Chapter – 1: Introduction of Tensile Test

The introduction of the thesis on the tensile test begins by establishing the relevance
of the topic, followed by an explanation of the methodology used for experimentation and
concludes with an overview of the organization of the thesis.

1.1 Introduction and Relevance:

Tensile Testing of metals is a destructive test process that provides information about
tensile strength, yield strength and ductility of the materials. Tensile test compute the
resistance of a material to a static or slowly applied force. To demonstrate the procedure, it is
designed to use for acquiring mechanical properties such as modulus of elasticity, yield
strength, ultimate tensile strength (UTS), toughness, uniform elongation, elongation and
reduction in area at rupture. The stress vs. strain trade of can also be determined with the
help of the tensile test.
The testing of metals under tension, compression, further bending and shear loads is
done using Universal Testing Machine (UTM). Also, hardness test can be conducted.
Tensile testing has a various of objectives, such as, to select a material or item for an
application, to predict performance of material under normal and large forces, to decide the
requirements of a specification, to provide a base for technical communication and standard
data for other scientific as well as engineering quality assurance functions. There are two
classes of testing machines viz.; electromechanical and hydraulic.
The electromechanical machine employ an electric motor, gear reduction system
and one, two or four screws to move the crosshead consisting of test precise up or down. A
range of crosshead speeds can be given by changing the speed of the motor through the
software control. In current state of a microprocessor based closed-loop servo system are
existing to precisely control the speed of the crosshead. The major components of the
universal testing machine are: a) actuator, b) attachment kit and c) measuring and safety
devices
So up gradation of existing tensile testing machines to incorporate new techniques is
necessary for monitoring of material behaviour. The wireless communication concepts can
also be added for transmitting the monitored data of various samples to view on PC or on
cloud.

TNE series consists of: a) straining unit, b) power pack, c) hydraulic controls, d) control
panel and e) electronic control panel.
a) Straining Unit: It contains a geared motor with chain and sprocket drive and a table
coupled with the ram of the hydraulic cylinder, mounted on to a robust base. To eliminate
friction the cylinder and ram are individually lapped. For measure the extension of test
specimen extensometer is used. Fig 1.1. shows attachment for tension test for shouldered
and threaded specimens.
b) Power Pack: Fig.1.2. shows tension test. Is used for tension test. The maximum
pressure generates of 200kgf/cm^2. It consists of hydraulic pump. The load applications
very smooth because it produces continuously non-pulsating oil flow.

c) Hydraulic Controls: It is used for applying the strain on the test is shown in Fig 1.3.
To control the flow of oil to and from the hydraulic cylinder in this hand operated wheels
are available. The oil flow regulation is infinitely varying. To maintain a practically
constant rate of piston movement hydraulic system used regulating valve. Extensometer
reading to be taken by controlling this valve.

d) Control Panel: It contains a complete power pack with drive motor and an oil tank,
control valves and electronic display unit.

e) Electronic control panel: Fig.1.4 shows the electronic control panel. It uses latest
microprocessor which incorporates the technology with following features. The panel has of
two modes of operations viz.; Panel control mode & PC control mode. Panel control mode,
the machine can be operated from panel (without PC) and output results / graph on dot
matrix printer. With PC control mode, load, displacement and extension data are transferred
to PC through RS- 232 serial port. In this storage of 20 data set and 50 results, maintains
data and results during power off.

1.2 Methodology:
To Measure Yield Strength of Different Materials of the system is developed to modify
the existing UTM machine using embedded system approach.
In tensile strength measurement methodology, we have implemented a system which
will allow us to check the specimen stress and strain accurately with high resolution ADC,
displacement sensor. This modified system has a) load cell sensor to sense capacity and load
rate count b) Ultrasonic sensor for strain rate count c) Signal conditioning and amplification
unit to convert the signal to appropriate strength d) Microcontroller to incorporate
intelligence and some sub components to display and monitor the output.
In conjunction with the electronic hardware, mechanical unit is also used to achieve
the expected results. Mechanical unit consists of a) Mechanical controlled mechanism b)
variable speed drive with AC/DC servo drive c) Automatic identification and
interchangeability of load cells d) Different clamping devices to suit specific requirement e)
Safety interlock by end limit switches and by overload sensing
Outcome of the system: Stress and Strain measurement requires load cell with
capacity ranging from 250N to 1000KN, max load rate count of 100000 count and
extensometer resolution of 0.1 micron with rate application of load varying from 0.01 to
1000 mm/min is achieved which fulfils the industry standards.
1.3 Organization of Thesis:
In chapter 1, we presented the concept of Universal Strength Measurement System.
At the same time disadvantages of using traditional methods and benefits of using high
resolution, more of data storage, facility display, microcontroller with higher features and
requirement, wireless system of off chip resources.
In chapter 2, we explored the literature review of the Universal Strength
Measurement System of different material system, signal conditioning systems. The
literature review has been done to know the available material strength measurement system.
In chapter 3, system block diagram, specifications and selection of different
components of input section, control section and output section of wireless system are
explained.
The actual implementation of the Universal Strength Measurement System
consisting of two main sections viz., mechanical section and electronic section. The
mechanical section is described briefly along with detailing of electronic section in chapter
4.
In chapter 5, we have presented software implementation of Universal Strength
Measurement system and Flow charts of main module, analog to digital converter module,
Stress measurement flow chart and Strain measurement flow chart.
In chapter 6, the experiments and testing of different materials of the Universal
Strength Measurement system are elaborated. All the test results, observation tables along
with graphs are presented here. Also, it incorporates the Overall Budget for whole system.
We will conclude the strength measurement system results obtained along with future
scope of this system in chapter 7.

Chapter- 2: Theoretical Background and Literature

Review of ES-AMYSDM
In this chapter understanding the principles of material mechanics, sensor technology, and
embedded systems design. Here's an explanation of each component. The existing literature,
researchers can develop a comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities
in measuring yield strength using an embedded system approach. This knowledge forms the
basis for designing innovative solutions and conducting studies to validate their
effectiveness and practicality.

2.1 Present Theories and Practices:

Traditionally available UTM i.e. TNE series is a closed loop Servo Controlled
machine. Tensile test is carried out on materials viz.; steel and aluminium. The current
tensile testing is done by using a load cell for load measurement and in older versions; a
fully mechanical or hydraulically device is used to measure the load. The strain
measurement is done from the displacement of the crosshead or directly from the specimen.
Since strain gauge transducers have the advantage that they measure only the displacement
in the gauge length of the specimen.
Present Mechanical arrangement with specimen to be tested is as shown in Figure 2.1.
Universal Testing Machine consist of two important sections.
A) Mechanical Section
B) Electronic Section

A) Mechanical Section:
There are three main units in mechanical section viz.; i) loading frame ii)
hydraulic pumping unit iii) Motor control block as shown in figure 2.1 Present
Mechanical arrangement with specimen to be tested.

i) Loading frame: contains a central cross head and a lower table. Centre cross
head is adjustable for clearance by means of a geared motor. Between the central
cross head and lower table, the compression test is carried out and tension test is
carried out between center and upper cross heads.

ii) Hydraulic pumping unit: includes multi plunger pump powered by a suitable
motor. For a continuous non pulsating oil flow to the ram of the loading frame this
pump is used. To safety against over load pressure switch is provided.

iii) Motor control block: There are two models of operation. In manual control
mode, the machine is operated by means of potentiometer provided on control box.
Here, no rate control is offered. The machine is operated by means of potentiometer
in similar ways as we operate hydraulic valve. In auto control mode, operator enters
required load / Disp / Strain rate on computer. When we start the test, the required
rate is always compared with achieved rate and error feedback controls machine
accurately.

