CHAPTER 1

POWER GENERATION

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 Merits and Demerits of AC

ADVANTAGES:

1. The generation of A.C. is cheaper than that of D.C.

2. A.C. machines are simple, robust and do not require much attention for their repairs and
maintenance during their use.
3. Wide range of voltages are obtained by the use of transformer.
4. The magnitude of current can be reduced by using an inductance or a conductor without any
appreciable loss of energy.
5. A.C. can easily be converted into D.C. with the help of rectifiers.
6. When A.C. is supplied at higher voltages in long distance transmission, the line losses are
small compared to a D.C. transmission.
7. AC offers a higher power to weight ratio.

DISADVANTAGES:

1. Peak value of A.C. is high and it is dangerous to use, so better insulation is required.
2. It attracts person who touches it unlike D.C. which gives a repelling shock.
3. An AC. is transmitted from surface of the conductor and loses power over distance due to
the Skin Effect and capacitive coupling, whereas DC electricity travels through the whole wire.
4. Unlike AC current, which changes direction several times a second, DC current flows
reliably in the same direction. That's important in the world of semiconductors, LEDs and
transistors. Each time AC current switches direction, there's a momentary loss of power. The
moment is infinitesimal, but it's enough to affect the sensitive devices that have become
common in the modern computerized world.

SOLAS Regulation
Part D - Electrical installations - Regulation 40 – General

Regulation 40 – General

1. Electrical installations shall be such that:

1. All electrical auxiliary services necessary for maintaining the ship in normal operational and
habitable conditions will be ensured without recourse to the emergency source of electrical
power;
2. Electrical services essential for safety will be ensured under various emergency conditions;
and
3. The safety of passengers, crew and ship from electrical hazards will be ensured

Regulation 41 - Main source of electrical power and lighting systems

1.1. A main source of electrical power of sufficient capacity to supply all those services
mentioned in regulation 40.1.1 shall be provided. This main source of electrical power shall
consist of at least two generating sets.

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1.2. The capacity of these generating sets shall be such that in the event of any one generating
set being stopped it will still be possible to supply those services necessary to provide normal
operational conditions of propulsion and safety. Minimum comfortable conditions of
habitability shall also be ensured which include at least adequate services for cooking, heating,
domestic refrigeration, mechanical ventilation, sanitary and fresh water.
1.3. The arrangements of the ship’s main source of electrical power shall be such that the
services referred to in regulation 40.1.1 can be maintained regardless of the speed and direction
of rotation of the propulsion machinery or shafting.
1.4. In addition, the generating sets shall be such as to ensure that with any one generator or its
primary source of power out of operation, the remaining generating sets shall be capable of
providing the electrical services necessary to start the main propulsion plant from a dead ship
condition. The emergency source of electrical power may be used for the purpose of starting
from a dead ship condition if its capability either alone or combined with that of any other
source of electrical power is sufficient to provide at the same time those services required to
be supplied by regulations 42.2.1 to 42.2.3 or 43.2.1 to 43.2.4.

Principle of AC generator operation

• The size of emf generated depends on the strength of magnetic flux (ɸ) and the rate at
which this flux cuts the coils,

Where n is the rotational speed of the rotor poles in rev/s.

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• The voltage available at the generator terminals is V = E - (I.Z) [phasor calculation] where
I is the load current flowing in the stator phase windings.

• An internal phase volt-drop of (I.Z) occurs due to the impedance Z of a phase winding
which is made up from its resistance and reactance.

• The frequency f (measured in Hertz) of the emf is the number of waveform cycles per
second. This obviously depends on the rotational speed and the number of poles, so

• Where n = speed in rev/s, N = rev/min and p = pairs of poles.

• In practice the speed is maintained practically constant by the generator's prime-mover

which fixes the output frequency. The constant speed then allows the size of generated emf
to be directly controlled by the size of pole flux (excitation).

Excitation Methods
• The two factors essential for the production of a generated emf in an ac. generator are
rotational speed (n) and magnetic flux (ɸ). Field windings on the rotor create strong
magnetic field poles when direct current is passed through them. Various methods have
been devised to supply the correct dc. field (excitation) current to produce the required ac.
output voltage from the stator terminals. The excitation must be continually regulated to
maintain the generator output voltage as the load power demand fluctuates.

• The excitation methods are either rotary or static. A rotary method utilizes an ac. or dc.
exciter which is shaft-mounted and rotates with the main generator rotor. Traditionally,
rotary exciters were dc Generators with stationary field poles, rotating armature,
commutator and brush gear. Now the most common arrangement is to use a shaft mounted
ac. exciter.

