partial pressures. This effectively re-
duces steam pressure, temperature and energy
transfer. Steam Distribution System Losses
Table 13.4 shows the effect of air on the tem-
perature of a steam-air mixture. Insulation
Steam is distributed through hot pipes which
Table 13.4—Air-steam temperatures. must be kept insulated to prevent excessive loss of
heat and for safety. The range of surface tempera-
ture can vary from 200-500°F. The bare surface loss-
es can vary from 300 Btu/Hr to 1700 Btu/Hr. The
losses from uninsulated surfaces can be impressive,
Figure 13.4 shows the losses from an uninsulated
four inch gate valve for one year for steam costing
$5.00, $8.00 and $11.00 per million Btus.
Steam users seem to be fully aware of the
need to insulate hot surfaces. to prevent heat
loss. Insulation pays for itself quite quickly, but
insulating steam piping means not only the main
piping, but also the unions, flanges, valve bodies,
steam traps and everything else that is hot.
Removable (lace-up, foam in place and mold-
Insulating Barriers ed etc.), insulating covers are available for valve
There is a second phenomena involved with bodies and other hard to fit shapes. Mechanical
noncondensible gases in the steam. When steam steam traps such as float and thermostatic (F&T),
condenses on the heat exchange surface, the non- inverted bucket (IB) should also be insulated as
condensible gases also accumulate on the surface well as the bodies of thermodynamic disc traps
forming an insulation barrier. (the covers should be left bare). Only Thermostat-
The first one percent of air barrier has the ic (TS) traps and their cooling legs should be left
most effect on reducing heat transfer (Figure 13.3). uninsulated.
In this figure TS is the steam temperature and TW Condensate return lines are often not insu-
is the water temperature of the heat exchanger. lated because their heat losses are not considered
Steam System Optimization 251

Figure 13.3—Effect of air in steam on heat transfer.

Table 13.4—Annual dollar energy loss cost from an Table 13.5—Uninsulated bare metal heat loss in 80
uninsulated 4-inch valve. degree still air for various steam pressures.

excessive, It should be a matter of concern how-

ever it is a matter of economy to insure that all of
the heat possible is returned to the boiler plant for
additional savings. Table 13.5 shows heat losses
per hour for bare metal temperatures in 80 degree steam supplied as well as being a maintenance
still air. burden.
Instead of relying on a hand operated valve,
Inactive Piping which may not shut tight or be leaking, it is better
Inactive or dead piping must be positively to blank off the unused part of the system or re-
isolated from the steam supply, this is often over- move a section of piping to insure positively that
looked. Inactive steam piping wastes 100% of the this section is not wasting good energy.
252 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

External Steam Leaks If it can be returned to the boiler feed system,

Steam leaks to the atmosphere are usually it can be recycled with little further treatment. By
visible, audible or both. Because of the safety haz- reusing the condensate, you avoid the need for
ard they present, they are usually fixed quickly, more raw water to be purchased and treated and
However many leaks seem to go on being neglect- you can avoid the sewage costs which can be in-
ed for years. Their large plumes are hard to hide curred when condensate is allowed to run to the
and can be seen for long distances (Table 13.6). drain. Also, this condensate contains valuable
heat energy that was paid for in the boiler fuel;
Table 13.6—Steam leak energy loss estimates based energy that an efficient condensate recovery sys-
on steam plume length. tem will conserve.
The efficiency of a condensate return system
can be improved, sometimes dramatically. For
example, Table 13.7 shows annual dollar savings
from improving condensate return. Savings are
based on steam generation cost of $6.00 per 1,000
lbs. Make up improves from 100% to just 10%, a
90% reduction. Annual dollar savings for three
boiler sizes listed include water cost, chemical
treatment and energy savings.
Table 13.7—Annual cost reduction from
improving condensate return.
———————————————————
Internal Steam Leaks 100 BHP 250 BHP 500 BHP
Steam plumes are easy to spot. What about
the steam leaks you can’t see? Leaks inside steam $21,900 $54,750 $109,500
systems are invisible. ———————————————————
Valves in bypasses around steam taps are
prime candidates for this type of leakage. They The Basic Challenge
are often opened to assist system start up or to The condensate system is perhaps the most
vent excessive air and can easily be forgotten or ignored and least understood system in a steam
only closed partially or develop leaks over time. using facility. An examination of the dollar sav-
The need for bypasses should always be ings listed in Table 13.7 suggests that it might be
questioned. If they are needed for startup it is profitable to spend some time studying your con-
likely that their real purpose is the discharge of densate systems.
non-condensible gasses faster than a steam trap One of the most useful instruments for this
can handle them. An automatic air vent can do the job is a makeup water meter. It can be used to de-
job better and more economically. A trap could be tect system leaks, malfunctioning system compo-
installed in the bypass line as a back up in case re- nents as well provide an excellent basis for calcu-
pairs are required for the main trap or to provide lating wasted energy.
more capacity during high loads. This way the li-
ability of internal steam loss can be prevented. ———————————————————————
The rule of thumb on condensate return
Condensate Return System Losses energy is:
Condensate is certainly not waste water. It
is water that has been preheated, softened, made For each 11°F the water temperature is cooled,
suitable for use as boiler feedwater, and then dis- it loses 1% of efficiency for the system.
tilled. ———————————————————————
Steam System Optimization 253

The challenge is to get this heat back to the Acid Corrosion and Oxygen Attack In
boiler plant. The flash steam formed as the con- Piping Systems
densate leaves a trap is of first concern, approxi- A great part of condensate recovery system
mately half the energy in the trap exhaust is the failure can be traced to a feedwater treatment
energy in this flash steam. In an open system it problem that allows carbon dioxide to enter the
can escape to atmosphere through a vent in the distribution system piping. Oxygen also causes
receiver tank. problems but most are confined to the boiler and
If the condensate piping is not adequately economizer.
insulated, additional losses will occur. Carbon dioxide that carries over in the steam
Some pumping systems cannot handle con- forms carbonic acid which has the capacity to
densate above 180°F because of cavitation. There combine with one and a quarter pounds of steel
may be other operational problems that have per pound of CO2, forming a groove in the bot-
lead to lower condensate return temperatures. tom of the piping. Over years this can eat up a lot
Some plants have actually devised ways to cool of metal and cause countless problems. Oxygen
condensate so they could get their pumps would pitting and scale formation can also destroy pip-
work. ing and boiler tubes as well as interfere with heat
transfer and the operation of pressure reducing
Good management of the condensate systems has valves and trap mechanisms.
additional benefits:
a. Reduction in replacement water costs.
b. Reduction in water treatment chemicals.
c. Reduction in fuel consumption used in pre-
heating the make-up water.

One solution to getting the hot or even boil-

ing condensate back to the boiler room is the
steam pressure powered pump (Figure 13.5). It
collects condensate and discharges it when the
liquid level reaches a certain point. It uses system
steam pressure for the pumping action, a small
investment for high overall energy savings.
The condensate pressure powered pump
eliminates many problems connected with han-
dling hot condensate with electric pumps. When
the condensate goes above 190°F they tend to
cavitate, forming steam in the suction end of the
pump. One common solution had been to cool
the condensate to a temperature where the old
pumps could handle it. Another common prac-
tice is to dump the condensate down a conve-
nient drain.
This type of pump is reported to use only 3
pounds of steam for every 1,000 pounds of liquid Figure 13.5—The operation of
pumped. When exhaust is vented back in a closed a pressure powered conden-
system, the steam is recovered and the cost of op- sate pump: (a) is the fill cycle,
eration is negligible. (b) is the pumping cycle and
(c) is the venting cycle.
 Chapter 14

Steam Traps

When steam expends its energy, by giving up

its heat or by doing work, it condenses back into
water (Figure 14.1). This water must be removed
from the pathway of the steam so it will not inter-
fere with the function of the steam system. Once
removed, the condensate, pure hot water, should
be returned to the boiler where it is again heated
to produce more steam.

