Holy Rosary Major Seminary

Concepcion Pequena, Naga City

Philosophy Department

Subject: RE9 ( Preparation of Curriculum Materials) Course: Philo 4 Unit: 3

Term: 2nd semester 2022 Time: 10:30-12:00 Thursdays/7:30- 9:00 Fridays

Name___________________________________ Course/ Year_________

Module1. Curriculum: Concepts, Nature and Purposes

Lesson 1. Concepts, Nature and Purposes of Curriculum

OVERVIEW / OBJECTIVES
The concept of curriculum is as dynamic as the changes that occur in society. In its
narrow sense, curriculum is viewed as a listing of subjects to be taught in school. In a broader
sense, it refers to the total learning experiences of individuals not only in schools but in society
as well.
In the Philippines, recommendations of several educational initiatives like the Philippine
Commission to Survey Philippine Education (PCSPE), Survey of the Outcomes of Elementary
Education (SOUTELE) and the Philippine Commission for Educational Reforms (PCER)
focused on curricular renewal or reforms. The recently formulated National Competency –
Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) became the anchor of reforms in education from the basic to
higher education.
What is curriculum? What is its purpose? What is its nature? These are the fundamental
questions that will be addressed in this lesson.

INTRODUCTION
There are many definitions of curriculum. Because of this, the concept of curriculum is
sometimes characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing. However, the numerous
definitions indicate dynamism that connotes diverse interpretations of what curriculum is all
about. The definitions are influenced by modes of thoughts, pedagogies, political as well as
cultural experiences. Let us study some of these definitions.

CONCEPTS

Curriculum for Different Points of View

1. Traditional Points of View of Curriculum

In the early years of the 20th century, the traditional concepts held of the
“curriculum is that it is a body of subjects or subject matter prepared by the teachers
for the students to learn.” It was synonymous to the “Course of study” and “syllabus”.

Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies” where the rules of

grammar, reading, rhetoric and logic and mathematics for basic education are
emphasized. Basic education should emphasize the 3 Rs and college education should be
grounded on liberal education. On the other hand, Arthur Bestor as an essentialist
believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual training; hence curriculum
should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and
writing. It should also include mathematics, science, history and foreign language.
 This definition leads us to the view of Joseph Schwab the discipline is the sole
source of curriculum. Thus in our education system, curriculum is divided into chunks of
knowledge we call subject areas in basic education such as English, Mathematics,
Science, Social Studies and others. In college, discipline may include humanities,
sciences, languages and many more. To Phoenix, curriculum should consist entirely of
knowledge which comes from various disciplines.

Academic discipline became the view of what curriculum is after the cold war and
the race to space. Joseph Schwab, a leading curriculum theorist coined the term
discipline as a ruling doctrine for curriculum development. Curriculum should consist
only of knowledge which comes from disciplines which is the sole source.

Thus curriculum can be viewed as a field of study. It is made up of its

foundations (philosophical, historical, psychological, and social foundations); domains of
knowledge as well as its research theories and principles. Curriculum is taken as
scholarly and theoretical. It is concerned with broad historical, philosophical and social
issues and academics.

Most of the traditional ideas view curriculum as written documents or a plan of

action in accomplishing goals.

2. Progressive Points of View of Curriculum

On the other hand, to a progressivist, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of

study and list of courses or specific discipline do not make a curriculum. These can only
be called curriculum if the written materials are actualized by the learner. Broadly
speaking, curriculum is defined as the total learning experiences of the individual. This
definition is anchored on John Dewey’s definition of experience and education. He
believed that reflective thinking is a means that unifies curriculum elements. Thought is
not derived from action but tested by application.

Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as “all experiences children have

under the guidance of teachers.” This definition is shared by Smith, Stanley and Shores
when they defined “curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences set up in the
schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in groups’ ways of thinking
and acting.”

Marsh and Willis on the other hand view curriculum as all the “experiences in
the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher, and also learned by the
students.

Points of View on Curriculum Development

From the various definitions and concepts presented, it is clear that curriculum is a
dynamic process. Development connotes changes which are systematic. A change for the better
means any alteration, modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive
changes, development should be purposeful, planned and progressive. This is how curriculum
evolves.

Let us look at the two models of curriculum development and concepts of Ralph
Tyler and Hilda Taba.

Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles. This is also popularly known as Tyler’s
Rationale. He posited four fundamental questions or principles in examining any curriculum in
schools. These four fundamental principles are as follows:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?
 In summary, Tyler’s Model shows that in curriculum development, the following
considerations should be made: (1) Purposes of the school, (2) Educational experiences related to
the purposes, (3) Organization of the experiences, and (4) Evaluation of the experiences.

On the other hand, Hilda Taba improved on Tyler’s Rationale by making a linear model.
She believed that teachers who teach or implement the curriculum should participate in
developing it. Her advocacy was commonly called the grassroots approach. She presented
seven major steps to her model where teachers could have a major input. These steps are as
follows:

1. Diagnosis of learners’ needs and expectations of the larger society

2. Formulation of learning objectives
3. Selection of learning content
4. Organization of learning content
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Organization of learning activities
7. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it

Thus, as you look into curriculum models, the three interacting processes in curriculum
development are planning, implementing and evaluating.

Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools

From the various concepts given, Allan Glatthorn (2000) describes seven types of
curriculum operating in the schools. These are (1) Recommended curriculum – proposed by
scholars and professional organizations. (2) Written curriculum – appears in school, district,
divisions or country documents (3) Taught curriculum- what teachers implement or deliver in the
classrooms and schools. (4) Supported curriculum – resources-textbooks, computers, audio-
visual materials which supports and help in the implementation of the curriculum. (5) Assessed
curriculum – that which is tested and evaluated. (6) Learned curriculum – what the students
actually learn and what is measured and (7) Hidden curriculum – the unintended curriculum.

1. Recommended curriculum – Most of the school curricula are recommended. The curriculum
may come from a national agency like the Department of Education, Commission on Higher
Education (CHED), Department of Science and Technology (DOST) or any professional
organization who has stake in education. For example, Philippine Association for Teacher
Education (PAFTE) or the Biology Teacher Association (BIOTA) may recommend a
curriculum to be implemented in the elementary or secondary education.
2. Written curriculum – This includes documents, coarse of study or syllabi handed down to the
schools, divisions, departments or colleges for implementation. Most of the written curricula
are made by curriculum experts with participation of teachers. These were pilot-tested or
tried out in sample schools or population. Example of this is the Basic Education Curriculum
(BEC). Another example is the written lesson plan of each classroom teacher made up of
objectives and planned activities of the teacher.

3. Taught curriculum – The different planned activities which are put into action in the
classroom compose the taught curriculum. These are varied activities that are implemented
in order to arrive at the objectives or purposes of the written curriculum. These are used by
the learners with the guidance of the teachers. Taught curriculum varies according to the
learning styles of students and the teaching styles of teachers.

4. Supported curriculum – In order to have a successful teaching, other that the teacher, there
must be materials which should support or help in the implementation of a written
curriculum. These refer to the support curriculum that includes material resources such as
textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials, laboratory equipment, playgrounds, zoos and
other facilities. Support curriculum should enable each learner to achieve real and lifelong
learning.