Electronic Block diagram of existing Universal Testing Machine is as shown in Figure 2.2.

TNE series system incorporate of a) Strain gauge sensor i.e. load cell for measuring applied
force b) Extensometer for measuring extension due to applied load and c) Encoder for
measuring displacement and limit switch LS to limit the up safety and down safety. All are
interfaced to microprocessor after signal conditioning.
The microprocessor monitors the load applied to test specimen. The servo motor is a
closed loop control system with variable frequency. The servo motor is used to meet desired
speed and accuracy of load applied. Microprocessor monitors the stress and elongation
reading from strain gauge transducer and extensometer and performs computation and
displays them on 7- segment display. A numeric keyboard for data entry on front panel
membrane type keyboard is present for machine operation. Data entry to be entered are
parameters for test including speed, rupture % peak, preload, modulus data, test data and
specimen data etc. for getting data on PC that is interfaced to microprocessor through the
 USB. For understanding the trade of stress-strain graph and also to evaluate yielding point
of material.

a) Sensor Block
There are three sensors blocks viz.; i) Load cell ii) Extensometer iii) Encoder
i) Load Cell: To converts a force or load into a measurable output load cells are used.
They are of multiple types including hydraulic, pneumatic, strain gage, piezoelectric and
capacitance. It is designed to sense force or weight under a wide scale of adverse conditions;
they are the most essential part of an electronic weighing system. The load cell capacity
range needed for our dissertation is 250N to 1000KN and load rate count 100000.

ii) Extensometer: To measure material extension the strain gauge type, extensometer
used with a resolution of 1 mm. It is designed to be clamped directly on specimen. To
determine important specifications like 1% to 1% proof stress and Young's modulus, it has
two fixed gauge lengths of 25mm and 50 mm is used to measure strain up to elastic limit.
Change of gauge length is by means of replacing button knife-edge extender, MCE 2 is
fabricated from high strength fight weight aluminium with a durable anodized finish. The
knife-edges are made from oil hardened tool steel to withstand heavy usage. We need to
modify strain rate control from 0.01 mm of existing to 0.1 micron.

iii) Encoder: For measurement of displacement an encoder is used, it is an

electromechanical device. Encoders are digital displacement transducers, contains of a
mechanical element and a sensing head, mostly of optical type. The mechanical element can
be a disc (for rotary type encoders) or a ruler (for linear type encoders) with deposited or
carved patterns. The sensing head includes a light source (LED) and a light sensor (photo
detector) to read the generated code (the encoder output). The required range needed for rate
of application of load is between
0.01mm/min to 1000 mm/min.

b) Controller block: The monitoring and control system hardware design mainly contains an 8-
bit microprocessor. The 8085 follows the von Neumann architecture, with a single data bus
used for both instructions and data. The 8085 can address up to 64 KB of memory using its
16-bit address bus. Typically operates at a clock speed of 3 MHz, although variations exist.
Can interface with various peripheral devices such as memory, I/O ports, timers/counters,
and serial communication devices.

c) Display unit: It consists of wired communication. The RS232 and printer port of printer
interface with then graph and results printout. Front panel membrane type keyboard for
machine operation with numeric keys for data entry.7-segment displays are used for to
display force, displacement and extension. The graph of stress vs. strain, load vs.
displacement, load vs. % elongation display on PC.

d) Electronic control panel: In current dissertation digital display system is totally controller
based. To communicate with the computer, it has RS232. The system is support by
windowbased software. On Line graph of load vs. displacement is displayed on the monitor.
 Analogue readings and graphical representations are stored in the file which can be
retrieved on demand.

 Mathematical analysis for Yield Strength measurement of different specimens:

Mathematical analysis such as stress, strain, yield strength and % elongation etc. it
is followed by the proposed block diagram that are required to modify system to explain all
blocks. The detailed methodology of implementation is explained with the help of
proposed block diagram.

a. Theoretical Analysis:
The primary use of the testing machine is to obtain the characteristics of
between stress-strain. Tensile test governs the strength of the material subjected to a
simple stretching operation. Generally, standard dimension test samples are pulled
slowly (static loading) and at uniform rate in a testing machine while the strain (the
elongation of the sample) is given by (1)

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜀 = = (1)

And the stress is ratio of (the applied force to the original cross-sectional area) and
mathematically given by (2)

𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = σ = = (2)
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴0

 Measurement of Stress vs. strain:

Consider, an e.g. steel and aluminium under tensile loading. As shown in fig (4)
Where ultimate strength is maximum value on point of curve is Y. M is the slope
of curve. Yield strength Ys is corresponding to the point of curve where linearity is lost.

b. Performance Parameters:
In this section explain all mathematical analysis such as stress, strain, yield
strength and % elongation etc. it is followed by the proposed block diagram that are
required to modify system to explain all blocks. The detailed methodology of
implementation is explained with the help of proposed block diagram.

Stress and strain can be obtained from graph of Fig.4.using (3) and (4)
𝑃
𝑠= (3)
𝐴0

(𝐿 − 𝐿0) 𝐴0 − 𝐴
 𝑒= = (4)
𝐿0 𝐴

Where,
P Instantaneous load
(Kg) s Stress (Kg/𝑚 Pa) e
Strain
L Instantaneous gauge length (m), Gauge length after rupture, and the two pieces
having been carefully fitted back together so that their axes lie in a straight
line.
L0 Original gauge length, Gauge length before application of force(m)
A Instantaneous area (𝑚 )
A0 Original area of cross-section at gauge length (𝑚 )
True stress and true strain obtained by (5) and (6)
𝜎= 𝑠(1 + 𝑒) (5)

𝑒= ln(1 + 𝑒) (6)
Where,
σ True stress (Kg/𝑚 , Pa)
ɛ True strain e Strain
Also, Tensile Strength or Ultimate Tensile Strength is the stress
corresponding to the maximum force.

Yield Stress: a point is reached during the test at which plastic deformation occurs
without any increase in the force. It is obtained by (7)
𝐹
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
(7)
𝐴
Where,
𝐹 : Load at the yielding point
𝐴 : Initial area of the specimen
Yield Point Elongation: The extension associated with discontinuous yield which
occurs at approximately constant load following the onset of plastic flow. Percentage
of total elongation obtained by (8)
𝐿 − 𝐿0
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = (8)
𝐿0
So here we have discussed some of the papers wherein such sensors are used but for
some different applications.

2.2 Literature Review

• D. Josell et al [1] proposed a method on Tensile testing low density multilayers:
Aluminum/titanium. The Scanning electron micrographs technique average and
highest ultimate tensile strengths are compared, where possible, with the highest
values obtained from other multilayer systems. The scatter of the UTS values
increased with decreasing bilayer thickness, consistent with the observed increase of
the yield stress and associated premature failure at defects in the specimens.

• Zechariah Gajadhar, Anjali Dhobale, Nicholas [2] presented a paper on Tensile

Machine User Interface. In this they have incorporated the principle of Graphical User
Interface (GUI) for a Tinius-Olsen Tensile Machine using MATLAB. Additionally, the
GUI interface allows for a live video stream and an image capture feature, which
allows students to view the experiment from a safe distance. which helped to achieve a
conduct real-time qualitative data analysis.

• Liam Moore, [3] publish Embedded Module for 3-D Mechanical strain measurement.
This 3-D strain measurement structures are found to more efficient in terms of
manufacturing procedures with minimum adjustments and, due to the common
communication and power bus, is modular in nature allowing the integration of
additional sensor components for health monitoring required e.g., humidity, vibration,
shock etc. Since the module was completely self-contained, the onboard presence of
all signal conditioning and compensation electronics eliminates the effects of electrical
noise.