Figure 14.2—Float trap is trapping steam while al-

lowing condensate to discharge.

a pipe is swept along by the high velocity steam

(Figure 14.3). As the water moves through the
pipe collecting additional droplets, forming a
larger arid larger slug, it develops a high level of
Figure 14.1—Condensate formation in steam distri- energy and can cause serious damage through the
bution line. A valve is shown draining line instead
phenomena known as “Waterhammer.” Severe
of a steam trap.
waterhammer can burst the wall of a pipe, possi-
bly causing personal injuries and damaging other
The Purpose of Steam Traps
equipment in the area, it is usually accompanied
The job of removing condensate is handled
by a sharp metallic noise.
by the steam trap (Figure 14.2). The steam trap’s
job is to remove condensate while preventing
steam from escaping from the distribution sys-
tem. It must discharge this condensate from a
higher to a lower pressure. To do this job, it is
designed to differentiate steam from condensate,
usually by reacting to temperature, density or
thermodynamic properties.
The Btus which are released by steam in heat-
ing, and process applications and by pipe radia-
tion loss causes the steam to condense and form
droplets of water that can quickly combine into
larger masses. If this condensate is not effectively
removed (trapped), it can reduce the efficiency of
heat transfer equipment by a phenomena known Figure 14.3—Condensate accumulates in distribution
as waterlogging. piping and forms a slug which is carried along by the
Condensate accumulating at the bottom of steam at high velocity.
255
256 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Severe damage can occur when the incom- generator operating procedures may also have to
pressible slug of water is forced to change direc- be investigated and changed.
tion by a pipe bend, fitting or valve. It produces All of the steam generated by the boiler must
a shock wave of tremendous momentary force eventually leave the system as condensate, except
which can cause great physical damage. It is a for leaks and steam directly used for some pur-
function of the mass of water and the velocity pose. It is obvious that if the steam can somehow
squared, so the greater part of its energy comes escape from the system without going through a
from the high velocities (6,000-12,000 feet per trap as condensate, the system will be inefficient
minute) achieved in the steam piping. to that degree. Properly working traps insure that
Some steam boilers have a tendency to pro- steam gives up its energy efficiently.
duce low quality steam, which contains an ap-
preciable amount of moisture and possibly boiler Air and Noncondensibles in the
chemicals and contaminated boiler water. This in- Steam System
troduces water into the boiler header and distri- Accumulations of air and noncondensible
bution piping. Depending on the severity, this can gases in the steam system can limit steam flow,
overload the distribution and trapping systems. steam temperature and heat energy release. Air
To detect this problem a Throttling Calorim- is present in the system on startup and is intro-
eter can be used to test for steam quality (percent duced through vacuum breakers.
moisture in the steam). This instrument measures Noncondensible gases are liberated in the
the temperature of a very small amount of steam boiler. Carbon dioxide and oxygen are dissolved
discharging from the steam main. Dry steam will in boiler feedwater as carbonates and bicarbon-
become superheated due to the pressure drop. If
there is any moisture present, the temperature of
the discharge will be reduced. Measuring tem-
perature and comparing it to the maximum pos-
sible temperature will indicate steam quality.
Other methods that can be used are:

a. Ion exchange

b. Conductivity

c. Sodium tracer flame photometry

d. Specific ion electrodes.

These methods determine the solids content

of the steam, including the solids carried over by
water droplets.
The throttling steam calorimeter is the only
direct way to determine steam quality and is most
accurate below 600 psi and where moisture con-
tent is above 0.5 percent.
When low water quality is detected, it indi-
cates a problem with the water level control, feed-
water treatment, blowdown cycle, boiler sizing or Figure 14.4—Shows several forms of steam and con-
steam drum internal problems. Boiler and steam densate mixing in piping.
Steam Traps 257

ates. These noncondensible gases, upon release, good indication that an air vent is needed.
flow with the system and can create energy prob- When allowed to cool in the presence of
lems. When steam condenses, these gases migrate condensate, carbon dioxide can combine with
to the heat exchange surface, forming a insulating water to form carbonic acid. Since gas accumula-
film (Figure 14.5). This film can be a very effective tion causes a temperature drop, acid formation is
insulator, usually only a very small percentage is highly probable in any standing condensate.
needed to cause a big problem with heat transfer. The corrosion of iron forms a soluble bicar-
The gases also take up volume and don’t bonate which leaves no protective coating on the
condense into liquid as readily as steam, that’s metal. If oxygen is also present, rust forms and
why they are called noncondensibles. If allowed CO2 is released, which is now free to cause more
to accumulate for long periods, they can take up corrosion.
enough volume to effectively block steam flow Once gases become dissolved, they should
and almost all energy transfer. When condensate be removed, but while in the system they usually
drainage is blocked, dangerous water hammer contain some damaging acids. The corrosion they
can occur. produce causes piping leaks, damaged traps and
Trapped air can cause heat transfer prob- valves and formation of insulating scales.
lems, especially in equipment, such as shell and
tube heat exchangers, where there is room for it System Protection
to accumulate at high points or in areas of low One application, of many that are needed
velocities. This trapped air will cause a cold spot, in a steam system, is the removal of condensate
that’s how you can find them. This would be a from steam strainers (Figure 14.6). Strainers are

Figure 14.5—Reduction of heat transfer by noncondensible gases: (1) a steam line containing steam,
condensate and gases, (2) noncondensibles are migrating to the heat exchange surface as steam
condenses and (3) an insulating film is forming (darker shade) at the heat transfer surface and con-
densate is forming in the bottom of the line.
258 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

used to protect pressure reducing valves and moving parts are subject to wear, corrosion and
traps and are generally installed to keep the sys- eventual failure.
tem clean. The strainer body is a low point in the Most traps function intermittently. During
system which accumulates condensate natural- the closed portion of their cycle, the leg of water
ly, reducing the effective area of strainer screen. that accumulates encourages the formation of a
In the case of a valve down stream that has been mildly corrosive acid and the cycling itself caus-
closed, some condensate will be picked up by the es temperature fluctuations which accelerate the
flow when it is opened, impacting the valve seat problem.
with dirty condensate. A typical trap may open and close several
Installing an inverted bucket steam trap on million times a year and some wear, malfunction
the strainer blowdown will keep the conden- and outright failure is inevitable. Steam losses
sate drained. This will free strainer surface from conservatively exceed 15 billion dollars annually.
blockage improving strainer performance. This Steam trap leaks are a form of invisible steam
may be the reason why some valves have perpet- leak. Rather than arrive at the point of use, the
ual problems. steam escapes to the condensate return system
without accomplishing useful work.
How Steam Traps Fail There are four essential causes for steam trap
Steam traps are subject to harsh operating leaks: (Figure 14.7)
conditions and like all mechanical devices, their
a. The trap responds too slowly, not closing fast
enough to prevent the escape of some steam
on the closing cycle.

b. The trap leaks in the closed position because

of either a defect in the valve closing mech-
anism or in the sealing surfaces allowing
steam to leak through.

c. The trap fails to close completely, because of

mechanical failure.

d. The trap fails open, allowing steam to blast

through the escape orifice.

All steam traps will eventually fail. Most

traps fail because mechanical parts wear out
through normal operation. Others will fail be-
cause of the flashing of condensate as it passes
through the trap, which can wire draw the valve
seat. Still others will fail because of the stresses of
steam service such as water hammer, rapid tem-
perature fluctuations, carbonic acid corrosion or
general fatigue of operating components due to
millions of operational cycles each year.
Steam traps are small, relatively inexpensive
and short-lived components of the steam system
Figure 14.6—Installing a steam trap on a strainer to which represents a very large opportunity for
prevent valve damage. savings in almost any plant.
Steam Traps 259

Most facilities will require several types of

steam traps in various sizes to provide efficient
steam trapping. The user must have knowledge
of the various types of traps available to properly
select and specify the traps to be used.

Categories of Steam Traps

All steam traps are designed to distinguish
between condensate and steam. To be effective
they must stop or trap the steam and release con-
densate. The physical differences between steam
and condensate has lead to a variety of approach-
es to steam trap design.
There are three basic categories of steam
traps, each using a different principle to differ-
entiate between steam, non-condensible gas and
condensate. These are:

Mechanical, which are operated by differ-

ences in density between steam and conden-
sate.

Thermodynamic, operated by kinetic ener-

gy.

Thermostatic, operated by temperature.

Mechanical Steam Traps

Mechanical steam traps are operated by the
difference in density between steam and conden-
Figure 14.7—Various ways a steam trap can waste
sate. All use a float in some form to operate the
steam: (a) is either failure to close completely or clos-
valve to let condensate drain from the system.
ing too slowly, (b) is leaking in the closed position
and (c) trap fails open. Mechanical traps include Inverted Bucket,
Open Bucket and Float and Thermostatic (F&T)
types. All can operate at or near steam saturation
temperature because trap operation is dependent
Steam Trap Types and on the density difference between steam and wa-
Characteristics ter which is about 700 to 1. Figure 14.8 shows the
density relationship between water and steam.
Effective steam trapping practices have a di- All mechanical traps respond quickly to
rect impact upon the efficiency of any steam or changing loads and most have large turn down
condensate system. ratios. However, without a separate mechanism
To ensure maximum steam trap life and to discharge air and non-compressible gasses,
steam system efficiency, steam trap type and size mechanical traps have a limited venting capacity.
must be properly matched to each application. It Since all mechanical traps depend on a con-
is important to emphasize there is no “UNIVER- densate level inside the trap for proper operation,
SAL” steam trap which will provide efficient op- they are position sensitive. Some will fail to oper-
eration for all applications. ate when installed even a little off vertical.
260 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Figure 14.8—Water steam density relationship.