5. Assessed curriculum – This refers to a tested or evaluated curriculum. At the duration and
end of the teaching episodes, series of evaluations are being done by the teachers to
determine the extent of teaching or to tell if the students are progressing. This refers to the
 assessed curriculum. Assessment tools like pencil-and-paper tests, authentic instruments like
portfolio are being utilized.

6. Learned curriculum – This refers to the learning outcomes achieved by the students. Learning
outcomes are indicated by the results of the tests and changes in behavior which can either be
cognitive, affective or psychomotor.

7. Hidden curriculum – This is the unintended curriculum which is not deliberately planned but
may modify behavior or influence learning outcomes. There are lots of hidden curricula that
transpire in the schools. Peer influence, school environment, physical condition, teacher-
learner interactions, mood of the teachers and many other factors make up the hidden
curriculum.

Major Foundations of Curriculum

Let us now look into the major foundations of a curriculum. Debates continue on what
curriculum is and its basic foundations. The commonly accepted foundations include
philosophical, historical, psychological and social. Let us examine briefly how each knowledge
area provides the foundation to curriculum.

Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Philosophy provides educators, teachers and curriculum makers with framework for
planning, implementing and evaluating curriculum in schools. It helps in answering what
schools are for, what subjects are important, how students should learn and what materials and
methods should be used. In decision making, philosophy provides the starting point and will be
used for the succeeding decision making.

The philosophy of a curriculum planner, implementor or evaluator reflects his or her life
experiences, common beliefs, social and economic background and education. For example,
John Dewey (1916) looks at “education as a way of life” a laboratory in which philosophy
becomes concrete and is tested.
On the other hand, Ralph Tyler’s framework shows that philosophy is one of the five
criteria in selecting educational purposes. This is shown in Figure 1.

Suggestion
s from
Subject
Specialists
Studies of
Contemporar
Studies y
of Life
Learners

School
Purposes

Use of Usage of
Philosoph Psycholog
y y of
Learning
 Figure 1 – Tyler’s View of Philosophy in Relation to School Purposes

Let us look at four educational philosophies and how these relate to curriculum. Study
each educational philosophy and match it to the aim of education, role of education, focus in
curriculum and related curricular trends. (Ornstien and Hunkins, 2004)

A. Educational Philosophy – Perennialism

Aim of Education – To educate the rational persons; to cultivate the intellect
Role of Education – Teachers help students think with reason.
Based on the Socratic methods of oral exposition or recitation
Explicit or deliberate teaching of traditional values.
Focus in the Curriculum – Classical subjects, literary analysis and curriculum is
constant
Curriculum Trends – Use of great books and return of liberal arts

B. Educational Philosophy – Essentialism

Aim of Education – To promote the intellectual growth of the individual and educate a
competent person.
Role of Education – The teacher is the sole authority in his or her subject area or field of
specialization
Focus in the Curriculum – Essential skills of the 3 R’s and essential subjects of English,
science, History, Math and Foreign Language
Curriculum trends – Excellence in education, back to basics and cultural literacy.

C. Educational Philosophy – Progressivism

Aim of Education – To promote democratic and social living
Role of Education – Knowledge leads to growth and development of lifelong learners who
actively learn by doing.
Focus in the Curriculum – Subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative and interactive.
Curriculum is focused on students’ interest, human problems and affairs
Curriculum Trends – School reforms, relevant and contextualized curriculum, humanistic
education

D. Educational Philosophy – Reconstructionism

Aim of Education – To improve and reconstruct society Education of change
Role of Education – Teachers act as agents of change and reform in various educational
projects including research
Focus in the Curriculum – Focus on present and future trends and issues of national and
international interests
Curriculum Trends – Equality of educational opportunities in education, access to global
education

You can see that an educational philosophy lays the strong foundation of any curriculum
implementer or the teacher, school administrator or curriculum evaluator whether school-
based or externally-based anchors his/her decision making process on a sound philosophy.

Historical Foundations of Curriculum

Why is it important to know the historical foundations of curriculum? Curriculum is not

an old field. Majority of scholars would place its beginning in 1918 with the publications of
Franklin Bobbit’s book The Curriculum.

The Philippine education came about from various foreign influences. This can be traced
back to our glorious history. Of all foreign educational systems, the American educational
system has the greatest influence on our educational system. Here we present several curriculum
theorists and how they view curriculum from a historical perspective. They are presented
chronologically from the time of Bobbit in 1676 - 1956 to Ralph Tyler in 1902 - 1994.

1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) – Bobbit presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes

on students’ need. Curriculum prepares students for adult life. To Bobbit, objectives
 with corresponding activities should be grouped and sequenced. This can only be done if
instructional activities and tasks are clarified.
2. Werret Charters (1875-1952) – Like Bobbit, to Charters curriculum is a science. It gives
emphasis on students’ needs. The listing of objectives and matching these with
corresponding activities ensures that the content or subject matter is related to objectives.
The subject matter and the activities are planned by the teacher.
3. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) – Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-
centered. The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. The project
method was introduced by Kilpatrick where teacher and student plan the activities. The
curriculum develops social relationships and small group instruction.
4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960) – To Rugg, curriculum should develop the whole child. It is
child-centered. With the statement of objectives, curriculum should produce outcomes.
Harold Rugg emphasized social studies and the teacher plans curriculum in advance.
5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) – Sees curriculum as organized around social functions of
themes, organized knowledge and learner’s interest. Caswell believes that curriculum is
a set of experiences. Subject matter is developed around social functions and learners’
interests.
6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) – As one of the hallmarks of curriculum, Tyler believes that
curriculum is a science and an extension of school’s philosophy. It is based on students’
needs and interest. To Tyler, curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter
is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values. The process emphasizes problem
solving. The curriculum aims to educate generalists and not specialists.

The historical development shows the different changes in the purposes, principles and
content of the curriculum. The different changes are influenced by educational philosophy,
psychology and pedagogical theories. This implies that curriculum is ever changing putting in
knowledge and content from many fields of disciplines.

Psychological Foundations of Education

Psychology provides a basis for the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements of
the learning process and some of the questions which can be addressed by psychological
foundations of education. How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What is
the optimum level of students’ participation in learning the various contents of the curriculum?

In this module, we shall consider three groups of learning theories: behaviorism or

association theories; cognitive-information processing theories and humanistic theories (Ornstien
& Hunkins, 2004).

Let us review some theories in learning related to these clusters of learning theories.

