The Rise and Development

of the Turkish National

Chapter 7 Resistance
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
Learning Outcomes

display the Allied Powers’ approach toward

1 demonstrate socio-political circumstances in

the aftermath of the First World War 2 territorial reconstruction of the Ottoman lands
and demands of the ethnic groups at the Paris
Peace Conference

3 4
explain the terms of the Treaty of Sevrés
explain the foundations and evolution of the signed between the Allied Powers and the
Turkish National Resistance Ottoman Empire

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introduction Moudros Armistice
Paris Peace Conference
The Rise of the National Resistance in the
Aftermath of the Moudros Armistice Occupation of Izmir
Defense of Rights Societies
Negotiations For Peace: The Paris Peace The Amasya Circular
Conference Mustafa Kemal
The Occupation of İzmir and its Aftermath The Erzurum Congress
From the Last Ottoman Parliament to the The Sivas Congress
Grand National Assembly The National Pact
The Grand National Assembly
Shaping the Peace Treaty with the Ottoman
The Treaty of Sevrès
Empire

Occupied Regions following the Moudros Armistice

Regions occupied by British Regions left to French by British Regions loccupied Greeks
Regions occupied by French Regions occupied by Armenians Regions occupied by Italians

Regions occupied by joint Allied forces

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

INTRODUCTION united under the umbrella of Anadolu ve Rumeli

The Armistice of Moudros marked the final Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti (the Defense of Rights
dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. Immediately Society of Anatolia and Thrace) at the end of the
after the armistice, the occupation of Anatolia by Sivas Congress (September 4-11, 1919).
the Allied Powers; namely, Britain, France and After the unification, the leadership of the
Italy began. The British forces occupied Mosul in national movement attempted to gain legitimacy
Iraq and Merzifon, Kars, Ardahan and Batumi in by securing the re-opening of the parliament. This
north and north-eastern Anatolia. The French took was made possible when elections were held in
Cilicia region including Mersin, Tarsus, Adana and İstanbul and Anatolia at the end of 1919. The last
the Taurus tunnels under their control. The Italians Ottoman Parliament opened in January 1920 where
occupied Marmaris, Fethiye, Antalya and Burdur in the nationalists were in majority. The members of
south-western Anatolia. İstanbul entered into joint the Parliament adopted the National Pact (Misak-ı
Allied administration led by these three powers. The Milli) which was previously agreed upon at Erzurum
leading Unionist figures fled the country and the and Sivas congresses setting the aims of the National
Committee of Union and Progress was dissolved. Resistance. The occupation of Istanbul by the
The ensuing political vacuum was attempted to British in March 1920 ended the existence of the
be filled with different power circles including the parliament in the capital. This led to the opening
palace, the Liberals and the representatives of the of the Grand National Assembly in Ankara, the
Allied Powers in the capital. The bureaucracy and future capital of Turkey, on April 23, 1920. In the
the army, however, were still under the control of meantime, peace terms with the Ottoman state were
the Unionists. Under these circumstances, new shaped. On August 20, 1920 the Treaty of Sevrès
organizations began to rise as a reaction to the which partitioned the Ottoman territories was
Allied occupations and territorial demands of signed between the Allied Powers and the Ottoman
the non-Muslim ethnic groups; particularly, the state. The treaty was totally rejected by the leadership
Greeks and the Armenians. At the same time, local of the Turkish National Movement.
resistance movements began to flourish in Anatolia
under the name of Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyetleri THE RISE OF THE NATIONAL
(Societies for the Defense of Rights). Meanwhile,
RESISTANCE IN THE
the Paris Peace Conference convened to conclude
peace treaties with the defeated powers including
AFTERMATH OF THE
the Ottoman state. MOUDROS ARMISTICE
The turning point in the development of the
resistance movements was the occupation of İzmir Socio-Political Situation at the End
by the Greek army in May 1919. This started a series of 1918
of demonstrations throughout the country against The most conspicuous issue that fell on agenda
the occupation and turned the resistance movements in the subsequent months of the Armistice was the
into a full scale national resistance movement under attempts to arrest and to litigate the Unionists who
the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha. Mustafa were accused of committing war crimes. Wartime
Kemal was the military commander whose success leading figures of the Committee of Union and
during the Gallipoli Campaign had distinguished Progress such as Enver, Talat and Cemal Pashas
him as a military leader. In fact, Mustafa Kemal had already fled the country on the night of the
was on his way to Samsun on the northern Black Moudros Armistice. Their flight created a power
Sea region to establish the order in the region when vacuum in the capital. The sultan, the Liberals and
İzmir was occupied by the Greek army. Around the Allied Powers were in a favorable position to
the same time as the occupation of İzmir, Mustafa compete to fill this vacuum. The sultan at the time
Kemal and his colleagues landed in Samsun and was Vahdeddin (byname Mehmet VI) who ascended
later organized the resistance movement into a the throne in July 1918. He was determined to
centralized national movement. Following a series of play a more active role as an anti-Unionist and
meetings and congresses, the local resistances were proBritish in the post-war circumstances. The

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The Rise and Development of the Turkish National Resistance

Liberals were now in a stronger position as their The flight of the leading members of Committee
main rivals, the Unionists, lost power. Organized of Union and Progress did not mean complete
around old leaders, notably Damat Ferit Pasha, who disappearance of the Unionist from the political
headed at least five cabinets after the war, revived scene. They continued to control the parliament,
Hürriyet ve İtilâf Fırkası (the Party of Freedom the army, the police force, the postal and telegraph
and Accord) and became the dominant force in services as well as many other organizations.
official politics under the new circumstances. Their Using this advantageous position, some Unionists
efforts concentrated on punishing the Unionists were active in underground activities laying the
and suppress the resistance movement that was to foundations of the national resistance movement in
emerge in Anatolia. The Allied Powers were partly Anatolia. They organized Turks in Istanbul through
in control of Istanbul. Through their diplomatic a clandestine organization named Karakol (Guard).
representatives, called high commissioners, It had been established before the end of the war
they attempted to influence and interfered with with the purpose of protecting the Unionists in
domestic politics. the postwar era against possible revengeful actors-
the Allied Powers, the Liberals and the Christian
communities. It also aimed to strengthen the
resistance in Anatolia and the Caucasus by sending
people, money, arms and supplies from İstanbul
(Zürcher, 1993, pp. 134-136). Its branches in
İstanbul distributed arms especially to the Turks
and formed intelligence networks in government
offices through which it provided information to
the resistance. The organization also evacuated
the Unionists who were under threat of arrest
from Istanbul to Anatolia where they would join
resisting forces.
The defeat of the Ottoman Empire and
the following occupation of the Allied Powers
were welcomed by the Ottoman non-Muslim
communities, especially the Greeks and the
Figure 7.1 Newly embarked British troops crossing the Armenians. They regarded the occupying powers
Galata Bridge
as ‘saviors’ and as a guarantee for the repatriation of
Source: http://www.levantineheritage.com/troops.htm the deported Greeks and Armenians. In addition,
based on the principle of self-determination
the occupying powers were considered to be the
main supporters for the attainment of Greek
and Armenian territorial claims in Anatolia. As a
result, the arrival of the Allied fleet and the Allied
military forces at Istanbul caused great excitement
among the Greeks and Armenians. They hold
demonstrations rejecting the Ottoman sovereignty
and demanding independence.