Inverted Bucket Traps

Inverted bucket traps use an open inverted
bucket as a float. As with all mechanical traps, in- Figure 14.9—Inverted bucket steam trap has trapped
steam under the bucket and floated up to close the
verted bucket traps operate on the difference in
outlet valve.
density between steam and condensate.
The inverted bucket is usually attached to the
valve by a lever mechanism. When the inverted the hole at the top of the bucket, allowing more
bucket sinks toward the bottom of the trap body, condensate to enter. The bucket loses buoyancy,
the valve is opened. Since the linkage is designed sinks and opens the valve.
with some “play,” inverted bucket traps can oper- If the amount of air and non-condensibles
ate in either the cyclic or modulation mode. entering the trap is greater than the vent capacity
Condensate, steam and non-condensible of the bleed hole, the trap can air bind and fail
gasses enter under the inverted bucket. The light- closed. Some manufacturers have alleviated this
er steam and air lift the bucket, closing the valve problem by using larger bleed holes or thermo-
(Figure 14.9). There is a bleed hole in the top of static elements to enhance their venting capacity.
the bucket to let air and a small amount of steam Once the valve is open, discharge continues
bleed through so the bucket doesn’t get stuck in until all of the condensate has been removed from
the closed position. the system and steam floats the bucket closing the
During startup, the inverted bucket rests on valve (Figure 14.10). The trap will remain closed
the bottom of the trap body because of its own until enough steam has vented through the bleed
weight. The valve is open allowing the discharge hole or condensed to allow the bucket to sink,
of cold condensate, air and non­condensibles. opening the valve and starting the cycle again.
As the condensate enters the trap, a liq- The slack or play in the linkage allows the
uid level is formed which provides a water seal system pressure to snap the valve closed after
around the inverted bucket. Since the bucket is the bucket has risen within the trap body. System
filled with air and non condensible gasses, the steam pressure acts to keep the valve closed un-
weight of the bucket is overcome by the buoyant til the bucket has lost enough buoyancy to pull
force of these gasses in water, and the bucket ris- the valve off the seat. This action is affected by
es closing the valve. The air and non-condensible system pressure which requires special consid-
gasses trapped under the bucket are bled through eration given to the sizing of the orifice. There-
Steam Traps 261

the trap as the thermostatic element allows air

and gases to be dispelled from the top.
The liquid level rises above the open bucket
filling it and causing it to sink, opening the valve.
Condensate is discharged until steam enters the
trap body and the water is forced from the open
bucket, making it light enough to float up closing
the discharge valve.
Without the thermostatic element or some
other means to clear the trap body of air, the trap
will air bind and fail closed.

Float Traps and Float and

Thermostatic Traps
Float traps (Figure 14.11) are one of the old-
est trap designs still in use and are not considered
obsolete.

Figure 14.10—Inverted bucket trap with inverted

bucket lowered and the valve open and discharging
condensate.

fore, in order to maintain the proper relationships

between the closing force of the pressure on the
valve and the opening force of the weight of the
bucket, orifice sizes must be designed to match
steam system pressure. Figure 14.11—Float type steam trap.
Since the orifice must be sized to match the
maximum steam system pressure, care must be A float trap consists of a closed float attached
taken to ensure adequate capacity is still avail- to a valve by mechanical linkage. During start up,
able. the float rests on the bottom of the trap, closing
the valve. Air and gases must be removed from
Open Bucket Traps the system, which is usually done by a thermo-
The open bucket trap is an older and pos- static element or air vent in the top of the hous-
sibly obsolete type of mechanical trap. It is sim- ing.
ply a bucket arrangement that pivots around one As condensate enters the trap, the liquid lev-
end when it fills with water, opening a discharge el rises lifting the float and opening the valve. As
valve. Most open bucket traps have a separate this type of trap is self regulating it will operate
thermostatic air vent at the top. in the modulation mode. As the condensate level
During start up the bucket rests on the bot- rises, the outlet valve opens further handling the
tom of the trap body and the valve is fully open. greater quantity of condensate. If the condensate
The thermostatic element is also open, allowing load diminishes, the ball lowers, partially closing
the discharge of air and gases. When condensate the valve reducing the discharge.
enters the trap the enclosed trap body is filled The valve is located below the water level,
with condensate causing the bucket to rise shut- providing a water seal preventing the loss of live
ting off the valve. Condensate continues to enter steam.
262 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Float and thermostatic (F&T) traps are a

modification of the float trap in that the thermo-
static air vent is an integral part of the trap (Fig-
ure 14.12).

Figure 14.13—Disc trap in open position.

Discharge continues until hot condensate

near steam saturation temperature enters the
trap. This condensate will flash in the chamber on
the outlet side of the trap, increasing the pressure
on the outlet side of the disc and decreasing the
pressure below the disc, caused by high velocity
Figure 14.12—Float and Thermostatic steam trap flow. The combined action forces the disc onto the
(F&T) with thermostatic trap element in the top to seat, closing the trap (Figure 14.14).
bleed off air and non-condensible gases.

The thermostatic element will be open

during startup, until steam enters the trap and
heats the element, expanding it and closing the
valve. This element will remained closed until air
and gasses concentrate in the top of the trap low-
ering the temperature of the steam/air mixture,
opening the element and discharging the mixture.
In one design of the float and thermostatic
trap, there is just a “free ball” that can float up Figure 14.14—Disc trap forced closed by steam in the
opening the orifice or sink when condensate level upper chamber.
goes down, closing the orifice.
The failure mode for these traps is to usually The disc is designed to have the whole of the
have the ball float fail closed and the thermostatic area of the disc exposed to pressure on the top.
element either fail open or closed. On the bottom, incoming side, the landing sur-
faces blocks pressure from acting on the whole
Thermodynamic Traps disc area, thus unequal forces are developed. The
Thermodynamic traps include Disk, Piston, flash steam on the top is sufficient to keep the disc
Lever and Orifice types. seated until it cools relieving the pressure above
the disc, allowing cooler condensate to flow once
Disc Traps again.
Disc traps have a single operating part, a flat
disc which lifts from the valve seat to open and is Orifice Traps
forced onto the valve seat for closure. Orifice traps consist of one or more orifices
During start up (Figure 14.13), the pressure in series and have no moving parts.
of the cold condensate and gases pushes the disc Single orifice traps typically have very small
from the valve seat. This opens the trap, allowing orifices in the range of one tenth the diameter of
the discharge of condensate and gasses. thermodynamic or thermostatic trap orifices.
Steam Traps 263

Bellows Steam Traps

Bellows traps are often called balanced pres-
sure or thermostatic traps because the bellows
contains a volatile fluid which closely parallels
the temperature-pressure relationship of the
steam saturation curve. The pressure created in-
side the bellows by this fluid as it vaporizes from
the heat of the condensate closes the trap against
Figure 14.15—A double walled disc trap. the pressure of the steam system (Figures 14.16
and 14.17).
The operating principle is that water (con- During start up the bellows is contracted
densate) flowing through the orifice is restricted. away from the seat, allowing the discharge of
This backs up some of the condensate preventing condensate and gasses. Discharge continues until
the flow of steam through the orifice. Steam tries hot condensate enters the trap, heating the bel-
to flow through the orifice at a very high velocity lows and the volatile fluid. The fluid vaporizes
whereas the condensate is very slow by compar- and expands, causing the bellows to expand and
ison, this phenomena serves to choke the flow of close the valve.
steam with condensate.
The orifice is somewhat self regulating. That
is, if the condensate load is less than the orifice
was designed for, the condensate will be hotter,
causing more flashing, which will further restrict
flow. If the condensate load is greater than the ori-
fice was designed for, the condensate will back up
and cool. This cooling will reduce flashing, thus
allowing a greater condensate flow.
Orifice traps have a constant discharge, not Figure 14.16—Thermostatic trap in the open position.
the cyclic discharge of other thermodynamic traps.
Each orifice trap must be very closely en-
gineered to its specific load because they have
the potential to either blow steam (claimed to be
an insignificant amount) or back up condensate
during start up or during high loads when their
capacity may be exceeded.

Thermostatic Steam Traps

Thermostatic steam traps are operated by
changes in temperature and include Bellows,
Diaphragm, Bimetallic and Expansive Element Figure 14.17—Thermostatic trap in the closed posi-
types. Thermostatic traps respond more slowly to tion.
changing operating conditions than some other
types of traps because of the heat stored within The trap will remain closed until the conden-
the trap materials and the condensate which col- sate, the bellows and the volatile fluid cool. This
lects in the trap. cooling condenses some of the fluid, reducing the
Thermostatic steam trap operating princi- pressure inside the bellows. This reduced internal
ples are simple and thermostatic steam traps usu- pressure allows the external pressure, from the
ally have only one moving part. steam system, to contract the bellows away from
264 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

the seat. This opens the trap and it begins the cy- reaches the trap, the element warms and changes
cle again. shape, exerting a closing force on the valve.
Reduced temperature from a steam and non­
condensible gas mixture will also cool the bellows Expansive Element Steam Traps
and fluid, allowing the discharge of these gases. Expansive element traps (Figure 14.19) are
characterized by a constant discharge tempera-
Diaphragm Traps ture for a given condensate load, regardless of the
Diaphragm traps are a modification of the steam system pressure.
bellows type trap. However, instead of a large Various elements are used and they may be
bellows with many convolutions or welded ele- liquid or solid. In all cases, the response to chang-
ments, a single element is used. ing conditions is relatively slow and dependent
Operation of this type steam trap closely upon the thermal mass of the element.
parallels the operation of bellows traps.

