course: Exceptional Psychology

Chapter 1: Exceptionality and Special Education People with disabilities are No two people are alike.
just like everyone else People with disabilities are
CHAPTER OUTLINE:
unique individuals, just like
1) Terminologies
everyone else.
2) Categories if Exceptionalities
A disability is a handicap A disability is the inability to
3) Misconceptions about Exceptional Learners
do something, while a
4) Getting Oriented to Exceptional Learners and Special
handicap is a disadvantage
Education
that is imposed on an
5) Educational Definition of Exceptional Learners
individual.
6) Prevalence of Exceptional Learners
7) Definition of Special Education
8) History and Origins of Special Education Getting Oriented to Exceptional Learners
and Special Education
Terminologies The study of exceptional learners is also the study of
similarities. Most exceptional learners are average in more
Impairment Low or abnormality of psychological,
ways than they are not.
physiological, or anatomical structure or
function (unique per individual). ex:
blindness, mutism, paralysis) Reasons for Optimism
Disability A measurable impairment or limitations that Down à a condition that results in the
interferes with a person’s ability. Subset of Syndrome largest number of children classified
inability. (being deaf, vision impairment) (Trisonomy 21) as having moderate intellectual and
developmental disabilities.
Inability A state of not being able to do something.
(Inability of a 6-month old to walk) Retinopathy of àLeading cause of blindness
prematurity
Handicap Disadvantage that occurs as a result of
disability. Might or might not be caused by a Phenylketonuria à metabolic disorder
disability. (In the dark, a person who has sight (PKU)
is the one who is handicapped) Cystic Fibrosis àinherited condition characterized
Exceptional Learners who are different from “normal” or by chronic respiratory and digestive
Learners “average” learners. problems
Article XIV, Provide adult citizens, the disabled and out of Muscular àInherited disorder characterized
Section 2 school youth training… Dystrophy by progressive degeneration of
muscles
Categories of Exceptionalities (Omrod, 2000) Hydrocephalus à accumulation of fluid around the
(1) Cognitive or Academic Difficulties brain that can cause mental or
physical disabilities if not corrected
(2) Social, Emotional, Behavioral Difficulties
(3) Sensory Impairment
The Importance of Abilities
(4) Giftedness
Many people with disabilities have abilities that go
(5) Physical Difficulties and Health Impairment
unrecognized because their disabilities become the focus of
concern and distract attention from what the individual can do.
Misconceptions about Exceptional Learners
The most important characteristics of exceptional learners are
MYTH FACT
their abilities, not their disabilities.
Public schools may choose Federal legislations specifies
to provide education for that to receive federal Educational Definition of Exceptional Learners
some students with funds, every school system Exceptional learners – those who require special education and
disabilities must provide free related services if they are to realize their full human potential.
appropriate public They may have intellectual disabilities, learning or attention
education (FAPE) for every disabilities, emotional or behavioral disorders, physical
student, regardless of any disabilities, disorders of communication autism, traumatic brain
disabling condition. injury (TBI), impaired hearing, impaired sight, or special gifts or
The cause of most The cause of disabilities are talents.
disabilities are known, but not known, although
little is known about how to progress is being made in Two concepts of exceptional learners:
help individuals overcome or pinpointing why many 1) Diversity of characteristics
compensate their disabilities disabilities occur, More is 2) Need for special education
known about the treatment
of most disabilities than Prevalence of exceptional Learners
about their causes. Prevalence – refers to the percentage of a population or
number of individuals having a particular exceptionality.

