4 Comprehension, Memory,

and Cognitive Learning

LEARNING Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

4-1 Identify factors that influence consumer comprehension.

4-2 Explain how knowledge, meaning, and value are inseparable, using the multiple stores
memory theory.

4-3 Understand how the mental associations consumers develop are a key to learning.

STRINGER/Getty Images
4-4 Use the concept of associative networks to map relevant consumer knowledge.

4-5 Apply the cognitive schema concept in understanding how consumers react to products,
brands, and marketing agents.

Remember to visit PAGE 91 for additional STUDY TOOLS

Introduction comprehension and other issues related to cognitive

learning, including memory and elaboration.
Any student knows how difficult intentional learning
In the previous chapter, we defined consumer learn-
can be even when desire for a good GPA should provide
ing as a change in behavior resulting from some in-
a strong motivation. As sometimes happens with students,
teraction between a consumer and a stimulus. We
consumers often lack a strong motivation to learn and thus,
learned about a behaviorist approach to learning,
despite a near constant bombardment of marketing com-
which focuses on behaviors rather than inner men-
munications via radio, television, social networking sites,
tal processes, and we introduced human perception
printed media, signage, flyers, and more, marketers face
as the basis for cognitive learning. Cognitive learning
a difficult task in creating the learning that they intend to
focuses on mental processes occurring as consumers
create. Even if one can get over the difficulty in gaining
comprehend, elaborate, and act upon information.
attention, there is no guarantee that any message will be
The cognitive perspective views learning as an active
meaningfully encoded and comprehended as intended.
mental process in which a consumer processes infor-
mation, forms associations between concepts, and
gains knowledge.
Exhibit 4.1 shows the basic components of informa-
4-1 What Influences
tion processing. We have already discussed several of Comprehension?
the concepts presented,
comprehension the way including exposure, atten- Consumers can’t realize value without an abil-
people cognitively assign meaning tion, and comprehension. ity to assign meaning to the things consumed.
to (i.e., understand) things they
encounter
In the current chapter, Comprehension refers to the interpretation or un-
we look more closely at derstanding a consumer develops about some attended

70 PART TWO: Internal Influences

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
stimulus based on the way meaning is assigned. What that the consumer will likely have to master a set of
happens when a consumer sees a “some assembly re- detailed instructions before consumption can begin.
quired” sticker on a product? Of course, this means An easy-to-comprehend set of instructions would cer-
tainly contribute to the total value
equation for the product. Police have
even had to respond to a call of poten-
Exhibit 4.1
tial “domestic violence” due to bang-
The Components of Consumer ing and screaming noises coming out
of an apartment where a couple was
Information Processing trying to assemble some IKEA fur-
niture.1 We all know how frustrating
assembly instructions can be. In this
and many other ways, marketers must
teach us things so that we realize the
most value from consumption.
Other products contain warning la-
bels that signal specific associated risks.
Consider a typical cigarette package.
Consumers don’t always comprehend
messages as intended. A consumer
might even see a cigarette warning label
as authoritarian and end up mocking
the ad, with the end result being that
the ad makes smoking more appealing
by reinforcing “rebellion” as a benefit.

CHAPTER 4: Comprehension, Memory, and Cognitive Learning 71

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 Other times, consumers may actually overestimate the
dangers associated with smoking when they read a warn-
ing of “rare” side effects.2 Research suggests that tradi-
tional cigarette warning labels actually have only a small
effect on consumer behavior.3 As a result, policy makers
have sought to use graphic images to convey meaning
more strongly. Some research signaled that consumers
may see less value in cigarettes with the graphic warn-

REUTERS/Susana Vera
ings; an experiment demonstrated that adult consumers
were willing to pay less for a pack of cigarettes with a
photographic warning than they would for a pack with
a conventional written label.4 Neurological studies sug-
gest that extremely graphic warning labels create more
brain activity than do traditional verbal warnings and this In this case, do consumers learn more from
activity is associated with greater reported avoidance of pictures or words?
smoking.5
Thus, brain activity and comprehension are con-
nected. The following points summarize three factors
related to consumer comprehension:
Factors Affecting Consumer
4-1a 
Comprehension
1. Internal factors within the consumer powerfully Meaning and value are inseparable, and consumers must
influence the comprehension process. Recall comprehend marketing messages to learn the intended
from a previous chapter that factors influencing value of a product. As marketers attempt to commu-
consumer behavior often interact with each other. nicate value, many factors influence what a consumer
Numerous components in the Consumer Value comprehends in a given situation. These factors can be
Framework alter comprehension. divided into three categories:
2. Comprehension includes both cognitive and af- 1. Characteristics of the message
fective elements. That is, the process of compre- 2. Characteristics of the message receiver
hension involves both thoughts and feelings. As
3. Characteristics of the communication environment
such, comprehension applies not only to con-
sumer learning but also to consumers’ attitudes.
A number of topics in this chapter apply equally 4-1b Characteristics of the Message
to consumer attitude formation and persuasion Marketers believe that they can affect consumer learn-
(a later chapter is devoted to these topics). ing by carefully planning the execution of marketing
3. Every message sends signals. Signal theory communications. As you browse practically any web-
tells us that communications provide information site, you can see advertisements within the source
in ways beyond the explicit or obvious content. or in browser frames, and chances are, these ads use
A retailer promises to match competitors’ prices many different styles. Exhibit 4.2 summarizes some of
(PMG or a price-matching guarantee) as a signal the ways the message characteristics might influence
to consumers that prices are indeed low.6 Con- comprehension about the city of Barcelona. We discuss
sumers don’t always comprehend messages or these below.
get the desired signal, and to this extent, con-
sumer comprehension
is not always “correct.”
signal theory explains ways Quite simply, consumers Consumers sometimes just
in which communications
sometimes just don’t get
convey meaning beyond the don’t get it; however, they act
explicit or obvious interpretation it; however, they act on
PMG price matching guarantee
what they do get. on what they do get.

72 PART TWO: Internal Influences

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Exhibit 4.2
Message Characteristics Impact Consumer Learning
Message Congruity Physical Characteristics
Is image consistent Intensity — slogan
with copy meaning moves into image
(inspiring business)? on line —break in
Barcelona below
encourages
processing
Figure and Ground Background color
What in the ad is influences quality
the focal image perceptions
and what is the Font signals
background? meaning
Shape — Golden
Section?

Message Source Simplicity–Complexity

Is the source seen Is the image and
as credible and copy combination
trustworthy? easy to process?
Source: www.behance.net

Physical Characteristics beliefs, although the actual question of what is environ-

The physical characteristics of a message refer to the mentally friendly is much more complicated.8
elements of a message that one senses directly. These Font. Consumers derive meaning from both the actu-
parts come together to execute a communication of al text of a message and the visual presentation of the
some type. While these elements affect comprehension, message. Font styles send meaningful signals. The same
you may note that some of these characteristics also af- brand or store name presented in a block font such as
fect the likelihood that consumers pay attention. Here Courier may take on a different meaning if presented in
are just a few physical characteristics that can contribute a script font. For instance, research suggests that differ-
to effective communication. ent fonts signal the personality of a brand. In particular,
Intensity. Generally speaking, the greater the move- the more natural a font appears, the more positive the
ment, the larger the picture, or the louder the sound, personality.9 Fonts can also signal masculinity, femininity,
the more likely a consumer is to attend and comprehend or strength, among other brand characteristics. Consider
something from a message. Large numbers or letters ap- the two examples below:
pear to shout. In fact, prices that are written in big nu-
merals signal low prices but perhaps not the best quality.
Color. Color affects the likelihood of gaining a consum-
er’s attention, but it can also have an impact on compre-
Which sends the better message for a brick company?
hension. Gold signals quality. Similarly, blue is associated
One can easily see that the signal the font sends should
with higher quality and higher price expectations. Warm
be consistent with the type of service offered.10
colors like red and orange get attention but also may lower
quality perceptions relative to cool colors. For fresh pro- Numbers. Many brand
duce, colors that blend in with the actual fruit (red mesh managers rely on alpha-
for red apples) also can enhance quality perceptions.7 numeric names, combin- physical characteristics
tangible elements or the parts of a
Green signals environmental friendliness today. The ing letters and numbers, message that can be sensed
mere presence of a green package increases “green” when creating names for