1. Behaviorist Psychology
Behaviorism dominated the 20th century psychology. It includes among others
connectionism of Edward Thorndike, which influenced both Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba who
are considered to be two of the well known curricularists. Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning
were all behaviorists in character. Albert Bandura’s modeling and observation theory, is also
related to behavior. Among the behaviorists, Robert Gagne’s hierarchical learning or sets of
behavior and five learning outcomes became classic examples. These learning outcomes
include: (1) intellectual skills or “knowing how” to categorize and use symbols, forming
concepts and problem solving; (2) information or “knowing what” knowledge about facts, dates
and names; (3) cognitive strategies or learning skills; (4) motor skills; and (5) attitudes, feelings
and emotions learned through experiences (Gagne, 1987). The listed learning outcomes overlap
with the domains in the taxonomy of educational objectives which are cognitive, affective and
psychomotor.
To the behaviorists, learning should be organized in order that students can experience
success in the process of mastering the subject matter. The method is introduced in a step by
step manner with proper sequencing of task which is viewed by other educational psychologist as
simplistic and mechanical.
2. Cognitive Psychology
How do learners store information? How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions?
These are some of the basic questions asked by cognitive psychologists.
These psychologists focus their attention on how individuals process information and
how they monitor and manage thinking. Among the advocates of cognitive psychology are Jean
Piaget for his Cognitive Development stages, Lev Vygostky for his Social Constructivism,
Howard Gardner for his Multiple Intelligences, Felder and Silverman for their Learning Styles,
Daniel Goleman for Emotional Intelligences and many more.
To the cognitive theorists, learning constitutes a logical method for organizing and
interpreting learning. Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter and is similar to the
cognitive development theory. Teachers use a lot of problem and thinking skills in teaching and
learning. These are exemplified by practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive
thinking, discovery learning and many others.

3. Humanistic Psychology
Humanist psychologists are concerned with how learners can develop their human
potential. Traditional psychologists do not recognize humanistic psychology as a school of
psychology. However, observers view humanistic psychology as the third force learning theory
after behaviorism and cognitive development. It is built on Gestalt psychology where learning
can be explained in terms of what wholeness of the problem and where the environment is
changing and the learner is continuously reorganizing his or her perceptions. Aside from the
theory of Gestalt, Abraham Maslow’s theory of human needs for self-actualizing persons and
Carl Rogers’ non-directive lives, also fall under humanistic psychology. Among the humanistic
psychologists, curriculum is concerned with the process not the products; personal needs not
subject matter; psychological meaning and environmental situations.
In summary, psychology has a great influence in the curriculum. Learners are not
machines and the mind is not a computer. Humans are biological beings affected by their
biology and their cultures. The psychological foundations will help curriculum makers in
nurturing a more advanced, more comprehensive and complete human learning.

Social Foundations of Education

Schools exist within the social context. Societal culture affects and shapes schools and
their curricula. The way buildings are structured, the way classrooms and students are organized
reflect the cultural views and values of the society. In considering the social foundations of
curriculum, we must recognize that schools are only one of the many institutions that educate
society. The home, the family, community likewise educate the people in the society. But
schools are formal institutions that address more complex and interrelated societies and the
world.
Society is very dynamic and is a source of very fast changes which are difficult to cope
with and to adjust to. Thus schools are made to help to understand these changes. However,
some observations point out to the fact that schools are conservative institutions that lag behind
when they are supported to be agents of change. Thus, in order for schools to be relevant, school
curricula should address diversity, explosion of knowledge, school reforms and education for all.
The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing. Hence, to be
relevant, the curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of society and its aspirations. At
the same time society should also imbibe the changes brought about by the formal institutions
called schools.

ACTIVITY
To further learn about the concepts of curriculum, let us do some activities. You may do
the following activities individually, in dyad, or in groups of not more than five. Follow the
instruction in each activity.

Activity 1 – Curriculum Defined

In this activity, let us find out how teachers, students, educators define curriculum from
their own points of view.
 With a classmate, interview the following persons: (elementary grades teacher, school
principal, college teacher, student teacher, non-education college student). Ask each one the
question: What is curriculum to you?

Persons Interviewed Answer to Question: What is Curriculum to You?

Elementary Grades
Teacher

School Principal

College Teacher

Student Teacher

Non-education college
student

Comments:

Activity 2 – Identifying the Curricula Operating in the Schools

This activity is for a group of five. Visit a school of your choice. Observe, and interview
the appropriate persons like the classroom teacher, students or principal. Identify the existence
of the different curricula. Write specific examples. Record your data in a matrix like the one
below.

Name of School _____________________________________

Types of Curricula Operating in School Examples from Observations or Interviews

Recommended Curriculum

Written Curriculum

Taught Curriculum

Supported Curriculum

Assessed Curriculum

Learned Curriculum

Hidden Curriculum
Activity 3 – Curriculum from Two Points of View: Traditional or Progressive

In the courses that you are currently taking, identify practices that can be considered as
following the traditional orientation and those that are progressive in orientation. Give specific
examples or illustrations.

Points of View of Curriculum Illustrative Examples of Practices

Traditional Curricular Practices

Progressive Curricular Practices

ANALYSIS
Let us pause for a while and reflect on what we have read, discussed, shared and
observed in the lesson. This portion will require you to have deep thinking. Answer the
questions by yourself first, then get a partner and share your ideas. Listen to your partner’s ideas
also.

1. Can a school exist without a curriculum? Why or why not?

2. How does a strong belief or philosophy influence curriculum?

3. As future teachers, how important will a curriculum be to you?

4. What are the implications of an ever changing curriculum to teachers?

ENRICHMENT

Let us find out how much we have learned from the lesson. You may go back to your
readings and activities which you have done before. Good luck!

1. Name five persons who contributed to the field of curriculum. Give the contribution
of each.

2. How do philosophy, psychology, history and society influence the development of a

curriculum?

3. Explain how the three processes of planning, implementing and evaluating are used in
curriculum development?
 Holy Rosary Major Seminary
Concepcion Pequena, Naga City

Philosophy Department

Subject: RE9 ( Preparation of Curriculum Materials) Course: Philo 4 Unit: 3

Term: 2nd semester 2021 Time: 10:30-12:00 Thursdays/7:30- 9:00 Fridays

Name___________________________________ Course/ Year_________

Nature, Concepts, and Purposes of Curriculum

Lesson 2. Components of Curriculum and Curricular Approaches

OVERVIEW / OBJECTIVES
Lesson 2 will introduce you to the elements of curriculum and some curricular
approaches. These topics will strengthen your knowledge and understanding of the nature,
concepts and purposes of the curriculum.
What parts or components should a curriculum have? How should these components be
arranged? The nature of the elements and the manner in which they are organized many
comprise which we call a curriculum design. However, this section will only introduce to you
the elements or components of a curriculum. It will not discuss in length how each component
related to one another but will merely provide the structure or the skeleton of the curriculum.
The other section of this lesson presents the approaches to curriculum. The approach to
curriculum reflects the views of schools and societies. It will reveal the philosophy, view of
history, psychology and learning theory which will become the foundation of the curriculum. It
will also tell about the view of how social, theoretical and practical issues are utilized in the
curriculum.
A curriculum approach shows the viewpoints of curriculum development and design, the
role of the learner, the teacher, the curriculum specialist in planning the curriculum. It also
includes the goals and objectives of the curriculum.
In this lesson, let us look at the components and some approaches to curriculum. Some
approaches coincide with traditional theories and models with some are fluid and emergent.

INTRODUCTION
Elements/Components of the Curriculum
For most curricula, the major components or elements are (1) aims, goals and objectives;
(2) subject matter/content; (3) learning experiences and (4) evaluation approaches.
When translated into questions, each component can be addressed by the following:
1. What is to be done?
2. What subject matter is to be included?
3. What instructional strategies, resources and activities will be employed?
4. What methods and instruments will be used to assess the results of the curriculum?