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course: Exceptional Psychology
Edouard Seguin (1812-1880) – famous educator of so-called
About 10 of every 100 students were receiving special idiotic children.
education in the early 21st century.
Revolutionary ideas of Itard, Seguin, and their successors:
Most of the children and youths who are served by special • Individualized instruction – the child’s characteristic
education are between the ages of 6 and 17. provide the basis for teaching techniques instead of
the prescribe academic content.
High-Incidence and Low-Incidence categories • A carefully sequenced series of educational tasks –
High-incidence disabilities – occur with a relatively high beginning with the task the child can perform
frequency because they are among the most common. gradually leading to more complex learning.
• learning disabilities • Emphasis on stimulation and awakening od the child’s
• communication disorders senses – to make the child more aware of the
• emotional disturbance responsiveness to educated stimuli.
• mild intellectual disabilities • Meticulous arrangement of the child's environment -
• autism or autism spectrum disorder the structure of the environment and the child's
experience of it led naturally to learning.
Low-incidence disabilities – occur relatively rarely. • Immediate reward for correct performance - providing
• low vision and blindness reinforcement for desirable behavior.
• deafness • Tutoring in functional skills - to make the child as self-
• deaf-blindness sufficient and productive as possible in everyday life.
• severe intellectual disabilities • Belief that every child should be educated to the
• traumatic brain injury (TBI) greatest extent possible - because every child can
improve to some degree.
Definition of Special Education
Special education – specially designed instruction that meets Samuel Gridley Howe (1801-1876) - an 1824 graduate of
the unusual needs of an exceptional student and that might Harvard Medical School. He was instrumental in founding the
require special materials, teaching techniques, or equipment Perkins School for the Blind in Watertown, Massachusetts, and
and/or facilities. also taught students who were deaf and blind. His success in
- Trend toward placement in environments closest to teaching Laura Bridgman, who was deaf and blind, greatly
the general education classroom in format, especially influenced the education of Helen Keller.
for younger children.
Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet (1787-1851) - a minister, was a
History and Origins of Special Education student at Andover Theological Seminary, he tried to teach a
Early 19th century – first systematic attempts were made to girl who was deaf. Established the first American residential
educate “idiotic” and “insane” children – those who today are school, in Hartford, Connecticut, for students who were deaf
referred as intellectual disabilities and emotional behavioral (now known as the American School of the Deaf).
disorders (or emotional disturbance)
Normalization, Deinstitutionalization, and Inclusion
Prerevolutionary era – society offered most children with DNA, the hereditary material of life. An organism's DNA affects
disabilities be put in an asylum to protect them from a cruel how it looks, how it behaves, and its physiology. So a change in
world in which they didn’t fit in. an organism's DNA can cause changes in all aspects of its life.
Mutations are essential to evolution; they are the raw material
1800s – Contemporary educational methods for exceptional of genetic variation.
children can be traced directly to techniques that pioneered
during this time. Deinstitutionalization - Breaking down barriers to participation
of people with disabilities in activities with non-handicapped
People and Ideas individuals was one of the ideas leading to the
European physicians – most originators of special education. deinstitutionalization movement of the late 20th century.

Jean-Marc-Gaspar Itard (1775-1835) – a French physician who Inclusion - also referred as integration, has long been an issue
was an authority on diseases of the ear and on the education of with all exceptional students, including those with special gifts
deaf students. or talents. Although historically, educators built educational
programming for students with disabilities on the assumption
Philippe Pinel (1945-1826) - a prominent French physician who that a variety of service delivery options need to be available
was an early advocate of humane treatment of “insane” inclusion of exceptional learners in ordinary classrooms with
people. Itard’s mentor. their nonexceptional peers has become the single most
important issue for some advocates.

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Council for Exceptional Children and Chapter 2 : Current Practices for Meeting the
Development of the Profession
The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) - is a professional Needs of Exceptional Learners
organization founded in 1922 by Elizabeth Farrell and a group CHAPTER OUTLINE:
of educators from the United States and Canada. Its 1) Misconceptions about Learners with Disabilities
establishment marked a significant milestone in the 2) Evaluation and Identification of Exceptional Learners
development of special education as a profession. 3) The Intent of Special Education Law: Individualized
Education for Students with Disabilities
Elizabeth Farrell - a prominent figure in early special education, 4) Providing Special Education: Placement Issues for
played a crucial role in integrating information from child Exceptional Learners
development, social work, mental testing, and instruction to 5) Teachers’ Roles in Special Education
address the needs of students who were underserved or 6) Integration of People with Disabilities into the Larger
excluded from mainstream education. Her advocacy paved the Society
way for the establishment of the CEC, which remains a leading 7) Special Education in the Context of Standards-Based
professional organization in the field of special education. Reform