CHAPTER 4: Comprehension, Memory, and Cognitive Learning 73

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 new products, brands, or models. Examples of al-
phanumeric names include 7-Up, A-1, and Rue 21.
Technologically meaningful brands often employ
such names. HTC One (M8) smartphone provides an
example of an alphanumeric name free to take on a
meaning unhindered by a real concept, because com-

Brian A Jackson/Shutterstock.com
binations of numbers and letters have little specific
meaning. This gives marketers a better opportunity to
shape the intended meaning of brands and products.
In contrast, Galaxy, Sprint, and Focus have real mean-
ings. Alphanumeric names also tend to convey subtly
meanings through an association with incremental im-
provement and advanced technology.
Spacing. All types of communicators, from salespeo- consequences. Thus, terms like fat-free are better un-
ple to advertisers to teachers, repeat messages as a way
derstood than numeric breakdowns.13
of increasing comprehension. If a communicator is go-
ing to repeat a message multiple times, is it better to Message Congruity
repeat it in sequence or to break up the repetition? Ac-
Message congruity represents the extent to which a
tually, consumers display greater recall of an intended
message is internally consistent and fits surrounding in-
message when information is presented in intervals
formation.
rather than in sequence.11 For instance, in media ad-
The conventional wisdom is that congruent content
vertising, three 30-second ads spread over three hours
would lead to improved comprehension. However, this
achieve better consumer recall of information than a
may not always be the case. Moderate levels of incon-
single 90-second advertisement.
gruity motivate deeper processing than when everything
Shape. Product designers influence the comprehen- in a string of messages is highly congruent. The result
sion of products through many factors but perhaps the can be improved comprehension. However, incongru-
shape that they choose is the most basic. Consumers ence can have drawbacks. Celebrity spokespeople en-
prefer objects that are consistent with the golden dorse many brands, some of them congruent with their
section. The golden section refers to a ratio of di- personas and some not. Odell Beckham, Jr. plays foot-
mensions of about 1.62. Thus, objects that fit into a ball. Thus, his meaning is consistent with sports-related
rectangle of 1.62 3 1.00 (inches, meters, feet, . . .) will products like energy drinks or athletic shoes, but incon-
be preferred. Photographs depicting images arranged sistent with products like personal computers or heart
in proportions that match the golden section are per- medicine. When consumers pay attention to an ad, an
ceived as more beautiful than other images.12 incongruent endorser can hurt the product’s image.14
Similarly, a hedonic ad produces more favorable atti-
Simplicity versus Complexity tudes for a hedonic brand. Thus, if the primary goal is
Generally speaking, the simpler the message, the more to create a favorable attitude rather than increased com-
likely a consumer develops meaningful comprehen- prehension, then marketers should minimize incongru-
sion, which, of course, relies on a consumer’s ability ity. If comprehension is the goal, a little incongruity can
to process information. The Federal Food and Drug be appropriate.
Administration (FDA) is rightly concerned about how The incongruity of a message with surrounding mes-
consumers comprehend nutrition and health informa- sages works in much the same way.15 In fact, consum-
tion on product labels. A ers will comprehend and remember more from an ad
large amount of research that is presented with incongruent material surrounding
golden section a preferred points to the fact that it. Consider a brand like L’Oréal Preference hair care
ratio of objects, equal to 1.62 to 1.00
simplicity is the key. The products. The consumer will comprehend and remem-
message congruity extent simpler health informa- ber more when presented with only one hair care mes-
to which a message is internally
tion can be presented, the sage in any three-message sequence (see Exhibit 4.3). In
consistent and fits surrounding
information more accurately consum- this case, frame B offers better comprehension for the
ers will understand the L’Oréal Preference brand.

74 PART TWO: Internal Influences

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Figure and Ground
Every message is presented within a background, but
Exhibit 4.4
sometimes the background becomes the message. A
photographer usually concentrates on capturing a focal
The Figure and Ground Distinction
image in a photo frame. The focal image, or the object
intended to capture a person’s attention, is much the
same as a figure in a message. In a message, everything
besides the figure should be less important and simply
represent the ground (or background) relative to the
central message. The contrast between the two repre-
sents the psychological figure-ground distinction.
Look at the simple message in Exhibit 4.4. What
would a consumer comprehend? Well, most consumers
HERE
would easily see the English word here. However, look
more closely and concentrate on the T-shaped image at
the left. Most consumers place that in the background. for faceless dolls, homemade haircuts, and drab cloth-
However, if that becomes the figure, then the message ing. The ads effectively send the signal that cable is tech-
may easily become “there” and not “here.” nologically inferior to DirectTV. Consumers themselves
use figurative language when describing brands that
Type of Language
compete well on hedonic value, while they use literal
The choice of language can influence the mean- language when describing brands competing on utilitar-
ing of products. Consumers are exposed to and often ian value.16
themselves use figurative rather than literal language.
Figurative language involves expressions that send a Message Source
nonliteral meaning. DirectTV advertisements portray a The source of a message also can influence comprehen-
family of “settlers.” The family doesn’t need DirectTV sion. Message sources include a famous celebrity in an
because they “settle” for cable. In addition, they settle advertisement, a salesperson in a sales context, a fam-
ily member giving advice, a Facebook friend,
or even a computer-animated avatar. A source
Exhibit 4.3 influences comprehension to varying degrees
based upon characteristics like the following:17
Congruent or Incongruent Message
The Advertising Archives (Top left, top center) The Advertising Archives (top right and bottom center)

Sequences? 1. Likeability
Image Courtesy of The Advertising Archives Image Courtesy of The Advertising Archives

2. Attractiveness
3. Expertise
4. Trustworthiness
figure object that is intended
5. Congruence to capture a person’s attention,
the focal part of any message

A likeable source can ground background in a

message
change the interpre-
tation of a stimulus. figure-ground
Celebrities like Jen- distinction notion that each
message can be separated into
nifer Lawrence may the focal point (figure) and the
convey a sense of background (ground)
likability and trust-
Figurative language
worthiness for Dior. use of expressions that send a
Geico’s image is nonliteral meaning
shaped largely by

CHAPTER 4: Comprehension, Memory, and Cognitive Learning 75

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 processes. However, sources can influence consumers in
other more subtle ways. In a later chapter, we focus on
how sources influence persuasion.

4-1c Message Receiver Characteristics

Intelligence/Ability
As a general statement, intelligent, well-educated con-
sumers are more likely to accurately comprehend a mes-
sage than are less intelligent or less educated consumers.
With this being said, we offer two caveats. First, a great

Source: YouTube
deal of knowledge is specific to particular product cat-
egories. Therefore, a consumer who does not have a high
IQ may be able to comprehend certain product infor-
DirectTV ads effectively send the signal that mation more readily than another consumer with a high
cable is technologically inferior to their product. IQ. Second, even a highly intelligent consumer would
understand a simpler message better than a more com-
plex message. Marketers should communicate informa-
spokescharacters. Caleb the Camel, with over 20 million hits tion pertaining to product warnings, usage instructions,
on Youtube, Maxwell the Piggy, the Caveman, and last but or assembly directions in a way that those with relatively
not least, the Geico Gecko, all create likability for the brand. low intelligence can understand.18
As a sign of Geico’s advertising effectiveness, 98% of con-
sumers correctly associate the ads with the brand. A source’s Prior Knowledge
attractiveness functions in much the same way as likability. The human brain matches incoming information with
Expertise refers to the amount of knowledge that preexisting knowledge. This preexisting or prior knowl-
a source is perceived to have about a subject. Trust- edge provides resources or a way through which other
worthiness refers to how honest and unbiased a source stimuli can be comprehended. Even consumers of very
is perceived to be. Consumers associate expertise and high intelligence may lack prior knowledge to compre-
trustworthiness with credibility. Like likeability, cred- hend certain consumer messages. Even young kids have
ible sources tend to lower the chances that consumers more knowledge of handheld electronic devices than
will develop counterarguments toward a message. many adults—particularly college professors. Consum-
Counterarguments are thoughts that contradict a mes- ers display a preference for things that are consistent
sage. Support arguments are thoughts that further with their prior knowledge.
support a message. Brand managers should especially
rely on a likable, attrac-
tive, and credible source.
expertise amount of
knowledge that a source is
At times, brands will even
perceived to have about a subject use celebrity spokespeople
to communicate key facts
trustworthiness how
honest and unbiased the source is
with media. In such a case,
perceived to be it’s best to avoid a contro-
versial celebrity like Alec
credibility extent to which a
source is considered to be both
Baldwin, who would be
an expert in a given area and unlikely to generate any
Source: www.geico.com

trustworthy support arguments based

counterarguments on his public persona.
thoughts that contradict a message In summary, we can
say that desirable source
support arguments
thoughts that further support a
characteristics can help to
message convey the desired mes- Guess what Geico ads do? Create likability!
sage through cognitive

76 PART TWO: Internal Influences

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 Simple, Simpler or Simplest?