• Mr.A.N.Patil, Dr.Mrs.S.B.Patil [4] proposed An automation of universal testing

machine using human machine interface. This paper explains the details about the
advancing of display & data acquisition system for universal testing machine (UTM)
using Human Machine Interfaces (HMI). The design thus implemented alarms &
warnings, reliable messaging, easier to overall management of plant, accurate testing
with simulation, improved communications to traditional automation of UTM.

• Du Jingqing, Gao Shiqiao, Niu Shaohua [5] have reported a method Hydraulic testing
machine with stress and strain rates controlled and its realization. In this paper they
have discussed Proposed by this paper, a comprehensive control system can be formed
by a pressure gauge throttle needle valve and a frequency converter supported by
modern micro-computer control technology. This type of system can be used in
various strength testing device. Test and inspection show that this system, which
totally meets the loading requirements of stress rate or strain rate in the national
standards, can be used in hydraulic testing machines. For a pressure gauge throttle
needle valve is adopted as the main hydraulic part, the hydraulic system has a simple
structure and reliable performance.

• Daudi S. Simbeye [6] published Computerized measurement and control system of the
UTM based on virtual instruments. This computerized measurement has been done to
study a critical property of wide range materials in relation to mechanical properties
like our work. Specimens can potentially be different types of materials including
 metallic and non-metallic materials. The proposed computerized measurement has a
precise motion control, high precision, high stability and powerful data analysis
capabilities.

• Changli Zha and Shenlong Zha [7] published experimental study on influence of
ultrasonic vibration on forming limit. The ultrasonic vibration perform mechanism of
forming limit diagram (FLD). Analysis shows that the FLDs under ultrasonic vibration
increase with the increase of vibration frequency, but the shapes are basically
unchanged.

• Julien H. Arrizabalaga, Aaron D. Simmons and Matthias U. Nollert [8] proposed

fabrication of an economical Arduino-based uniaxial tensile tester. In this paper
Arduinobased mechanical tester and the commercial uniaxial tensile tester (United
Smart Table SSTM-2, Flint, MI) are provided as a means of comparison between the
two systems. Arduino-based tester values are in accurate with those for the
commercial-grade tester.

• Literature Review Summary

Table 1.1 Literature Review Summary
Paper no./Author Title Methodology (Algorithm)/Processor/Display unit/ Result/accuracy Gap
ref no. Material for tasting/feature

D. Josell et al • Material for tasting: Aluminum AlyTi multilayer open loop

” Tensile testing low density /titanium strips specimens exhibited yield
multilayers: • Processor: Speckle interferometry stresses that increased with
Aluminum/titanium” • Display unit: - / decreasing bilayer
Journal of materials research • Methodology: thickness is determined by thickness over the 90 to 13
Oct1998 [1] scanning electron microscopy (SEM) nm range of bilayer
thicknesses

Zechariah Gajadhar, Anjali  Material for testing: different type of stress and strain values, Open loop
Dhobale, Nicholas specimens manually recorded 16-bit
“Tensile Machine User  Processor: Arduino Uno microcontroller resolution
Interface”  Software tools: MATLAB, GUI. Display
13thLaccei International  unit: 16-bits ADC, Microsoft excel to
Conference, generate stress-strain plot Feature: real-
July 29-31, 2015.[2]  time synthesis and analysis gives cost-
efficient educational tool

Liam Moore, Fellow, IEEE,  Material for testing: - structural health Open loop
and John Barrett” Embedded  Processor: Microcontroller PIC18F1320 monitoring and reliability
Module for 3-D Mechanical  Display unit: digital data directly to a and for calibration 24-bit
Strain Measurement” master device such as PC and 24-bit resolution
IEEE transactions on ADC
components, packaging  Methodology: system is monitored using
and manufacturing the on-board temperature sensors
technology,
6, June 2012 [3]
Mr. A. N. Patil, Dr. Mrs. S.  Material for testing: different specimens the stain rate should stay Open loop
B. Patil  Processor: Microcontroller between 0.00025/S and
“Automation of Universal  Display unit: 10-bit ADC, HMI Feature: 0.0025/S
Testing machine using  clear analytical treatment for load v/s
Human Machine Interface” elongation curves
International journal for
research & development in
 technology
Dec-2015 [4]
Du Jingqing, GaoShiqiao,  Material for testing: Cement loading requirements of Open loop
NiuShaohua  Processor: PID, data processing stress rate or strain rate in
“New Idea for Hydraulic  Software tools: - / the national standards
Testing Machine rate control  Methodology: Using transducer and
and realization” computer technique, hydraulic system is
International Conference on formed by SCM (single chip micyoco),
Intelligent Computation needle valve, frequency converter and
Technology and Automation electric machine, to complete stress and
2010 [5] strain rates control.
Daudi S. Simbeye  Material for testing: Brick tensile test with a Closed loop
“Computerized Measurement  Processor: ATmega64 Microcontroller deformation rate of
and Control System of the  Software tools: LabWindows/CVI. 5mm/minute
UTM Based on Virtual  Display unit: 16-bit ADC, PC
Instruments”  Feature: achieve the instrument's speed and
Journal of Information position control, real-time data display
Science and Computing
Technologies,
January 14,2016 [6]
Changli Zha and Shenlong  Material for testing: Metal sheet frequency rises from 20 Open loop
Zha,  Process: Ultrasonic vibration Methodology: to 23.5 kHz, the limit
Experimental study on  . Applying ultrasonic vibration in sheet strain increment
influence of ultrasonic metal forming can change its forming increases with the
vibration on forming limit. mechanism and improve its formability. increase of vibration
EDP Sciences Feature: achieve the instrument's speed and frequency, and varies
March 15,2022,[7]  position control, real-time data display within 1.9–8.7%.

Julien H. Arrizabalaga,  Material for testing: Latex glove Process: mechanical properties of Open loop
Aaron D. Simmons and  ATmega64 Microcontroller Software a material relate to how
Matthias U. Nollert  tools: LabWindows/CVI. it responds to
Fabrication of an Economical  Display unit: ADC, PC mechanical stress.
Arduino-Based Uniaxial  Feature: achieve the instrument's speed and
Tensile Tester Journal of position control, real-time data display
Chemical Education
January 27, 2017. [8]

It has been seen that from literature review that, have some of researches adopted open
loop control mode. In traditional UTM i.e. TNE series has usage of outdated processors and
peripherals being used. Also, the existing traditional TNE series tensile testing machine has
drawbacks of less resolution, lack of data storage, facility outdated display and keyboard,
microprocessor with lower features and requirement of off chip resources.

Table.1.2 shows the required specification to be incorporated in design for up

gradation. It requires load cell with capacity ranging from 250N to 1000KN, max load rate
count of 100000 and extensometer resolution of 0.1 micron with rate application of load
varying from 0.01 to 1000 mm/min.

Table1.2. Existing TNE machine specification and required specification to upgrade

Sensor Features Existing Required

 blocks
Load cell Capacity 500N to 200KN 250N to 1000KN
Load rate count 20000 count/ 100000 count
50000 count
Extensometer strain rate control 0.01 mm 0.1 µm

The existing traditional TNE series tensile testing machine has drawbacks of less
resolution, lack of data storage, facility outdated display and keyboard, microprocessor with
lower features and requirement of off chip resources.

Due to necessity of Complexity of module, lower resolution of loading sensors and

lesser accuracy, presence of outdate display and keyboard. Lower resolution of extensometer
due to 8-bit microprocessor. More size and weight of system due to external peripherals.