Contemporary special education - a professional field rooted in Misconceptions about Learners with Disabilities
various academic disciplines, requiring specialized training MYTH FACT
programs. While it shares concerns with mainstream education, Public schools may choose Some believe that
it maintains a distinct focus on addressing the needs of All professionals agree that technology should be used
students with disabilities or exceptionalities. " technology should be used cautiously because it can
to its fullest to aid people lead people with disabilities
Individuals, Parents, and Organization with disabilities to become too dependent
Eunice Kennedy Schriver - through initiatives like the Special on it. Some professionals
Olympics, have significantly impacted perceptions of disabilities believe that people with
and improved quality of life. disabilities can be tempted
to rely on technology
Parent organizations, primarily comprised of parents of instead of developing their
exceptional children - serve crucial functions such as providing own abilities.
support, information, and advocating for needed services. All students with disabilities Most students with
Examples include the ARC, National Association for Gifted must now be included in disabilities will be included
Children, and the Autism Society of America, among others. standardized testing, just in standardized testing
These organizations have been instrumental in advancing like students without procedures, but for some, a
special education and opportunities for individuals with disabilities given test is deemed
disabilities. inappropriate. Some
students will require
Legislation and Litigation adaptations of the testing
- The primary federal law affecting special education is the procedure to accommodate
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), enacted their specific disabilities.
in the 1970s and reauthorized by the U.S.Congress in However, students with
2004. disabilities can no longer be
- Also important is the Americans with Disabilities automatically excluded from
Act(ADA), which prohibits discrimination against persons participating in standardized
with disabilities in employment and communications. assessment procedures.
- In the 21st century, the No Child Left Behind Act Research has established Research comparing special
(NCLB)also is important in the education of exceptional beyond a doubt that special versus general education
learners. classes are ineffective, and placement is inconclusive
- Lawsuits (litigation) have added to interpretation of the that inclusion is effective because most of these
meaning and application of the law. studies have been
- Some parents sue to keep their children from being methodologically flawed.
identified for special education or to have them educated Researchers are now
in less atypical situations; others sue because they want focusing on finding ways to
their children to be identified for special education or make inclusion work more
placed in more specialized environments. effectively.
Everyone agrees that Some authorities now
Progress of Special Education teachers in early believe that although
Special education has made great progress, intervention programs need families are an important
but making it better is a continuing struggle. part of intervention

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to assess parents as well as programming and should be - A way of determining whether a student has a
their children involved in some way, learning disability; increasingly intensive levels of instructional
special educators should intervention are delivered, and if the student does not achieve,
center their assessment at some point, he or she is determined to have a learning
efforts primarily on the disability or is referred for special education evaluation.
child, not the parents.
Everyone agrees that good Considerable disagreement In an RTI identification model, a student must:
early childhood exists among professionals 1) receive quality instruction in the general education
programming for students about whether early classroom before a formal evaluation for special
with or without disabilities intervention programming education services. Teachers gather data to determine
should be the same for children with disabilities whether the student is benefiting from that instruction.
should be child directed, as 2) Only after (2) educators determine that a student is
is typical of regular nonresponsive to quality, research-based instruction by a
preschool programs, or general educator would a formal evaluation to special
more teacher directed. education occur.
Professionals agree that all Professionals are in conflict
students with disabilities in over how much vocational Multitiered Model for Identification
secondary school should be versus academic instruction The RTI approach is based on a multi-tiered model of
given a curriculum focused students with mild prevention. RTI typically provides for three progressively more
on vocational preparation disabilities should receive. intensive tiers of instruction for students who are experiencing
difficulties.

• Tier 1 includes screening of students who may be at risk of

academic failure; implementation of quality, research-
based instruction; and weekly monitoring of student
progress. The teacher monitors the student's progress in
the curriculum and in relation to peers and provides
differentiated instruction. If the student's achievement
improves, no other action is taken. If the student's
performance doesn't improve, the student moves to Tier 2.

• In Tier 2, the student usually receives small-group

instruction by a teacher or highly-trained assistant three to
Evaluation and Identification of Exceptional Learners four times per week with a research-validated program in
PL 94-142: The Education for All Handicapped Children Act - the areas of difficulty (e.g., reading or writing). If the
to ensure that all children with disabilities receive a free student's performance doesn't improve at this level, a
appropriate public education (FAPE). To provide students with multidisciplinary team is convened to determine whether a
disabilities appropriate educational services in the setting that student has a disability and therefore qualifies for Tier 3,
maximizes their potential (the least restrictive environment), which is special education.
schools must employ effective practices in identifying
exceptional learners. • Tier 3 includes more intensive intervention provided by a
special educator in an appropriate placement.
Prereferral Teams
Prereferral teams (PRTs) - a group of professionals (e.g., special
education teachers, counselors, administrators, psychologists)
convened to work with the general education teacher to help
identify alternative educational strategies for the student
before making a referral for special education evaluation.
- Designed to influence general educators to take
ownership of difficult-to-teach students and to minimize
inappropriate referrals to special education.