Component 1 – Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives

A formal curriculum is embedded in a formal institution called schools. Schools are

established institutions which are either run by the government or by the private sector. The
Philippine educational system is divided in three educational levels: primary, secondary and
tertiary levels. Based on the Philippine Constitution of 1987, all schools shall aim to:
1. inculcate patriotism and nationalism
2. foster love of humanity
3. promote respect for human rights
4. appreciate the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country
5. teach the rights and duties of citizenship
 6. strengthen ethical and spiritual values
7. develop moral character and personal discipline
8. encourage critical and creative thinking
9. broaden scientific and technological knowledge and promote vocational efficiency

Aims of Elementary Education (Education Act of 1982)

In the elementary level, schools through their curricula should aim to:
 provide knowledge and develop skills, attitudes, values essential to personal
development and necessary for living and contributing to a developing and changing
society;
 provide learning experiences which increase the child’s awareness of and
responsiveness to the changes in the society;
 promote and intensify knowledge, identification with and live for the nation and the
people to which he belongs; and
 promote work experiences which develop orientation to the world of work and
prepare the learner to engage in honest and gainful work.

Aims of Secondary Education

In high school or secondary level, educational curricula aim to:

 continue to promote the objectives of the elementary education and
 discover and enhance the different aptitudes and interests of students in order to
equip them with the skills for productive endeavor and or to prepare them for tertiary
schooling.

Aims of Tertiary Education

Tertiary education refers to college and university formal education based on the
curricula of the different courses. The different courses should aim to:
 provide general education programs which will promote national identity, cultural
consciousness, moral integrity and spiritual vigor;
 train the nation’s manpower in the skills required for national development;
 develop the professions that will provide leadership for the nation; and,
 advance knowledge through research and apply new knowledge for improving the
quality of human life and respond effectively to changing society.

Based on the mandate of the constitution, each school therefore should be guided by its
vision, mission and goals and its curricula should also revolve around these.
The school’s vision is a clear concept of what the institution would like to become in the
future. It provides the focal point or unifying element according to which the school stuff,
faculty, students perform individually or collectively. It is the guiding post around which all
educational efforts including curricula should be directed. The school’s vision can be very
ambitious but that is a characteristic of a vision.

Examples of a school’s vision

1. A model performing high school where students are equipped with knowledge, skills
and strength of character to realize their potential to the fullest.
2. Commits to the Exemplary Christian Education for Life and responsive to the needs
of the total person and the world.

The school’s mission statement, spells out how it intends to carry out its Vision. The
mission targets to produce the kind of persons the students will become after having been
educated over a certain period of time.

Examples of school’s mission

1. To produce globally competitive lifelong learners.
2. Commits to the total development of individuals for the life adjustment and to the
upliftment of the economically deprived but deserving students through quality
instruction, updated facilities and curricula responsive to the needs of the times.
 The school’s vision, and mission are further translated into goals which are broad
statements or intents to be accomplished. Data for the sources of school goals may include the
learners, the society and the fund of knowledge.

Examples of school goals:

1. Build a strong foundation of skills and concepts
2. Efficient and effective administration responsive of the needs of the university and
community.

In a curriculum, these goals are made simple and specific for the attainment of each
learner. These are called educational objectives. Benjamin Bloom and Robert Mager defined
educational objectives in two ways:
1. explicit formulations of the ways in which students are expected to be changed by the
educative process, and
2. intent communicated by statement describing a proposed change in learners.

In other words, objectives direct the change in behavior which is the ultimate aim of
learning. They provide the bases for the selection of learning content and learning experiences.
They also set the criteria against which learning outcomes will evaluated.

Benjamin Bloom and his associates classified three big domains of objectives. These are
cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. Each domain is composed of specific skills,
attitudes and values which are presented in hierarchy or levels. Although there are some
modifications in the concepts of behavioral objectives, the original ideas are presented in this
section.

 Cognitive Domain (Bloom et al 1956) – domain of thought process

1. Knowledge – recall, remembering of prior learned materials in terms of facts, concepts,
theories and principles. It is the lowest cognitive level.
2. Comprehension – ability to grasp the meaning of material. It indicated the lowest form
of understanding.
3. Application – the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situation.
4. Analysis – ability to break down material into component parts so that its
organizational structure may be understood.
5. Synthesis – ability to put parts together to form a new whole.
6. Evaluation – ability to pass judgment on something based on given criteria.

 Affective Domain (Krathwohl, 1964) – domain of valuing, attitude and appreciation

1. Receiving – students’ willingness to pay attention to particular event, stimuli or
classroom activities
2. Responding – active participation on the part of the students
3. Valuing – concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a particular
phenomena, object or behavior
4. Organization – concerned with bringing together different values and building a value
system
5. Characterization by a value or value complex – developing a lifestyle from a value
system

 Psychomotor Domain (Simpson, 1972) – domain of the use of psychomotor attributes

1. Perception – use of sense organs to guide motor activities
2. Set – refers to the readiness to take a particular type of action
3. Guided response – concerned with the early stages in learning complex skills. Imitation
and trial and error are some of the ways of doing
4. Mechanism – responses have become habitual. Performance skills are with ease and
confidence
5. Complex overt responses – skillful performance and with complex movement patterns.
6. Adaptation – skill well developed that the ability to modify is very easy.
7. Origination – refers to creating new movements’ patterns to fit the situation. Creativity
is evident.
Component 2 – Curriculum Content or Subject Matter

All curricula have content, regardless of their design or models. Content is more than
simply information to be learned in school. To some curriculum specialists, content or subject
matter is another term for knowledge. It is a compendium of facts, concepts generalization,
principles and theories. The fund of human knowledge represents the repository of accumulated
discoveries and inventions of man down the centuries, due to man’s exploration of his world.
This is the subject-centered view of the curriculum. On the other hand those who view
knowledge as learner-centered, relates knowledge to the individual’s personal and social world
and how he or she defines reality. According to Gerome Bruner, “knowledge is a model we
construct to give meaning and structure to regularities in experience”.

Let us look into broad subject areas in basic or general education. Each subject area has its
own body of subject matter or learning content. These are just examples.
Communication Arts – include skills in listening, speaking, reading and writing as well as
the effective use of language in daily living.
Mathematics – includes numeric and computational skills, geometry and measurement,
algebra, logic and reasoning.
Science – includes all branches of the natural sciences, exploration and discovery dealing
with natural phenomena and the use if scientific method of investigation.
Social Studies – include basic elements of Geography, History, Sociology, Anthropology,
Economics, Civics, Political Science and Psychology.
Music – includes basic music theory, practice in listening, signing, playing musical
instruments and music preparation.
Physical Education – includes health and physical fitness, individual and team sports,
spectatorship and wise use of leisure.
Vocational Education – includes psychomotor and manipulative skills in basic crafts and
trades, design, work ethic and appreciation of manual productive work.