It has been seen that from literature review that, have some of researches adopted
open loop control mode. In traditional UTM i.e. TNE series has usage of outdated processors
and peripherals being used.

Taking literature review into consideration and looking at the requirement of up

gradation of the existing tensile testing machine with respect to load cell capacity, load rate
count and strain rate control our problem statement is as further

2.3 Problem Statement of ES-AMYSDM:

To design and upgrade the existing UTM tensile testing machine using an embedded system
approach to measure the stress vs. strain characteristics of different materials using ARM7/ATMEGA
controller to incorporate the required specifications. Also to provide wireless system monitoring and
visualization of system processes on PC.

2.4 Objectives of the Dissertation:

1. To modify the existing UTM machine for automation by adding ARM7 controller.
2. To develop signal conditioning unit for strain gauge & extensometer and interface
them to ARM7 controller along with touch screen for stress and strain
measurement.
3. To develop embedded C program for monitoring and visualization.
4. To obtain material parameters such as ultimate strength, yield strength, % elongation,
% area of reduction and Young's modulus.
5. To incorporate wireless system for to monitor the process on personal computer.
 Chapter-3: System Block Diagram of ES-AMYSDM:
In this chapter we have presented in detail about system block diagram and design of
hardware section. All input, output and control sections are described.

3.1 Top Level Block Diagram of Implemented System:

As shown in above block diagram the entire system set up for Yield Strength
measurement of different materials consists of two parts viz.; a) Mechanical system b)
Electronic section.

a) Mechanical setup: Mechanical set up consists of i) Load frame ii) Crosshead iii)
Specimen grips iv) Load cell v) Extensometer vi) Control system v) Safety features
Mechanical set up allow us to place the sample to be checked for ultimate tensile
strength of material. The material to be tested is prepared in a specific shape and size
according to standard specifications. Specimen is mounted between two grips within
the machine. One grip is fixed, and the other is connected to a movable crosshead. The
machine applies a steadily increasing tensile (pulling) force to the specimen, causing it
to stretch. During the test, various parameters are measured, including the applied force
and the resulting elongation of the specimen. The data collected during the test is
analyzed to determine the material's mechanical properties, such as ultimate tensile
strength, yield strength, modulus of elasticity, and elongation at break. The detailed
explanation of the mechanical set up is given in chapter number 4.1. The detailed
explanation of the mechanical set up is given in chapter number 4.1.

b) Electrical System: Total 2 sensors are used for measuring stress and strain of material
using load cell and ultrasonic sensor respectively. Load cell and Ultrasonic sensor with
a very high sensitivity and resolution should be used so that stress and strain must be
noted with better accuracy. A load cell is a transducer that converts force or weight into
an electrical signal. That is give the stress of object by using load cell sensor. An
ultrasonic sensor is a device that converts ultrasonic sound waves into electrical
signals. Ultrasonic sensor emit ultrasonic pulses and then measure the time it takes for
the pulses to bounce back after tension applied an object. This information is used to
determine the distance to the object. That is give the strain of object by using ultrasonic
sensor. Electronic hardware consists of amplifier as signal conditioning device,
microcontroller and Analog to Digital Converter. Electronic hardware senses the
changes in stress and strain of the sensor and converts it into accurate digital value
which is read and then proper action is taken by microcontroller. The decision check is
carried out by microcontroller program. Display unit is used to display the stress and
strain of the specimen.

3.2 Implemented System Block diagram of Electronic Section:

 Figure 3.2 shows Implemented block diagram of electronic section. It has four
main units: a) Sensor block, b) Controller block, c) Display block and d) Loading frame.
The new parts to be added in our dissertation are shown by dotted Blk1 and Blk2 in
Figur.3.2. Blk1 consists of controller, and wireless unit and Blk2 consists of addition of
new sensors with associated signal conditioning circuit, on chip ADC of ESP32, strain
gauge bridge, ultrasonic sensor. We will be developing program to the stress, strain and
monitor. Devices like strain gauge bridge sensor, Ultrasonic sensor, Signal conditioning
circuit, ADC comes under the category of Input section. Output sections contains OLED
display. Control action is completed by the microcontroller device. The connection
diagram of all these devices is shown in the figure 3.2.

3.3 Hardware Section:

The entire hardware design is carried out in 2 blks viz., Blk1 consists of controller,
and wireless unit and Blk2 consists of addition of new sensors with associated signal
conditioning circuit, on chip ADC of ESP32, strain gauge bridge and ultrasonic sensor. We
will be developing program to the load and monitor.
Design consideration part is of more important as all components must be chosen
according to their electrical, mechanical and environmental needs. Therefore, the
explanation of necessary component used with their need and specifications are reported
further.

3.3.1 Selection of Input Section:

Input section consists of Strain gauge bridge sensor, Ultrasonic sensor, Analog to
Digital converter will sense the stress by load cell and will converts force into a
measurable output. Signal conditioning device will amplify the signal and buffering will be
done. After buffering digitization of the signal is done by ADC. And Ultrasonic sensor it
emits an ultrasonic sound pulse and measures the time it takes for the pulse to bounce back
after hitting an object. By knowing the speed of sound in air, it can calculate the strain to
the object.
Following are the selection criteria of the all the input components.

a. Selection of Strain Gauge Load Cell sensor:

Requirement of strain gauge load cell is based on stress range of 250N-1000KN
with a resolution of 4.1723 milligrams and sensitivity of minimum 2 mV/V per kilogram,
excitation voltage of load cell 0-3.3volts dc. A full bridge load cell is chosen because no
null voltage adjustment is required for half bridge load cell and in our application doing
null adjustment every time is practically not possible. To suit to this requirement industrial
grade load cell from Baker make is chosen which has the following specifications -

i. Stress Measuring Range = 784.8N

ii. Sensitivity = 2mV/V
iii. Resolution=4.1723milligrams
 iv. Temperature Range = -10°C to 40°C
v. Excitation voltage of strain gauge load cell = 0-3.3 volts

Figure 3.3 shows Strain gauge load cell sensor and labelling for strain gauge load cell
sensor is as follows –
A strain gauge load cell with 4 wires typically refers to a load cell configuration that
includes four wires for connection: two wires for excitation voltage and two wires for
measuring the output signal. This configuration is commonly known as a 4-wire load cell
setup and is used to compensate for lead wire resistance, minimizing errors introduced by
the resistance of the connecting wires.

b. Selection of Strain Measurement Ultrasonic Sensor:

Requirement of strain measurement ultrasonic sensor is based on strain rate control
of 0.1µm with a Resolution 0.4 cm, excitation voltage of 0-3.3volts dc. An ultrasonic
sensor is chosen because is work on conductive and non-conductive material. To suit to
this requirement industrial grade ultrasonic sensor is chosen which has the following
specifications - i Working Voltage: DC 5 V ii Power Supply: +5V DC iii Quiescent
Current: <2mA iv Working Current: 15mA v Effectual Angle: <15° vi Ranging Distance:
2cm – 400 cm vii Resolution: 0.4 cm
Figure 3.4 further shows Ultrasonic Sensor HC-SR04.

c. Selection of Analog to Digital Converter:

Requirement of ADC is based on the minimum resolution of stress measurement that
is needed to be sensed from strain gauge load cell and converted. This requires at least
24-bit ADC for conversion. Also, load rate count should be 100000, since stress
measurement are to be carried out.
Selection of ADC –
For 16-bit ADC, Number of bits that ADC can handle is computed as further;
Full scale range= 5v
If ADC of 16 bits is selected then, 16 bits of ADC corresponds to 2^16 = 65536 bits
This shows even one to one mapping between one bit change of ADC and 3.3v of
fullscale range of sensor is not possible with 65536 bits
3.3volts/65536 = 50.35 microvolts
For a bit ADC, we have 2^24 = 1,67,77,216 bits
A strain gauge load cell sensor corresponds to 3.3volts/1,67,77,216= 196.6 nanovolts
It ensures that, 8-bit change of ADC to represent a micron. This is sufficient for our
stress measurement. So, we have chosen a 24-bit ADC HX711 industrial grade with
following specifications -
i. Resolution – 24-bit
ii. SPI Interface mode iii. Sampling Rate - 80 sps
 iv. Input channels -2
v. Conversion Time – 24 Clock Cycles

Figure 3.5 shows ADC HX711 AVIA Semiconductor Technology HX711 is 24-bit ADC
with on board sample and Hold circuitry. Communication with the microcontroller can be
done using simple serial interface compatible with SPI protocol.