Response to Intervention
Response to intervention – also known as response-to-
treatment approach, refers to a student's change (or lack of
change) in academic performance or behavior as a result of
instruction.

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course: Exceptional Psychology
providing appropriate individualized services to children and
Assessment Practices in RTI Model youth with disabilities.
The basic purposes of assessment in an RTI model are to
identify students who may be at increased risk of school failure Individualized Education Programs
and to collect data to determine the effectiveness of instruction The individualized education program (IEP) - is the legal
so that appropriate instructional decisions can be made. document that describes the educational services a student
receives. IEPs vary greatly in format and detail from one child to
The two most common forms of assessment in an RTI process: another and from one school district to another.
(1) screening and (2) progress monitoring

Screening instruments – used to identify those students who

may be at increased risk of school failure.
- Are typically administered to an entire group of
students and may be given to a large number of students in a
short period of time. School personnel use results of the
screening administrations to identify students for whom
additional progress monitoring and Tier-2 instruction are
required.

Progress monitoring assessments - are frequent, quick-and-easy

measures that teachers administer at regular intervals and that
provide information on whether a student is learning as
expected.
- The purpose of administering progress-monitoring
Things to Remember in Writing IEP
instruments is to determine whether current instructional
- When writing an IEP, the team should develop a
practices are appropriate for individual students and to identify
document that is clear, useful, and legally defensible.
instructional needs.
- The relationships among IEP components must be
clear and explicit in order to maintain the focus of the
One common form of progress monitoring is curriculum-
individualized program-special, individually tailored
based measurement (CBM). CBM involves students' responses
instruction to meet unique needs.
to their usual instructional materials; it entails direct and
- Must be annually reviewed with the team or school
frequent samples of performance from the students'
community involved.
curriculum. CBM measures are commonly used as a way to
- Must be written after a proper evaluation and should
determine students' responsiveness to RTI.
be use for proper placement of student.
- The purpose of making IEP for the welfare of the
Support for RTI Identification Models
student.
Advocates of an RTI identification model claim that it will
Problems of IEP:
reduce the number of students referred to special education.
• Often written at the wrong time and for the wrong
- The argument is that as a result of high quality
reason.
instruction provided at every level, RTI helps to determine
• Reliance on state standards.
whether a student is truly a student with a disability and not a
student who has been subjected to poor or missing instruction.

The Intent of Special Education Law:

Individualized Education for Students with Disabilities
The primary intent of the special education law
passed in 1975 and the subsequent reauthorizations has been
to require educators to focus on the needs of individual
students with disabilities to ensure that they receive
appropriate educational services. A multidisciplinary team that The legal IEP is written after evaluation and identification of the
includes school or agency personnel as well as the parents and student's disabilities and before a placement decision is made:
the individual when appropriate determines the services that Educators first determine what the student needs and then
an individual receives. make a decision about placement in the least restrictive
The individualized education program is the primary environment in which the needed services can be provided.
aspect of this focus; it spells out how a school plans to meet an
exceptional student's needs. In addition to the IEP, the Individualized Family Service Plan
individualized family service plan for young children and the IFSP - as with school-age children with disabilities, a legal
transition plan for adolescents are important aspects of document, individualized family service plan (IFSP) describes
the services that the child will receive.

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- Similar to an IEP for older children, but it broadens the Class Set-up and Facilities
focus to include the family as well as the child. In fact, Resource room - a room where special materials and
federal regulations stipulate that the family be involved in equipment eare available.
the development of the IFSP. Table 2.2 describes the legal
requirements of an IFSP. Special self-contained class - designed for a small group of
- As Noonan and McCormick (2006) note, an IFSP may be exceptional students with specific characteristics or needs,
written for children up to 6 years of age. typically numbering 15 or fewer.
- Usually an IFSP is written for infants and children up to 3
years of age, with the IEP being more common for Special day schools - provide an all-day special placement for
children three and older. exceptional learners who need this level of specialization or
dedication to their needs. Organized for a specific category of
exceptional students and may contain special equipment
necessary for their care and education. These students return
to their homes during non- school hours.