Bimetallic Traps
Bimetallic traps (Figure 14.18) use the tem-
perature of the condensate in the trap to bend
bimetallic elements against the force exerted by
the steam pressure on the valve. There are many Figure 14.19—An expansive element steam trap.
different configurations of bimetallic traps which
cause significant differences in operation. During start up the element is contracted,
allowing the discharge of cold condensate, air
and non condensable gases. Discharge continues
until warmer condensate heats and expands the
element, moving the valve towards the seat. The
trap will reach equilibrium condition, discharg-
ing condensate continuously at a nearly constant
temperature. Only rarely will these traps cycle
and then only under very light load conditions,
before returning to the modulating mode.
The operation of these traps is regulated
Figure 14.18—A bimetallic steam trap.
by the condensate temperature and are suitable
for applications where condensate backup and a
Since a bimetallic element is a nearly linear slow response to load changes is acceptable.
device, most manufacturers use several types of
bimetal or special shapes to cause the trap to ap-
proximate the steam saturation curve over the op- Steam Trap Losses
erating range.
Because of the relatively large thermal mass It is clear, that steam leaks are quite expen-
of the bimetallic element, response to system sive. The high and low estimates in Table 14.1
changes can be slow. Additionally, these traps are take into account the throttling effect of conden-
sometimes affected by the back pressure which sate choking the full flow of escaping steam with
works against the opening force on the valve pos- variations in condensate formation load.
sibly increasing the amount of sub-cooling. We can assume that the cost of steam leaks
During start up the bimetallic element is through failed traps will range from $2,000 to
relaxed, allowing the steam system pressure to $50,000 per trap over the course of a year.
open the valve discharging the cold condensate The economic incentive for eliminating failed
and non-condensible gases. As warm condensate steam traps clearly exists. A trap anywhere in a
Steam Traps 265

Table 14.1—Annual cost of steam loss from traps for mance better than that is difficult in the av-
100 psi steam at $5.00 per 1000 pounds. erage plant. Failed-trap percentages as high
as 50% in some plants showed up during the
early days of the energy crisis, and occasion-
ally we see such performance still.”
Power Magazine
April, 1980

“Experience indicates, that in plants without

planned steam trap maintenance, between
10% and 50% of the traps are malfunction-
ing at any given time—as a result of errors in
sizing, misapplication or inadequate mainte-
nance.”
facility may fail open at any time and the losses,
Plant Engineering
if it is not found and repaired quickly, can be very
March 5, 1981
large. Failure could occur at any time, even the
day after the last inspection. Figure 14.20 shows
“Most plants can save 10-20% of fuel cost
how flash steam and steam from failed steam
simply by having a formal, active steam trap
traps vents to the atmosphere.
program...For the first year, a return of $1
To determine how often traps will fail has
million in energy savings for each $300,000
so many variables, that any conclusion should
spent upgrading the system is the rule rather
be based on actual conditions at a specific facili-
than the exception.”
ty. Some generalizations have emerged over the
Chemical Engineering
years. There is very little information on this topic.
February 9, 1981

“Trap life should be 4-5 years average. For

a plant with 2000 traps this means 400-500
replacements every year.”
Power Magazine
April 1980

“The average disc trap should last six months

to a year...disc traps sometimes failed ‘with-
in days of installation’...”
Energy User News
Figure 14.20—Showing heat exchanger and steam June 6, 1983
venting to atmosphere from condensate tank.
“Of 260,000 installed traps studied (in 40
Sampling of Published Comments on industrial plants) the average performance
Steam Trap Performance level was found to be only 58%. In a typical
A review leading authorities reveals that plant with 2,000 traps, 840 were failed; 42%
trap failures range from 5% to 50% of the trap needed corrective maintenance that plant
population at any given facility. personnel were not providing... inefficien-
cies in the energy/management area were
“The failed trap percentage at any given time costing the average industrial plant over
should be in the 5% to 10% range. Perfor-
266 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

$2000 in steam each day—even though $500 bottom of the reservoir is a dirt pocket and valve
or more is spent daily on steam trap mainte- to collect larger particles of scale and dirt in the
nance.” system. It has a blowoff valve for clean-out.
Industry Week The condensate flows from the collection
April 16, 1984 point through a strainer and trap to the conden-
sate system. The station is configured with inlet
and outlet valves to isolate the trap if repairs are
needed.
This review of some of the most prestigious The test connection can be opened, coordi-
and informed publications on efficient plant man- nated with the closing of the trap outlet valve to
agement are all of one voice. There is tremendous see what is coming through the trap, steam or
potential to waste energy in steam systems, also condensate. This is one of the best ways to test
there is the same level of opportunity to correct trap performance.
the situation. The “Y” strainer can be cleaned out by open-
ing the blowoff valve.
The bypass line (not shown) enables plant
Steam Trap Selection Sizing personnel to bypass the entire steam trap station
and Installation if necessary. Bypass valves are usually opened
when there is a suspected problem with a trap or
Steam Trap Piping to assist with drainage during cold startup. By-
In most plants, the removal of condensate passing a steam trap may also be necessary to
and air from steam systems is accomplished deal with a waterlogging problem caused by a
through steam trap stations. Figure 14.21 shows trap malfunction.
the piping configuration for a steam trap station. With the bypass open, steam will be wasted
and the efficiency of the plant reduced. In some
cases a trap is installed in the bypass line. Then,
if the main trap fails, the bypass trap can be put
into service and the problem of blowing steam
through the bypass is eliminated.

Selecting the Type of Trap

Properly selected, sized and installed traps
are the best guarantee for efficient operation, long
service life and minimum downtime.
The major considerations in selecting the
type of steam trap are:

A. Type of service
• Continuous or intermittent removal of
Figure 14.21—A typical steam trap station. condensate
• Temperature of the condensate and sys-
The first part of the steam trap station is a tem pressure
reservoir that connects to the lowest point of the • Range of load on the trap
steam line or process equipment. The reservoir • Rate of change of the load
is sized to collect the large quantity of conden-
sate formed during the warmup phase when the B. Operational
system is brought up from the cold state. At the • Normal steam loss during operation
Steam Traps 267

• Reliability return system. Table 14.7 gives examples of the

• Failure mode most likely to occur reduction in trap capacity caused by this back
pressure which must be taken into account when
The above considerations were used in devel- sizing traps.
oping Table 14.2, the Steam Trap Selection Guide.
This guide was developed by the U.S. Navy for Safety Factor
their many and varied shore bases including hos- The safety factor is a multiplier applied to
pitals, industrial facilities, air bases and training the estimated condensate load since trap ratings
centers. are based on maximum discharge capacities or
Operating characteristics of various types of continuous flow ratings (Figure 14.22). Safety
traps are summarized in Table 14.3, which gives factors vary from 2:1 to 10:1 and are influenced
a comparison of various common trap configura- by the operational characteristics of the trap, ac-
tions for specified service. curacy of estimated condensate load, differential
When installing and evaluating traps, an pressure and expected changes in pressure and
understanding of their limitations is essential to the configuration of the installation design.
long, reliable and trouble free service. The limita- Safety factors are needed to cope with the
tions listed in Table 14.4 should be given careful varying condensate loads experienced in the “real
consideration in the steam trap selection process. world “ of actual use.
During start up conditions the cold piping
Sizing Steam Traps will generate a large amount of condensate un-
Factors that affect the accuracy of trap sizing til it is up to operating temperature. Whether this
are: occurs over several hours or a few minutes the
A. Estimating the maximum condensate load. amount of condensate will be the same, but the
B. Range of operating pressure and differential trap will have to handle it more quickly requiring
pressure. added capacity.
C. Selection of a safety factor. To add to the challenge of condensate remov-
al during warmup, the system pressure is lower
Condensate Load than normal so the trap output will be lower than
The amount of condensate generated by rated capacity. Waterhammer must be avoided so
equipment can generally be obtained from equip- the trap must be designed for this unfavorable
ment manufacturer’s literature or specification condition.
sheets. Steam trap manufacturers, through years Other conditions affect condensate load also,
of experience, have also developed formulas, ta- cold winds and rain can reduce insulation values.
bles and graphs for estimating condensate load Sudden surges in load on heat exchangers can
for most applications. Table 14.5 gives samples also lead to waterlogging.
of simplified estimating aids Table 14.6 gives es- A boiler which has carry-over or is produc-
timates of condensate loads for various sizes of ing low quality steam containing unevaporated
steam mains and different pressures. water places an unusually high load on the whole
system.
Pressure differential Waterlogging cuts production and comfort
Trap capacity is affected by the differential and waterhammer can be dangerous. Insufficient
pressure across a trap. If a trap exhausts to atmo- trap capacity causes these problems. On the other
sphere, the differential pressure will be the sup- hand, wasted energy and large dollar losses can
ply pressure. In some plants, traps are installed occur if the trap is oversized and is leaking.
with the outlet connected to a pressurized return The answer to this situation may be an effec-
system. The trap must operate against this head tive trap maintenance program.
plus any requirement to lift the condensate to the
268 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 14.2 Steam Trap Selection Guide

 Steam Traps

Table 14.3—Steam Trap Operating Characteristics

269
270 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 14.4—Trap Limitations

Steam Traps 271

Table 14.5—General formulas for estimating condensate loads.

Table 14.6—Estimating condensate load for insulated steam mains.