3.3.2 Design of Control section:

Controller comes under the category of control sections which will control the
actions and take appropriate decisions. With respect to received signal from ADC
controller runs the program to decide whether the checked specimen is “ok‟ or “Not ok‟,
operates relay accordingly and gives signal to OLED to display the “ok‟ or “not ok‟
condition of the specimen.
a. Selection of Microcontroller:
Controller here acts as a decision-making device with reference to value
received from ADC device and takes decision on whether or not the value is in
limit. To Depending on these requirements Industrial grade ESP32 controller is
chosen with following specifications-
i. Flash Memory = 4 MB
ii. Internal SRAM = 520 Kbytes
iii. Serial USART = 2 iv. Programmable I/O lines = 34

Figure 3.6 further shows microcontroller ESP32.

Number of port pins of microcontroller required for different components are tabulated
below. Table 3.3 Pin Requirement of Microcontroller
Sr. Name of Interfacing Number of µc
No. Device Pins needed

1 ADC 04

2 Ultrasonic Sensor 04

3 OLED DispPlay 04

3.3.3. Design of Output Section:

Output section requires selection of OLED display. Selection and specification of

selected component is explained further.
 a. Selection of OLED:
The 128 x 64 intelligent Organic Light-Emitting Diode (OLED) displays
do not require a backlight and are regarded as the ultimate technology for the next
generation of flat panel displays.
A 128 x 64 OLED display is used to display the measured stress and strain of the
specimen. First line displays the actual stress and Second line shows actual strain.

Table 3.4 – Pin Description of OLED

Pin Function Name
No

1 Supply voltage; 5V (3.3V – 5V) Vcc

2 Ground (0V) Ground

3 Pin SCL of I2C interface SCL

4 Pin SDA of I2C interface SDA

Chapter-4: Implementation of ES-AMYSDM

This system set up consists of mainly two parts: a. Mechanical Section and b.
Electronic Section. Further detailing of both the sections are discussed in this chapter
below.
4.1 Mechanical Arrangement and its Design:
Mechanical setup consists of i) Load Frame ii) Crosshead iii) Specimen Grips
iv)
Load Cell v) Ultrasonic Sensor vi) Control System vii) Safety Features
The descriptive structural diagram of this mechanical set up is shown in figure 4.1.
i. Load Frame: The load frame is the main structural component of the tensile testing
machine. It houses the actuator (usually a hydraulic or electric motor) that applies the
tensile force to the specimen.
ii. Crosshead: The crosshead is connected to the actuator and moves vertically to apply
tension to the specimen. It typically contains grips or fixtures to hold the specimen
securely during the test.
iii. Specimen Grips: Grips securely hold the specimen in place during the test. They
come in various designs depending on the type of material being tested (e.g., flat
grips for metal specimens, vise grips for polymers).
iv. Load Cell: A load cell measures the applied force during the tensile test. It converts
the mechanical force into an electrical signal that can be recorded and analyzed.
v. Ultrasonic Sensor: An ultrasonic sensor measures the deformation (strain) of the
specimen during the test. It typically consists of two arms that attach to the specimen
and a gauge to measure the change in length.
vi. Control System: The control system regulates the testing process, including applying
the load at a specified rate and recording data from the load cell and extensometer.
vii. Safety Features: Tensile testing machines should include safety features such as
emergency stop buttons, protective enclosures, and overload protection to prevent
accidents and damage to the equipment.

4.2 Design and Implementation of Electronic Section:

The ES-AMYSDM consists of the following sections:
4.2.1 Load Cell Module: Strain Gauge Load Cell
4.2.2 Strain Module: Ultrasonic Sensor HC SR-04
4.2.3 ADC Circuit: HX711
4.2.4 Display Unit for System: 128 x 64 OLED Display
4.2.5 Monitoring the System: Microcontroller ESP32

The design of these circuits and their function is explained further. ESP32 pin
allocation table for interfacing of various components is as shown in table 4.1.

Table 4.1 -Interfacing to ESP32 details

Sr. Controller Pin No. Device Connected Controller Function
No.

1 18 ADC (PD_SCK) SD3 I/O GPIO10,

SD_DATA
2 23 ADC (Dout) IO15 I/O GPIO15
3 12 HC SR-04 Trig Trigger IO27 12 I/O GPIO27,
Input Pin ADC2_CH7, TOUCH7,
RTC_GPIO17,
EMAC_RX_DV

4 14 HC SR-04 Echo Output IO12 14 I/O GPIO12,

Pin ADC2_CH5, TOUCH5,
RTC_GPIO15, MTDI,
HSPIQ, HS2_DATA2,
SD_DATA2,
EMAC_TXD3

5 21 & 22 OLED Display SD_DATA0,

SD_DATA1
4.2.1. Stress Module: Strain Gauge Load Cell

As discussed in point 3.3.1 a of section 3, Signal conditioning system should be

used in conjunction with strain gauge load cell to convert measured specimen stress sensed
by the transducer mechanical position into unipolar or bipolar voltage. Such device must be
capable of converting raw strain gauge load cell output to scaled DC signal. As we are using
full bridge strain gauge load cell, we have chosen ADC HX711 as a single chip solution to
full bridge strain gauge load cell signal conditioning problems.

i Excitation Circuit (Positive and Negative) -

• These wires are used to provide the excitation voltage to the load cell. The
excitation voltage is typically DC and is applied across the load cell to power it.
• The positive excitation voltage wire (+Ex) is connected to the positive terminal of
the power supply, while the negative excitation voltage wire (-Ex) is connected to
the negative terminal.
• These wires supply a stable voltage to the load cell, ensuring consistent operation.
ii Output of Wheatstone Bridge (Positive and Negative) -
• These wires are used to measure the output signal of the load cell, which varies
proportionally to the applied load.
• The positive output signal wire (+Sig) carries the output voltage from the load
cell, while the negative output signal wire (-Sig) is the reference or ground for the
output signal.
• The voltage difference between the +Sig and -Sig wires represent the output
signal of the load cell and is typically measured using instrumentation such as an
amplifier or data acquisition system.