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Rotary Excitation (with AC exciter) – Brushless excitation

The rotary excitation with ac. exciter has the unusual arrangement of three phase output
windings on the rotor and magnetic poles fixed in the casing. The casing pole coils are supplied
with direct current from an automatic voltage regulator. Three-phase current generated in the
windings on the exciter rotor passes through a rectifier assembly on the shaft and then to the
main alternator poles. No slip rings and brushes are needed. The silicon rectifiers fitted in a
housing at the end of the shaft are accessible for replacement and their rotation assists cooling.
The six rectifiers facilitate full-wave rectification of the three-phase supply. Surge suppression
resistor protects the rotating diodes from internal surges.

Disadvantages of a rotary exciter

Generators with rotary exciters, conventional or brushless, have a relatively sluggish response
to sudden load changes. For example, it may take typically up to one second to correct a 15%
voltage dip caused by the start-up of a large pump motor.

Diode Failure Consequences

Question:
What is likely to happen if one of the rotating diodes fails and becomes:
(a) an open circuit? and
(b) a short-circuit?

Answer:
(a) the remaining healthy diodes would continue to supply the main field. In manual (hand)
control the total field current, and hence generator voltage, will be slightly reduced. Under
AVR control, the exciter field current would be automatically boosted to maintain the correct
generator voltage while the diode failure would probably be undetected. The exciter will
gradually overheat.

(b) a short-circuited diode is more serious as it leads to a short-circuited exciter. Rapid

overheating of the exciter will occur.

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 LOSS of Excitation Trip
• Although diode failures are rare, some generator field systems are fitted with an electronic
detector relay to give an alarm and / or trip signal should such a fault occur. Usually, the
detector monitors the exciter field current whose size and shape are noticeably affected by
a diode failure.

• This relay will operate if the excitation current comes below its predetermined value

Question:
Two generators are load sharing equally in parallel when a total loss of excitation
occurs in No. 2 machine. What is the likely outcome?

Answer:
Generator No. 2 will run as an induction generator drawing its excitation kVAr from No1 Both
generator currents will rise rapidly with No. 1 becoming more lagging while No. 2 runs with a
leading p.f. (indicated on cos ø meter). A loss of excitation trip (if fitted) or current relay should
trip No. 2 generator probably causing an overload on No1 Alternator, No. 1 trips on overcurrent
which deprives No. 2 of excitation and its breaker trips out on under voltage.
Result - total power failure!

Static Excitation

Three-phase compound excitation circuit.

In this arrangement, the generator field draws its dc. current via a static excitation
transformer/rectifier unit fed directly from the generator voltage and current output. This
arrangement is known as compounding as it is controlled by voltage (shunt effect) and current
(series effect) feedback.

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Static excitation equipment are located within the generator casing or inside the main
switchboard. This type of generator has two shaft slip-rings and brush gear to connect the static
excitation equipment to the rotor field winding.

On no-load, the generator excitation is provided by the PRI.l winding of the excitation
transformer. On load, the generator current injects an additional excitation current via PRI.2 of
the transformer to maintain a constant output voltage.

The excitation current is a “function”, therefore of the load, that is why this excitation is also
called as functional based. If the excitation components are carefully designed, the generator
voltage of a compounded generator can be closely maintained at all loads without the use of an
AVR or manual voltage trimmer. However, some generator manufacturers do include an AVR
and a manual trimmer rheostat in such a compounded static excitation scheme. This addition
may provide closer voltage regulation over the load range and allow manual control of the
generator voltage, e.g. for synchronising and kVAr load balancing between generators.
A practical 3-phase static excitation scheme (as shown in the diagram above) has additional
components such as reactors and capacitors. The circuit has no AVR or manual trimmer
regulator. A load current surge will automatically feedback an adjustment to the field excitation
to correct the resulting voltage surge so quickly that the output voltage remains practically
constant. Compound excitation systems require the static components to be designed to closely
match its associated generator.

Advantages of static Excitation

• The transient voltage response of a generator can be improved by eliminating the rotary
exciter in favour of a static excitation method. In this arrangement, the generator field
draws its dc. current via a static excitation transformer/rectifier unit fed directly from the
generator voltage and current output. This arrangement is known as compounding as it is
controlled by voltage (shunt effect) and current (series effect) feedback.

• Response times as low as 0.1 second to correct a 15% voltage dip are common with static
excited compound generators. This fast response is most desirable on general bulk cargo
ships where heavy and frequent load surges arise from deck cranes and winch gear.

• System uses AVR only for trimming the voltage that means it will produce voltage even
without the use of AVR.