Hospital or Homebound instruction - the youngster is confined

to the hospital or the home for a relatively short time, and the
hospital or homebound teacher maintains contact with the
Transition Plans for Adolescent with Disabilities general classroom teacher.
Transition plans – required by IDEA and federal laws, should be
incorporated in student’s IEPS. Residential school - exceptional students receive 24-hour care
- Include a coordinated set of outcome-oriented away from home, often at a distance from their communities.
activities that promote movement from school to This is the highest level of specialization or dedication on the
postsecondary education, vocational training, integrated continuum of alternative placements required by IDEA. These
employment (including supported employment), continuing students might make periodic visits home or return each
adult education, adult services, independent living, or weekend, but during the week, they are residents of the
community participation. institution, where they receive academic instruction in addition
- IDEA requires that each student’s IEP contain a to management of their daily living environment.
statement of needed transition services, when the student is 16
years of age and annually thereafter. (For students for whom it
is appropriate or who are deemed at risk of failure, the
transition statement must be included in the IEP at a younger
age.)
- In addition, the IEP must include a statement of the
linkages and/or responsibilities of each participating agency
before the student leaves the school setting.

Providing Special Education: Least Restrictive Environment

Placement Issues for Exceptional Learners LRE – depends in part on the individual’s exceptionality.
Who educates exceptional students and where they receive - Usually means that the student should be separated
their education depend on two factors: from nondisabled classmates and from home, family, and
1) how and how much the student differs from typical community as little as possible. The student’s life should be as
students. normal as possible, and the intervention should be consistent
2) what resources are available in the school and with individual needs and not interfere with individual freedom
community. any more than is absolutely necessary.

Placement of Students in the 21st Century

Since the late 1980s, data have shown a steady trend toward
placing more students with disabilities in general education
classes and a corresponding trend toward placing fewer

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students with disabilities in resource rooms, separate classes,
and separate facilities. Co-teaching - Sometimes referred to as collaborative teaching
Nationwide, more than 50% of exceptional children or cooperative teaching, co-teaching takes mutuality and
and youths are now served primarily in general education reciprocity in collaborative consultation one step further
classes. Relatively few students with disabilities are placed collaboration among general educators.
outside of regular schools.
Curricula and Instructional Strategies
Cooperative learning - an instructional strategy that many
proponents of inclusion believe is an effective way to integrate
students with dis abilities into groups of nondisabled peers. In
cooperative learning, students work together in heterogeneous
small groups to solve problems or practice responses. peer-
tutoring model.

Peer-mediated instruction - may refer to peer tutoring, the use

of peer confederates in managing behavior problems, or any
other arrangement in which teachers deliberately recruit and
train peers to help teach an academic or social skill to a
classmate.

Classwide peer tutoring (CWPT) – Peer tutoring when the whole

class is involved, all students in the general education
classroom routinely engage in peer tutoring for particular
subject matter. Teachers must provide instruction in how to do
peer tutoring and in the content of the tutoring sessions. Peers
tutor each other to provide drill and practice of skills they
already have.

Partial participation - another instructional strategy, means

having students with disabilities participate, on a reduced basis,
Children under the age of 6 less often receive in virtually all activities experienced by all students in the
education in general education classes and more often attend general education classroom.
separate schools than do school-age children.
Older teenagers and young adults more often attend Instructional Accommodations and Adaptations
special classes, separate schools, and other environments such Modifications à usually take the form of
as homebound instruction than do students in elementary and amended materials or assignments
high schools. and differ from changes in curricula
or instructional strategies.
Inclusion in Schools Accommodations àinclude changes in instruction
Educators often use the term inclusion to describe teaching that don’t significantly change the
students with disabilities in the same environment as their age con- tent or conceptual difficulty
peers who don’t have disabilities. Inclusion is now an issue in level of the curriculum.
education worldwide. Adaptations à generally involve more significant
modifications of instruction than
Implementing Inclusive Teaching Practices accommodations
Five methods to helps students with disabilities in the general Tiered àare an example of adaptations,
education classroom: assignments wherein teachers provide choices
1) Collaborative consultation for assignments on a single topic
2) cooperative teaching and other term arrangements that vary in difficulty.
3) Curricula and instructional strategies For example, when studying a novel, some students might write
4) Accommodations and adaptations paragraphs that identify and describe the characters; others
5) Training general education teachers to accommodate might write paragraphs or papers that analyze the traits of each
diversity character, using examples from the book. In this case, both the
assignment and the subsequent grading differ.
Collaborative consultation - the special education teacher or
psychologist acts as an ex- pert who provides advice to the
general education teacher. The special educator might suggest
changes to instruction or additional supports, such as behavior
plans or school–home notes.