4.2.2. Strain Module: Ultrasonic Sensor HC SR-04

As discussed in point 3.3.1 b of section 3, Ultrasonic sensor to convert measured
specimen strain sensed by the sending ultrasonic waves (sound waves at frequencies
above the range of human hearing) and measuring the time it takes for the waves to
return after bouncing off an object. Changes in the time of flight of these waves can be
correlated with changes in the object's properties, such as strain or deformation.
Figure 4.4 and 4.5 shows top view and Functional Block diagram of Ultrasonic sensor
HC SR-04 respectively.
 4.2.3 Analog to Digital Converter Circuit: HX711
As discussed in chapter 3.3.1 c, a 24 bit Analog to Digital Converter HX711 is
used in between controller circuit. Analog Signal from full bridge strain gauge load cell
circuit is given to SCK of HX711 which is digitized in the range of 0 to 16777216 as
HX711 is a 24bit ADC
(2^24= 16777216). A digitized signal by ADC is then given to microcontroller’s DOUT
pin. Microcontroller performs suitable computations to convert measured strain gauge load
cell in to proportional stress.
An analog signal is applied to INNA and INPA of ADC. SCK (Pin no.11) is used
to clock in input channel data of INNA. Whenever PD_SCK signal (Chip Select) goes low
and falling edge of the clock is available, data will be shift out at Dout (Serial Data
Output). SPI Clock is provided to ADC (pin No. 12) by the microcontroller.

Figure 4.6 and 4.7 further shows the pin diagram and internal schematic of ADC
HX711 respectively. Pin number 11 is serial clock input used to initiate communication
with device when pulled low and will end the conversation when pulled high. Channel A
differential input is designed to interface directly with a bridge sensor’s differential output.
Serial CLK is used to initiate conversation and to clock out each bit of conversation. Din is
the serial data input pin used to clock in input channel configuration data. Dout is serial
data out pin used to shift out results of conversion.

4.2.4. OLED Display Unit for System: 128 x 64 OLED Display

A circuit diagram of 128 x 64 matrix keypad is shown in figure-4.8 which is part of
Human Machine Interface to operate the system. The 128 x 64 OLED Display is interfaced
with microcontroller to set lower and upper master values to set or change system program.
The functions of all the keys of OLED Display is described in table 4.3

4.2.5 Monitoring Unit: ESP32

ADC and OLED are interfaced to microcontroller. The Microcontroller port pin
allocation is done as per the table below.
Table 4.4 Microcontroller Port Pin Allocation for different Components
Sr. Controller Pin No. Device Connected Controller Function
No.

1 18 ADC (PD_SCK) SD3 I/O GPIO10,

SD_DATA
2 23 ADC (Dout) IO15 I/O GPIO15
3 12 HC SR-04 Trig Trigger IO27 12 I/O GPIO27,
Input Pin ADC2_CH7, TOUCH7,
RTC_GPIO17,
EMAC_RX_DV
 4 14 HC SR-04 Echo Output IO12 14 I/O GPIO12,
Pin ADC2_CH5, TOUCH5,
RTC_GPIO15, MTDI,
HSPIQ, HS2_DATA2,
SD_DATA2,
EMAC_TXD3
As shown in figure 4.10 functional block diagram of ESP32-
ESP32 is a single 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi-and-Bluetooth combo chip designed dual-core
Tensilica LX6 microprocessor with the low-power 40 nm technology. It is designed to
achieve the best power and RF performance, showing robustness, versatility and reliability
in a wide variety of applications and power scenarios.
ESP32 is 32-bit Microcontroller with 4 MB in system flash memory and 520 KB
Internal SRAM. It has 34 programmable general purpose I/O lines, Two 64-bit timers, 4 ×
virtual WiFi interface, Bluetooth v4.2 BR, 18-channel 12-bit ADC with optional
differential input stage with programmable gain, programmable Watchdog Timer with
Internal Oscillator, an 4 SPI serial port, IEEE std. 1588, compliant JTAG test interface, also
used for accessing the On-chip Debug system and programming and Fine-resolution power
control through a selection of clock frequency, duty cycle, Wi-Fi operating modes, and
individual power control of internal components. It accepts supply voltage of the range 2.3
to 3.6V. Refer Appendix for detailed information.
The control section contains Microcontroller ESP32 is decision taking device which
monitors and controls all the sections. Table 4.4 shows the controller configuration.

Figure 4.11 shows Actual connection for an electronic part Strain gauge sensor, Ultrasonic sensor,
ADC HX711, Microcontroller ESP32 and OLED Display.

Strain Gauge Load Cell Sensor, Ultrasonic Sensor, ADC HX711, OLED
Display are interfaced to microcontroller. The Microcontroller port pin allocation is
done as below.

1. Connect the wires (red and black) of the load cell to the V0+ and V0- outputs of
the HX711 module AVDD & AGND pin3 & pin5 respectively.
V0+ and VHX711 Pin3- AVDD Power Analog supply: 2.6 -5.5V
HX711 Pin5- AGND Ground Analog Ground
V0+ & V0- are the power wires for the load cells. The polarity doesn't matter. Switching
will only invert the calibration parameter in the software.
2. Connect the wire white middle cable of the load cell to the VG+ input of the
HX711 module pin8 INPA.
3. Connect the wire green resistors to the VG- input of the HX711 module pin7
INNA. VG+ and VG- are the measurement inputs from the cells. Like with the power
wires, the polarity is not important.
HX711 Pin7- INA- Analog Input Channel A negative input HX711 Pin8-
INA+ Analog Input Channel A positive input
4. Connect the GND of the HX711 module to the ESP32 GND pin 15 and VCC to
the ESP32 5V pin2.
ESP32 Pin2- 3V3 2.2V to 3.6V Power supply
 ESP32 Pin15- GND Ground
HX711 also works with 3.3V. So, if you have some other microcontroller that runs on
3.3V, then you can use 3.3V instead of 5V.
6. Connect the and SCK of the HX711 module pin12 & pin11 to the ESP32 digital
IO15 pin23 and SD3 pin18 respectively.
HX711 Pin12- DOUT Digital Output Serial data output
HX711 Pin11- PD_SCK Digital Input Power down control (high active) and serial
clock input
ESP32 Pin23- IO15 I/O GPIO15
ESP32 Pin18- SD3 I/O GPIO10, SD_DATA
7. Connect the IO21 and IO22 of the ESP32 module pin33 & pin36 to the OLED
display SCL pin3 and SDA pin4 respectively.
ESP32 Pin33- IO15 I/O GPIO15
ESP32 Pin36- SD3 I/O GPIO10, SD_DATA
OLED Pin33- IO15 I/O GPIO15
OLED Pin36- SD3 I/O GPIO10, SD_DATA

Chapter-5: Experimental procedure of ES-AMYSDM

Chapter 5, the Experimental Procedure, outlines the system set up followed to
conduct the experimental setup and Procedure.

5.1 Experimental Setup and Procedure of ES-AMYSDM

Certain procedure must be followed so as to check the stress and strain of the
given specimen. As there are 2 critical stress and strain measurements must be
displayed at a time as soon as specimen is placed on testing machine. The following
procedure is to be carried out to get the stress and strain of specimen-

5.1.1 System Set UP for ES-AMYSDM

Complete system set up for “An Embedded System Approach To Measure

Yield Strength Of Different Materials” Unit is shown in the Figure 5.1. Strain
 gauge load cell is connected to embedded system set up. It has load cell and
ultrasonic sensor for stress and strain measurement. Actual Specimen stress
and strain measurement needs for achieving good accuracy.