What subject matter will be taught in the different clusters in order to achieve the
objectives? What criteria should be used in selecting the content? Content selection is a very
crucial stage in curriculum development.
Here are some criteria which can be utilized in the selection of subject matter content or
knowledge for the curriculum.
1. Self-sufficiency – According to Scheffler (1970) the prime guiding principle for content
selection is helping the learners to attain maximum self-sufficiency in learning but in
the most economical manner. Economy means less teaching effort and educational
resources, less learners’ effort but more results and effective learning outcomes.
2. Significance – When content or subject matter will contribute to basic ideas, concepts,
principles, and generalization to achieve the overall aim of the curriculum, then it is
significant. It is also significant if it will develop learning abilities, skills, processes
and attitude. Subject matter is significant if it will develop the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor skills of the learners. It can also be significant if the cultural aspects will
be considered.
3. Validity – The authenticity of the subject mater selected is its validity. With
information explosion, oftentimes, knowledge selected for school content may become
obsolete. Thus subject matter should be checked or verified at regular intervals, to
determine if the content that was originally valid continues to be.
4. Interest – For a learner-centered curriculum, this is the key criterion. A learner will
value the content if it is meaningful to him or her. Students’ interests should be
considered and adjusted taking into consideration maturity, prior experiences,
educational and social value of their interest among others.
5. Utility – Usefulness of the content or subject matter may be relative to the learner who
is going to use it. Usefulness maybe either be for the present or the future. Questions
like “Will I use it in my future job?” “Will it add meaning to my life or develop my
human potential?” Or “Will the subject matter be useful in solving my current
problems?”
 6. Learnability – Subject matter in the curriculum should be within the range of the
experiences of the learners. This is clearly suggested by the psychological foundations
of a curriculum. There are ways of presenting subject matter or content which can
easily be learned. Optimal placement and appropriate organization and sequencing of
contents are the two ways by which these can be done.
7. Feasibility – Can the subject matter or content be learned within the time allowed,
resources available, expertise of the teacher, and the nature of the learners? Content
selection should be considered within the context of the existing reality in schools, in
society and government.

There are other considerations that may be used in the selection of the learning content. It
would be of great help if curriculum makers can use them. As a guide, subject matter or content
can be selected for use if these are:
a.frequently and commonly used in daily life;
b. suited to the maturity levels and abilities of students;
c.valuable in meeting the needs and the competencies of a future career;
d. related with other subject areas; and
e.important in the transfer of learning.

In organizing or putting together the different learning contents Palma, 1992 suggested the
following principles: balance, articulation, sequence, integration and continuity.
Curriculum content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth of a particular learning
area or discipline. This will ensure that the level or area will not be overcrowded or less
crowded. This refers to BALANCE.
When each level of subject matter is smoothly connected to the next, glaring gaps and
wasteful overlaps in the subject matter will be avoided. Teamwork among the teachers will
enhance ARTICULATION of contents in the curriculum.
SEQUENCE is the logical arrangement of the subject matter. It refers to the deepening and
broadening of content as it is taken up in the higher levels.
The horizontal connections are needed in subject areas that are similar so that learning
will be related to one another. This is INTEGRATION. This will help the learner get a holistic
or unified view of reality and outlook in life.
Learning requires a continuing application of the new knowledge, skills, and attitudes or
values so that these will be used in daily living. The constant repetition, review and
reinforcement of learning is what is referred to as CONTINUITY.

Component 3 – Curriculum Experiences

This section will not discuss in detail the different instructional strategies that provide the
experiences. Instead it will link instructional strategies and methods to curriculum experiences,
the core or the heart of the curriculum. The instructional strategies and methods will put into
action the goals and use the contents in order to produce an outcome.
Teaching strategies convert the written curriculum to instruction. Both the teacher and the
learner take actions to facilitate learning. The actions are based on planned objectives, the
subject matter to be taken and the support materials to be used. These will include a multitude of
teaching methods and educational activities which will enhance learning. Among these are the
time-tested methods, inquiry approaches, constructivist and other emerging strategies that
complement new theories in teaching and learning. Educational activities like field viewing,
conducting experiments, interacting with computer programs, field trips and other experiential
learning will also form part of the repertoire of teaching.
Whatever methods the teacher utilizes to implement the curriculum, there will be some
guide for the selection and use. Here are some of them:
1. Teaching methods are means to achieve the end. They are used to translate the objectives
into action.
2. There is no single best teaching method. Its effectiveness will depend on the learning
objectives, the learners and skill of the teacher.
3. Teaching methods should stimulate the learners desire to develop the cognitive, affective,
psychomotor, social and spiritual domain of the individual.
 4. In the choice of the teaching methods, learning styles of the students should be
considered.
5. Every method should lead to the development of the learning outcomes in the three
domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
6. Flexibility should be a consideration in the use of the teaching methods.

Component 4 – Curriculum Evaluation

According to Worthen and Sanders, (1987) all curricula to be effective must have the
element of evaluation. Curriculum evaluation here may refer to the formal determination of the
quality, effectiveness or value of the program, process, product of the curriculum. Tuckman
(1985) defines evaluation as meeting the goals and matching them with the intended outcomes.
From the definitions, several models of evaluation came up. The most widely used is
Stufflebeam’s CIPP (Content, Input, Product, Process) Model. In CIPP, the process is
continuous and is very important to curriculum managers like principals, supervisors, department
head, deans and even teachers.
The context refers to the environment of the curriculum. The real situation where the
curriculum is operating is its context. Simply put, context evaluation refers to situation analysis.
Input refers to the ingredients of the curriculum which include the goals, instructional strategies,
the learners, the teachers, the contents and all the materials needed. The process refers to the
ways and means of how curriculum has been implemented. This component of the CIPP looks
into the entire operation of the curriculum. The product indicated if the curriculum accomplishes
its goals. It will determine to what extent the curriculum objectives have been achieved.
The CIPP model can be taken as a whole, or each component taken separately. It is a long
and continuous process.
Within the evaluation process, smaller and more specific activities are needed to determine
the effectiveness of the curriculum. These activities include assessment and measurement of
learning outcomes, the ultimate product of a curriculum. Different methods can be utilized like
diagnostic, placement, formative or summative evaluation or the norm-referenced or criterion-
referenced measurement. With the variety of evaluation methods are the different materials
which can be effectively utilized. You will study these in more detail in the modules that come
later.
Regardless of the methods and materials evaluation will utilize, a suggested plan of action
for the process of curriculum evaluation is introduces. These are the steps.

1. Focus on one particular component of the curriculum. Will it be the subject area, the
grade level, the course, or the degree program? Specify the objectives of evaluation.
2. Collect or gather the information. Information is made up of data needed regarding the
object of evaluation.
3. Organize the information. This step will require coding, organizing, storing and
retrieving data for interpretation.
4. Analyze information. An appropriate way of analyzing will be utilized.
5. Report the information. The result of evaluation should be reported to specific
audiences. Reporting can be done formally in conferences with stakeholders, or
informally through roundtable discussions and conversations.
6. Recycle the information for continuous feedback, modification and adjustments to be
made.

In summary, the components of a curriculum are distinct but are interrelated to each other
in a curricular design as shown in Figure 2.

Aims
Objective
s

Evaluatio Content/
Subject
n Matter

Methods/
Strategies
 Figure 2– Interrelationship of the Components of a Curriculum

Curriculum Approaches

There are five curriculum approaches that will be presented in this lesson. Curriculum
practitioners and implementers may use one or more approaches in planning, implementing and
evaluating the curriculum. Even textbook writers or instructional material producers have
different curricular approaches. Let us study and understand each example.