272 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 14.7— Steam Trap Maintenance

Percentage reduction in steam trap capacity The cost of steam lost through a leaking trap
in one day can exceed the cost of a new trap. If
a trap is backing up condensate and has become
waterlogged, the reduction in capacity or efficien-
cy of steam-using equipment can also waste more
money in one day than the cost of the trap.
Good inspections that pinpoint problem
traps for repair or replacement are important.
While the trap is the focus of tests and inspections,
the steam trap station and its piping and fittings
should be checked also as these things may be
contributing to trap problems. Missing strainers,
open bypass lines and condensate piping pres-
sure are a few problems that could be found.

Figure 14.22—Condensate load change over time on a cold start up for a water heater, steam
main and heat exchanger.
Steam Traps 273

Inspection schedules but none of the methods provide a cure-all for

The ideal is all traps functioning properly. trap troubleshooting.
This must be balanced against cost effective use Table 14.10 is a steam trap troubleshooting
of time and materials. Each location offers differ- guide, useful for trap inspections.
ent challenges. Dirty systems, above normal acid
accumulations and problems with the trapping Visual Observation
stations all point to judgment playing a major role Observing the discharge from a trap is the
in trap maintenance. Table 14.8 and 14.9 are com- only positive way of checking its operation.
monly used trap inspection schedules. No special equipment is required but train-
ing and experience are necessary, particularly for
recognizing the difference between flash steam
and live steam.

• Flash steam is the lazy vapor formed when

the hot condensate gives up 1 energy when
reducing pressure through the trap.

• Live steam is a higher temperature, higher

velocity discharge, and usually leaves the
discharge pipe with a short clear, almost in-
Table 14.8—Trap inspection schedule. visible, section of flow before condensation
begins and a visible steam cloud develops.

Sound Detection
Some traps can be heard cycling on and off
as they discharge condensate. The disk, inverted
bucket and piston type of traps have this charac-
teristic.
Some traps continually modulate like the
float traps or expansive element and some ther-
mostatic traps; they only give off flow sounds.
However if they aren’t working, they don’t give
off any sound.
An automotive stethoscope or other simple
sound transmission device may be adequate. If
Table 14.9—One manufacturer recommends inspec- there is a Jot of noise around or a lot of traps giv-
tion frequencies based on system pressure. ing off noise, then an ultrasonic listening device
may be warranted. They can sense high frequen-
Traps serving critical process equipment cy (an indication of flow) and low frequency me-
may need special inspections during very cold chanical noises (indicates operation).
weather to guard against freezing damage.
The basic methods of inspecting traps are: Temperature Measurements
A. Visual observation Diagnosing trap condition from temperature
B. Sound detection differences between upstream and downstream
C. Temperature measurements. pipes is the least reliable inspection method. It
can be useful in combination with visual or sound
Visual observation is the best and least cost- inspection as long as the potential ambiguities are
ly method of checking trap operating conditions, recognized.
274 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 14.10—Troubleshooting Steam Traps

Steam Traps 275

There is a wide range of temperature mea- Table 14.12 is a steam trap inspection check-
surement equipment. It ranges from infrared de- list to aid personnel in their trap checking rou-
vices, which are handy for reading temperatures tines. They should also investigate the possibility
from a distance and at inaccessible locations. of trap misapplication. Table 14.13 will be helpful
Standard pyrometers and surface thermocouples for this purpose.
are also suitable. Heat sensitive color markers are One manufacturer has developed an au-
also used at some locations. tomatic system for detecting if steam traps are
Take temperature measurements immedi- blowing-off an excessive amount of steam. The
ately adjacent to, not more than two feet away, sensor chamber (Figure 14.23) has a small orifice
either side of the trap. Temperature readings in a division plate which is designed to pass “nor-
should be in the ranges shown in Table 14.11 for mal” steam flow. If this flow increases substan-
the pressures in the in and out lines. For example, tially, the level goes down on the upstream cham-
for a steam system with a pressure of 150 psi, if ber exposing a sensor which signals failure of the
the trap inlet temperature is 340°F and the outlet trap (Figure 14.24).
side, with a pressure of 15 psi, has a temperature
of 230°F this indicates expected temperature con-
ditions.

Table 14.11—Normal pipe temperatures at 348 vari-

ous operating pressures.

Figure 14.23—Sensor chamber for trap monitoring in-

stallation. Note the orifice and weir (partition plate).

Figure 14.24—Trap monitoring installation.

276 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 14.12—Steam trap inspection check off list.

Steam Traps 277

Table 14.13—Inspection check list for trap misapplication.

 Chapter 15

Boiler Water Treatment

Impurities in Boiler Feedwater the low points of the boiler. Table 15.1shows the
Concentrate in the Boiler effect of improper or inadequate water condi-
tioning.
All boiler water contains dissolved solids.
When the feed water is heated, it evaporates and
goes off as distilled steam leaving impurities be- Cycles of Concentration
hind. As more and more water is distilled in the
boiler, more feed water is added to replace it. As All of the impurities dissolved in water are
a result the amount of these solids dissolved in usually termed Total Dissolved Solids, referred
the boiler water gradually increases. After a while to as TDS. Modern methods utilize electronic in-
there is so much of these highly soluble solids in struments to measure the conductance, the op-
solution in the boiler water that it does not boil posite of resistance, of boiler water. These read-
like ordinary water, it boils more like a syrup. ings are called “mhos” or “micromhos” and can
The bubbles of steam which rise to the surface be mathematically converted to parts per million
of the water do not readily break free from the sur- with respect to sodium ions by simply using a
face. Instead big bubbles form. When they break, multiplier.
they carry with them into the steam space some One part per million (ppm) is one pound in
of the film that formed the bubble material. This a million pounds of water. Since water weighs
condition is commonly referred to as carry­over. approximately 8.33 pounds per gallon, one ppm
In addition some highly soluble materials is one pound in 120 thousand gallons of water.
are changed by the high boiler temperature to If a given water had a total dissolved solids
materials of low solubility such as calcium car- of 500 ppm and we concentrated this water two
bonate which are then precipitated. Much of this times or two cycles, the TDS level would be 1,000
precipitation takes place where the boiler water ppm. At three cycles the TDS would be 1,500 ppm
is the hottest, where water is in contact with high and at four cycles 2,000 ppm and so on.
heat transfer zones. The precipitate is deposited In the case of a boiler as small as 100 horse-
on the heating surface and forms a scale build up. power, it can evaporate more than 10,000gallons
This scale is a good insulator, reducing heat of water in 24 hours. If this water had a hardness
transfer. As scale builds up, the steam and water of 340 ppm, 28 pounds of residue would be left
is unable to keep the tube metal surfaces cool and behind in the boiler every day.
it begins to overheat. This overheating destroys Energy loss through blowdown is mini-
the strength of the tubing causing tube failure. mized by maintaining the boiler water cycles of
This can occur as blistering which ruptures or concentration as close to the recommended limit
general melting, depending on the circumstanc- as possible. This can be best accomplished by au-
es. One of the purpose of a water treatment pro- tomating the continuous blowdown. F1gure 15.1
gram is to keep certain scale forming solids in shows how blowdown losses can be reduced by
solution. Other scale forming solids are turned increasing cycles of concentration of boiler wa-
into a soft fluffy precipitate and carried down to ter.
279
280 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 15.1—Effect of inadequate or improper water conditioning.

Automatic control of the continuous blow- temperatures. Waters containing large amounts
down involves the use of a continuous conduc- of calcium and magnesium minerals are “hard
tivity monitor to activate the blowdown control to wash with.” The amount of hardness in nor-
valve. These units can maintain boiler water con- mal water may vary from several ppm to more
ductivity within close limits and thereby min- than 500 ppm. Because calcium and magnesium
imize excessive blowdown loss, which occurs compounds are relatively insoluble in water, they
with manual control. tend to precipitate out, causing scale and deposit
problems. The hardness of the water source is an
Water Hardness important consideration in determining the suit-
Hardness in the boiler water indicates the ability of water for steam generation.
presence of relatively insoluble impurities. Impu- As mentioned earlier, this process of precipi-
rities may be classed as (a) dissolved solids, (b) tation will take place on the heat exchange surfac-
dissolved gasses and (c) suspended matter. Ac- es and is known as scale.
tually, in the heating and concentration of boiler
water, these impurities will precipitate even more Condensate System Corrosion
rapidly since they are even less soluble at high The most prevalent type of condensate sys-
Boiler Water Treatment 281

tem corrosion is caused by carbon dioxide. can shut down on low water cut off.
Carbon dioxide enters the system with the What has happened? The piping and heat
boiler feed water in the form of bicarbonate and exchange equipment serviced by the distribution
carbonate alkalinity. When exposed to boiler tem- header is cold and the steam is quickly condensed
peratures, bicarbonates and carbonates break possibly forming a vacuum. This causes a violent
down to form carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide boiling action in the boiler, it could even start a
is carried away in the steam and is condensed to series of oscillations where the water surface ris-
form carbonic acid. es or “mounds” towards the steam nozzle. The
lift of the water can not be sustained and it drops
The Priming Boiler starting a sloshing effect. A wave or bouncing ef-
Priming occurs when slugs of water enter fect can start which will allow water to enter the
the steam distribution system. There are a num- steam system in slugs; a dangerous condition.
ber of causes such as: high steam demand, large This condition can also upset boiler water circula-
and sudden drops in system pressure, blowdown, tion patterns.
quick opening valves in the distribution system One rule of thumb used in raising boiler
and unsuitable steam nozzle and steam header water temperature is to go at a rate of 100 F per
size. hour. Open valves slowly, allowing the system
One way priming could happen is after an to warmup and balance out before introducing
operator has brought a boiler up to operating sudden surges on the system.
pressure he opens the distribution header quick-
ly. Then, within a few minutes, he notices the wa- Deareators
ter bouncing up and down in the sight glass. This Oxygen and carbon dioxide are very harm-
bouncing can become quite violent and the boiler ful to boiler systems. Deareators are designed to

Figure 15.1—Blowdown is reduced dramatically when Cycles of Concentration is increased.