The Rise of Local Resistance

Organizations
The Allied occupations, territorial claims of the
Figure 7.2 A British Submarine in Galata Harbor Greeks and Armenians and the trial of the Unionists
Source: http://www.levantineheritage.com/troops.htm ignited the Turkish resistance in the provinces. The
reaction gained more momentum especially in the

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

areas where there was greater threat of occupation Diyarbekir and Mamuretü’l-Aziz. The Society for
and cession by the Greeks, Armenians and Allied the Defense of the National Rights of the Eastern
Powers. Initiative of this resistance came also from Provinces was founded when rivalry over the region
the Unionists who were the most organized power was fierce. It was founded by Süleyman Nazif, a
in Anatolia as their widespread local organizations well-known poet, and Hoca Raif [Dinç], a Unionist
were still functional after the war. deputy of Erzurum. Former governors and deputies
joined the organization. Their raison d’être was
the protection of national rights of the Turks and
The Committee of Union and Progress Kurds who were dominant elements in the eastern
had the most widespread and effective provinces. It was argued that the Turks and Kurds
organization since 1908. Immediately after formed the overwhelming majority in these six
the 1908 Revolution, its local branches were provinces and the Islamic bond had completely
disseminated into Anatolia. These branches removed racial and linguistic differences among
reflected a coalition of the local notables, them. It was further claimed that the Armenians
traders and professional men such as lawyers were minority in the region, even before the outset
and doctors. All these actors were to lead the of the First World War. The society published
resistance in the countryside. two newspapers, one in Turkish and the other in
French, in order to propagate and defend their
claims as well as influence the European public.
As a result, many regional organizations called Similar organizations were founded for the
Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyetleri (Societies for the defense of the Black Sea province of Trabzon which
Defense of Rights) were formed with the purpose included Rize, Giresun, Ordu and Gümüşhane.
of preserving the rights of Turkish population This region was claimed by the Pontian Greek
based on Wilson’s twelfth point that had promised nationalists as part of their ancient Greek state of
sovereignty to the Turkish portions of the Ottoman Pontus. Trabzon was also claimed by the Armenians
Empire. They were to demonstrate that the areas as the exit port of the Greater Armenia. The Greeks
in danger of being separated from the Ottoman and Armenians resorted to diplomatic means to
Empire were overwhelmingly Turkish and that obtain the control of the city while the Turks laid
they wanted to remain with the motherland. the foundations of an armed national struggle. To
One of the earliest of such organizations was this end, Trabzon Muhafaza-i Hukuk Cemiyeti (the
the Vilâyat-ı Şarkiye Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti Society for the Preservation of Rights of Trabzon)
(The Society for the Defense of Rights of the was founded. It aimed to prove and show the
Eastern Provinces) founded in December 1918. Allied Powers that the overwhelming majority
Eastern provinces included Erzurum, Van, Bitlis, of the population in the province was Muslim
Diyarbekir, Mamuretü’l-Aziz (Elazığ) and Sivas. and Turkish. Justifying this claim on historical
They were also known as the six provinces (vilayât-ı documents and population statistics, the leaders of
sitte). Their population mainly composed of the the Society argued that neither the Pontian Greeks
Turks, Kurds and Armenians before the First nor the Armenians could lay any claim on Trabzon
World War, but the deportation of the Armenians if the Wilson’s principle of self-determination was
had considerably altered this composition by the implemented. They tried to spread their arguments
end of the war. Nevertheless, the Armenian leaders and counter the adverse propaganda of the Greeks
claimed the six provinces to be a part of the Greater and Armenians through a journal named İstikbâl
Armenia on the basis of pre-war population. The (The Future). They also attempted to form armed
National resistance in this region arose to thwart militia groups. In this attempt the local influential
the Armenian claims over the six provinces by families supported their efforts.
securing the unity of the Muslim population Another center of resistance was İzmir where
that is the Turks and Kurds. However, Kurdish the threat of annexation by Greece was imminent.
nationalists were also in search of an autonomous İzmir Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti (The Society for
or independent Kurdistan that would comprise the Defense of Rights of Izmir) was established by
the six provinces. They were active especially in a number of notables and officials who were mostly

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The Rise and Development of the Turkish National Resistance

former Unionists with the purpose of defending the city against a likely Greek occupation. Until the
occupation of İzmir by the Greek troops on May 15, 1919, the Society limited its activities to research
in history and population statistics of the city to foster the argument that Izmir was a part of the Turkish
homeland and to influence the Allied Powers in their decision on the destiny of the city.
In the southern Anatolia, Turkish resistance developed after the occupation of Adana by the French
troops. Former deputies and notables of the province founded Adana Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti (the
Society for the Defense of Rights of Adana) on December 5, 1918. The causes of their foundation were
similar to other Defense of Rights Societies. They wanted to appeal
to the Allied Powers for the implementation of the self-determination
principle provided that the majority of population was Muslim and
Turkish. Most of the founders of this organization, however, had no 1
organic ties with the province. Turkish population of Adana had to
migrate to the interior (Ulukışla, Konya, Kayseri and Karaman) to On which basis did the local
escape the revengeful brutalities of the Armenian volunteers. The resistance organizations arise
Armenian participation to the occupation followed by repatriation and justify their causes?
of the deported Armenians were viewed as the initial step toward the
establishment of an Armenian administration in the region.

NEGOTIATIONS FOR PEACE: THE PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE

The conference for the peace settlements with the defeated powers, Germany, Austria-Hungary,
Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire, commenced in Paris on January 18, 1919. The question of dealing
with Germany and Austria was the primary concern. The settlement regarding the Ottoman territories
that is Anatolia and the Arab lands, would require more time since there were conflicting interests among
the Allies as well as the ethnic groups. The Ottoman Greeks, Ottoman Armenians, Kurds, Arabs and Jews
except Turks were all represented by delegations in order to present their claims before the conference.
In fact, the Allied Powers had already declared to liberate peoples living under the Ottoman rule
including Muslims and non-Muslims and grant them national recognition, even before the end of the
First World War. After the signing of the Moudros Armistice, Britain and France affirmed their earlier
commitment by issuing a joint-declaration on November 9, 1918. They guaranteed ‘the complete and
final emancipation of all peoples oppressed by the Turks’ and the establishment of national governments
and administrations who would drive their authority from the initiative and free will of their own people.

Figure 7.3 The delegations of the Paris Peace Conference

Source: https://www.emaze.com/@ACFFIFWC/Paris-Peace-Conference-1919

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

The Supreme Council of the Conference (Council important

of Four) composed of Great Britain, France, Italy
and the United States adopted a resolution on the
The Allied plans of partitioning the Ottoman
territorial settlement of the Ottoman Empire on
Empire along ethno-religious lines were in
January 30, 1919. It stated that the Allied (Great
conformity with the secret treaties they had
Britain, France and Russia) and Associate Powers
concluded in between 1915-1917. Although
(Japan, Portugal, Italy and the United States) and
these treaties had been publicized after the
other nations who fought alongside the Allies
Bolshevik Revolution, they continued to be the
were all in agreement to separate Armenia, Syria,
frame of reference in re-mapping the Ottoman
Mesopotamia, Kurdistan, Palestine and Arabia
territories.
from the Ottoman Empire.

Territorial Demands of the

Ottoman Ethnic Groups at the
Paris Peace Conference
In the following months, the ethnic groups
who claimed lands in Anatolia presented their cases
before the Paris Peace Conference. The Ottoman
Greek claims were submitted to the conference
by Eleutherios Venizelos, the Prime Minister of
Greece. He appeared before the Council of Ten on
February 3-4 and tried to explain and justify the
Greek claims.

Figure 7.4 The big four of the Paris Conference

The Council of Ten was formed by
(left to right) Vittorio Orlando, David Lloyd George,
the heads of government and foreign
Georges Clemenceau, Woodrow Wilson
ministers of the United States of
Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/worldwarone/hq/ America, Britain, France and Italy, as well
outcomes3_01.shtml as two Japanese representatives. However,
the main decision body was the big four or
Council of Four.

His territorial claims extended from the Balkan

The Supreme Council of the Conference Peninsula to Thrace, Constantinople, Asia Minor
(Council of Four) was formed by Woodrow and the Aegean Islands. He demanded complete
Wilson, the President of the United States, annexation of Thrace to Greece. Constantinople
Lloyd George, the Prime Minister of and its vicinity would be ruled by Greece after the
Britain, Georges Clemenceau, the Prime suppression of the Ottoman reign. However, the
Minister of France and Vittorio Emanuele issue of the Straits would be up to the international
Orlando, the Prime Minister of Italy. agreements and guarantees. In Western Anatolia,
Venizelos claimed territories comprising the Aegean
Islands, some regions in the province of Bursa and
the province of Aydın and İzmir asserting that
the Greeks were the majority in these provinces.
These regions of Anatolia, he maintained, had
distinct geographical characteristics from the
Central Asia Minor. Furthermore, they had been