W hen it comes to nutrition labels, the simplest

seems best. When consumers are processing
information about purchases, simplest seems to win
a little harder and, as a result,
creates deeper meaning. “Noth-
ing Says Lovin’ Like Something
also. Researchers use the term “stickiness” to refer to
from the Oven” beats “Believe in
the fact that a consumer actually carries through on a
Something Better.”
purchase intention. Decision simplicity, meaning how
easy it is to process reliable information and compare Sources: Miller, D.W. and M. Toman (2015), “An
Analysis of the Syntactic Complexity in Service
alternatives, contributes most to stickiness. Is sim- Corporation Brand Slogans,” Services Marketing Quar-
terly, 36, 37–50. Spenner, P. and K. Freeman (2012),
plest always best? When it comes to slogans that get “To Keep Your Customers, Keep It Simple,” Harvard
people to think, maybe simple is better than simplest. Business Review, 90 (May), 108–114. Hoidas, A.
(2016), “Top 10 Effective and Ineffective Adver-
A slogan that is too simple both in sound and content tising Slogans,” Brandingbeat, https://www

Gabe Palmer/Alamy Stock Photo

fails to create a lot of additional information process- .qualitylogoproducts.com/blog/10
-effective-ineffective-advertising-slogans/,
ing that may lead to deeper comprehension. On the accessed March 16, 2016.

other hand, a slogan with just a touch of complexity

in sound and content encourages consumers to think

Consider the role that superstition can play in com- Near-field technologies allow advertising to be pushed to
prehending value propositions. Do you believe it’s good consumers through their smart devices. Highly involved
luck to find a penny or that the number 7 is lucky and 13 consumers comprehend not only the content of the ads
is unlucky? You aren’t alone if you do. One in three Ameri- better because they are better able to process that infor-
cans believes finding a penny is good luck; nearly one in mation, but they also are more open to ads that the less
four believe in lucky numbers. Not everybody is equally involved consumer finds intrusive.22
superstitious, though. The same research suggests that
younger consumers tend to be more superstitious and that Familiarity/Habituation
Democrats tend to be a bit more superstitious than Repub- Consumers tend to like the familiar. However, in terms
licans.19 Even marketers who are not superstitious would of comprehension, familiarity can lower a consumer’s
be wise to acknowledge the meanings that such prior motivation to process a message. While some degree of
knowledge among a segment of consumers might convey familiarity may improve consumer attitude, high levels
to products. Thus, take care putting 13 in a brand name! of familiarity may actually change or reduce comprehen-
sion.23 Few humorous ads are as enjoyable after ten ex-
Involvement posures as they were on the first viewing, so a consumer
Consumers are not equally involved with every message may tune the message out.
sent their way. As discussed in Chapter 3, highly involved Habituation is the process by which continuous
consumers tend to pay more attention to messages. They exposure to a stimulus affects the comprehension of
also exert more effort in comprehending messages.20 As and response to some stimulus. Consider the following
a result, these consumers show better recall than con- psychological experiment. Subjects in one treatment
sumers with lower levels of involvement.21 Consider the group immerse their arms in extremely cold water
consumer who views a website describing a new product. (2°C) for 60 seconds. Ob-
The highly involved consumer will click through more viously, this is an unpleas-
hyperlinks, explore more pages, and comprehend more ant task. Another group of habituation process by which
continuous exposure to a stimulus
information than a less involved consumer. subjects is asked to do the
affects the comprehension of, and
Today’s technology offers the highly involved con- very same thing, except response to, the stimulus
sumer lots of opportunities to engage with brands. after the first immersion,

CHAPTER 4: Comprehension, Memory, and Cognitive Learning 77

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 Writing’s on the Wall!

“I t’s only weird if it doesn’t work!” That’s the tagline

for a Bud Light campaign built around consum-
ers and their superstitions. Superstitions can affect
the meaning of messages and activities. Superstitions,
omens, or the perception of foresight allow consumers
to feel they have a role in future events even when the
outcome is totally beyond their influence. Do you know
someone with a “lucky” shirt that they have to wear on
game day, even if it hasn’t been washed in years? Base-
ball fans know what a rally cap does. When a shop sells
a winning lotto ticket it can expect to sell a lot more
tickets as the news gets out. Marketers can benefit from
having their products associated with good outcomes,
which is the attempt of the superstition campaign.
However, it could be that playing along with a supersti-
tion adds hedonic value by creating a little fun.
At right, Bryce Harper, shown in the photo at the right,

Patrick McDermott/Getty Images

of the Washington Nationals wears a rally cap during a
2016 game against the Minnesota Twins. And yes, the
Nationals won . . .
Sources: Hanks, L., L. Zhang and S. McGinley (2015), “Unconditioned Superstition and Sports Bar
Fans,” Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 1–19. Yang, A.X. and O. Uminsky (2015), “The
Foresight Effect: Local Optimism Motivates Consistency and Local Pessimism Motivates Variety,”
Journal of Consumer Research, 42, 361–377.

they are asked to immediately immerse their arms into fairly pleasant shopping experiences in which many
slightly less frigid (6°C) water for 30 additional sec- goods and services are readily available in a comfort-
onds. At the end of the procedure, both groups rated able setting. This hardly compares with many parts of
the task hedonically. Surprisingly, the group that im- the developing world, where shopping as we know it
mersed their arms for 90 seconds rated the task more hardly exists. A decade after the breakup of the Soviet
favorably than did the group that immersed their arms Union, consumer researchers measured the hedonic
for only 60 seconds. and utilitarian shopping value Russian consumers ex-
Habituation theory explains this result. The first perienced trying to obtain everyday goods and ser-
60 seconds of exposure to the extremely cold water ha- vices.24 The capitalist reforms had been slow to spread
bituated the subjects and created an adaptation level. throughout Russia, and these consumers still faced
As a result, when the second group was exposed to water shops with empty shelves and long lines to buy things
that was still unpleasant but slightly less frigid than the like boots or jackets. A Russian word to describe this
first, a more favorable evaluation was obtained because experience is dostats, which roughly means “acquiring
the entire experience was framed by the relatively more things with great difficulty.” The surprising result of the
valuable (less painful) last 30 seconds. research was that the Russian consumers reported sim-
On a global level, con- ilar amounts of shopping value compared to American
sider that consumers in shoppers. What is the explanation for this outcome?
adaptation level level of a the United States, Canada, Even though shopping in Russia was certainly worse
stimulus to which a consumer has
become accustomed Australia, and throughout than shopping in America, shopping was still framed
Western Europe expect by their life experiences beyond the familiar reality

78 PART TWO: Internal Influences

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of dostats. These life experiences provided a frame of
reference in which shopping was less unpleasant than
were many other routine activities. Over time and im-
provements to the marketing infrastructure, the mere
availability of product selection may cause a different
hedonic response.