 Behavioral Approach – Anchored on the behaviorist principles, behavioral approach to

curriculum is usually based on a blueprint. In the blueprint, goals and objectives are
specified, contents and activities are also arranged to match with the learning objectives.
The learning outcomes are evaluated in terms of goals and objectives set at the beginning.
Behavioral approach which was started with the idea of Frederick Taylor is aimed to
achieve efficiency. In the factory for example, the worker will be paid according to his
output produced with in a specific period of time. In education, behavioral approach begins
with educational plans that start with the setting of goals or objectives. These are
considered as important ingredients in curriculum implementation as evaluating the
learning outcomes as a change of behavior. The change in behavior indicated the measure
of the accomplishments.

 Managerial Approach – The managerial approach became a dominant curriculum

approach in the 1950’s and 1960’s. The principal is the curriculum leader at the same time
instructional leader who is supposed to be the general manager. The general manager sets
the policies and priorities, established the direction of change and innovation, and planning
and organizing curriculum and instruction. School administrators are less concerned about
the content than about the organization and implementation. They are less concerned about
subject mater, methods and materials than improving curriculum. Curriculum managers
look at curriculum changes and innovations as they administer the resources and restructure
the schools. Some of the roles of the Curriculum Supervisors (Ornstein and Hunkins,
2004) are the following:

1. Help develop the schools’ education goals.

2. Plan curriculum with students, parents, teachers and other stakeholders.
3. Design programs of study by grade levels.
4. Plan or schedule classes or school calendar.
5. Prepare curriculum guides or teacher guides by grade level or subject area.
6. Help in the evaluation and selection of textbooks.
7. Observe teachers.
8. Assist teachers in the implementation of the curriculum.
9. Encourage curriculum innovation and change.
10. Develop standards for curriculum and instructional evaluation.

 Systems Approach – The systems approach to curriculum was influences by systems

theory. In the systems approach to curriculum, the parts of the total school district or
school are examined in terms of how they relate to each other. The organizational chart of
the school represents a systems approach. It shows the line-staff relationships of personnel
and how decisions are made. To George Beauchamp, the systems theory of education see
the following to be of equal importance are (1) administration (2) counseling (3)
curriculum (4) instruction and (5) evaluation.

 Humanistic Approach – This approach is rooted in the progressive philosophy and child-
centered movement. The humanistic approach considers the formal or planned curriculum
and the informal or hidden curriculum. It considers the whole child and believes that in
curriculum the total development of the individual is the prime consideration. The learner
is at the center of the curriculum.

ACTIVITY
 There are two major activities that you will do in this lesson. Activity 1will be on the
elements or components of the curriculum and Activity 2 will be on the approaches to
curriculum.

Activity 1 – Lesson Plan: A Curriculum?

Get a copy of the best written lesson plan of your favorite teacher in the elementary or
high school. Add this to your portfolio collection.

Read every detail of the lesson plan and specifically look into the following:

1. What are the objectives of the lesson plan?

2. What is the subject matter content?
3. What strategies or methods of teaching are utilized?
4. What evaluation procedure is used?
5. Do the four components fit or match with one another? Explain.
6. Can you consider a lesson plan as a curriculum? Why?

Activity 2 – Mr. or Ms. Principal: What Curriculum Approach Are You Using?

1. Make an interview protocol regarding curriculum approach with your groupmates. Show
your output to your teacher for comments. Refine your instrument and place a sample in your
portfolio.
2. Choose a school with a principal as your respondent. Secure permission to interview the
principal at a certain time of the school day. Record all the answers to your protocol.
3. From your interview, what kind of curriculum approach is the principal using?
4. Why do you say so? Describe in detail his/her approach?

ANALYSIS
1. “Is Philippine education really deteriorating?” this is a big question raised by many sectors
of our society. Let us reflect on this issue. Choose a particular level (elementary, secondary,
tertiary) and a specific subject area (Science, Math, English) as a point of reference.

In your own experiences as a student:

(a) In what component/s of your curriculum, do you find some difficulties or

weaknesses? Identify at least 3.
Goals and Objectives
Curriculum Content
Curriculum Experiences
Curriculum Evaluation\Describe the weaknesses or difficulties.

(b) Are these solutions to these conditions? What do you propose?

ENRICHMENT
Let us return to Lesson 2 and quickly find out what learning outcomes we have achieved.
Just answer YES or NO to the questions that follow:

1. Can a school curriculum succeed without a clear vision?

2. Should the school’s mission be reflected in all its curricula?
3. Will subject matter dictate the approach in curriculum?
4. Should the learning activities be congruent to the objectives of the curriculum?
5. Should evaluation of learning outcomes be based on the experiences of the learners?
6. As a student of curriculum, will you put equal emphasis on the four curricular
components?
 7. Does a principal with a humanistic approach to curriculum emphasize most
memorization of subject matter?
8. Does the systems approach to curriculum consider only each part?
9. Can there be a curriculum without evaluation?
10. Can experiences be measured?

Holy Rosary Major Seminary

Concepcion Pequena, Naga City

Philosophy Department

Subject: RE9 ( Preparation of Curriculum Materials) Course: Philo 4 Unit: 3

Term: 2nd semester 2021 Time: 10:30-12:00 Thursdays/7:30- 9:00 Fridays

Name___________________________________ Course/ Year_________

Nature, Concepts, and Purposes of Curriculum

Lesson 3. Teaching-Learning Processes and Curriculum Development

OVERVIEW / OBJECTIVES
One of the most often repeated definitions of a curriculum is that curriculum is the total
learning experience. This description implies that the crux of a curriculum is the different
planned and unplanned activities which have been lived, acted upon or done by the learners with
the guidance of the teacher. Hence in curriculum development, the teaching and learning are
actions necessary to accomplish a goal in education. What is the role of teaching in the
curriculum development? Who does it? On the other hand, what is learning in curriculum
development? Who does it?
This lesson will focus on the teaching and learning processes as salient components of the
curriculum. Both processes provide experiences which will accomplish the goals of education.
Let us know look closely at the teaching-learning processes vis a vis curriculum in our
schools.

INTRODUCTION
Teaching as a Process in Curriculum

What do you know about teaching? What knowledge is needed to understand this
process? This section clarifies the process of teaching as it relates to the experiences in the
curriculum, an important ingredient.
Good teaching is difficult to agree upon. While it remains to be difficult to agree on what
good teaching is, effective teaching can be demonstrated. Effective teaching is one that will
bring about the intended learning outcomes.
Because of the changing paradigms of teaching, several definitions have evolved based
on the theories of teaching and learning that have come about. Some view teaching as an
organization of meaningful learning. It is creating a situation or selecting life-like situations to
enhance learning. To the traditionalists, teaching is a process of imparting knowledge and skills
required to master a subject matter. It is a process of dispensing knowledge to an empty vessel
which is the mind of the learner. Teaching is showing, telling, giving instruction, making
someone understand in order to learn. This person is a teacher, a dispenser of knowledge, an
ultimate authority, a director of learning.
On the other hand, as progressive and humanist education advance, the meaning of
teaching broadened to fit the psychological meaning of the term. Teaching is now perceived as
stimulating, directing, guiding the learner and evaluating the learning outcomes of teaching. The
teacher’s role in teaching becomes complex but has given the learner the responsibility to learn.
Teaching then is a process that enables the learner to learn on his/her own.
The teacher now becomes a decision maker in the teaching process. Let us look at the
teaching process as a series of actions from PLANNING, IMPLEMENTING and
EVALUATING. It looks similar to curriculum development. Definitely, it is because the
process of teaching replicates the process of curriculum development. The implementation phase
of curriculum development is the actual teaching and experiencing of a curriculum. The teaching
process is shown in Figure 3 below.