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The Rise and Development of the Turkish National Resistance

in close relations with Greece throughout history

and, actually, extolled by the Greek civilization.
Both the Greek and Armenian delegations
For this reason, he claimed that western Asia
were maximalist in their demands of
Minor belonged to Greece more than to the
territories. They disregarded the population
Asiatic hinterland. Regarding the Greeks that
composition of the territories they claimed.
would remain under the Turkish rule, Venizelos
They exploited the favorable circumstances
also proposed a voluntary exchange of populations
in order to get the maximum gains that
between the Greeks inhabiting the Turkish territory
would provide the establishment of a
and the Turks in the Greek Asia Minor. As a result
Greater Greece based on the nineteenth
the people who live within the boundaries of the
century ideology of megali idea(The Great
Turkish state would be composed of Turks while
Idea) and a Greater Armenia respectively.
the Greek population would be overwhelming in
the Greek Asia Minor in few years. Venizelos did
not favor a Pontus state on the Black Sea coast
where there was a sizeable Greek minority. He The claims of the Kurds were presented by
proposed Trabzon, the capital of a possible Pontus former Ottoman Ambassador Şerif Pasha. His
state, be a part of the Armenian state. Contrary to main effort was to demonstrate to the Allied
Venizelos, in the peace conference, Chrysanthos, Powers that eastern Anatolian provinces which
the metropolitan of Trabzon and the representative were claimed by the Armenian delegation belonged
of the Pontus region, demanded Trabzon to be to the Kurds ethnologically, historically and
wholly within the boundaries of the Pontus state statistically. Therefore, he stated that his demands
in addition to some parts of the provinces of Sivas were against imperialistic claims of Armenia before
and Kastamonu. the conference. The boundaries he drew for a
The Armenians, also, presented their claims in the possible Turkish Kurdistan extended from Caucasia
peace conference. The Armenian delegation appeared to southeastern Anatolia and to northern Iraq.
before the Supreme Council on February 26. They He demanded an entirely free and independent
presented the Armenian case by a Memorandum Kurdish state. He asked the Peace Conference to
entitled The Armenian Question before the Peace appoint an international commission with the aim
Conference. Boghos Nubar, the spokesmen of the of determining its boundaries in accordance with
delegation, demanded a complete independent the principle of self-determination.
state of Armenia. Its boundaries would include the The Ottoman state had already submitted its
seven provinces of Van, Bitlis, Diyarbekir, Harput position in terms of territorial settlement before its
(Elazığ), Sivas, Erzurum and Trabzon as well as representatives appeared in the peace conference
the four Cilician sandjaks (Maraş, Kozan, Cebel-i in June 1919. In a memorandum submitted to the
Bereket (Osmaniye) and Adana with its hinterland high commissioners of the Allied Powers in the early
Alexandretta) and the province of Kars. The territorial months of the conference, the Ottoman government
claims of the Armenian delegation was followed refused all claims made by Greece on Thrace, Istanbul,
by a program of liberation from what they call the the provinces of Aydın and Hüdavendigâr (Bursa).
Turkish yoke, assurance of the joint protection of the Ottoman position claimed that the overwhelming
Allied Powers, prevention of any outside aggression Muslim and Turkish majority in these regions of
against Armenia. They also required temporary the Ottoman Empire had already been shown by
guidance from one of the powers in mandatory form foreign statistics. In the six provinces claimed as part
to help administer and organize Armenia. of the Armenian state, the statement argued that the
Muslims, the amalgamation of Turks and Kurds,
formed 79 per cent of the total population while the
Armenians did only 16.5 before the war. Therefore,
the establishment of a possible Great Armenia
extending from the Caucasus to Cilicia should not be
taken into consideration. The Ottoman government

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

proposed two resolutions. First, Ottoman THE OCCUPATION OF İZMİR

sovereignty should be acknowledged in these six AND ITS AFTERMATH
provinces. The minority population, the Armenians,
The occupation of İzmir by the Greek troops
would be granted the right of self-rule. Secondly,
came when all these different claims were being
the boundaries of the Armenian Republic could be
voiced for the Ottoman territories. The Greek desire
extended to include all the Armenian refugees in
to annex İzmir based on historical, demographic
Caucasia and Deyr-i Zor. If accepted, the Muslims
and ideological factors was already made clear.
within the borders of the Armenian Republic would
Nevertheless, the decision for the occupation of
be resettled in the Ottoman provinces.
İzmir was taken mainly by Britain and France. Both
countries disliked the idea of the extension of Italian
occupation in Western Anatolia. Italy was deprived
2 of the Adriatic ports of Fiume and Trieste and was
Do you think that the not allowed to occupy the regions that had been
reconciliation of conflicting pledged to her in the 1915 London Agreement and
claims of territory by ethnic the Treaty of St Jean de Maurienne of 1917. Italy
groups was possible in the started to land troops in South Anatolia by the
post-war circumstances? end of March 1919. After occupying Antalya on
March 28, the Italian troops rapidly advanced
into the north and south-west to Kuşadası,
Fethiye, Bodrum, Marmaris, Akşehir and Afyon.
The Allies, led by Britain, were in fear of Italians
controlling western Anatolia. To counter a
possible Italian occupation of İzmir, they made
their decision on the destiny of İzmir in a hurry.
The resolution for the Greek occupation of the
city passed on May 6, 1919. Legal justification for
the landing of the Greek troops at Izmir was found
in the 7th article of the Moudros Armistice which
allowed ‘the occupation of any strategic points in the
event of any situation arising which threatens the
security of the Allies.’ On May 14, 1919, a Greek
Figure 7.5 Greek troops marching on İzmir’s coastal
division was brought to the harbor of Izmir by an
street, May 1919
armada of British, American and French warships.
Source: http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Occupation_of_ The division landed at the city the next day.
Smyrna

important

İzmir was within the Italian sphere of influence

according to the agreements that had been
reached among the Allied Powers. Italy would
be much disappointed with the decision that
allowed Greece to occupy the city. This would
later create fracture among the occupying
powers. The leadership of the Turkish national
movement later used the disagreements among
Allied Powers as one of their strategies to
weaken Greek existence in Anatolia both in
military and diplomatic matters. Figure 7.6 Greek Headquarters in İzmir
Source: http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Occupation_of_
Smyrna

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The Rise and Development of the Turkish National Resistance

The Greek army began to extend its occupation listening to speeches made by intellectuals including
immediately after the landing. Any kind of resistance female speakers such as Halide Edip (Adıvar).
was suppressed brutally. The Greek army had gained Political parties and the Societies for Defense of
the control of the greater and lesser Menderes Rights submitted a joint memorandum to the Allied
valleys including Menemen, Manisa, Turgutlu, high commissioners with protests claiming that the
Aydın and Ayvalık by the end of July 1919 since occupation of İzmir by the Greeks was in violation
they could overcome the local resistance. Robbing, of the armistice terms and the Wilson’s principles.
looting and massacres went hand in hand during The memorandum stated that the Turkish nation
the expansion of the Greek occupation zone. The was determined to protect its national unity and
Greek atrocities and mistreatment in these areas existence. It demanded from the Allies to determine
were documented in the report of the Inter-Allied the national destiny of the Turks in accordance
Commission of Inquiry into the Greek Occupation with the Wilson’s principles. This demand was
of Smyrna and Its Adjacent Territories that had also communicated through letters sent to Allied
been formed by the Supreme Council of the Paris representatives and to President Wilson himself
Peace Conference on July 18, 1919. As the British urging him to stand by his principles. The public
Prime Minister of the time, Lloyd George, greatly protests stimulated the invitation of the Ottoman
admired the Greek Prime Minister Venizelos, the government to the ongoing Paris Peace Conference
latter was given a free hand in his aspirations about to present its case.
western Turkey. As a result, Venizelos had ordered
the military command the armament of the local
Greeks and settlement of three-hundred thousand
Greeks from the mainland territory even before
the extension of the occupation zone. These were
to ensure a Greek majority in western Anatolia.
By the occupation of western Anatolia, a crucial
step in the realization of the Megali Idea, the idea
of reviving the Byzantine Empire and forming a
greater Greece, had been taken. As the occupation
extended, the Turks had to flee in masses into the
interior, to more secure areas.