5.1.2. Experimental Setup and Procedure

Procedure for experimentation is as follows-

i. Specimen Mounting: Mount the test specimen securely in the grips of the tensile
testing machine, ensuring alignment with the load axis.
ii. Zeroing: Zero the load cell and displacement measurement device to eliminate any
initial offsets.
iii. Pre-Test Measurements: Record initial specimen dimensions, such as gauge length
and diameter, as well as environmental conditions.
iv. Test Parameter Setup: Set the testing parameters including testing speed, strain rate,
and any specific testing conditions required by the standard or experiment.
v. Initiate Test: Start the test, allowing the testing machine to apply tension gradually
to the specimen at the specified rate. vi. Data Acquisition: Record force and
displacement data continuously throughout the test using the data acquisition
system.
vii. Observation: Monitor the test for any signs of specimen failure, such as necking or
deformation.
viii. Test Completion: Stop the test once the specimen fractures or reaches the desired
elongation or force limit. ix. Post-Test Measurements: Record final specimen
dimensions, failure mode, and any additional observations.
x. Data Analysis: Analyze the collected data to determine material properties such as
ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, modulus of elasticity, and elongation at break. xi.
Reporting: Compile the results into a comprehensive report including testing parameters,
raw data, and analysis, ensuring compliance with relevant standards or experimental
requirements.

5.2 Procedure for Yield Strength Measurement

 Mechanical Implementation:
i. Sample Holder: Design and fabricate a robust sample holder capable of securely
gripping the test specimens. The holder should allow for easy attachment and
removal of samples.
ii. Load Application Mechanism: Integrate a mechanism to apply tension to the test
specimen. This could involve a motorized system with a threaded rod or a
pneumatic/hydraulic actuator, depending on the desired force range and speed. iii.
Displacement Measurement: Incorporate a mechanism to measure the elongation or
displacement of the test specimen accurately. This could be achieved using a linear
 displacement sensor or an encoder coupled with the moving part of the load
application mechanism.
iv. Safety Measures: Implement safety features to prevent overloading and ensure the
safety of operators and equipment. This might include limit switches to prevent
excessive displacement or force, emergency stop buttons, and physical guards.

• Electronic Implementation:

i. ESP32 Setup: Set up the ESP32 microcontroller as the central control unit for
the tensile testing system. Utilize the Arduino IDE or Platform IO for ESP32
development.
ii. Load Cell Interface: Connect the load cell to the HX711 ADC module. The load
cell measures the applied force, and the HX711 converts analog signals from
the load cell to digital data readable by the ESP32.
iii. Ultrasonic Sensor Integration: Connect the ultrasonic sensor to the ESP32 for
measuring the elongation of the test specimen. The sensor should be positioned
to track the movement of the sample holder or the test specimen directly.
iv. OLED Display Integration: Connect the OLED display to the ESP32 to provide
real-time feedback during the test. Display parameters such as applied force,
displacement, test status, and any relevant messages or prompts.
v. Control Algorithm: Develop firmware for the ESP32 to control the testing
process. This includes starting, pausing, and stopping the test based on user
input or predefined conditions. Implement PID control algorithms if necessary
to maintain a constant testing speed.
vi. Data Logging and Analysis: Incorporate data logging functionality to record
force, displacement, and time data during the test. Store the data either locally
on the ESP32 or externally on an SD card or cloud storage. Develop algorithms
for real-time or post-test data analysis to calculate key parameters such as
tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and elongation at break.
vii. User Interface (UI): Design a user-friendly interface for controlling the test
parameters and viewing real-time data. This could be implemented using
physical buttons and the OLED display or through a web interface accessible
via Wi-Fi. viii. Communication Interfaces: Optionally, incorporate
communication interfaces such as Wi-Fi or Bluetooth to enable remote
monitoring and control of the tensile testing system.

5.3 Flow Chart of Main System:

To start with the system flow chart, first we have initialized OLED (Pin no. 18 and
19 of µC). Then configuration of ADC is done i.e. Controller ports are configured as input
or output w.r.t. ADC pin and tabulated in table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Microcontroller Connection with ADC

 µC PIN ADC Pin ADC Function

18 11 PD_SCK

23 12 DOUT

15 5 AGND

5 3 AVDD

This is followed by storage of Upper Limit (UL) and Lower Limit (LL) tolerances of the
specimen stress and strain are stored in the EPROM. A subroutine is called to display title
on OLED, after displaying title on OLED ADC value is Read from pin number 23 of
microcontroller.
Chapter –6: Experimental Results of ES-AMYSDM and
Observations
Chapter 6 of a document typically focuses on presenting the experimental results
and observations obtained from conducting a tensile test. A tensile test is a fundamental
mechanical test used to determine the mechanical properties of materials, particularly their
strength and elasticity under tension.

6.1 Introduction
We have carried out experimentation in some steps. In the first step linearity of Load
cell sensor is checked i.e. graph of sensor stress with output of the signal conditioning circuit
should be linear. Linearity of Load cell was tested by conducting of experiments. First to
calibrate system by using below code calculate calibration factor as follows.

Calibration Procedure:
At this time, assume I have wired the load cell to the HX711 amplifier and the amplifier
to the ESP32. Also have scale set up load cell, and have installed the HX711 library.
Before getting the weight of objects, need to calibrate load cell first by getting the
calibration factor.
1) Prepare an object with a known weight. I used scale and weighed 1kg.
2) Upload the following code to your ESP32. I wrote the code taking into account the
instructions to calibrate the load cell.
3) After uploading, open the Serial Monitor at a baud rate of 115200 and reset the ESP32
board.
4) Follow the instructions on the Serial Monitor: remove any weights from the scale (it
will tare automatically). Then, place an object with a known weight on the scale and
wait until you get a value.
5) Calculate your calibration factor using the formula:
Calibration factor=(reading)/(known weight)
In our case, the reading is 43100. The known weight is 1kg, so our calibration factor will
be:
calibration factor = 43100/1 = 43100
Save calibration factor because you’ll need it later.
Because the output of the sensor is proportional to the force applied to the load cell,
calibrate scale using whatever unit makes sense for you.

Calibration Flow chart:

 Figure 6.1. further shows Calibration factor flow chart. This flowchart outlines the steps
involved in calibrating tensile testing equipment to ensure accurate measurement of tensile
strength. Calibration is essential for maintaining the reliability and accuracy of testing
equipment and should be performed regularly according to established standards and
procedures.

Figure 6.1. Calibration factor flow chart

Figure 6.2 further shows a snapshot of an electronic system shows a visual representation that
helps in understanding its structure, configuration, and operation. It can be useful for
documentation, troubleshooting, design review, and communication among stakeholders involved
in the development or maintenance of the system.

Display
Figure 6.2 Electronic System snap shot

Figure 6.3 further shows a snapshot of an electronic system shows electronic

system snap shot for NOLOAD.

Figure 6.3 Electronic System snap shot for NOLOAD

• To measure stress and strain using a load cell (HX711) and an ultrasonic sensor
(HCSR04) with an ESP32 and display the results on an OLED screen, you'll need to
follow these steps:

a. Hardware Setup:
a.i Connect the load cell (HX711) to the ESP32.
b.i Connect the ultrasonic sensor (HC-SR04) to the ESP32.
c.i Connect the OLED display to the ESP32.
d.i Make sure all connections are correct and secure.
b. Calibration of Load Cell: Calibrate the load cell to convert the output voltage to the
corresponding force/stress values. This usually involves applying known loads and
recording the corresponding sensor outputs.
c. Reading Load Cell Output:
a.i Interface the load cell with the ESP32 using the HX711 library to read the
sensor output.
b.i Convert the raw readings to actual force/stress values using the calibration
data.
d. Reading Ultrasonic Sensor Output:
a.i Use the HC-SR04 library to interface the ultrasonic sensor with the ESP32.
b.i Measure distances using the sensor.
(( )∗ )
 i. 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
a. speed of sound in the air at 20ºC (68ºF) = 343m/s
e. Calculation of Strain:
a.i If you're measuring strain, you need to relate the force applied (from load
cell) to the deformation or displacement measured (from the ultrasonic sensor).
b.i Based on the geometry and material properties of the object under stress,
calculate the strain using the formula: ε = ΔL / L, where ΔL is the change in length
and L is the original length.
f. Calculation of Stress:
Once you have strain (ε), you can calculate stress (σ) using Hooke's law: σ = E
* ε, where E is the Young's modulus of the material.
g. Displaying Results on OLED:
a.i Use the appropriate library to interface the OLED display with the ESP32.
b.i Display the calculated stress and strain values on the OLED screen.
h. Code Implementation:
a.i Write the code to read data from the load cell and ultrasonic sensor.
b.i Perform necessary calculations to get stress and strain values.
c.i Update the OLED display with these values.