Expectations
Expectations are beliefs about what will happen in a
future situation. They play an important role in many
consumer behavior settings and can impact comprehen-
sion. We discuss expectations in more detail later when
satisfaction becomes the focus. For now, note that what
consumers expect to experience has an impact on their
comprehension of the environment.
To illustrate, consider how packaging influences
consumers’ comprehension of products. Beverage mar-
keters have realized for decades that packaging plays a

Courtesy of Pilot Pen USA and Bright Red/TBWA

major role in how beverages are perceived. In fact, stud-
ies indicate that consumers cannot even identify their
“favorite” brand of beer without the label.25 Removing
the label affects consumers’ expectations, which af-
fects their comprehension by blocking brand-specific
thoughts.

Physical Limits
A consumer’s physical limitations can also influence
comprehension. For example, we all have limits in our Metaphoric messages like this one for
abilities to hear, see, smell, taste, and think. Obviously, Pilot Pens presented at Jacksonville
someone who can’t hear an audio message can’t com- Fashion Week are particularly effective
prehend information in it. Also, consumers who are among right brain–dominant consumers.
color blind will have difficulty comprehending infor-
mation related to color. For instance, if a caution or
warning label is colored red to signal risk, a color-blind
consumer will not likely comprehend this aspect of the hands with Allstate,” one isn’t really in someone’s hands. A
message.26 metaphor communicates a message figuratively rather
than literally. Metaphors
Brain Dominance
can increase one’s ability to
Brain dominance refers to the phenomenon of remember an ad message, expectations beliefs about
what will happen in some future
hemispheric lateralization. Some people tend to be and they particularly affect situation
either right brain– or left brain–dominant. This, of consumers when the meta-
course, does not mean that some consumers use only phor is processed in the right brain dominance refers to
the phenomenon of hemispheric
the left or right parts of their brains. Right brain– brain hemisphere.27 Thus, lateralization. Some people tend
dominant consumers tend to be visual processors consumers who are right- to be either right brain– or left
(tend to favor images for communication), whereas brain dominant may respond brain–dominant
left brain– dominant consumers tend to deal better particularly well to meta- metaphor in a consumer
with verbal processing (words). phors. Metaphors are not context, an ad claim that is not
Hemispheric lateralization influences metaphor com- limited to words, as images literally true but figuratively
prehension, among other things. Advertisements use often depict animate objects communicates a message
metaphors regularly; despite the slogan “you’re in good as products and vice versa.

CHAPTER 4: Comprehension, Memory, and Cognitive Learning 79

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 4-1d Environmental Characteristics become available for processing. Priming is the term
that refers to this cognitive process in which active con-
Information Intensity cepts activate other closely associated concepts, thereby
Information intensity refers to the amount of in- affecting both value perceptions and meaning. Nega-
formation available for a consumer to process within a tively framed information primes losses, which con-
given environment. When consumers are overloaded, sumers wish to avoid, and encourages consumers to be
the overload not only affects their attention but also their more willing to take a chance on a product. Generally,
comprehension and eventual reaction. One of the draw- negatively framed information creates a relatively strong
backs of frequent online social networking is burnout impact on consumers compared to positively framed in-
in the form of SNS (social networking services) fatigue. formation, and so the perceived value of the sunscreen in
The intensity of information (too much, too fast) plays a the above example may increase by presenting a negative
role in reducing communication effectiveness. information frame.
Exhibit 4.5 further illustrates this aspect of fram-
Framing ing. Most consumers faced with the first choice set in
Framing is a phenomenon in which the meaning of the exhibit will choose option 2. Notice that the frame is
something is influenced (perceived differently) by the negative (“losing”).29 In the second choice set, where the
information environment. Thus, the same event can pro- frame is positive, priming gains and consumers tend to
duce multiple meanings depending on how the informa- choose option 1. The differing pattern of choices happens
tion is presented. Framing and the consumer adaptation even though the expected value (E(v)) for each choice
level (habituation) often work together to affect compre- is the same ($200). Presenting a negative frame primes
hension. Would you like an ice cream sundae? Most con- thoughts that lead to a consumer being more willing to
sumers probably would. However, if a consumer has just take risks. In terms of prospect theory, we say that losses
finished two ice cream sundaes, that will probably frame weigh more heavily than gains. Losing $200 is certainly
the third so that it doesn’t seem so tasty. a loss and hurts hedonic value more than winning $200
Prospect theory hypothesizes that the way in helps create hedonic value.30 As such, consumers more
which information is framed differentially affects risk willingly take on a risk when faced with the first choice.
assessments and associated consumer decisions. To il- Priming occurs in many subtle ways beyond posi-
lustrate prospect theory, consider what you have likely tive and negative frames. Brand names and logos can
heard about risks associated with prolonged exposure to
the sun. The following are two methods of presenting
information about those risks:28
Exhibit 4.5

information intensity
▸▸ Failing to use sunscreen An Illustration of Framing—What
amount of information available leaves one vulnerable to
for a consumer to process within a skin cancer. Would You Do?
given environment ▸▸ Using sunscreen helps
framing a phenomenon in avoid skin cancer.
which the meaning of something is
influenced (perceived differently)
baranq/Shutterstock.com

by the information environment The first statement frames

the behavior negatively:
prospect theory theory Don’t use the product and
that suggests that a decision,
or argument, can be framed you’ll get skin cancer. The
in different ways and that the second statement frames
framing affects risk assessments the behavior positively:
Yuri_Arcurs/Shutterstock.com

consumers make
Use this product and you’ll
priming cognitive process in stay healthy!
which context or environment The frame within
activates concepts and frames
which consumers receive
thoughts and therefore affects both
value and meaning information causes con-
cepts associated with it to

80 PART TWO: Internal Influences

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
serve as primes. The shopping environment can prime Timing
bargain expectations. For instance, a consumer may Timing also affects comprehension. For our purposes,
think $200 is a good price for a watch in a counter filled timing refers to both the amount of time a consumer
with watches selling for $1,000 or more. Conversely, the has to process a message and the point in time at
same watch at $200 may not seem like a good deal when which the consumer receives the message. For ex-
it is the most expensive watch in the case.31 Consumers ample, consumers who have only a couple of seconds
also possess naïve theories about marketing.32 At times, to process a message, such as when driving by a bill-
these naïve theories are primed and influence subse- board advertisement, cannot possibly comprehend a
quent reactions. Imagine a consumer reading about message in as much depth as a consumer who is not
how important purchasing expensive flooring is to the facing a timing issue.
resale value of a home while waiting to order in a res- The time of day can also affect the meaning and
taurant. This story primes the theory that higher priced value of a product. For many consumers, coffee is a
options are better. As a result, the consumer is more morning beverage. Consumers comprehend an adver-
likely to select a relatively expensive option than if she tisement for a brand of coffee quite differently based
had not read the story. Thus, previous events prime sub- on the time of day. Most consumers will respond to a
sequent events. coffee advertisement in the morning far more enthu-
Message Media siastically than the same ad shown before bedtime,
due to habituation effects associating hot coffee with
These days, marketers can’t always control the type of morning consumption. The way time or age influ-
media by which consumers encounter a message. Do ences the interpretation of things is sometimes called
consumers process information the same way on paper zeitgeist.
as they would on a PC or on a smartphone? The answer
seems to be no. In terms of intentional learning, some
studies suggest that we comprehend more and better
when reading from a message printed on paper than
4-2 Multiple Store Theory
from a digital message.33 Differences also exist among of Acquiring, Storing,
digital sources. One interesting study suggests that con-
sumers process an advertised message in a more detailed and Using Knowledge
way when exposed on a smartphone versus a desktop
computer screen.34 The explanation involves the proxim- Memory is the psychological process through which
ity of one’s hands to the information being processed. If people record and store knowledge. As shown in Ex-
so, ads designed to convey detailed information should hibit 4.1, all elements of information processing inter-
perhaps be better designed for viewing on a smartphone relate with memory. In our chapter on perception, we
as opposed to a larger screen. discussed the topics of implicit and explicit memory.
Here, we discuss memory from the cognitive learning
Construal Level Theory perspective—the multiple store theory of memory.
The information environment can sometimes cause us
to think about, or construe, things in different ways. Multiple Store Theory
4-2a 
Construal level refers to whether we are thinking
about something using a concrete or an abstract mind-
of Memory
Construal level whether
set. One might construe a foreign destination at an ab- The multiple store or not we are thinking about
stract level and think of a trip to Europe. Alternatively, theory of memory views something using a concrete or an
he could construe the destination at a concrete level the memory process as abstract mindset
and think of a trip to Chimay, Belgium. The more con- utilizing three different memory psychological process
crete the mindset, the closer the event tends to seem in storage areas within the by which knowledge is recorded
both time and distance. Although we all know the old human brain. The three multiple store theory of
adage “time is money,” consumers tend to view money areas are sensory memory, memory theory that explains
resources as concrete relative to time resources.35 Thus workbench (or short-term) memory as utilizing three different
a concrete request like “give $10” is more likely to yield memory, and long-term storage areas within the human
brain: sensory, workbench, and
a concrete response (“here is $10”) than an abstract re- memory. Exhibit 4.6 illus-
long-term
quest (“please volunteer”). trates this approach.