PLAN IMPLEMENT EVALUATE

Feedback and Reflections

Figure 3 – Teaching Process

In teaching, the planning phase includes decision about (a) the needs of the learners, (b)
the achievable goals and objectives to meet the needs, (c) the selection of the content to be
taught, (d) the motivation to carry out the goals, (e) the strategies most fit to carry out the goals
and (f) the evaluation process to measure learning outcomes.
Teaching plans maybe short term like the daily plan or long term like the unit plan or a
yearly plan. In a plan, considerations should include the learner, availability of materials, time
requirements of particular activities, the strategies needed to achieve the objectives and the
teacher. The planning phase recognizes the intent that it will be the learners who will learn,
hence the next phase will engage more the learner.
The implementation phase requires the teacher to implement what has been planned.
Based on the objectives, implementation means to put into action the different activities in order
to achieve the objectives through the subject matter. Here, two important players are involved:
the teacher and the learner. Their interaction is important in the accomplishment of the plan.
Most often the planning phase directs what will be done in the activity but such can also be
flexible. The use of the different teaching styles and strategies should be included in the
implementation phase.
In the evaluation phase, a match of the objectives with the learning outcomes will be
made. The kind of information should be determined so that the type of evaluation should be
chosen to fit the purpose. Simply, the evaluation phase will answer the question if the plans and
implementation have been successfully achieved.
Inn all the three phases of teaching, a continuous process of feedback and reflection is
made. To give a feedback is to give information as to whether the three phases were
approximately done and gave good results. In short, feedback is the reflection on the feedback.
Is there a need to adjust something in planning, implementation and evaluation? Reflection is a
process embedded in teaching where the teacher inquires into his or her actions and provides
deep and critical thinking.
On the basis of the diagram, basic assumptions can be made. These assumptions are:
(1) The teaching is goal-oriented with the change of behavior as the ultimate end;
(2) That teachers are the ones who shape actively their own actions;
(3) That teaching is a rational and a reflective process; and
(4) That teachers by their actions can influence learners to change their own thinking or
desired behavior, thus teaching is a way of changing through the intervention of the
teacher.

To further clarify, what teaching is all about there are some indicators which you can use
to guide in the process of good teaching.
 Good teaching is one that is well planned and where activities are interrelated to each other.
 Good teaching is one that provides learning experiences or situations that will ensure
understanding, application and critical thinking.
 Good teaching is based on the theories of learning.
 Good teaching is one where the learner is stimulated to think and reason.
  Good teaching utilizes prior learning and its application to new situations.
 Good teaching is governed by democratic principles.
 Good teaching embeds a sound evaluation process.

Learning as a Process in Curriculum

“To teach, is to make someone learn.” This statement means that the end product of
teaching is learning. What is learning? What are the ways of learning? When do say that we
have learned?
Let us now look closer at the concept of learning as it relates to the concept of
curriculum.
Learning is usually defined as a change in an individual’s behavior caused by experiences
or self-activity. It implies that learning can only happen through the individual’s activity or
his/her own doing. Most learning is intentional, like when a learner acquires knowledge in the
classroom or when one observes a demonstration activity. Intentional learning occurs when
activities are purposefully arranged for the students to participate and experience. On the other
hand, learning sometimes is unintentional like when a child touches a lighted candle and feels it
is hot. All individuals are engaged in learning every waking moment, however learning occurs
more when the various stimuli are properly arranged for purposes of learning.
Broadly speaking, there are two principal types of learning theories to explain how
individuals learn according to educational psychologists. These are behavioral learning theories
and cognitive learning theories. Behavioral learning theories emphasize observable behavior
such as new skills, knowledge, or attitudes which can be demonstrated. These forms of behavior
are observable and measurable. According to this group of theories, if the individual has
changed behavior, he has learned.
Among the early behavioral learning theories were those of Ivan Pavlov’s Classical
Conditioning Theory, Edward Thorndike’s Laws of Learning and B.F. Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning. The outgrowth of the behavioral learning theory is Albert Bandura’s modeling or
observational learning. These and many more were discussed lengthily in your previous course.
On the other hand, cognitive learning theories are concerned with human learning in
which unobservable mental processes are used to learn and remember new information or
acquire skills. Related to these theories is the concept of meaningful learning through cognitive
models. Jerome Bruner (1966), David Ausubel (1968) and Robert Gagne (1970) described three
models of teaching which are anchored on the cognitive learning theory.
Discovery learning of Jerome Bruner states that the individual learns from his own
discovery of the environment. Learners are inherently curious, thus they can be self motivated
until they find answers to the problems. Learners, when actively involved in their own learning,
will continuously construct their own knowledge. Each individual is capable of learning how to
learn. Bruner’s idea gave rise to the emerging theory of constructivism and self-learning.
Learning is flexible, exploratory and independent.
Reception learning of David Ausubel poses a contrast to the discovery learning of
Bruner. To Ausubel, though learners are inherently curious, they may not be able to know what
is important or relevant and they need external motivation in order to learn. However, both
theories believe that learners should be actively involved in their own leaning. Both also
emphasize that prior learning is important in order to learn new things and because knowledge
continuously changes once it is in the learner’s mind.
Events of Learning of Robert Gagne proposed that an act of learning involves a series of
eight internal events:
1. Motivation phase – The learner must be motivated to learn by expectation that
learning will be rewarding.
2. Apprehending phase – The learner attends or pays attention if learning has to take
place.
3. Acquisition phase – While the learner is paying attention, the stage is set and the
information presented. Learner transforms information into meaningful form. The
mental images formed associates the new information with old information. This is
where advance organizers are useful.
4. Retention phase – The new acquired information must be transferred from short-term
to long-term memory. This may take place by means of practice, elaboration or
rehearsal.
5. Recall phase – Recall previous learned information. To learn to gain access to that
which has been learned is a critical phase in learning.
 6. Generalization phase – Transfer of information to new situations allows application
of the learned information in the context in which it was learned.
7. Feedback phase – Students must receive feedback on their performance. This will
serve as reinforcer for successful performance.

Some general statements which describe learning based on the theories of learning may
include the following:
 Learning does not take place in an empty vessel. Each learner is assumed to have
prior learning and maybe able to connect these to present learning.
 Learning is a social process where interactions with other learners and the teacher are
needed.
 Learning is a result of individual experiences and self-activity.
 Learning is both observable and measurable.
 Learning takes place when all the senses are utilized.
 Learning will be enhanced when the learner is stimulated, directed, guided and
feedback is immediately given.
 Each learner has his/her own learning styles.