Reactions to the Occupation of

İzmir
Figure 7.7 Nationalist activist, Halide Edip addressing the
The news of the Greek occupations and
following atrocities spread to Anatolia like wild Protest rally against the occupation
fire. All resistance organizations in regions exposed Source: https://eamonnlynskey.com/2014/11/
to possible Greek or Armenian occupation were
alarmed. The occupation of İzmir was seen as an important
initial step to further partitioning of Anatolia. As
soon as the news of occupation arrived, public
Halide Edip (Adıvar) was the first woman
reactions began. Initial reactions were in the form of
speaker at the mass meeting in Istanbul in
protesting the Allied Powers through telegrams sent
1919 protesting the occupation of Izmir by the
to their representatives in Istanbul and the Ottoman
Greek armed forces. She fled İstanbul after the
government itself. Subsequently, meetings, rallies
occupation of İstanbul by the British to join
were organized in several provinces and districts.
Mustafa Kemal and the national movement.
In İstanbul, first, university students boycotted
She worked at the general staff headquarters
classes. On May 23 and 30, two meetings were
at first then moved to the western front.
held in Sultanahmet Square with the participation
She was promoted to the rank of sergeant in
of approximately two-hundred thousand people
recognition of her military services.

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

Black Sea

1 May 19, 1919

4 Erzurum Congress
3 Amasya Circular May 20/22, 1919
July 23-August 7, 1919

6 Arrival at Ankara
December 27, 1919 5 Sivas Congress September 4-11, 1919

1. Arrival at Samsun - May 19, 1919

2. Havza Declaration - May 28,1919
3. Amasya Circular- June 22, 1919
4. Erzurum Congress- July 23 August 7, 1919
5. Sivas Congress- September 11, 1919
Mediterranean Sea
6. Arrival at Ankara- December 17, 1919

Figure 7.8 Mustafa Kemal’s travels to organize the National Resistance

Mustafa Kemal in Anatolia followed by the appointment of the Mustafa

The occupation of İzmir led more than Kemal [Atatürk] as the General Inspector of the
mass demonstrations to voice the Turkish cause Ninth Army at the end of April 1919. All these
needless to say. It became a catalyst in mobilizing appointments were made with the purpose of the
disparate but increasingly overlapping elements implementation of the armistice terms effectively;
against occupation or threat of occupation - local yet, the commanders utilized their positions to
bands, Defense of Rights societies, the Unionist strengthen the national resistance.
underground network, Karakol, and army officers Mustafa Kemal had a name in the army as the
(Kayalı, 2008, p. 121). The early resistance commander of Anafartalar front in Gallipoli. He
organizations were transformed from being played a vital role in preventing the Allied Powers’
propaganda organs into mobilized armed action in attempt to reach İstanbul during the Gallipoli
western Anatolia, Thrace, the Black Sea coast and campaign. He also had a reputation as an extremely
eastern Anatolia. able and proud officer. After the conclusion of the
Backed and supported by the remnants of Moudros Armistice, he returned to İstanbul from
the Ottoman army, the provincial notables such Syria where he had been the commander of the
as landowners and communal religious leaders, Seventh Army. In İstanbul, he attempted to gain a
merchants, officials and men of profession had position in politics. Soon, he understood that this
led the local resistance movements against the would lead nowhere. He was disappointed with
occupation powers until May 1919. Following Sultan Vahdettin’s willingness to do whatever the
the occupation of İzmir, however, high-ranking British told him to do. The sultan seemed to have
commanders and officers gradually took the only one concern which was keeping his own power
lead in coordinating the national resistance. The and position. Mustafa Kemal began to consider
appointments of General Kâzım Karabekir, the leaving for Anatolia similar to his several colleagues.
wartime commander of the Caucasus army, as Having played no role in the wartime policies of
the commander of the Fifteenth Army corps at the Unionists and critical of Enver Pasha’s pro-
Erzurum and Ali Fuat [Cebesoy] to the Twentieth German stand, he appeared as a suitable candidate
Army corps in Ankara became beneficial in the for Damat Ferit Pasha government to be appointed
organization of the resistance in the eastern as military inspector into eastern Anatolia and
and central Anatolia. These appointments were the Black Sea region where the amount of inter-
communal tension had risen. The government was

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The Rise and Development of the Turkish National Resistance

alarmed as this situation might cause the occupation population. He also sent telegrams to the armies
of the region by the Allied Powers on the basis of under his inspectorship warning them that any
the Moudros Armistice. Therefore, Mustafa Kemal’s act against the non-Muslim population could
main duty as inspector was to pacify and disarm the easily have Samsun and Trabzon meet the same
regional bands as well as disarmament of the army fate as İzmir and Manisa; i.e., occupation. His
as stipulated by the Moudros armistice. His scope instructions also included that arrangements be
of authority was extensive encompassing much of made for the transfer of all arms further into the
eastern and north-central Anatolia which included interior and to increase the number of available
the provinces of Sivas, Van, Trabzon and Erzurum combat ready troops.
and the districts of Samsun, Erzincan, Kayseri and
Maraş. His orders did not only cover the army. He important
also had jurisdiction over the civilian officials in the
region. He was officially instructed to restore the When Mustafa Kemal landed in Samsun,
internal order, disarm the population and disperse the only Ottoman forces with a considerable
national councils (şura) which were alleged to size were located in eastern Anatolia. They
recruit soldiers for resistance who were protected were better equipped in arms than their
by the army in the said provinces and districts. western counterparts. These troops remained
intact since they were located in inaccessible
areas by the Allied Powers. Kâzım Pasha
Mustafa Kemal’s scope of authority (Karabekir) of the Fifteenth Army Corps was
included the regions claimed by different the highest commanding officer in the area.
ethnic groups- the Armenians, the Greeks The commander of the Twentieth Army Ali
of Pontus region and the Kurds. Besides Fuat Pasha (Cebesoy) in Ankara followed
suppressing the local Greek bands that could him in rank. On his way to Samsun Mustafa
cause military occupation of the Allied Kemal was accompanied by Refet (Bele) who
Powers, he attempted to neutralize the was appointed as the commander of the Third
Kurdish nationalist activities in the region Army Corps in Sivas who had already agreed to
which was not among the tasks he had been join the national resistance.
authorized for. This was necessary in order
to have the support of the Kurds to the
national resistance movement.

The Amasya Circular

Mustafa Kemal accompanied by trusted friends
left İstanbul by boat and landed in Samsun, a port
on the Black Sea coast, on May 19, 1919, four days
after the Greek occupation of İzmir. Soon after his
landing, he started his work to organize and unify Figure 7.9 The Military Quarters (Saraydüzü where
the nationalist resistance. On May 24, 1919 he Amasya Circular was written
moved to the interior, to Havza where he began
Source: http://www.kadimdostlar.com/
to motivate people to put up a fight against the
topic/24892-amasya-genelgesi-amasya-tamimi-
occupation of İzmir and Manisa. He instructed
amasya-protokolu-21-22-haziran-1919-amasya-
all provincial and district governors to arrange
genelgesinin-hazyrlanmasy-ymzalandydhy-yer-
heated protest meetings, to send telegrams to
the representatives of the Allied Powers and the
Sublime Porte to condemn the occupations. His In his attempt to build a new base of support
specific instruction was to avoid demonstrations and foster resistance, Mustafa Kemal met with
or displays of hostility towards the non-Muslim prominent Ottoman officers, Rauf (Orbay), former

178
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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