CHAPTER 4: Comprehension, Memory, and Cognitive Learning 81

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Echoic storage is the storage of audi-
Exhibit 4.6 tory information as an exact represen-
tation of the sound. All sights, sounds,
The Multiple Store Approach smells, tactile sensations, and tastes are
recorded as exact replicas in the mind of
to Memory the consumer.
If this is the case, then why can we
recall only a fraction of what we encoun-
ter? Another remarkable aspect of sen-
sory memory concerns duration. Sensory
memory is very perishable and lasts only
a very short time. In most cases, sensory
memory begins to fade immediately after
the sensation and typically lasts less than
a second. Thus, the strength of sensory
memory is capacity, but the weakness is
duration.
Sensory memory can easily be illus-
trated. Take a quick look at an object and
then close your eyes. What happens in the
fractions of a second immediately after you
shut your eyes? In most instances, your
brain will hold the image immediately af-
ter you close your eyes—that is, you will be
able to see the image mentally. However, very quickly
Sensory Memory things will start to fall out of the mental picture until
Sensory memory is the area in memory where we eventually all that is left is the most central feature. If
store what we encounter with our five human senses. you are familiar with a strobe light, you may have no-
When we hear something, sensory memory is respon- ticed that when the light speeds up, images look contin-
sible for storing the sounds. The consumer walking uous. This is because sensory memory is able to “hold”
through an airport terminal encounters many sounds, the image through the dark portion of the strobe—that
smells, and sights. Sensory memory picks these things is, until the next image is physically sensed.
out and stores them even though the consumer has Sensory memory effects are essential for cog-
not yet allocated attention to any sensations. This por- nitive learning. However, sensory memory alone
tion of memory is consid- creates little opportunity for intentional learning be-
sensory memory area in ered to be preattentive. cause of the short duration. The last images held in
memory where a consumer stores Sensory memory is sensory memory get transferred to the next storage
things exposed to one of the five truly remarkable. For one mechanism, where a sensory input like the touch of
senses thing, it has unlimited ca- a package helps create meaning.36 The term haptic
iconic storage storage of pacity. Sensory memory perception refers specifically to interpretations cre-
visual information in sensory stores everything one is ated by the way some object feels.37 Footjoy recently
memory and the idea that things exposed to, taking an ex- marketed one of its gloves packaged in a black felt
are stored with a one-to-one
representation with reality
act record of what is en- container. Inevitably, consumers who picked up the
countered. Our sensory package believed the glove was more expensive than
echoic storage storage of memory uses multiple consumers who did not touch the package. Many put
auditory information in sensory
memory
distinctive mechanisms. the package down immediately without even checking
Iconic storage is the the price. The feel of the package translated into an
haptic perception storage of visual infor- image evoking an expensive product. Sensory memory
interpretations created by the way
some object feels
mation as an exact rep- works in conjunction with other memory functions in
resentation of the scene. this way.

82 PART TWO: Internal Influences

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Workbench Memory ▸▸ Involvement. The capacity of workbench memory
Workbench, or working, memory is the storage expands and contracts based on the level of a con-
sumer’s involvement. The more involved a consumer
area in the memory system where information is stored
is with a message, the greater will be the capacity of
and encoded for placement in long-term memory and
his workbench memory. When involvement is very
eventually retrieved for future use. As we will see, work- low, workbench memory capacity contracts to a
bench memory works very closely with long-term mem- minimum.
ory. Encoding is the process by which information
is transferred from workbench memory to long-term To test your own workbench memory, try to do the
memory for permanent storage. Retrieval is the pro- following: Without looking back, name all the items pur-
cess by which information is transferred back into work- chased by our Central Market customer. How many can
bench memory for additional processing when needed. you remember? Don’t feel bad if you can’t remember
To illustrate workbench memory, imagine a consumer them all. In fact, most people would not be able to cor-
who is walking the aisles of Central Market. The consumer rectly recall more than a couple of items. Many may re-
places several items into the cart, including some Camem- call that toilet tissue was one item. Unless a consumer
bert, Morbier, Speculoos, and multiple household items has some knowledge of French cheeses, though, he or
including paper towels, storage bags, bleach, and toilet tis- she is unlikely to recall Camembert and/or Morbier.
sue. How much do you think all of this is going to cost the We recall things better when we can make meaningful
consumer? If he doesn’t physically write down each item’s associations.
cost, can we expect that he will be able to know what the
total bill will be? To some extent, his accuracy will depend
on his ability to hold prices in memory long enough to be 4-3 Making Associations
able to compute a total upon checkout.
Let’s consider a single item. He picks up the bleach,
with Meaning as a Key
checks the price, and puts the item in the cart. The price Way to Learn
quickly enters his sensory memory and then moves on to
his workbench memory because he is trying to pay atten- So, what kind of work goes on in workbench memory?
tion to the price. The relevancy of duration, capacity, and The task of a consumer may be to recall things, both over
involvement quickly come into play. a short time period and over a long time period. When
we use the expression “re-
▸▸ Duration. The term short-term is often used when de- member something,” we
scribing workbench memory because this memory stor-
really mean that we can workbench, or working,
age area, like sensory memory, has limited duration. The memory storage area in the
recall some information or memory system where information
duration is not nearly as limited as sensory memory, but
stimuli that enter short-term memory may stay there make it active in our minds is stored while it is being processed
approximately 30 seconds or so without some interven- intentionally. and encoded for later recall
tion. Therefore, our consumer can hardly be expected to encoding process by which
remember the prices for all items in his cart by the time
4-3a Mental information is transferred from
he reaches the checkout counter. Processes workbench memory to long-term
memory for permanent storage
▸▸ Capacity. Unlike sensory memory, workbench Four mental processes
memory has limited capacity. Generally, the capacity help consumers remember retrieval process by which
information is transferred back into
limit for workbench memory is between three and seven things: workbench memory for additional
units of information. This fact is sometimes known as processing when needed
Miller’s Law. Think of a physical workbench. If the bench 1. Repetition is a process
is almost full, we cannot expect to put additional items in which a thought repetition simple mechanism
on it. Some items must be removed first. Thus, we can- is held in short-term in which a thought is kept alive in
not expect our consumer to remember all the prices, memory by mentally short-term memory by mentally
repeating the thought. repeating the thought
especially if he is buying several products. In fact, work-
ing memory is taxed even further if the prices contain 2. Dual Coding is a pro- dual coding coding that
more syllables. A price of $13.47 is harder to remember cess in which two differ- occurs when two different sensory
than $12.10 because it contains more sounds, and more traces are available to remember
ent sensory “traces” are
something
syllables contributes to a meaning of more expensive.38 available to remember

CHAPTER 4: Comprehension, Memory, and Cognitive Learning 83

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 something. As we shall see, a trace is a mental path by
which some thought becomes active.

3. Meaningful Encoding is a process that occurs

when preexisting knowledge is used to assist in stor-
ing new information.