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Teachers’ Roles in Providing Special Education 3) Referral for education - A student shouldn’t be referred for
All teachers must be prepared to deal with exceptional special education unless teachers have made extensive
students, although it’s unreasonable to expect all teachers to and
teach all exceptional students.
- The roles of general and special education teachers
are not always clear in a given case. Sometimes, uncertainty
about the division of responsibility can be extremely stressful;
teachers may feel uneasy because it’s not clear whose job it is
to make special adaptations for a pupil or just what they are
expected to do in cooperating with other teachers.

Relationship Between General and Special Education unsuccessful efforts to accommodate the student’s needs
During the 1980s, radical reformers began recommending that in general education classes. Before referral, school
special education be eliminated as a separate, identifiable part personnel must document the strategies that have been
of education, calling for a single, unified educational system in used to teach and manage the student in general
which all students are viewed as unique, special, and entitled to education. Referral is justified only if these strategies have
the same quality of education. failed. This is typically facilitated through the RTI process.
- Although many of the suggested reforms have great
appeal and some could produce benefits for exceptional 4) Participate in eligibility conferences - Before a student is
students, the basis for integration of special and general provided special education, an interdisciplinary team must
education and the ultimate consequences this might bring have determine the student’s eligibility. Therefore, teachers
been questioned. must be ready to work with other teachers and with
professionals from other disciplines (e.g., psychology,
Special Education and Students at Risk medicine, or social work) in determining a student’s
The term at risk is often not clearly defined, but it generally eligibility for special education.
refers to students who perform or behave poorly in school and
appear likely to fail or fall far short of their potential. Some 5) Participate in writing individualized education programs -
advocates of reform suggest that at-risk students cannot be or Every student identified with a disability and receiving
should not be distinguished from those with mild disabilities. special education must have a written IEP. Teachers must
Others argue that the problems of at-risk students tend to be be ready to participate in a meeting (possibly including the
ignored because special education siphons resources from student and/or parents as well as other professionals) to
general education. develop the program.

Expectations for All Educators 6) Communicate with parents or guardians - Educators must
1) Make maximum effort to accommodate individual consult parents (sometimes surrogate parents) or
students’ needs - All teachers must participate in the RTI guardians during the evaluation of the child’s eligibility for
process, making an effort to meet the needs of individuals special education, formulation of the IEP, and
who might differ in some way from the average or typical reassessment of any special program that may be
student. RTI requires the implementation of evidence- designed. Teachers must contribute to the school’s
based instruction that increases in intensity as necessary. communication with parents about the child’s problems,
Flexibility, adaptation, accommodation, and special placement, and progress.
attention are expected of every teacher. Special education
should be considered necessary only when a special needs 7) Participate in due process hearings and negotiations -
of their students. teacher’s best efforts to meet a Parents, guardians, or students with disabilities
student’s individual needs aren’t successful. themselves who are dissatisfied with the school’s response
to educational needs may request a due process hearing
2) Evaluate academic abilities and disabilities - Teachers must or negotiations regarding appropriate services. Teachers
be able to report specifically and precisely how students might be called on to offer observations, opinions, or
can and cannot perform in all academic areas for which suggestions in such hearings or negotiations.
they are responsible as part of the RTI process. 8) Collaborate with other professionals in identifying and
making maximum use of exceptional students’ abilities -
General and special education teachers are expected to
share responsibility for educating students with special
needs. In addition, teachers might need to collaborate
with other professionals, depending on the given student’s
exceptionality (e.g., psychologists, counselors, physicians,
physical therapists).