minister of navy, Ali Fuat (Cebesoy), and Refet strong military man in the east, refused to obey the
(Bele) in Amasya on June 19, 1919. They had orders of Istanbul government to arrest Mustafa
intensive meetings and consultations by telegraph Kemal and declare his full support for the National
with Kâzım Pasha that resulted in the declaration resistance the rest of the army followed his example
of the Amasya Circular on June 21/22, 1919. (Zürcher, 1993, pp. 156-157).
Called also as the manifesto of the Turkish national
movement, the circular was sent to all civilian and
military authorities in Anatolia. The Circular stated:
The Congresses of Erzurum and
Sivas
• The unity of the Motherland and national
independence are in danger. The delegates elected for the Sivas Congress
• The İstanbul government is unable to carry were to join the Erzurum Congress in the first
out its responsibilities. place. The Erzurum Congress was organized by the
• National independence can only be Erzurum branch of the Society for the Defense of
won through the nation’s effort and Rights in the Eastern Provinces and the Society for
determination. the Preservation of National Rights in Trabzon as
• The establishment of a national committee a response to the Armenian threat in the region.
free from all external and internal influences Mustafa Kemal attended the Congress along with
and control is necessary. This committee Kâzım Karabekir in order to secure the support of
will review the national situation and make local nationalist leaders.
known to the world the people’s demand for The Erzurum Congress convened with the
justice. The committee will be responsible participation of over fifty delegates who were mostly
to announce the nation’s demand for justice from Erzurum and Trabzon from July 23, 1919
to the whole world. to August 7, 1919. Mustafa Kemal was elected as
• A National Congress will convene the chairman of the Congress. At the end of the
immediately in Sivas which is the most Congress; a proclamation was issued setting the basic
secure place in Anatolia. principles of the resistance movement. In the preface
• Three representatives from each province of the proclamation, it was stated that the Congress
must be sent immediately to the Congress was convened to protect the ‘holy existence’ of the
which will convene in Sivas. This subject eastern provinces in face of the following menaces:
should be kept a national secret to be • the occupation of İzmir, Antalya and
prepared for every eventuality. Adana,
• the Greek atrocities in Aydın,
With the Amasya Circular the nation is warned
• the Armenian massacres extending into
against partition and possible occupation by the
the Caucasian boundaries of the Ottoman
Allied forces. A statement was made about the
state,
national independence. Furthermore, a national
• the preparations to realize the Pontus state
committee headed by Mustafa Kemal was formed
at the Black Sea coast and bringing Greek
so as to communicate on behalf of the nation
immigrants in crowds from the Russian
with the rest of the world including the İstanbul
shores to this effort.
government. In doing so İstanbul government
and the palace was completely ignored. The For the protection of the eastern provinces
Amasya circular was not welcomed by the İstanbul against ‘treacherous perils’, the Congress reached
government. Mustafa Kemal was ordered back to the following conclusions:
İstanbul. He in return tried to stall his return but • The province of Trabzon, the district of
when he found no other way to appease İstanbul Samsun, and the six eastern provinces
government and the palace he resigned from his (Erzurum, Sivas, Diyarbekir, Elazığ, Van
duties as an Ottoman soldier. This was rather a and Bitlis) are an inseparable whole. They
dangerous move since he could easily lose his hold cannot be separated from each other or
on the army. However, when Kazım Karabekir from Ottoman territory for any reason.
Pasha, who was the highest ranking officer and the

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The Rise and Development of the Turkish National Resistance

• The preservation of the integrity of the

Ottoman Empire and national independence,
the protection of the sultanate and caliphate 3
are dependent to the putting of national
forces in charge and the recognition of the Explain the basis on which the
national will as sovereign. Turkish national movement
• All occupation and interference will was trying to legitimize itself.
be considered undertaken on behalf of
establishing Greek and Armenian states.
Therefore, the principle of united defense In addition, at the end of the Erzurum Congress,
and resistance is accepted. Christian the Society for Defense of National Rights in the
elements will not be granted new privileges Eastern Provinces was replaced with Şarkî Anadolu
that can counter political sovereignty and Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti (the Society for Defense
social equilibrium. of Rights in Eastern Anatolia). All Muslims were
• If the central government abandons any accepted as natural members of the Society.
part of the territory under foreign pressure,
measures and decisions, including the important
establishment of a provisional government
in eastern Anatolia, will be taken in order to
From the very beginning, the leadership of
defend the national rights and the sultanate
the national resistance movement tried to
and caliphate.
demonstrate the movement as Turkish and
• The legal rights of the non-Muslims as
Muslim in character for it was the Turkish
indicated in the laws of the Ottoman
and Muslim majority in Anatolia who were
state are reaffirmed. The Congress is in
supportive of the national resistance. The
consensus that the property, life, and honor
nationalists used religion as a means of
of the non-Muslims are the basic tenets of
bringing all Muslims together in the defense of
religious practices, national traditions, and
the motherland against ‘infidels’. The frequent
legal principles.
references to the protection of the sultanate
• The Congress completely rejects the division
and caliphate should be understood within this
of lands and separation of peoples who were
framework.
within the boundaries of the country at the
signature of the Moudros Armistice on
October 30, 1918. The Erzurum Congress also elected Heyet-i
• The scientific, industrial and economic Temsiliye (Representative Committee) as executive
assistance of every state which do not authority equipped with extraordinary power. It
nurture imperialistic ambitions towards was to maintain the existence and permanence of
the country and who respect the principles the national organization and unite all societies
of nationality will be accepted on the that had been established for the common goal.
condition that the internal and external
independence of the people and the state While Mustafa Kemal was trying to unify the
as well as the territorial integrity of the resistance in the east and north-east, local leaders
country are preserved. of the national resistance in the west were also
• The Central Government should be trying to organize a similar congress. This attempt
dependent to the national will at a time bore fruit and a congress convened in Balıkesir at
when the nations have the right of self- the end of June, 1919. The aim was to take action
determination. It should convene the in organizing the militia forces and coordinating
National Parliament immediately. All with the existing Defense of Rights groups. The
decisions taken on the destiny of the second meeting of the congress in July, 1919,
nation and country should be under the called for a general mobilization. Soon afterward
supervision of the parliament. another local congress met in Alaşehir from

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

August 16 to 25, 1919. The congress declared • Non-Muslims would not be granted
their wish for the unification of the national privileges that might undermine the
movement and driving the occupational forces national sovereignty and social balance.
away from the country. • Delegates approved by the Representative
The most crucial step in the unification Committee would be sent to any peace
of resistance organizations took place at Sivas conference that might be conducted with
Congress September, 4-11, 1919. Compared to the Allied Powers.
the Erzurum Congress, a wider geography, from
eastern Anatolia to Thrace, were represented in
Sivas, though with fewer participants. The Sivas
Congress reaffirmed the resolutions of Erzurum
Congress with a more forceful rejection of all
occupation. The participants of the Congress
decided to bring all local Defense of Rights
organizations under the umbrella organization of
Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti (the
Society for the Defense of Rights in Anatolia and
Rumelia). The Representative Committee elected
at the Erzurum Congress was given the executive
rights to function and speak on behalf of the whole Figure 7.10 The Last Ottoman Parliament
nation. Source: http://www.tarihyolu.com/son-osmanli-
mebusan-meclisi-ve-misak-i-milli-12-ocak-1920/
One of the decisions that was taken at Sivas
Congress was to force the Istanbul government to
hold elections and have the parliament reconvened FROM THE LAST OTTOMAN
with the new elected representatives. İstanbul PARLIAMENT TO THE GRAND
government had actually not been pleased with
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
the national movement and tried to suppress it.
However, when the resolutions of the Sivas Congress
were circulated, the government, and mostly the The Re-Opening of the Parliament
palace tried to appease the resistance. The sultan and Declaration of the National
appointed Ali Rıza Pasha who was sympathetic Pact (Misâk-ı Millî)
to the national movement as grand vizier in early
Following the negotiations in Amasya, the
October, 1919. Ali Rıza Pasha sent his minister of
İstanbul government agreed to hold elections
navy to negotiate with Mustafa Kemal and secure
for a new chamber of deputies. Contrary to the
some kind of an agreement with him. Negotiations
demand of the resistance leaders, the parliament
took place in Amasya on October 20-22, 1919. The
was to reconvene in Istanbul. The resistance forces
Amasya Protocol was the result of the discussions.
attributed great importance to the elections as their
Through this protocol, the resistance leadership
sizeable representation in the parliament would
demanded the acceptance of the resolutions of the
ensure their legitimacy. Their election policy was
Erzurum and Sivas Congresses and the recognition
based on two basic points. First, since they controlled
of the legality of the Society for Defense of Rights of
most parts of Anatolia, they would attempt to
Anatolia and Rumelia by the Istanbul government.
guarantee the election of those who were loyal to
Furthermore, the following were stipulated by the
the principles of Defense of Rights in order to assure
Protocol.
majority in the parliament. Secondly, they would
• Provinces inhabited by Turks would not be attempt to foil the adverse propaganda of the hostile
ceded to enemies. parties toward the resistance, primarily that of the
• No mandate would be accepted. Party of Freedom and Accord and that of the Greek
• The integrity and independence of the and Armenian communities, who were attributing
motherland would be secured. Unionist characteristics to the national movement.

