EXPERIMENT 1

AIM:

To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Leaf of Tradescantia, slide, coverslips, forceps, needles, brush, blotting paper, watch
glass, blade, dropper, glycerine, safranin and compound microscope.

THEORY:

Stomata are tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves. Though they are found on
both upper and lower epidermis of leaf but they are more in number on the lower
epidermis. Each stoma is bounded by two kidney – shaped guard cells. These guard
cells possess a nucleus and a number of chloroplasts. The walls of guard cells are
differentially thickened and elastic ie. they are thickened on inner side and thinner and
more elastic on outer side.

The opening and closing of stomata is operated by the change in the turgidity of guard
cells. The stomata help in exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour
between atmosphere and plant.

PROCEDURE:

1. Take a freshly plucked leaf and remove the peel from its lower surface by tearing
it.

2. Put the leaf peel in a watch glass containing water so that the peel does not dry.

3. To the watch glass containing leaf peel, add 1-2 drops of safranin to stain the peel.
4. With the help of a brush, place the leaf peel in the centre of a clean slide.

5. Put a drop of glycerine on the slide over the peel.

6. Now, with the help of a needle, gently place a coverslip over the peel.

7. Remove the excess glycerine with a blotting paper.

8. Observe the slide, first, under the lower magnification (ie. 10 X) of a compound
microscope and then, under the higher magnification (ie. 40 X).

OBSERVATIONS:

i. Epidermis or leaf peel consists of a number of cells which are irregular in

outline and are arranged in single layer with no intercellular spaces.
ii. Tiny pores called stomata are seen in the epidermal cells.
iii. Each stoma consists of two kidney-shaped guard cells.
iv. Each guard cell has a nucleus and many chloroplasts.

RESULT:

Minute apertures called stomata are seen in the temporary mount of leaf peel. Each
stoma is enclosed by two kidney – shaped guard cells. These guard cells differ from
other epidermal cells in having chloroplast.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Peel should be from freshly plucked leaf.

2. Peel should not be allowed to dry.

3. Leaf peel should not be over stained.

4. The slide should not be dirty.

5. Use a brush to transfer the leaf peel from watch glass to slide.

6. Peel should be placed in centre of slide.

7. Curling of peel should be avoided while placing it on slide.

8. The epidermal peel should be small in size.

9. Place the coverslip gently to avoid entry of air bubbles.

10.Excess stain and glycerine should be removed with blotting paper.

 EXPERIMENT 2

AIM:

Experimentally show that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Conical flask, U-shaped delivery tube (tube bent twice at right angles), cotton wool or
moist blotting paper, water, thread, beaker, test tube, one holed rubber cork, 20%
freshly prepared KOH solution, Vaseline and soaked gram seeds.

THEORY:

Respiration is a biochemical process during which food (glucose) is oxidized to

liberate energy. It is a catabolic process.

In the experiment, moist gram seeds are taken as they are actively respiring and
releasing CO2. The CO2 released is absorbed by KOH and forms K2CO3.

2KOH + CO2 K2CO3 + H2O

(Potassium hydroxide) (Potassium carbonate)

PROCEDURE:

1. Take about 25 - 30% seeds of gram and germinate these seeds by placing them on
moist cotton wool or moist blotting paper for 3 – 4 days.

2. Place the germinated seeds into a conical flask and sprinkle a little water in flask to
moist the seeds.

3. Take freshly prepared 20% KOH solution in a test tube and hang it in conical flask
with help of thread.
4. Close the mouth of conical flask by placing a one holed rubber cork.

5. Through the hole of rubber cork, insert one end of the U – shaped glass delivery
tube and place the other end into a beaker filled with water.

6. Seal all the connections of the experimental set – up with vaseline so as to make it
air – tight.
7. Mark the initial level of water in the U – shaped delivery tube.

8. Keep the apparatus undisturbed for 1 - 2hours and note the change in level of
water in the delivery tube.

OBSERVATIONS:

After sometime, the level of water in U – shaped delivery tube dipped in water of the
beaker rises.

RESULT:

Germinated gram seeds in a conical flask release CO2 during respiration. The CO2
released is absorbed by KOH present in the hanging test tube in conical flask. This
creates a vacuum in conical flask which causes upward movement of water in the
delivery tube leading to change in level of water in the delivery tube.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Germinating seeds should be kept moist.

2. All connections of the set- up should be air tight.

3. Freshly prepared KOH solution should be used.

4. Keep one end of U – shaped delivery tube in conical flask and the other end
immersed in water of the beaker.

5. The test tube containing KOH should be hung carefully.

 EXPERIMENT 3

AIM:

Identification of the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed (pea, gram or red
kidney bean).

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Seeds of bengal gram / red kidney bean, forceps, cloth, magnifying glass, petridish
and water.

THEORY:

PROCEDURE:

1. Soak a few bean seeds and keep them overnight.

2. Drain the excess water.

3. Cover the seeds with a moist cloth and keep them aside for a day.
4. Peel off the seed coat carefully.

5. Using your thumbs or the forceps, open the bean seed so that it falls into two
halves.

6. With the help of the magnifying glass, locate the parts of the bean embryo
carefully.

7. Draw a sketch of the inside of the dicot seed that was examined and label its parts.
OBSERVATIONS:

 Bean seed is kidney – shaped with a concave and convex side.

 The concave side which is slightly darker has a scar called hilum.
 Adjacent to hilum a small pore known as micropyle is present.
 The seed is covered by a seed coat.
 The embryo consists of two large, white and kidney – shaped cotyledons.
 The cotyledons are attached laterally to the curved embryonal axis.
 Rod shaped and slightly bulgy lower end of embryonal axis which lies towards
micropylar end is called radicle.
 Plumule is the upper end of embryonal axis.
 The part of embryo axis between radicle and attachment of cotyledon leaves is
called hypocotyl.
 The part of embryo axis between plumule and attachment of cotyledon leaves is
called epicotyl.

RESULT:

The embryo of dicot seeds consists of three main parts – plumule, radicle and two
cotyledons.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The cloth which is used to cover seeds should be moist and should not get dry.

2. Seeds should be open carefully so that the embryo does not get damaged.
 SPOTTING

1. Binary fission in Amoeba:

The permanent slide kept for identification is Binary fission in Amoeba.
Comments:
 This is a type of asexual reproduction in which two daughter cells (or two
individuals) are formed from a single parent.
 Parent cell becomes elongated.
 Nucleus divides first and then cytoplasm divides.
 At the point of fission, constriction appears and deepens to divide the cell
into two daughter cells.
2. Budding in Yeast:
The permanent slide kept for identification is Budding in Yeast.
Comments:
 In this type of asexual reproduction, a small protuberance or outgrowth
arises from the parent body called bud.
 Nucleus divides to form two daughter nuclei, of which one passes into the
bud.
 The bud now detaches from the parent body and grows independently as a
new individual or may remain attached to parent body, forming chain of
cells.
 Parental identity is not lost.