4. Chunking is a process of grouping stimuli by meaning

so that multiple stimuli can become a single memory unit.
Meaningful encoding and chunking rely heavily on mak-
ing associations between new information and meaning
that is stored in long-term memory.

© Ken Wolter/Shutterstock.com
Repetition. Repetition is a commonly employed way
of trying to remember something. Picture someone
trying to remember this license plate number:
TT 867-53-09
One way to remember this number is by thinking it re-
peatedly. This process is known as rehearsal. However, White Castle’s castle-shaped logo makes it
one major problem with this approach is cognitive a more effective image, an example of dual
interference. Cognitive interference simply means coding.
that other things are vying for processing capacity when
a consumer rehearses information. To illustrate, try to
count backwards from 1,000 by 3. This seems like an
easy task. But if you try to do this while someone is call- rhythmic sound, like Coca-Cola, when pronounced more
ing out random numbers at the same time, the task be- easily than other names.40
comes much more difficult. All things equal, repetition Some foods can be difficult to spell; does pepperoni
is the weakest form of learning. have two Rs? But, generations of Americans have no
problem spelling another type of Italian sausage in part
Dual Coding. Dual coding occurs when two different sen-
due to an Oscar Mayer jingle that finishes like this:
sory traces are available to remember something. Market-
“… ’cause Oscar Mayer has a way with B – O – L –
ing messages often combine an image with a description
O – G – N – A!”
in attempt to promote dual coding.39 Researchers tested
Chick-fil-A employs a logo that turns the C into a
the extent to which product feature recall might improve
chicken. Thus, consumers can easily remember Chick-
through dual encoding us-
fil-A and the types of products it sells. A logo enriched
ing scents. Consumers in
meaningful encoding with imagery can enhance recall.
coding that occurs when the experiment showed
information from long-term memory greater recall for product Meaningful Encoding. Meaningful encoding in-
is placed on the workbench and features, even for a prod- volves the association of active information in short-
attached to the information on term memory with other information recalled from
uct as innocuous as a pen-
the workbench in a way that the
information can be recalled and cil, when the product gave long-term memory. By this process, new information
used later off an identifiable scent. is coded with meaning.
In a similar way, associat- To illustrate meaningful encoding, let’s return to
chunking process of grouping
stimuli by meaning so that ing products with rhythm the license plate example. Consumers often find it dif-
multiple stimuli can become one helps consumers remem- ficult to associate anything meaningful with a number.
memory unit ber information. Why is However, a fan of 1980s pop rock would recognize the
cognitive interference this? A consumer is able to sequence of digits as the title of a famous hit by the rock
notion that everything else that retrieve the information in artist Tommy Tutone. (The letters TT on the plate sup-
the consumer is exposed to while two ways—by the content port this.) A consumer who can retrieve the memory of
trying to remember something is of the message and by the this song and attach it to the license plate can remem-
also vying for processing capacity
and thus interfering with memory rhythmic sound that makes ber the plate’s number much more easily. In a way, this
and comprehension up music. Consumers re- example involves both dual and meaningful encoding,
call brand names that give a because the music (also stored in memory) serves as a

84 PART TWO: Internal Influences

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
memory aid itself. For a con-
sumer who knows 1980s mu- Exhibit 4.7
sic, the numbers 867-5309
can only mean Tommy Tu- The Workbench Is Where Meaning Happens
tone. (If you know the song,
it’s probably created an ear-
worm now.) Meaning is built on
the workbench and
Chunking. Chunking is the becomes active in

© Ollyy/Shutterstock.com
consumer’s mind
process of grouping stimuli Long-term memory
functions like a shopping Consumer exposed to
by meaning so that multiple cart, containing all stimuli in the
knowledge with things at environment, a small
stimuli can become one the top going to the number of which are
memory unit. Remember workbench placed on the workbench

that the capacity of work-

Excess stimuli
bench memory is rarely put back in cart
© soliman design/Shutterstock.com

more than seven chunks of

© blvdone/Shutterstock.com
information. A chunk is a
single memory unit. Here’s
a simple experiment that
helps demonstrate what is
meant by a chunk of mem-
© Horiyan/Shutterstock.com
ory. Show someone the fol-
lowing list of numbers for
only a few seconds:
149217761945
After taking the list away, engage them in conversation reconstruct memory traces into a formed representation
for a couple of minutes. Then, ask the person to recall of the thing they are trying to remember or process. See
the list. Why is this task so Exhibit 4.7.
difficult? When someone Meaning and
treats each numeral as a dis- knowledge are the keys
tinct chunk of information, Remember that the capacity to effective coding and
his or her memory capac- of workbench memory is cognitive learning. To
ity is exceeded. After all, illustrate, consider the
12 numerals, or chunks, are rarely more than seven following list of words:
included in the list. chunks. ▸▸ Weep
Now look at the list in
▸▸ Sheep
this way:
1492–1776–1945 ▸▸ Deep

If the person did well in American history class, the ▸▸ Keep

task should be considerably easier. A history student ▸▸ Peep
should recognize that these are all important dates in U.S.
history. The set of 12 numbers can now be stored and re- Suppose a consumer looked at this list one day and
called as only three pieces of information instead of 12. the next day had to guess if the word sleep was on
the list.
Retrieval and Working Memory. As we have dis-
cussed, a task of workbench memory is the scanning Now consider another chunk single memory unit
list:
and retrieval of information from long-term mem- response generation
ory. When a consumer retrieves information from reconstruction of memory traces
▸▸ Night
into a formed representation of
long-term memory, the retrieved information once
▸▸ Rest what they are trying to remember
again ends up on the workbench memory. Through or process
a process of response generation, consumers ▸▸ Awake

CHAPTER 4: Comprehension, Memory, and Cognitive Learning 85

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 ▸▸ Tired one concept to another. This process is known as spread-
▸▸ Dream ing activation. Marketers want their brand names to
cause cognitive activation to spread to favorable, rather
Would this list produce fewer false memories when the than unfavorable, thoughts. For example, consider the fol-
consumer tries to guess if sleep was on it? The answer is lowing brands:
yes. The key is that the second list contains words that
are easier to apply meaning to and thus they produce ▸▸ Tabasco
better memory.41 ▸▸ KFC
Marketers can help with meaningful coding by ex- Tabasco is most often associated with “hot.” Generally,
posing consumers to concepts with shared meaning. Con- hot things are good. Hot music is good, hot fashions are
sumers are more likely to recall a web address containing good, and hot food is good. Therefore, consumers are
meaning like 26thstreetgym than a shorter term without willing to purchase Tabasco brand clothing (ties, shirts,
meaning: 26SG. Another way marketers can help is through etc.). From the concept of KFC, activation may still
integrated marketing communications that try to provide a spread quickly to fried chicken and perhaps the notion
unified promotional message across all consumer media. of unhealthy food. KFC introduced grilled chicken and
at many outlets emphasized the fact by proclaiming it
Long-Term Memory was Kentucky Grilled Chicken—not KFC.
A consumer’s long-term memory plays a very important
Mental Tagging. Let’s look again at Exhibit 4.1. In psy-
role in learning. Long-term memory is a repository
chological terms, a tag is a small piece of coded data that
for all information that a person has encountered. This
helps us get that particular piece of knowledge onto the
portion of memory has unlimited capacity and unlimited
workbench. The tags function much like the bar-coded
duration. Barring some physical incapacity, long-term
information on checked luggage. When everything works
memory represents permanent information storage. In-
right, the information on the tag allows the luggage to
formation stored in long-term memory is coded with se-
be located and directed toward the correct destination.
mantic coding, which means the stimuli are converted
However, we all realize that not everything always goes
to meaning that can be expressed verbally.
right and luggage sometimes ends up in the wrong place.
Why can’t consumers always recall information
Similarly, if consumers do not tag information in a mean-
when needed if storage is permanent? The problem is
ingful way, the encoding process results in errors.
not a storage issue as much as it is a retrieval issue. To
As adults, most people have recalled some innocu-
illustrate, consider that
ous childhood memory for seemingly no apparent reason.
long-term memory even things consumers
These types of memories illustrate how long-term mem-
repository for all information that a process at very low levels
ory is permanent and how events that were poorly tagged
person has encountered leave some memory trace.
during encoding can emerge at practically any time.
semantic coding type A memory trace is the
Stimuli that consumers pay attention to but do not really
of coding wherein stimuli are mental path by which
comprehend or elaborate upon tend to be poorly tagged.
converted to meaning that can be some thought becomes ac-
expressed verbally tive. For example, in the Rumination. Rumination refers to unintentional, spon-
memory trace mental path United States, childhood taneous, recurrent memory of past and sometimes long-
by which some thought becomes Easter memories gener- ago events that are not necessarily triggered by anything
active ally include rabbits, eggs, in the environment.42 These thoughts frequently include
spreading activation way and candy. Memory traces consumption-related activities. Psychologists tend to think
cognitive activation spreads from from Easter for many of frequent rumination as unhealthy and at times symp-
one concept (or node) to another consumers also spread to tomatic of depression. Consumers who have had a bad ex-
tag small piece of coded specific brands like Rus- perience with a brand ruminate about the bad experience.
information that helps with the sell Stover and Cadbury The rumination can culminate in attempts to sabotage the
retrieval of knowledge (chocolates) and of course, brand through malicious online behavior or intentional
rumination unintentional no Easter memory is com- acts aimed at harming the brand.43 Brands that get acti-
but recurrent memory of long-ago plete without Peeps. vated during negative ruminations may become disliked
events that are spontaneously Psychologically, a mem- over time.
(not evoked by the environment)
triggered ory trace shows how cogni- Not all rumination is bad, however, and nostalgic ru-
tive activation spreads from mination may include positive associations with brands.