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The Rise and Development of the Turkish National Resistance

• The city of Istanbul, the seat of the Islamic

caliphate and of the Ottoman sultanate and
Many officers and officials who were active
government, as well as the Sea of Marmara
in the national resistance movement had
must be protected from all dangers. As long
a Unionist background. This allowed the
as this stipulation is observed, there will be
opponents of the movement to conduct
no objections to the use of the Straits and
their propaganda by claiming that the
the Black sea for trade and communication
nationalists were actually the former
purposes.
Unionists who had committed war crimes in
• The rights of minorities as agreed in the
the First World War.
treaties concluded between the Allied
powers and their enemies and certain of
their associates shall be confirmed and
The elections in the November-December, 1919 assured by this Parliament on conditions
resulted in full victory for the nationalists. Mustafa that Muslim minorities in neighboring
Kemal was elected as the deputy from Erzurum but countries benefit from the same rights.
he stayed in Anatolia. The parliament opened on • Like every country, in order to secure a more
January 12, 1920 with 72 deputies. The nationalist effective and well-ordered administration
majority in the parliament formed Felâh-ı Vatan that will enable us to develop our political,
Grubu (Salvation of the Motherland Group) with judicial, and financial affairs, we also need
the purpose of legitimizing the resolutions of the complete independence and sovereignty as
Erzurum and Sivas Congresses. As a result, in a a fundamental condition of our life and
secret meeting on January 28, 1920, the parliament continued existence. Therefore, we oppose
adopted Misâk-ı Millî (the National Pact/National restrictions that are harmful to our political,
Oath), the official statement of the goals of the judicial, and financial development. The
Turkish national movement. The document was conditions of the settlement of our debts
published on February 17, 1920. By this document, shall be determined likewise, in a manner
the members of the Ottoman parliament recognized not contrary to these principles (Shaw and
and affirmed that the independence of the state Shaw, 1977, pp. 347-348).
and future of the nation could be assured only by
complete respect of the following principles, which The Official Occupation of Istanbul
had actually been accepted in the earlier Erzurum
and Sivas Congresses:
and the Opening of the Grand
National Assembly in Ankara
• The destiny of the regions of Ottoman
territory under foreign occupation The British perceived the growing strength of
and inhabited by Arab majority at the the resistance movement as a formidable threat that
time of the signing of the armistice on should be overcome. The nationalist organizations
October 30, 1918 should be determined in the south had already begun to force the French
by a plebiscite of all inhabitants. All such forces to withdraw from the region. The nationalist
territories inhabited by Ottoman Muslim forces in the southeastern region besieged Maraş,
majority, united in religion, in race, and in occupied by French, for about three weeks from
aspirations, form an indivisible whole. January 21 to February 11, 1920 and forced the
• A new plebiscite is accepted for the three French to evacuate the city. The state of war in
sanjaks (Kars, Ardahan, and Batum) Maraş had broad repercussions in Europe. The
who decided to join the mother country Supreme Council of the Peace Conference began to
once they became free [from the Russian consider the political action that should be taken.
occupation]. To this end, they asked the recommendations
• The juridical status of western Thrace, which of the high commissioners in İstanbul. In their
is dependent on the peace treaty to be signed reply, the British and French high commissioners
with Turkey, must also be determined in stated that the events in Cilicia were inseparable
accordance with a free vote of its inhabitants. from the imposition of the peace settlement that

182
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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

would be imposed on the Ottoman state. They They declared martial law in İstanbul and
argued that the armed resistance formed by all assumed the police functions. Police entered the
sections of the Turkish nationalist movement parliament, arrested some deputies and forced its
would prevent the implementation of ‘drastic dissolution. Damat Ferit Pasha, who was totally
peace terms’. They recommended that if the Allied hostile to the resistance movement, was appointed
Powers were determined to impose the peace as grand vizier once again in order to suppress the
terms to the Ottomans, they should forestall and nationalist resistance movement. Mustafa Kemal
diminish the resistance movement. They could and his associates were declared to be infidels by
do this by fortifying their position in İstanbul the top religious authority, şeyhülislam. They were
through a definite occupation of the city. This condemned to death in absentia by a special decree
recommendation seems to be accepted by the of the Divan-ı Harb-i Örfi (Martial Law Council).
Supreme Council. The occupation of Istanbul led Mustafa Kemal
On March 15, approximately a hundred and to declare the Representative Committee as the
fifty leading civil servants, army officers, deputies, sole lawful authority in Anatolia. He ordered all
ministers and intellectuals including several civilian and military officials to comply with the
members of the Karakol organization, though now Committee decisions rather than the İstanbul
broken up, were arrested in Istanbul. They were government on the basis that the latter was under
sent into exile to the island of Malta. The next day, full control of the Allied Powers. Immediately after
on March 16, the British forces officially occupied the occupation, Mustafa Kemal, acting on behalf
İstanbul. of the Representative Committee, contacted the
governors and commanders in the provinces and
circulated the decision for immediate elections to
be followed by convening an assembly possessing
extra-ordinary powers in Ankara. This assembly was
to include deputies elected in the 1919 elections as
well as those who would be elected in the new one.
Mustafa Kemal explained the situation as ‘Turkish
nation was establishing its parliament under the
name Grand National Assembly of Turkey (Türkiye
Büyük Millet Meclisi)’. On April 23, 1920, the new
assembly convened with approximately 92 deputies
from the Istanbul parliament and 232 newly
Figure 7.11 The marines of the Atlantic Fleet marching
elected ones. The deputies had mostly bureaucratic
through Constantinople Feb. 1920
and military background (about 50 per cent). The
rest were traders, landowners, religious dignitaries
Source: http://www.levantineheritage.com/troops.htm
and tribal chieftains. Mustafa Kemal was elected
as the president of the assembly. The assembly
important embraced both the executive and legislative
functions. A council of state was formed from the
members of the assembly to conduct the affairs of
Until the official occupation, the Allied
the state. The sultan-caliph was assumed to take his
Powers had justified their presence
place in the constitutional system when he became
in Istanbul on the basis of security
free of his captivity. All legislation by the Istanbul
and the protection of Christian
government after March 16, 1920, the occupation
communities.
date of Istanbul, was officially declared void. As a
result, the assembly became the real government
and the council of state carried the daily affairs of
the government. A parliamentary commission that
would prepare a constitution was formed shortly
after the opening of the assembly.

183
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The Rise and Development of the Turkish National Resistance

Figure 7.12 The opening of Turkish Grand National Assembly

Source: http://www.gazetebilkent.com/2015/04/23/gecmisin-ve-gelecegin-ortak-bayrami-23-nisan/

SHAPING THE PEACE TREATY WITH THE OTTOMAN STATE

The peace settlement with the Ottoman Empire took longer than the settlements made with other
defeated Central powers like Germany, Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria. One reason was the conflicting
agendas among the victorious powers; mainly, Britain, France and Italy. Another reason was the conflicting
territorial claims of the ethnic groups in Anatolia and the Middle East. Thus, the territorial settlement of
the Ottoman lands became one of the most complex issues
during the peace process. The rise of the Turkish national
movement resisting the occupying powers and denying
The League of Nations was founded
the Ottoman central authority represented by the İstanbul
as an international organization on
government complicated the issue further.
January 10, 1920. The proposal for its
creation was accepted by the Paris Peace
The Mandate Issue Conference. Its headquarters was in Geneva,
In the early months of the Paris Peace Conference, a Switzerland. It was to act as a forum for
form of mandate was considered as the basis of peace resolving international disputes. Among
settlement with the Ottoman state. Generally, the idea of its foundation goals were disarmament,
mandate required placing the territories of the deceased preventing war through collective security,
empires; Austria-Hungary, Russia and the Ottoman Empire ending disputes between countries through
under mandatory control of a single power that would be negotiation and diplomacy.
responsible to the League of Nations for a definite time.