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 Need for an Automatic Voltage Regulation

Sudden load current surges on a generator cause a corresponding change in its output voltage.
This is due to an internal voltage drop in the generator windings and the effect is usually called
voltage dip.

Similarly, load shedding will produce an overvoltage at the bus-bars. An unregulated or non-
compounded generator excitation system would not be realistic on board ship due to the
varying voltage caused by the fluctuating load demand.

Automatic voltage regulation (AVR) equipment is necessary to rapidly correct

such voltage changes.

An AVR will control the generator's voltage to a 2.5% (or better) of its set value over the full
load range. This is its steady-state voltage regulation. Transient voltage dip is usually limited
to 15% for a specified sudden load change with recovery back to rated voltage within1.5
seconds.

In special cases where unusually large surges are expected (e.g. from heavy-duty cargo cranes)
the generator AVR performance limits maybe extended.

Requirements of Automatic Voltage Regulation for an

Alternator
1. The Voltage should not fall below 85% or rise above 120% (-15% to +20%) of the rated
voltage when a load with a power factor from 0 to 0.4 is connected or disconnected
from the switchboard.
2. The Voltage should be restored to within 3% of the rated voltage within 1.5 seconds.
3. For emergency generators the voltage with a tolerance of 4% in 5 seconds is allowed.
4. If alternators and their excitation system undergo steady short circuit conditions they
should be capable of maintaining a current of at least three times its rated value for 2
seconds. Complete collapse of generator excitation under short circuit conditions
should be prevented to allow the circuit breaker to trip.
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 Automatic Voltage regulator (AVR)
The AVR’s used generally in are Static (No moving parts in it) as compared to the vibrating
contact /carbon pile AVR which were used in Olden days.

The way in which an AVR controls the excitation of a generator or exciter varies, however all
of them fall under two basic categories namely:

1. Excitation supply AVR or Error operated AVR or Thyristor based AVR - This AVR
supplies the whole of the required excitation current under normal operating conditions.

2. Compounding control AVR or Functional based AVR or Trimming AVR- Here, the
generator is compounded to produce an excessive excitation current at all times. The function
of the AVR is to trim down the current the correct value.

Excitation supply AVR or Error operated AVR or

Thyristor based AVR

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Explanation of the block diagram of Error operated AVR
The AVR senses the generator output voltage and acts to alter the field current to maintain the
voltage at its set value. A manual trimmer regulator may be fitted on the generator control panel
to set the voltage level e.g. 440 V. More usually, the voltage trimmer potentiometer is on the
control card of the AVR so is not accessible to an operator. The control circuit for a modern
AVR consists of transformers, rectifiers, zener diodes, transistors and thyristors. These are
mounted on one or more circuit cards fitted either within the switchboard or local to the
generator. Although the AVR control circuit design varies with the manufacturer the basic
scheme contains the following elements shown in the block diagram. The voltage sensing unit
transforms down, rectifies and smooths the generator output voltage. This produces a low
voltage d.c. signal that is proportional to the a.c. generator voltage. This actual d.c. signal is
compared with a set d.c. value produced by a reference circuit of zener diodes and resistors.
An error signal output from the comparator is then amplified and made suitable for driving the
field circuit regulating thyristors. A thyristor is a fast-acting electronic switch controlled by a
voltage signal at its gate terminal. This device rectifies and regulates the generator field current.
Additional components and sub-circuits are included in the AVR to ensure:
• Rapid response time with voltage stability
• Fair current (and kVAr) sharing when generators are to be operated in parallel
• Quick voltage build-up during generator run-up
• Overvoltage / undervoltage alarm/trip protection
The complete AVR circuit is fairly complex and includes a few pre-set variable
resistors for the control of sensitivity, offset-error and stability (proportional, integral and
differential control).

Explanation of the Error operated detailed version AVR

The availability of transformed, rectified and smoothed low power supply from the alternator
output makes it possible to directly match it against an electronic reference in the static
automatic voltage regulator. The direct current derived from the alternator output is applied to

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a bridge which has fixed resistances on two arms and variable resistances (zener diodes that
serve as voltage references) on the other two. The zeners operate in the reverse breakdown
mode, having been manufactured with a zener breakdown voltage of a very low value. As is
already known that in Zener diodes, voltage remains constant once breakdown occurs despite
the change in current. This implies, however, that changes in the applied voltage, while not
affecting voltage across the diode, will cause a change in resistance, which permits a change in
current. It is similar to a Wheatstone bridge wherein the imbalance of resistance in opposite
arms changes the flow pattern and produces an error signal in the voltage measuring bridge.
The error signal can be amplified and is used to control the alternator's excitation in a number
of different ways. Thus it can control the firing angle of thyristors through a triggering circuit
to give the desired voltage in the brushless alternator described

Compounding control AVR or Functional based AVR or

Trimming AVR

Precautions to taken before checking Insulation

Resistance in an Alternator
Question:
What precaution must be taken when testing the insulation of generator cables and wiring
connected to an AVR unit?