In Figures 6.4, 6.6, 6.7 samples of stress and strain obtained dimension readings are
shown which are take. In figure 6.4 the weight sample number 1 is with stress 1kg. The
readings obtained on our system came out as 1kg i.e. with 0 percent error. Also, as this
weight is within our stress limits of 250N to 1000KN on OLED display it is shown as OK.
Similarly in figure 6.6 sample number 2 measured stress readings by 0.2kg and our
system each are 0.2 kg, i.e. with 0 percent error.
Similarly in figure 6.7 sample number 3 measured stress readings by 0.1kg and our
system each are 0.1 kg, i.e. with 0 percent error.

6.2 Results of Stress Measurement

Figure 6.4 further shows Stress result snapshot 1.0kg provides a visual
representation of how stress is distributed within a material or structure under the
specific load condition of 1.0kg. This information is valuable for understanding
the mechanical behavior and performance of the material or structure under
conditions.
different loading Figure 6.5 shown stress E-mail result snapshot.

Loading

Figure 6.4 Stress result snap shot 1.0kg

Figure 6.5 Stress E-mail result snap shot 1.0kg

Figure 6.6 further shows Stress result snapshot 0.2kg. The stress results shown in
the snapshot correspond to a specific load condition where a 0.216kg force was
applied to the material or structure.

Figure 6.6 Stress result snap shop 0.2kg

Figure 6.7 further shows stress results shown in the snapshot correspond to a
specific load condition where a 0.1kg force was applied to the material or structure.
Similar to before, this load may be applied uniformly or concentrated at specific
points.

Figure 6.7 Stress result snap shot 0.1kg

a. Experimentation of stress measurement

In table 6.1, Experimentation for measuring tensile strength involves
subjecting a material specimen to increasing tensile loads until it fractures,
while measuring the applied load and the resulting deformation. Here's a
structured approach to conducting such experiments:

Table 6.1- Experimentation of stress measurement

Actual
Experimentation Experimentation
Applied Error
Load in kg Load in N
Load in kg

0.010 0.011 0.10791 -0.001

0.020 0.024 0.23544 -0.004
0.030 0.029 0.28449 0.001
0.050 0.049 0.48069 0.001
0.070 0.07 0.6867 0
0.080 0.081 0.79461 -0.001
0.100 0.125 1.22625 -0.025
0.200 0.216 2.11896 -0.016
0.500 0.521 5.11101 -0.021
1.000 1 9.81 0
1.010 1.015 9.95715 -0.005
1.020 1.023 10.03563 -0.003
1.030 1.028 10.08468 0.002
1.050 1.051 10.31031 -0.001
1.080 1.075 10.54575 0.005
1.200 1.225 12.01725 -0.025
1.500 1.475 14.46975 0.025
 1.700 1.725 16.92225 -0.025
2.000 2.025 19.86525 -0.025
6.000 6.025 59.10525 -0.025
7.000 7.125 69.89625 -0.125
8.000 7.925 77.74425 0.075
10.000 10.025 98.34525 -0.025
Error -0.008875

6.3 Results of Strain Measurement

In Figures 6.8,6.10 shown strain obtained readings are shown which are
take. In figure 6.8 the strain of 4.5cm and readings taken on our system came out as
5cm i.e. with 0.5 percent error. Display on OLED display it is shown as. and Figure
6.9 shown strain E-mail snap shot 5cm.

Figure 6.8 Strain result snap shot 5cm

Figure 6.9 Strain E-mail result snap shot 5cm

Now in figure 6.10 shown strain of 4cm and readings taken on our system
came out as 4cm i.e. with 0 percent error.

Figure 6.10 Strain result snap shop 4cm

 Experimentation of strain measurement
Table 6.2 likely contains data collected during an experiment involving strain
measurement. Here's an explanation of how such an experiment might be
conducted and what the table might contain.
Table 6.2- Experimentation of strain measurement
Actual Experimenta Experimentation
Applied tion Strain in Strain in mm Error
Strain in cm cm (strain in cm*10)

1 0.8 8 0.2
1.2 1.3 13 -0.1
1.4 1.2 12 0.2
1.5 1.4 14 0.1
1.6 1.5 15 0.1
1.8 1.7 17 0.1
2 2 20 0
2.2 2.1 21 0.1
2.5 2.6 26 -0.1
 4 3.9 39 0.1
5 5 50 0
10 10 100 0
15 15.2 152 -0.2
18 18.5 185 -0.5
20 20.5 205 -0.5
Error -0.034

6.4 Result of Stress and Strain Measurement:

When conducting tensile testing to determine the yield strength of a material,
the result typically refers to the stress at which the material begins to deform
plastically or exhibit permanent deformation. Here's how the result of yield strength
measurement for tensile testing is typically reported:
From Table 6.1 and Table 6.2 we draw stress and strain curve for yield
strength. The yield strength is defined as the stress at which a predefined amount of
permanent deformation occurs. This means that if you draw a line parallel to the
linear elastic portion of the stress-strain curve, offset by strain, the intersection of
this line with the stress-strain curve gives you the yield strength.

Figure 6.11 Stress result graph

Figure.6.11 and Figure 6.12 shows further Shape of Stress and Strain at various stages
of testing.

Actual Applied Strain in cm

Figure 6.12 Strain result graph

The shape of the yield strength curve can vary depending on factors such as
material type, processing, and testing conditions. Understanding these curves is
crucial for assessing the mechanical properties and behavior of materials under
different loading conditions.

6.5 Budget:
Table 6.13 Costing of Electronics Components
Sr. No Entity Quantity Cost in
Rs/Component

1. Load Cell 1 1459

2. ADC HX711 1 100

3. Ultrasonic Sensor HC SR-04 1 184

 4. OLED Display 1 175

5. Controller ESP32 1 2903

5. Jumpers 12 12

6. Other Setup 1 1000

Grand Total 5833

Chapter-7: Conclusion and Future Scope

Conclusion and Future Scope sections in Chapter 7, it provides a comprehensive summary
of findings while also offering valuable insights and directions for future exploration.

7.1 Conclusion:
In this dissertation, presented the report on “An Embedded System Approach To
Measure Yield Strength Of Different Materials”.
 Our implemented strength measurement system, the ultrasonic sensor typically
provides a resolution of 3-5 millimeters, while the ADC a resolution of up to 24 bits. Stress
and Strain measurement procedure wise very simple. With these devices stress
measurement error is near to -0.008875 for applying load 10g to 10kg Strain measurement
error is -0.034 for 1cm to 20cm.
Measurements are displayed directly through wireless communication, on mobile.
It is easy for operator to note down unlike in the case of non-conductive and conductive
specimens. Our implemented system is more cost effective than existing system. And also,
it is much compact.

7.2 Future Scope

Future scope of the dissertation designing and upgrading for the yield strength
measurement strain sensor for strain measurement to achieve strain rate control in
micrometer for different materials. Further enhancing accuracy, expanding compatibility,
integrating IoT capabilities will help for remote monitoring, and exploring collaborative
research opportunities for broader industry applications.