184
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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

Figure 7.13 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Origin_of_the_League_of_Nations.png

According to this, Kurdistan, Armenia, Syria, second commission was appointed in August,
Mesopotamia, Palestine and the Arab lands were 1919. It was called The American Military Mission
to be separated from the Ottoman Empire and or Harbord Mission after its director, General James
placed under mandate. There was no agreement G. Harbord. The aim was to investigate and report
among the Allied Powers whether a single or more on political, military, geographical, administrative,
mandates would be imposed on the Ottoman economic and other considerations involved in
lands. The question of which country or countries possible American interests and responsibilities in
would be the mandatory power in case of having the Middle East. But this commission acted more
several mandate areas was also a matter of long as a fact-finding mission aiming to investigate the
dispute. A single American mandate seemed to be conditions for the establishment of an American
the most favorable one for the Ottoman lands in mandate in Anatolia. It spent its time in Anatolia
May 1919. and Transcaucasia between September-November,
Two commissions were formed in different 1919. Its report was completed in October, 1919.
times for different regions of the Ottoman It recommended a single mandate in Anatolia and
Empire by the Americans in order to investigate Transcaucasia by the same power. In its conclusion,
the conditions for mandate. The first was called the Committee listed pros and cons of an American
the King-Crane Commission which focused on mandate in Anatolia. However, this report, like
the Middle Eastern regions of the Ottoman the King-Crane’s report, was put on hold without
territories. It made inquiries in Palestine and Syria having any influence on the final peace treaty
from June 10 to July 21, 1919. Yet, the report as the United States withdrew from the peace
prepared after the inquiries was not taken into negotiations in December 1919.
consideration during the peace settlement. The

185
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The Rise and Development of the Turkish National Resistance

Partitioning of anatolia
by the Treaty of Sevres (1920)
International Zone of the Straits
British Zone Armenian Zone
French Zone Greek Zone
Italian Zone
Modern Boundaries of Turkey

Figure 7.14 https://uahsibhistory.wikispaces.com/Treaty+of+Sevres-Lausanne

The Treaty of Sèvres to the resolution, areas with predominantly

The discussions on settlement of the Kurdish population would be autonomous. The
Ottoman territories continued into 1920. Two Kurds could appeal to the League of Nations for
conferences, London and San Remo, convened in independence.
February-April, 1920 to shape the peace treaty with All these were confirmed with minor additions
the Ottoman Empire. The questions of Thrace, in the peace treaty that had been signed between
İzmir, Armenia and Kurdistan were discussed in the Allied Powers and the Ottoman state at Sèvres
both conferences in regard to territorial settlement. on August 10, 1920. In addition to the above
Thrace was decided to be part of Greece. Regarding resolutions, among the stipulations of the Treaty of
Izmir, the French advocated a complete withdrawal Sèvres, there were the following:
of the Greek forces while Britain insisted on • The separation of the Arab lands from
maintaining Greek existence in a specific area. the Ottoman state. France was to rule the
The Turkish flag was to be the sole evidence of the Syrian coast outright and its hinterland
Turkish existence in İzmir. The considerations of through a mandate administration. Britain
the Allies on the settlement of Armenian claims acquired a mandate over Palestine. The oil-
had also undergone fundamental change. Armenia rich Mosul province remained in the sphere
would be recognized as a free and independent state of influence of Britain.
but the Allied Powers would not enter into military • Greece, in addition to Thrace up to the
and political commitments and asked United States outskirts of Istanbul, was given the Aegean
to be mandatory power on Armenia. Its boundaries Islands, while the Dodecanese Islands went
with Turkey were to be arbitrated by the President to Italy. In İzmir and its environs, the Greek
of the United States. Finally, the Kurdistan issue administration was to be established for five
was resolved at San Remo Conference. According years. Later, if the population wanted a full

186
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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

incorporation to the Greek state, it would The government in Istanbul accepted the Treaty
be allowed. of Sèvres. A delegation authorized by the İstanbul
• The Straits would be under international government signed the treaty on August 10, 1920.
control with demilitarization of the The government in Ankara rejected it as it was in
adjacent lands. Istanbul would nominally contradiction with its fundamental political and
be under Ottoman rule. economic objectives that had been manifested
• The Ottoman state agreed to limit the size in the National Pact. Regarding the relations
of its army and navy. The army could have between the Ottoman government in Istanbul and
no more than fifty thousand men with the nationalist government in Ankara. The treaty
restricted armaments. Both the army and brought about a final break. The latter claimed
navy were to be under the Allied control. that the İstanbul government did not represent
• The Ottoman state would submit in all the Turkish nation; nor did it have authority to
financial matters including the budget, accept the treaty. As a result, it would resist its
customs duties, taxes, loans and the implementation. The treaty was never ratified by
public debt to an Allied commission. The the parliament. As Ankara government represented
capitulations were to be restored. the political authority over much of Anatolia, it
• The remaining non-Muslims would be owned the means to prevent its implementation.
granted extensive privileges. It was even clear at the day of signing of the treaty
that some kind of military action against the
At the same time, Britain, France and Italy signed nationalists would be absolutely necessary if its
a tripartite agreement that confirmed the Italian stipulations were to be implemented. The Allied
sphere of influence in south-western Anatolia and Powers seemed reluctant for a full-scale military
a French zone in the eastern Mediterranean and to occupation of Anatolia. However, under strong
the north of the new Syria mandate (Kayalı, 2008, British pressure, they accepted the Greek offer of
p. 130; Shaw and Shaw, 1977, p. 356). enforcing the terms of the treaty by military means
(Zürcher, 1993, p. 147).

What would be your

assessment of the terms of the
Treaty of Sèvres in respect to the
future of the Ottoman state?

187
 Turkish War of Independence:
From Sevrés to the Armistice
Chapter 8 of Mudanya
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
understand the differences between the
Learning Outcomes

1 2
identify the Role of Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) Ottoman Government and the Turkish Grand
and the Turkish Grand National Assembly in National Assembly concerning their attitudes
leading the Turkish War of Independence. towards the Allied occupations.

3 4
understand the policies and strategies followed
demonstrate the stages in the Turkish War of by Turkish Grand National Assembly to expel
Independence. the internal threats.

5
explain the results of each Turkish victory won
against the Allied Powers during the Turkish
War of Independence.

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Turkish War of Independence
Introduction
Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk)
Turkish War of Independence: Greco-Turkish İzmir
War İnönü Battles
Developments in Anatolia during the Turkish London Conference (1921)
War of Independence and the Istanbul Kütahya-Eskişehir Battles
Government Sakarya Battles
Treaty of Gümrü (Alexandropol)
Military Confrontations in the Eastern and
Internal Rebellions
Southeastern Anatolia
Antep, Urfa, Maraş Defenses
Final Blow to the Allied Occupation: The Great Great Offensive (Büyük Taarruz)
Offensive and Defeat of the Greek Army in 1922 Armistice of Mudanya

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

INTRODUCTION Oath/National Pact (Misak-ı Milli). The Greek

The Allied occupation of Anatolia was defeat was also the defeat of the Allied Powers
legitimized through the Treaty of Sevrés by sharing and thus, they yielded to sign an armistice in
Anatolia among themselves. But their plan was Mudanya, a town in western Anatolia, in October
just left on paper since a national struggle started 1922. The Mudanya Armistice not only ended the
in Anatolia under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Allied occupation which had started in 1918 but
Pasha (later Mustafa Kemal Atatürk). Pasha lifted also brought an end to the Ottoman Empire.
the plan out of practice and literally destroyed it.
This national struggle though started against the
Allied occupation, later it turned to be a war to
secure national sovereignty since the Ottoman
sultan and his government in Istanbul (hereafter
the Istanbul Government) tried every political
rouse to block the national struggle cooperating
with the Allies. It was the Grand National Assembly
(Büyük Millet Meclisi) called the Turkish Grand
National Assembly (hereafter the TGNA) after
March 1921 with its government served as the
sole political entity defending the Turkish national
interests in Anatolia and organized people around
a common goal to save it from the occupations.
The Struggle was initiated by the militia groups Figure 8.1 Ceremonial marching of the Ezvones (Greek
presidential guards) in İzmir
called kuva-yı milliye (national forces) in 1919
later maintained by the regular army established Source: https://tr.pinterest.com/pin/461056080579971821/
under the authority of the TGNA in June 1920.
During the National Struggle called the Turkish TURKISH WAR OF
National Struggle (Milli Mücadele) or Turkish INDEPENDENCE: GRECO-
War of Independence (Türk Kurtuluş Savaşı) TURKISH WAR
which lasted from 1919 to 1922, many patriotic
inviduals from different segments of the society
joined the TGNA Army. These people under Greek Occupation in Western
the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha removed Anatolia and Greco-Turkish War
every provocation and obstacle created by the The Greco-Turkish War started after the Greek
Allied Powers and the Ottoman Sultan to save landing in İzmir in 1919, in accordance with the
Anatolia and laid the foundation of the Republic agreements made with the Allied powers, and
of Turkey (Modern Turkey). The Turkish War continued until the Greek troops were defeated
of Independence had two stages. The first stage in 1922. This war at the same time was the
started after the landing of the Greek Troops in beginning of the Turkish War of Independence
1919 which initiated the Greco-Turkish War to save Anatolia from the Allied occupation.
and continued until the first defeat of the Greek Even though Greece has not been militarily
Army at the Battle of Sakarya in September 1921. involved against the Ottoman Empire during
During this period the TGNA Army repelled the World War I, as a consequence of the Treaty of
Armenian attacks in Eastern Anatolia and the Paris, the Greek army landed at İzmir and its
national forces repelled the French and Armenian vicinity in a week by killing whoever resisted
attacks in Southern Anatolia as well. The second them. The Ottoman government protested this
stage was the period that started after the Sakarya occupation but not as strongly as it was expected
Battle until victory achieved with the Turkish from a government whose territorial integrity
Great Offensive (Büyük Taarruz) in 1922 which was challenged by a foreign army. The Grand
defeated the Greek Army and sent them out of Vizier Damat Ferit Pasha resigned but then he
the National borders determined by the National