Teaching and Learning Go Together

How does teaching and learning connect to each other? One process cannot succeed
without the success or support of the other. A teacher cannot claim she/he has taught if the
learners have not learned substantially. The teaching styles of the teachers should jibe with the
learner’s learning styles. Unless the two are fit, teachers and learners will be existing in two
different worlds.
Teaching as a process cannot be taken independently in its entirely. With so many
ingredients needed, the most important is still the learner. The learner being in the center of the
teaching will influence to a great extent teaching. It is therefore important that the knowledge of
the learner and his learning styles be considered. With the advancement of information about the
uniqueness of each learner, the multiple intelligences theory and many more, teaching has to
consider more factors in order to be effective.
On the other hand, the concepts of learning have become so vast that the simple stimulus-
response alone cannot explain it. Thus as learners become complex individuals capable of
learning on their own, the repertoire of teaching should also increase. The different teaching
styles with the support of simple sophisticated teaching materials are now necessary to affect
good learning.
In many cases, it has been observed that teaching is the cause and learning the effect.
Learning outcomes can indicate teaching performance. The quality of teaching is related to the
quality of learning. If the students fail to learn, the greater factor is the failure in teaching. We
always attribute the kind of learning to the kind of teaching. It has now become a fallacy that
some learners are non-teachable. If our theories of learning and development are strong, then all
individuals are teachable, therefore they are capable of learning. The question now is raised.
How can you a teacher, make someone, the learner, learn something?
As the direct relationship and learning become clear, success of both brings out
something like, “learning in teaching and teaching for learning.” This means that while the
teacher, teaches, he or she also learns in the process. On the other hand, as the students learn,
they are also teaching themselves how to learn.

Some Ways of Doing Teaching and Learning

Since both teaching and learning are interrelated processes and are important components
in the curriculum, let us review some ways of doing these. This section will simply give some
examples because the details of the methods of teaching and learning are included in another
course.
The different methods of teaching can be clustered according to the number of students in
a class. Large group is composed of thirty or more students, small groups of two to thirty
members or individualized teaching. For large group teaching, methods like lecture, expository,
panel discussion, seminar, forum, demonstration or a combination of lecture demonstration are
appropriate. On the other hand, for a small group, teaching methods like role playing, buzz
session, workshop, process approach, discovery learning, cooperative learning in various forms,
laboratory methods are few of the examples. For individualized teaching, modular instruction, e-
teaching, programmed instructions are some of the examples.
Another grouping of teaching methods will be traditional time-tested methods which
include among others the following: inductive method, deductive method, type study method,
project method, laboratory method, question and answer method or Socratic Method, and lecture
method. Those that belong to the other group are the improved teaching practices which include
among others integrative technique, discovery approach, process approach, conceptual approach,
mastery learning, programmed instruction, e-learning simulation, mastery teaching, conceptual
teaching, cooperative learning and many more.
If there are various ways of teaching, there must be various ways of learning, too. Since
the arrays of teaching should fit the ways of learning or learning styles, let us look into ways of
how human beings learn. Each of the different ways are based on learning theories. Here are
some ways of learning:
Ways of Learning
1. Learning by trial and error. This type of is related to the stimulus-response theory of
learning. Reaction, action and reaction where the beginning reaction is due to a stimulus.
When the result is correct or satisfying then the response will be repeated. When the reaction
is wrong or negative then it will not be repeated. Learning will take place in both instance.
This type of learning is oftentimes risky and time consuming because the next step will only
follow depending on the result. Making several errors would be very expensive in time,
effort and money. However, trial and error is the easiest way of doing things without
necessarily anticipating a definite objective.

2. Learning by conditioning. The classical conditioning theory of Pavlov serves as the basis of
this learning. Training is the simple term to describe learning here, thus even animals can be
trained to do something but such action does not refer to learning. Aside from Pavlov’s
classical conditioning, Skinner’s operant conditioning plays a great role in this kind of
learning. Learning here is a product of what the individual does which will result to either
pleasant or unpleasant behavior. Drill and practice are some learning activities based on
conditioning.

3. Learning by insight. From a simple trial and error learning to learning by conditioning,
educational psychologists believe that human beings learn also by insights. In this type of
learning a higher level of intelligence is being utilized. Insight is looking into oneself with
deeper thinking. A sudden flash of idea or solution to a problem sometimes called “aha”
learning is an example of insightful learning. Learning by insight requires higher thinking
skills of the learning. Through insights the learner will also be capable of deep reflection.

4. Learning by observation and imitation through modeling. This process of learning

assumes that one learns from someone. It is through observation and imitation from a model
that a person will be able to do similar thing. Anchored on the social learning of Albert
Bandura, learning by observation and imitation requires a model; hence it is referred to as
“no-trial” learning. This process of learning involves four phases: attentional phase where
the learner observes a model; retention phase, where the learner copies, practice or rehearse
what has been observed; reproduction phase, where the learner matches their behavior to the
model and motivational phase where learners will imitate the behavior for getting a chance to
be reinforced by becoming like one from whom the behavior was copied.

Teaching and Learning in the Curriculum

One of the crucial issues raised today in education is not what the students should learn
but rather how the student should learn how to learn. The deluge of information in our midst and
the different ways of retrieving them has become a challenge to both teaching and learning. The
curriculum seems to be overloaded: too many subjects to cover, too many topics to teach.
Sometimes the curriculum is fragmented or simply boxed. Unfortunately, the learners’ life is not
compartmentalized. Subject matter overlaps and integrates naturally and holistically. How then
should teaching approach this challenge? How should students learn? How can a curriculum be
designed to enhance the process of teaching? What kind of learning will be achieved from such
kind of teaching?
 Teaching and learning gives life and meaning to the curriculum. Each complement and
supplement each other. The value placed in teaching will reap the same value of learning, thus a
good curriculum can be judged by the kind of teaching and the quality of learning derived from
it.

ACTIVITY
To enhance learning in Lesson 3, you will do the activity below.
Activity 1 – Matching Teaching and Learning

With your group mates, study the matrix below. Discuss your answers.

Fill in the matrix to match teaching and learning. Consider teaching as the role of the
teacher and learning as the responsibility of the learner.

Teaching (Role of the Teacher) Learning (Responsibility of the Learner)

Example: Shows the different colors of a Example: Memorize the different colors of
rainbow. the rainbow.

1. Takes students on a field trip to a zoo. 1.

2. Organizes class to conduct experiment. 2.

3. Assigns groups to interview different 3.

professionals on their contribution to
the community.

4. Reads a story about the life of Jose

Rizal.

ANALYSIS
Give time to think deeply.

Consider this.

You have been going to school for several years now. You were taught by several
teachers while you were in the elementary, high school or college.

 Can you recall what you have learned from what they taught? List them in your
notebook.
 Are there other things you learned which were not taught by your teachers? Make
another list for these.
 Have your teachers in elementary, high school or college taught you how to learn your
own? Explain your answer.
 When you become a teacher, would it be good if you teach your students to learn how to
learn? Defend your answer.

ENRICHMENT

1. Based on the lesson, give at least five words to describe teaching and also five words to
describe learning.
 Teaching Learning

2. Why are teaching and learning important elements in the curriculum?

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