86 PART TWO: Internal Influences

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Nostalgia, a mental yearning to relive the past, gain knowledge on purpose, personal elabora-
produces emotions of longing. Often product tion provides the strongest link to meaning-
and brand associations can generate fully encoding information so that it
nostalgia. For example, Cracker can be useful in decision making.
Barrel stores sell products like
Mallo Cups, Moon Pies, and
Pixie Sticks, which seem to as-
similate well with memories of
Louella938/Shutterstock.com
childhood and childhood vacations.
The products help consumers revisit the past. 4-4 Associative Networks
Nostalgia can motivate product purchases as consum-
ers attempt to relive the pleasant feelings of the past. Con- and Consumer Knowledge
sumers become more willing to make purchases when a
nostalgic ad evokes or recaptures a childhood mood. 4-4a Associative Networks
Music, toys, magazines, home products, and movies are Knowledge in long-term memory is stored in an as-
products that consumers commonly report buying in as- sociative network. An associative network, some-
sociation with feelings of nostalgia.44 The large number of times referred to as a semantic network, is a network of
advertisements that include popular “oldies” songs also il- mental pathways linking all knowledge within memory.
lustrates attempts at evoking nostalgic feelings. Nostalgia These networks are similar to family trees, as some
can create melancholy feelings that can be made more family members are obviously related, but other family
positive by some artifact linking the present with the past. members, while still linked together, are not so obvi-
Elaboration ously related. Do you know your sixth cousins? Some
say that on average, a stranger sitting next to you is a
The multiple stores theory of memory is an active pro-
sixth cousin.
cess of association. Elaboration refers to the extent to
Exhibit 4.8 shows how we depict portions of a con-
which a person continues processing a message even af-
sumer’s associative network. In this case, the portion of
ter she develops an initial understanding in the compre-
the network depicts meanings evoked from the concept
hension stage.45 With elaboration, increased information
of “Champagne.” Normally, we think of brands as compa-
is retrieved from long-term memory and attached to the
nies. But some regions are synonymous with products. In
new information and understanding. This means more
those cases, as with Champagne, regional brands emerge.
and richer tags and a better chance of recall. In particular,
The exhibit shows a typi-
personal elaboration, in which people imagine them-
cal American consumer’s nostalgia a yearning to
selves associating with a stimulus being processed, pro-
flow of associations from relive the past that can produce
vides the deepest comprehension and greatest chance of
the concept of Champagne. lingering emotions
accurate recall.
These associations provide elaboration extent to which
In Exhibit 4.1, notice the information processing
cues for how concepts be- a consumer continues processing
steps linked to memory get more pronounced from ex-
come active from long-term a message even after an initial
posure through elaboration. The darker and more pro- understanding is achieved
memory. When someone
nounced lines linking comprehension and elaboration
thinks of Champagne, they personal elaboration
to memory represent the strength with which incoming
very likely also activate process by which people imagine
information is tagged. Remember, our brains tag infor- themselves somehow associating
thoughts about holiday cel-
mation so that we can understand it. Consumers who with a stimulus that is being
ebrations. processed
reach the elaboration stage are most likely to meaning-
fully encode information so that intentional retrieval is 4-4b Declarative associative network
possible later. In a marketing context, therefore, appeals network of mental pathways
to a consumer to associate aspects of their own lives are
Knowledge linking knowledge within memory;
sometimes referred to as a
likely to lead to deeper comprehension and better re- Declarative knowledge semantic network
call.46 When an advertisement says, “Have you ever been is a term used in psychology
in this situation?” or, “Imagine yourself on a deserted is- to refer to cognitive compo- declarative knowledge
cognitive components that
land,” these primes can trigger personal elaboration in a nents that represent facts. represent facts
consumer, resulting in better recall. For anyone trying to Declarative knowledge is

CHAPTER 4: Comprehension, Memory, and Cognitive Learning 87

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 from the Champagne region
Exhibit 4.8 of France. But every time a
consumer encounters some-
Schema for “Champagne” as a Brand one calling any bubbly wine
Champagne, that false rule
California is reinforced and becomes
Christmas stronger. In this way, the as-
Expensive New Year Korbel sociations represent rules
Cold Holidays that determine consumer re-
actions. When an intermedi-
ary node like peanuts comes
Dom Champagne Celebration Cheap
Perignon between the brand and an-
other concept, like “stinks,”
the indirect association still
Reims France Bubbles Party Rap Music
affects the brand’s meaning.
Amazingly, every con-
Wine Jay-Z Cristal cept within a consumer’s as-
Roederer sociative network is linked
to every other concept. Con-
sider the following request:

List at least 10 snack foods in 60 seconds or less.

represented in an associative network by two nodes
A typical consumer would list things like potato chips, an
linked together by a path. Nodes simply represent
energy bar, a Twinkie, and a candy bar. Few would argue
concepts in the network, while paths represent as-
that these are indeed snack foods. All are linked to the
sociation between nodes. Consumers’ declarative
snack concept and distinct from other food cate-
knowledge may not always be correct, but consum-
gories—like dinner entrees. A glass of milk
ers do act upon the beliefs this knowledge repre-
may also be a snack, but the association
sents. The following are examples of declarative
between milk and snack food must first
knowledge based on the associative network in
pass through several nodes. By that time,
Exhibit 4.8:
the association is weak. Selling milk as a
Champagne is bubbly and is something for snack, therefore, is difficult. However, if
celebrating, particularly during the holi- a dairy packages milk in a small container
days. Dom Perignon is a brand of Cham- reminiscent of a snack food’s plastic wrapper,
pagne. Parties go well with Champagne. the likelihood that consumers would view milk
Jay Z pours champagne in his rap videos . . . as a snack will increase, and the rule that
milk could be a snack will subsequently
In everyday experiences, a consumer com- Igor Lateci/Shutterstock.com increase in strength.
pares all of these bits of knowledge with reality. Every
time a consumer encoun-

nodes concepts found in an

ters a supportive instance 4-5 Product and Brand Schemas
of declarative knowl-
associative network
edge, that knowledge be- Consumers’ knowledge for a brand or product is con-
paths representations of the comes stronger. Consider: tained in a schema. A schema is a portion of an as-
association between nodes in an
“Champagne is wine with sociative network that represents a specific entity and
associative network
bubbles.” Although con- thereby provides it with meaning. Exhibit 4.8 illustrates a
schema a portion of an sumers typically use the brand schema for Champagne as a regional brand, while
associative network that represents
term “Champagne” for any Exhibit 4.9 illustrates a product schema for snack food. A
a specific entity and thereby
provides it with meaning wine with bubbles, true brand schema is the smaller part within one’s total associa-
Champagne can only come tive network responsible for defining a particular marketing