282 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

remove dissolved gases from the boiler feed wa- widely. A low pressure firetube boiler can usually
ter. They are effective and oxygen can be reduced tolerate higher feedwater hardness, with proper
to trace levels; about .005 ppm. While deareators chemical treatment, while virtually all impurities
are efficient, traces of oxygen can cause a signifi- must be removed from the water used with most
cant amount of corrosion, so chemical treatment modern high pressure watertube boilers.
is also used.
While the deareator removes carbon dioxide
from the feed water, bicarbonate and carbonate Water Carryover in Steam
alkalinity in the boiler will produce addition-
al carbon dioxide. This will require some water The water evaporated to produce steam
treatment in the boiler. should not contain any contaminating materials,
A deareator usually consists of a heating and however there will be water droplets carried into
deareating section. The storage section of these steam due to several processes.
units are often designed to hold about 10 minutes
of rated capacity of boiler feed water. Mist Carryover
The water enters the deareator and is broken A fine mist is developed as water boils. This
into a spray or mist and scrubbed with steam to process is illustrated in Figure 15.2. A bubble of
force out the dissolved gasses. water vapor (steam) reaches the water surface
Steam and noncondensibles into the vent and bursts, leaving a dent in the water. Liquid
condensing section where the steam is condensed. collapses in on the dent, with the center rising at
The released gases are discharged to atmosphere a faster rate than the edges. This results in a small
through the vent outlet. droplets being tossed free of the boiler water sur-
face. These droplets form a fine mist. This mist is
Continuous Blowdown Heat Recovery removed to a great extent in the dry portion of the
The continuous blowdown, sometimes boiler. However, any mist that remains entrained
called the surface or skimmer blowdown, is most in the steam will have the same level of contami-
effective in controlling the concentration in boiler nation as the boiler water.
water. Where continuous blowdown systems are
used, the bottom blowdown is used for removal Foaming Carryover
of precipitated impurities, especially those which The alkalinity, TDS and suspended solids can
tend to settle in the lower parts of the boiler. interact to create a foam in the boiler. A light foam
Heat exchangers can be used with the contin-
uous blowdown to recover energy from the boiler
water which is being expelled from the boiler.

How pure must feedwater be?

Feedwater purity is a matter of both quan-
tity of impurities and the nature of the impuri-
ties. Some impurities such as hardness, iron and
silica for example are more concern than sodium
salts. The purity requirements for any feedwater
depend on how much feedwater is used as well
as what the particular boiler design is. Pressure,
heat transfer rate and operating equipment on
the system such as turbines have a lot to do with
Figure 15.2—Mist formation in boiler water with
feedwater purity.
high impurity levels. The volume above the water is
Feedwater purity requirements can vary
steam, steam bubble is shown for illustration.
Boiler Water Treatment 283

will reduce the problem of misting to some ex- tivity of 20 to 30 micromho indicates there is a
tent. A heavy foam layer is another source of liq- small chance that carryover is significant.
uid carryover into the steam. The level of foaming
can normally be controlled to a reasonable level A High Conductivity Measurement
by maintaining the total alkalinity at a level less Indicates Carryover
than 20 percent of the TDS and maintaining the A high conductivity measurement in the
total suspended solids at a level less than 8 per- steam condensate means there is either carryover
cent of the TDS. Antifoam agents are added to the or leakage into the steam system. The hardness
sodium lignosulfonate sludge dispersant to help must also be checked in this case. If any hardness
control foaming. is found, then the contamination of the conden-
sate indicated by the high conductivity is due to
Priming Carryover leakage into the condensate system rather than
Priming carryover is caused by liquid surg- carryover. This is because the carryover of boiler
es into the steam drum that throw water into the water should be at a very low hardness due to
steam space where it is carried into the steam chemical treatment or the very low makeup water
header. Priming is always caused by a mechanical requirement.
problem or mechanical properties such as over-
sensitive feedwater controls or incorrect blow- Two Key Operating Controls For
down procedures. There is no chemical control Deareators
method available. There are two key operating controls for
deareators that must be watched. First, the deare-
Silica Carryover ator vent must be checked to see that a plume of
The silica in the boiler water can evaporate steam is always flowing. Second, the pressure of
and enter the steam, independent of water car- the deareator and temperature of the outlet water
ryover. The silica can form a deposit on turbine must be controlled. At a given pressure the tem-
blades and other equipment when the steam con- perature should be within 2°F of the temperatures
denses. This problem is controlled by maintain- shown in Table 15.3, based on the elevation of the
ing a low silica level in the boiler water. The sug- boiler site. If there is low or no steam flow or a
gested limits are shown in Table 15.2. low water temperature, the deareator is not oper-
ating properly.
Determining the Amount of Carryover A mixture of oxygen and water is a very cor-
The best indication of carryover is a mea- rosive combination. This corrosivity doubles with
surement of steam conductivity. A steam conduc- every 18°F increase in temperature.
Oxygen corrosion can be recognized by pits,
Table 15.2—Silica limits in boiler water. typically found in the top of the steam drum or at
the waterline. Oxygen can be removed from the
feedwater by mechanical or chemical deareation;
a combination of these methods is commonly
used.

Chemical Removal of Oxygen from

Boiler Feedwater
A mechanical deareator can reduce the oxy-
gen content of feedwater to a fraction of a ppm.
Complete removal requires additional chemical
treatment. One process used is catalyzed sodium
sulfite.
284 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 15.3—Deareator water outlet temperature for Table 15.4—Boiler water sulfite levels.
boiler systems at various pressures for sea level.

the boiler as carbonates and bicarbonates in the

feedwater. Under the influence of heat and pres-
sure, this combined carbon dioxide will form free
carbon dioxide which will leave the boiler with
the steam.

Controlling CO1 With Neutralizing

Amides
Carbon dioxide in all steam boiler systems
can be controlled by neutralizing with a volatile
amine. This is an amine that can be added to a
boiler, where it will vaporize and pass over with
the steam.
Two amides usually used are morpholine
and cyclohexylamine. When steam first condens-
es, morpholine will be present in a larger concen-
The chemical reaction with sodium sulfite will tration. At more distant points in the distribution
consume 7.88 pounds of pure sodium sulfite with system, cyclohexylamine will be available in larg-
one pound of oxygen. In practice, about 10 pounds er concentrations and can be more effective in
per pound of oxygen are added to carry a small controlling corrosion. The two chemicals are used
excess of sulfite in the boiler water. The excess that together for best protection.
should be carried is based on the boiler pressure,
according to the levels shown in Table 15.4. Controlling CO1 with Filming Amides
Higher sulfite levels can be wasteful. In ad- Another way for controlling carbon diox-
dition, sulfite can break down and cause steam ide corrosion is the use of filming amides such as
and condensate to become corrosive. It should be octadecylamine. This chemical will coat the con-
added continuously. densate pipe and prevent the carbon dioxide in
the water from coming into contact with the pipe
Condensate Corrosion wall. These chemicals are usually used at a level
Any free carbon dioxide in the feedwater from.7 to 1.0 ppm and they are difficult to han-
should be removed by the deareator. However dle and mix. They must be added directly to the
carbon dioxide in the combined form can enter steam header.
Boiler Water Treatment 285

What is the basis for choosing between The makeup water is combined with the
neutralizing and filming inhibitors? condensed steam returned from the distribution
The proper choice depends on the boiler sys- system (called condensate return) to become boil-
tem, plant layout, operating conditions and feed- er feedwater. The feedwater is deareated to strip
water composition. In general, volatile amines out noncondensible gases and treated with oxy-
are best suited to systems with low makeup, low gen scavengers.
feedwater alkalinity and good oxygen control.
Filming inhibitors usually give more eco- Internal Water Treatment
nomical protection in systems with high make The removal of scale-forming materials from
up, air in-leakage and high feedwater alkalinity the boiler makeup by reducing the hardness to
or where the system is operated intermittently. In near zero is the best control method.
most cases a combination of these treatments may Internal treatment of boiler water refers to
be best to combat condensate system corrosion. chemical additions required to prevent scale for-
mation from materials not removed by makeup
treatment and to prevent sludge deposits from
External Water Treatment forming due to the precipitation of these materials.