Answer:
Electronic components such as transistors, integrated circuit chips, thyristors, etc. are likely to
be damaged during a high voltage (500 V) megger test. To test the generator and its cables to
earth and protect the electronic parts, either:

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• Short-circuit all outgoing cable terminals during the IR test
• Remove electronic card(s)
• Disconnect all cables at both ends and test separately

Residual Magnetism and Flashing

Residual magnetism in the generator exciter field allows the generator to build up voltage
during start-up. This magnetism is sometimes lost due to shelf time or improper operation,
among other reasons. Restoring this residual magnetism is possible and is sometimes referred
to as "flashing the exciter field".

To restore the small amount of residual magnetism necessary to begin voltage buildup, connect
a 12-volt battery to the exciter field while the generator is at rest, as follows:

1. Remove exciter field wires F+ and F- from the automatic voltage regulator. CAUTION:
Failure to remove the field wires from the AVR during flashing procedures may destroy
the regulator.
2. Measure the exciter field resistance from the F+ to the F- lead. You should be able to
read some resistance as you are measuring a continuous winding. An infinite resistance
reading would indicate an open in the exciter field. Also check to be sure there is no
path to ground.
3. Connect F+ to the positive pole of the battery.
4. Hold the F- lead by the insulated portion of the lead wire, touch F- to the negative pole
of the battery for about 5 to 10 seconds, then remove.
5. Reconnect F+ and F- to the regulator and start the generator and check for the voltage.
6. Repeat the procedure if the generator fails to build voltage.

Transient Voltage Dip and Alternator Response for

Various Excitation System

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 Load Sharing Numerical
Question:
Two generators are load sharing in parallel: Generator 1 delivers 500 kW at 0.8 power factor
lag, and Generator 2 delivers 400 kW and 350 kVAr lag.
Calculate:
(a) the kVAr loading of Generator 1
(b) the p.f. of Generator 2
(c) the total bus-bar loading in kW, kVAr and power factor

Answer:
(a) cos ø = 0.8, so = 36.9˚ now (from PQS power triangle)
Q = P tan ø1 = 500 tan 36.9˚ = 375 kVAr

(b) tan ø2 = Q2 / P2 = 350 / 400 = 0.875

So, Ø2=41.2˚ then, p.f2 = COS ø2 = 41.2˚ = 0.75 Lagging
Total P = 500 +400 = 900 kW
and Total Q = 375 + 350 = 725 kVAr

(c) Overall tan ø = Q / P =725 / 900 = 0.81

and ø = 38.9˚
so, overall load p.f. = cos 38.9˚ = 0.78 Lagging

Effect of kW Loading
The prime mover does not require much fuel to run the generator on no-load, so the governor
has opened the fuel throttle valve only by a small amount. If a kW load such as the galley
heaters is switched on, then as we know by now, the energy is drawn from the generator and
converted into heat. Increasing the rate of fuel supply to the prime mover will result in
providing this energy. This happens automatically in the following way:

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 1. When the load is applied the load draws current from the stator windings.
2. This current flowing in the stator windings provides a rotating magnetic field. This field
rotates at the same speed as the rotor.
3. The stator field lies across the rotor field and exerts a magnetic pull or torque on the
rotor that tries to pull the rotor backwards (Refer Figure).
4. The magnetic torque exerted on the rotor causes the rotor to slow down
5. The governor detects this reduction of speed and opens up the throttle to increase the
fuel supply.
6. The throttle is opened up until the frequency returns to normal (in fact slightly less).
7. Now the prime mover develops enough power to drive the alternator at the correct speed
and meet the kW load demand.

Effect of kVAr Loading

When a kVAR load is applied to an alternator there is no power demand on the prime mover.
This is because the energy flow with kVAR loading is backwards and forwards between the
generator and the load, the prime mover is not involved. The stator current again produces a
rotating magnetic field, but unlike kW loading, it does not exert a magnetic torque on the rotor.
This time the stator field is in line with the rotor field and so no torque is produced.
With reference to Figure, we see that the stator field is acting in the opposite direction to the
rotor field which results in a large reduction of flux in the machine and reduced flux means
reduced output voltage. The AVR responds to the fall of the output voltage and boosts the
excitation current to the rotor to increase the flux. The excitation is increased until the voltage
is back to normal (in practice slightly less than normal)

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