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course: Exceptional Psychology
Expectations for Special Educators idea is that people with disabilities should exercise personal
1) Instructing students with learning problems – Special control of their lives other people. Making schools places where
education teachers must have more than patience all children have a significant voice or say in important decisions
and hope, though they do need these qualities; they is critical. Researchers increasingly recognize that self-
must also have the technical skill to present academic determination is learned and should be taught in schools, even
tasks so that students with disabilities will understand in the elementary grades.
and respond appropriately. Exceptional instruction is - self-determination means taking charge of one’s life.
the key to improving special education. What makes
special education special is not the instruction alone Universal Design and Universal Design for Learning
but instruction that is altered to meet the needs of UDL - serves the general purpose of making learning accessible
exceptional learners. to more students in inclusionary programs. The idea is that with
2) Managing serious behavior problems - Special modifications of representation (materials), expression
education teachers must be able to deal effectively (methods of communication), and engagement (how students
with more than the usual troublesome behavior of respond to curriculum), teachers can include a much wider
students. Special education teachers must master range of students in typical classroom instruction.
techniques to draw out particularly withdrawn
students, control those who are hyperaggressive and IDEA urges educators to consider the use of assistive
persistently disruptive, and teach critical social skills. technology in servicing students with disabilities, to allow a
Positive, proactive behavior intervention plans are greater diversity of students to be accommodated in typical
essential for all students who receive special classrooms.
education and exhibit serious behavior problems,
regardless of their diagnostic label or classification. Modifications of instruction used in UDL can make lessons
appropriate for a wider range of students than has typically
3) Evaluating technological advances - Special education been the case. Thus, teachers must not overlook the possibility
teachers must be able to evaluate its advantages and that they could be designing lesson plans that are appropriate
disadvantages for teaching the exceptional children for a greater variety of students.
and youths with whom they work.
Use of New Technologies
4) Knowing special education law - Special education Technological advances of all types can have implications for
teachers don’t need to be lawyers, but they do need people with disabilities. Advances in three technologies stand
to be aware of legal requirements and prohibitions if out as particularly important: (a) medical treatment, (b) human
they are to be adequate advocates for students with reproduction, and (c) communication.
disabilities.
Special Education in the Context of Standards-Based Reform
Integration of People with Disabilities into the Larger Society The standards-based reform movement has brought with it a
The trend of integrating people with disabilities into the larger heavy emphasis on access to the general education curriculum
society began many decades ago and is stronger than ever for students with disabilities.
today. Champions of integration are proud that they’ve
reduced the number of people who live in institutions and the Both IDEA and NCLB require the participation of most
number of students who at- tend special schools and special students with disabilities in general assessments of
classes. Schools are a part of society, but they aren’t miniature educational progress.
reproductions of the larger society.
Proponents of participation suggest that special education has
- People with and without disabilities have a right to
not been held accountable for students’ progress.
exercise self-determination—the right to make one’s own
decisions about important aspects of one’s life, including where Some educators point out that even with good instruction the
to work and live, with whom to become friends, and what average achievement of students with disabilities will always
education to pursue. “Self determination might be defined by be lower than the average for students without disabilities.
students as ‘making our own decisions’”
Assessment Issues in the Age of Accountability
Self-Determination The intent of the laws discussed previously (NCLB and IDEA
Self-determination—the right to make one’s own decisions 1997, 2004) - to improve the instruction of students with
about important aspects of one’s life, including where to work disabilities to ensure that these students are included in the
and live, with whom to become friends, and what education to assessments of educational progress demanded of all students.
pursue. “Self-determination might be defined by students as
‘making our own decisions’” suggest that the primary hallmark Outcome measures - compare a student’s performance with
of person-centered planning is that “the person’s activities, other students, or compare a state’s or district’s performance
services and supports are based upon his or her dreams, with other states or districts.
interests, preferences, strengths, and capacities”. The main

Dasal. Precious Mei Jin D. 9

course: Exceptional Psychology
Testing accommodations - are procedures that ensure
equitable assessment access for students with disabilities.
Accommodations for evaluation procedures might involve
altering setting, the presentation format, or the response
format. The nature of the accommodation is based on the
specific need of the student.

Concluding Thoughts About the

Current Practices in Special Education
- We believe controversy indicates that the field of
special education is alive and well.
- We should constantly strive to make special
education better.

Dasal. Precious Mei Jin D. 10