88 PART TWO: Internal Influences

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Exhibit 4.9 Exhibit 4.10
Consumer Knowledge for Snack Foods Category Exemplars
Product category Exemplar
MLB (Major League Baseball) Team New York Yankees
Laundry Detergent Tide
Online Retailer Amazon.com
Golf Ball Titleist Pro V1
Social Network Site Facebook
Smartphone iPhone
Search Engine Google
Coffee Shop Starbucks
entity. Similarly, product schemas function in much the
same way. Each time a consumer encounters something
that could be a snack food, the mind quickly compares all may be the exemplar. Who is Laurie Blue Adkins? Well,
the associations in the schema to see if indeed the thought is by her stage name, Adele, she may be the category exem-
correct. Several types of schemata (plural for schema) exist. plar for female pop star.
4-5a Exemplars The exemplar provides consumers with a basis of com-
parison for judging whether something belongs to a category.
An exemplar is a concept within a schema that is the When a consumer encounters a carrot, the association with
single best representative of some category. Exemplars chips as the exemplar of a snack food may not be close. But,
can differ from one person to another based on their if a retailer offers small bite-sized carrots packaged in a small
unique experiences. In a snack food schema, potato chips plastic bag, the carrots share more in common with chips
and may well fit into the snack food category. Exhibit 4.10
illustrates other possible category exemplars.

4-5b Prototypes
Some categories are not well represented by an exemplar.
For instance, a “pharmaceutical sales rep” category likely
does not evoke a specific person who best represents that
category. However, an image is associated in one’s mind with
the category. That image contains the characteristics most
associated with a pharma rep. Several characteristics may
come to mind and they are active in your own mind at this
moment. This type of schema is known as a prototype.
Featureflash Photo Agency/Shutterstock.com

Whether represented by a
exemplar concept within
prototype or an exemplar,
a schema that is the single best
consumers compare new representative of some category;
and unknown examples to schema for something that really exists
the standard by comparing
prototype schema that is the
features with those found in best representative of some category
the schema. If interviewing but that is not represented by an
for a pharma rep job, one existing entity; conglomeration of
the most associated characteristics
Laurie Blue Adkins is better known as Adele. probably wants to evoke as-
of a category
similation with that category.

CHAPTER 4: Comprehension, Memory, and Cognitive Learning 89

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 4-5c Reaction to New Products/Brands tend to be preferred by consumers.49 Episodic memories
and scripts both can include knowledge necessary for con-
When consumers encounter new products or brands,
sumers to use products. Younger consumers’ memories
they react to them by comparing them to the existing
likely are much better developed than older consumers
schema. Sometimes new products fail because they are
when it comes to finding and posting important market-
too different or just way ahead of their time. Tablet com-
ing information of Facebook and Twitter. On the other
puter–type devices first appeared in the 1990s but didn’t
hand, older consumers possess better episodic memory
catch on. Today, Google Glass remains controversial, per-
for how to take prescription medicine.
haps in much the same way. Are we ready for heads-up
web display and real-time recording of all activities? One 4-5f Social Schemata
way that new products can ease their way into a market is
through cobranding. TGI Fridays, for instance, cobrands A social schema (or social stereotype) is the cognitive
with Jack Daniels (JD) as a way of introducing menu representation that gives a specific type of person mean-
items infused with JD flavor. Google is currently explor- ing. A stereotype captures the role expectations of a per-
ing cobranding opportunities for Glass. Rayban and Oak- son of a specific type. Consumers generally like when a
ley, both high-end eyewear brands, are partnering with service provider matches an existing stereotype. Consum-
Google to offer more stylish Glass versions.47 ers are comforted by a surgeon who looks and acts like a
surgeon. In fact, a service provider who does not fit the so-
4-5d Script cial schema for that category can alter behavior. A noncon-
forming server who is too over- or underweight, may cause
A script is a schema representing an event. Consumers de-
consumers to eat more or less than they might otherwise.50
rive expectations for service encounters from these scripts.
A social schema can be based on practically any
For instance, when a consumer dines in a fine Italian restau-
characteristic that can describe a person, including oc-
rant, the script probably contains things such as valet park-
cupation, age, sex, ethnicity, religion, and even product
ing, a greeting by a well-dressed maître d’, a linen-covered
ownership. What kind of person do you think drives a
table, and perhaps music by Dean Martin. Since the script
is positive (Italian fine dining is a good experience), restau-
rant managers try to not vary too much from expectations or
risk confusing, and even frustrating, consumers.
Similarly, salespeople employ scripts in performing
their jobs. For instance, salespeople who work for chari-
table appeals use scripts that consists of sequences of
actions known to increase consumer compliance.48 The
salesperson develops these scripts over time, facilitating
an ability to predict what will happen next.

4-5e Episodic Memory

Closely related to the concept of a script is episodic
memory. Episodic memory refers to the memory for
past events, or episodes, in one’s life. A consumer may
have fond memories of
childhood holiday celebra-
script schema representing an tions. Another consumer
The Advertising Archives

event
may remember graduat-
episodic memory memory ing from college or getting
for past events in one’s life a first job. Both of these
social schema cognitive are episodes, and they in-
representation that gives a specific volve products and brands.
type of person meaning Brands associated with Givenchy hopes to benefit from the
social stereotype another positive events stored in associations that make up the astronaut
word for social schema episodic memory receive social stereotype.
something of a halo and

90 PART TWO: Internal Influences

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Consumers and Technology

Have You Got the Point?

The printed word can be provided to consumers through
many technologies. Some technologies, like ink on paper,
are centuries old. Others date back only decades or less. If
you want a consumer to remember a message, does the

Andrey_Popov/Shutterstock.com
media technology affect comprehension? Researchers in
several fields, including education, consumer behavior,
and advertising, among others, are keenly interested
in the question. While the matter is far from settled,
research points to some interesting findings. Paper still
seems to be best, but, for short messages, consumers
also comprehend detail well when reading from a smart-
phone screen. We don’t know exactly why. Some believe
it’s because we tend to touch the information with our Sources: Mangen, A., B. R. Walgermo, and K. Bronnick (2013), “Reading Linear Texts on Paper
Versus Computer Screen: Effects on Reading Comprehension,” International Journal of Educational
fingers when reading a phone. Others believe we are Research, 58, 61–68. Coulter, K. S. (2016), “How Hand Proximity Impacts Consumer Responses to a
socialized to focus better on what is on our phone. Persuasive Communication,” Psychology & Marketing, 33, 135–149.

Toyota Prius? A team of researchers sought to identify if stigmatization of smoking. A smoker, as opposed to a non-
drivers were more or less courteous based on what make smoker, is more likely to be attributed with the following
and model of car they drive. The researchers were sur- characteristics: energetic, interesting, disgusting, offend-
prised, in contrast to their preconceived stereotype, to ing, and unkempt. Additionally, a person described as a
find that Prius drivers were the least courteous drivers.51 smoker is liked less than a similar person described as
Consumers also realize that, as consumers, they belong a nonsmoker, and interestingly, even smokers are more
to certain categories of person types. This phenomenon falls likely to describe a fellow smoker as disgusting and of-
under the general heading of social identity, the idea that fensive.52 Thus, the stereotype seems pervasive. Obvi-
individual identity is defined in part by the groups to which ously, a product associated with increasing the belief that
one belongs. Many consumers will try to match the charac- a consumer is disgusting and offensive is more difficult
teristics associated with a desired stereotype. We will return to sell. To the extent that
to this in a later chapter about reference group behavior. anti-smoking public policy social identity the idea that
Also, attempts to “demarket” a product can be im- messages have tried to stig- one’s individual identity is defined
in part by the social groups to
plemented by stigmatizing consumption with a negative matize smokers, the mes-
which one belongs
stereotype. Perhaps no better example exists than the sages have been effective.

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