Makeup Water Deposit Formation

Makeup water is water added to the boiler There are two basic causes of boiler deposit
system from an external source to replace water formation:
lost in the boiler room and in the distribution sys-
tem. This includes blowdown water, steam leaks, • Scale; the high temperatures found in boil-
condensate losses and steam used directly in pro- ers cause precipitation of compounds whose
cess applications. solubilities are inversely proportional to the
The usual source of makeup water is the po- solution temperature.
table water supply or what has been referred to in
many cases as city water. This represents a treated • Sludge; the concentration of boiler water
water that has a predictable and uniform quality causes certain compounds to exceed their
on a day-to­day basis. Other sources of makeup maximum solubility at a given temperature,
water include well water, surface water or hold- forcing precipitation in areas of highest con-
ing ponds that are not treated to the extent that centration.
the potable water source is treated.
The uniformity of makeup water quality is While these represent a somewhat simplified
important if the boiler water system is to be oper- view of the mechanisms involved, they do sum-
ated reliably. marize the factors essential to boiler deposits.
Makeup water treatment varies on the needs
of a particular installation. Various processes are Scale
used to improve makeup water quality including: The build up of boiler scale constitutes a
a. Lime-Soda Softening growth of boiler crystals on waterside heat trans-
b. Ion Exchange Process-General fer surfaces and is most severe in those areas of
c. Sodium Ion Exchange the boiler where maximum heat transfer occurs.
d. Hydrogen Ion Exchange Figure 15.3 shows the relationship between heat
e. Deionization transfer efficiency and scale deposit thickness.
f. Dealkalization
g. Distillation Problems caused by scaling
h. Reverse Osmosis The steam boiler normally uses an external
i. Electrodialysis heat source at a much higher temperature than
286 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

the boiler water. The metal tubes in the boiler are water. These solids are not evaporated with the
kept cool by the boiler water. When scale forms, it steam; as a result the TDS becomes more concen-
acts like an insulation material between the water trated as more steam is generated.
and the metal. This results in tubes operating at The level to which the TDS will concentrate
higher temperatures. The greater the thickness of is determined by the amount of these salts re-
the scale, the greater the insulating effect, and the moved in the blowdown. Control of TDS level is
higher the temperature of the tubes. At sufficient- critical in boiler operation. The higher TDS levels
ly high temperatures, the tube can lose tensile result in higher boiler efficiencies, but TDS levels
strength and rupture. that are too high will interfere with boiler opera-
tion.
Sludges
Sludges are precipitated directly in the main The Consequences of Too Little Blowdown
body of the boiler water when their solubilities TDS Too High
are exceeded. Sludge deposition usually occurs • Corrosive to boiler metal
when binders are present or when water circula- • Causes foaming and carryover
tion is such that it allows sludge settling on hot • Alters boiling patterns in tubes leading
spots allowing it to “bake” on to hot surfaces. to deposits.

TDS in a Boiler Suspended Solids and

TDS in a boiler is one of the parameters used Sludge too High
to control the water treatment program. Dissolved • Bakes onto heat transfer surfaces causing
solids are continually added to the boiler makeup lost efficiency.

Figure 15.3—Loss of heat transfer efficiency with scale thickness.

Boiler Water Treatment 287

• Alters boiling characteristic in the mud drum “stirring up” the sludge level.
• Dirty boilers; the high cost of cleaning With the sludge in suspension from this action, it
and extra down time. can be swept up the generating tubes where it can
• Absorption of chemicals (especially P04) bake onto the tube surfaces, resulting in deposits.
leading to scale and loss of efficiency. TDS are controlled by continuous blowdown,
which is typically removed from the steam drum.
Hardness and Salt Levels Too High Guidelines published for government plants are
• Scale and loss of efficiency shown in Table 15.5.

Alkalinity Too High Table 15.5—Total dissolved solids (TDS) and conduc-
• Scale and loss of efficiency tivity limits for steam boilers.

Energy Conservation through Optimum

Blowdown Control
While blowdown is a key to safe, clean boiler
operation, it must be remembered that blowdown
water leaving the boiler carries a high level of Btus
with it. Energy conservation requires maintaining
the highest permissible cycles of concentration in
the boiler water. To do this a margin of safety of-
ten must be sacrificed and good controls installed
to insure that no damage occurs to the boiler as a
result.
Many plants are able to increase their cycles
of concentration and therefore reduce blowdown
by reducing total solids concentration in the feed-
water or altering the boiler water treatment pro- Boiler Blowdown Calculations
gram. The rate of blowdown from a boiler is a crit-
Reducing the solids content of the makeup in- ical operating control for TDS.
volves a change in the plant makeup water source
or altering the external water treatment program. a. The water added to a boiler must equal wa-
The makeup water source can be changed or pre- ter loss from the boiler.
treatment equipment such as filters, deionizers or
other equipment can be installed. F = E+B

Efficient Bottom Blowdowns F = feedwater lb/hr

Often plants will adhere to a strict schedule E = Steam generated, 1b/hr
of bottom blowdown and still develop problems B = Blowdown, lb/hr
with excessive sludge buildup in the mud drum.
This can be due to improper timing of blowdown b. The blowdown can be related to the feedwa-
periods. Experience has shown that frequent ter using cycles of concentration (COC).
blowdowns of short duration (10-20 seconds) are
more effective in removing sludge than occasion- C = FIB
al blowdowns of longer duration.
The blowdown is only effective for the first C = Cycles of Concentration
few seconds of the blowdown. Blowdowns of F = Feedwater, lb/hr
long duration create a great deal of turbulence B = Blowdown, lb/hr
288 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

Table 15.6 is the American Boiler Manufac- It shows the need for feedwater to be extreme-
turers Association (AMBA) specified limits for ly pure. With today’s designs, heat-flux rates of
boiler water composition with respect to operat- 250,000 Btu/hr/sq-ft are anticipated. Combined
ing pressure to assure good quality steam. with dimensional restrictions of modem design,
Table 15.7 was developed by the American this has raised the need for the limits in Table
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Re- 15.7. These new guidelines are only suggested
search Committee on Water in Thermal · Power. limits that will continue to be refined.

Table 15.6—American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA) limits for boiler water composition.

Boiler Water Treatment

 Boiler Water Treatment

Table 15.7—Boiler water limits developed by the ASME Research Committee on Water in Thermal Power Systems.
289
 Index

A boiler water treatment 279, 288 condensate system corrosion 280,

accuracy of sampling techniques 70 boiling point 1, 29, 119, 162, 164 285
acid 27, 74, 83, 120, 122, 148, 169, borasilicate 238 condensate system losses 45, 160,
179, 228, 233, 281 British thermal units 27, 29 215
acid corrosion 253 burner equipment checklist 92 continuous blowdown 83, 279, 280,
adjustable speed drives 155 burner register 106 287
adjusting boiler controls 104 continuous blowdown heat recov-
Affinity Laws 220 C ery 282
air infiltration 86, 185 calculating fuel savings 29, 183 controls to improve efficiency 85
air preheater 70, 123, 136, 138, 168, calculation 58 control system linearity 104, 122,
171, 231, 243 carbon as fuel 230 126
alkalinity 281, 282, 283, 288 carbon dioxide (CO2) 29, 54, 64, 65, conversion to oil 124
American Boiler Manufacturers As- 66, 85, 100, 115, 149, 156, 157, corrosion 27, 29, 63, 83, 121, 122,
sociation (AMBA) 288 181, 184, 186, 230, 250, 253, 256, 138, 148, 155, 228, 230, 234, 235,
analysis 39, 52, 54, 65, 83, 85, 123, 257, 280, 281, 284 236, 237, 241, 243, 246, 257, 258,
149, 181 measurements 181 280, 282, 283, 284
analyze performance 39 reduction 32 cost of steam 121, 217, 264, 265, 272
analyzing costs 203 carbon monoxide (CO) 39, 56, 62, cross limiting controls 78, 81, 101,
anthracite coal 182, 193 63, 64, 65, 69, 71, 86, 87, 89, 100, 122, 128
as-found efficiency 21, 41, 183 101, 104, 115, 121, 125, 142, 202, cycles of concentration 145, 146,
atmospheric 1, 47, 48, 74, 120, 130, 243 279, 287
162, 166 trim 85, 122 increasing 145, 147
power burners 123, 132 carryover 13, 71, 105, 147, 149, 282,
pressure 213 283, 286 D
attemperator 8, 9 catalytic combustibles sensor 68 dangers of carbon monoxide 62
characterizable fuel valve 122 deareator 120, 148, 150, 162, 174,
B checklist 93, 122, 136, 140, 145, 149, 175, 281, 282, 283, 284
bare piping losses 48 159, 168, 177 desuperheater 56
basic firing rate control 77 chemical removal of oxygen from diaphragm traps 264
bellows steam traps 263 boiler feedwater 283 diffuser position 106
bimetallic traps 264 chimney effect 62, 130, 132 disc traps 250, 262, 265
blowdown control 83 close-coupled extractive analyzer distribution steam losses 213
blowdown heat recovery 148, 168, 67, 68 distribution system 1, 29, 74, 124,
174, 216, 217 coal particle size 106 140, 144, 155, 160, 164, 167, 249,
blowdown losses 40, 41, 63, 146, coefficient of performance 151, 152, 280, 281, 285
217, 279 178, 244 efficiency 45
boilers 21 cold-end corrosion 233, 243, 246 insulation losses 219
modern 1 cold end temperature control 73, 83 losses 50, 155
tuneup 89 combustibles 39, 54, 63, 64, 69, 70, dollar savings 37, 252
types of 1 71, 76, 85, 89, 105, 108, 115, 125, dry gas and moisture losses 54, 230
boiler efficiency 27, 32, 51, 56, 89, 129, 140, 142, 183
106, 116, 137, 140, 169, 186, 212, combustion controls 90, 91, 93, 101, E
232 104, 106 economic analysis 204
boiler plant calculations 181 combustion heat loss tables 54 economizer 10, 36, 70, 74, 90, 122,
boiler stack gas losses 182 combustion of oil 100 136, 168, 169, 176, 186, 203, 204,
291
292 Boiler Plant and Distribution System Optimization Manual

229, 231, 232, 233, 235, 238, 253 fuel additives 121, 139 inspecting your boiler 90
efficiency 21, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 52, fuel consumption 39, 74, 118, 121, insulate stack metal 235
54, 62, 63, 70, 86, 89, 140, 167, 253 insulation losses 45, 48, 50, 120,
168 fuel cost 39, 123, 144, 186, 265 158, 160, 219
efficiency calculation methods 51 fuel oil atomizing pressure 106 internal steam leaks 45, 50, 160,
efficiency monitoring system 21 fuel oil temperature 106, 220 162, 252
electrical losses 63, 219 fuel oil viscosity 123, 134, 220 inverted bucket traps 260
electrochemical instruments 67 fuel selection 122, 123
energy balance 27, 47, 51 fuel valves, characterizable 127 J
energy conservation 39, 116, 133, furnace 6, 9, 36, 62, 68, 70, 71, 76, jackshaft control system 78, 86
204, 247, 287 90, 93, 94, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101,
program 164 105, 106, 118, 133, 134, 135, 137, L
enthalpy 29, 47, 52, 53, 58, 224, 236, 149, 171, 172, 177, 178, 185, 232 latent heat of evaporation 29, 248
237, 239 explosion 15 losses 21, 27, 37, 41, 47, 50, 51, 53,
estimating losses and savings 183 pressure control 73, 74, 83 54, 56, 58, 65, 70, 71, 85, 108, 114,
excess air 27, 32, 34, 39, 64, 89, 90, safety 15 116, 117, 123, 130, 133, 134, 136,
94, 95, 101, 103, 104, 106, 107, 137, 142, 144, 149, 151, 154, 155,
112, 114, 116, 121, 124, 128, 130, G 158, 159, 161, 162, 167, 177, 182,
131, 133, 135, 137, 140, 171, 181, gas burners 91 184, 185, 186, 187, 206, 215, 247,
182, 183, 185, 238, 243 generating steam 1 249, 251, 252, 253, 258, 264, 265,
losses 115 guide 93, 243, 267, 268, 270, 273 267, 280, 285
excess oxygen 89, 96, 98, 101, 102, guidelines 63, 231, 287, 288 low excess air burner 123, 131
103, 104, 105, 106, 124, 125
expansive element steam traps 264 H M
explosions, causes of 15 heat loss 58 makeup water 45, 119, 120, 158,
external steam leaks 45, 50, 160, due to radiation 52, 54 175, 215, 217, 228, 252, 283, 285,
162, 252 in the condensate return system 286, 287
external water treatment 285, 287 211 maximum attainable efficiency 20,
methods 51, 54, 56 183
F heat of the liquid 29 maximum economically achievable
feedwater control 13, 73, 74, 80, 82, heat pipes 172, 242, 246 efficiency 20
83, 283 heat reclaimer 168, 169, 171 measuring combustibles 64
feedwater hardness 282 heat wheel 241, 246 mechanical steam traps 250, 259
fine tuning process 106 higher heating value 27, 51, 54, 231, metering control systems 79, 81
firetube boilers 3, 76, 139 236 minimum excess oxygen 90, 103,
flame appearance 94, 104 high stack temperatures 70, 94, 115, 105
flame retention head type burners 171 minimum metal temperatures 63
123, 132 high temperature hot water sys- mist carryover 282
flame safety control 15, 75, 76 tems 47, 149, 154 monitoring 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 76, 87,
flame temperature 34, 35, 74, 89 high water level 74 90, 114, 117, 140, 141, 159
flame types 94, 96, 97
flash steam 40, 47, 48, 50, 160, 165, I N
166, 175, 209, 212, 213, 214, 215, ideal scene 27, 140 natural circulation 10
216, 247, 248, 253, 262, 265, 273 incomplete combustion 62, 64, 71 neutralizing amides 284
energy balance 249 increasing cycles of concentration noncondensibles 250, 256, 257, 260,
losses 164 217, 218, 279 282
float and thermostatic traps 261 infrared CO measurement 69
flue gas heat loss 64, 65 infrared heaters 149, 155, 156 O
foaming 13, 283, 286 input-output 52 off-stack CO analyzers 69
foaming and priming 280 efficiency 27 oil burners 90, 93
foaming carryover 282 method 51, 56 oil gun tip position 106
Index 293

oil-water emulsions 123, 132 satellite boilers 149, 155 steam trap malfunctions 48
opacity 70, 107, 140, 144 saturated steam 6, 7, 29, 47, 70, 154, steam trap selection 266
optimized efficiency 204 248, 270 steam traps, purpose of 255
optimum combustion efficiency 64 saturation temperature 1, 29, 83, steam traps, sizing 267
organic Rankine Cycle 244, 245 247, 259, 262 steam trap station 266
Orsat 65, 71 sensible and latent heat 39, 230, steam trap types 259
over fire draft control 122, 128 235, 247 stoichiometric 65, 94, 95
oxygen 131 sensible heat 30, 56, 179, 207, 230, combustion 63, 64, 68
enrichment 112, 123, 131 235, 236, 246, 248 strainer 92, 257, 258, 272, 276, 277
trim 85, 86, 122, 124, 125, 128, series positioning control 78, 79, 80 sulfur in fuel forms acid 63
203, 204 silica 280, 282, 283, 288 superheated steam 2, 6, 8, 9, 74, 83,
smoke 70, 98, 101, 102, 103, 105, 178
P 106, 108, 114, 115, 121, 125, 131, systems 270
parallel positioning control 77 132, 135, 140, 144, 159, 220, 233 superheater 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 36, 74,
payback period 135, 203, 204, 207 smoke and CO threshold, finding 83
performance history 108 102 surface losses 40, 41, 48, 50, 205,
plate type heat exchangers 172 smoke spot 70, 101, 102, 103, 105 250
pressure reducing valves 47, 153, sodium sulfite 283, 284
154, 160, 162, 164, 249, 253, 258 soft firebrick 159 T
priming 13, 117, 150 soot blower 121, 170, 220 temperature setback 177, 180
boiler 281 control 74 thermal stress 14, 154, 158, 241
carryover 13, 283 sound detection 273 thermodynamic traps 262, 263
problems that can occur in a burner spreader-stoker firing 91 time to payback period 205
flame of ideal geometry 98 stack dampers 123, 129, 130 total dissolved solids (TDS) 13, 279,
pulverized-coal burners 91 stack losses 39, 40, 41, 66, 114, 132, 283, 286, 287
purging combustible gasses on 133, 140, 142, 144, 205, 230 total heat of steam 29
light-off 76 steam 213 troubleshooting 101
steam compression 160, 166, 167 tubular heat exchangers 241
R steam distribution system losses tuned up efficiency 89, 186
radiant heat transfer 34, 35, 89 247, 250 tuneup 107, 108, 115, 116, 126, 127,
reducing excess air to improve effi- steam drum 5, 10, 14, 15, 83, 175, 129, 185, 227
ciency 184 256, 287 turbulators 137, 138
reducing stack temperature 168, steam leaks to the atmosphere 252 turndown 109, 134
186 steam pressure controller 79
reduction of fuel firing rate 123, 133 steam system 13, 37, 47, 48, 50, 73, V
regenerators 230, 231 117, 120, 142, 150, 151, 153, 154, vent condenser 168, 174, 175, 176
relative humidity 68 155, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162,
return on investment 160, 161, 203, 164, 166, 167, 175, 178, 207, 209, W
204, 207 211, 213, 219, 250, 252, 255, 256, warmup 14, 162, 266, 267, 281
rule of thumb 29, 45, 70, 118, 119, 257, 258, 259, 261, 263, 264, 266, waste heat recovery 174, 178, 227,
120, 121, 136, 142, 155, 156, 162, 275, 281, 283 228, 230, 234
168, 181, 212, 249, 252, 281 losses 45, 159, 160 boilers 168, 173
optimization 247 water hammer 14, 48
S tables 1, 29, 207 water hardness 280
safety 7, 63, 68, 76, 78, 93, 102, 107, temperature control 73, 74, 83, water tube boilers 3, 4, 21, 148
117, 118, 130, 150, 155, 160, 250, 110 wet steam 280
267, 287 steam trap inspection checklist 275
controls 73, 87 steam trap installation 266 Z
interlocks 76, 91, 93, 104 steam trap maintenance 159, 160, zirconium oxide cell 67, 68
valves 15, 75 161, 265