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Turkish War of Independence: From Sevrés to the Armistice of Mudanya

was ordered to form a new government again. The Ottoman Sultan Vahidettin, by name Mehmet VI,
followed a submissive policy towards the occupations believing that peace would be possible with this
course of action.
The patriotic people in Aegean Region protested
occupations and they formed militia forces (national forces)
to confront the Greek Army. To this end, the first national Ödemiş is an important passage to the
force of the western front was formed by District Governor Hinterland of Anatolia (on the Cayster
(Kaymakam) Bekir Sami and Major Tahir in Ödemiş on River Valley (Küçük Menderes Vadisi) in
23 May 1919 to confront the Greek Army. Many recently south of İzmir.
discharged Ottoman Turkish soldiers as well as thousands
of civilians joined this national force.

Figure 8.2 Battlefields of the Turkish War of Independence.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Battle_of_Sakarya_1921.
jpg/300px-Battle_of_Sakarya_1921.jpg

First confrontation with the Greek troops happened on 31 May, 1919, but the national forces could
not resist much. As a result, the Greek troops moved further west, east and south of İzmir occupying
Ödemiş, Ayvalık and Aydın in a short time. Meanwhile, the Redd-i İlhâk Komitesi (Rejection of Annexation
Committee) held congresses in Balıkesir (June 1919) and in Alaşehir (August 1919) to call people to stand
against the Greek occupation. These congresses had great influence on people to get organized in western
Anatolia. In Balıkesir, for example, there were four other congresses held in July, September and November in
1919 and one in March 1920. There were also other congresses in Western Anatolia such as two congresses in
Nazilli (August and September 1919) and one in Afyon Karahisar in August 1920 to which Mustafa Kemal
participated as well. While these congresses were taking place, the Representative Committee
in Sivas Congress decided to form a regular army on September 9, 1919 and founded Western
Front Command (Batı Anadolu Umum Kuva-yi Milliye Komutanlığı). Major General (Mirliva)
Ali Fuat was appointed as the commander of the national forces since the local resistance forces
were not strong enough to stop the Greek expansion in Western Anatolia.
Following the opening of the TGNA, a regular army which would include all the military units
in central, north, east and south of Anatolia under the command of the nationalist officers including
the Western Front Command was formed in June 1920. This army would be under the authority of

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

the TGNA, in short the Ankara government. River which constituted a natural passage to
However, the newly found army needed time to Central Anatolia. Ali Fuat Pasha, the Commander
be trained so as to maintain a conventional war of the Western Front, attacked the Greek Army
against the Greek Army. The new army enlisted but failed to stop them and had to retreat. Upon
former Ottoman Turkish soldiers as well as civilians this, Colonel İsmet (İsmet İnönü), replaced
and non-Turkish Muslims who were against the Ali Fuat who was appointed as Ambassador to
occupations. Among these civilian groups in the Moscow. The Western Front was divided into two
West were Circassians who were organized under commands. İsmet Pasha was in command of the
the command of local leaders. One such leader was North West while Ali Refet Pasha was in charge of
Çerkez Ethem whose troops stood up to the Greek South West Front. Colonel İsmet came to Bilecik
army successfully. Çerkez Ethem and his brothers on 10 November 1920 to organize the forces
were instrumental in fighting against some of anti- under his command.
Ankara government uprisings like the Anzavur
rebellion prompted by the Istanbul government Italian Occupation in Anatolia
and the Allied command. Italy was also one of the Allied Powers that
Ankara government created a regular army. occupied Anatolia. The Italian occupation in
This army was under the command of Ankara Anatolia began as a protest to the decision made
Government and represented the TGNA. When at the Paris Peace Conference that gave İzmir to
Mustafa Kemal decided to put his trusted friends to Greece. The Italian Army landed first in Antalya
the command of the Western Front, Ethem who has in March 1919 and their justification was that the
been very supportive of the national movement took city was their heritage from the Roman Empire.
it as an insult. He had to become part of a regular They, declared their rule in the regions between the
army which did not sit well with him. Gradually, coasts of Antalya and the Dodecanese Islands after
his relations with the Ankara government became March 16, 1919 without the approval of the Paris
stressed and in the long run even hostile. He rebelled Peace Conference. The Italians, later, occupied
against the Ankara government just as the Greeks Konya in April, and Kuşadası, Fethiye, Bodrum
were getting ready to attact on the TGNA Army. and Marmaris in May 1919. The Italian statesmen
Çerkez Ethem lost and in the end he disbanded his were not satisfied with these occupations and sent
forces. Some of them joined the national army, some military units to Söke of Aydın Province and Milas
took to the mountains and became outlaws. In the of Muğla in May 1919 while the Greeks landed
end, Çerkez Ethem took refuge with the Greeks and in İzmir. The Italian occupation also expanded
later fled and lived in Jordan until his death. to Burdur (Isparta) and Çine in Aydın province.
Ankara Government had to deal with many While, the Italian occupations were not protested
problems all at the same time. The Greek army was by the Ottoman government, the Nationalists
advancing in the West. There were rebellions against protested them. Interestingly, the Italian command
the Turkish Grand National Assembly like the claimed that their presence in these regions was
Anzavur or Çerkez Ethem incidents. Furthermore, in accordance with the permission given by the
Istanbul Government and the Sultan were trying sultan which in fact was not true. However, the
to influence the people in Anatolia against Mustafa Italian occupation in Aydın province caused
Kemal and the Ankara Government. The Sultan problems between the Italians and the Greeks
sent letters to the notables declaring Mustafa Kemal since this province was promised to the Greeks.
and the nationalist government as traitors to the Nevertheless, the Italian occupation was realized
Sultan and the Caliph. There was also an order to without encountering any resistance. The most
arrest him on sight. He was sentenced to death in important reason why the Italian occupations
absentia. Under the circumstances it was not easy were easily done was their friendly attitude
to convince people of Anatolia to participate or be towards the Turkish people. Unlike the brutal
part of the nationalist movement. Greek occupation, the Italians treated the people
fairly, protected the Turks living in the occupied
Meanwhile the Greek advance could not be
territories against the Greeks and provided help
stopped. The Greek troops came up to Gediz
to the Turks who had to migrate from the Greek

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occupation zone. The Italians wanted to own the January 9, 1921. The TGNA Army units which went
lands which were promised to them with the secret to suppress Çerkez Ethem Rebellion came back to
war agreements by establishing peaceful relations İnönü to help the other units and stopped the Greek
with the Turks. They reconstructed the bridges Army on January 10. The Greek Army retreated to
in the towns and in the cities they occupied, Bursa and this was the first success of the TGNA
provided health service to the people and even let Army against the Greek forces. The impact of this
the national forces to enter their occupied areas to success was numerous in the country. The people in
find deserters, fugitives and the criminals. But their Anatolia began to trust the Ankara Government and
policies were useless since Ankara Government the counter propagandas maintained by the Istanbul
was not willing to give any territory from Anatolia Government and its supporters were stopped with
to any occupiers. Italians having understood this the victory at İnönü. In addition, deserters from the
well evacuated their positions in West and South Army also decreased. The rank of Colonel İsmet was
Anatolia on June 1, 1921 unconditionally. promoted to General on March 1, 1921.
The victory of the TGNA Army at the İnönü
The İnönü Battles (January and Battle also had important ramifications in foreign
relations as well. The Allied Powers mainly Britain
March 1921) and the London
proposed a conference to bring the representatives
Conference (February 1921) of the TGNA and Greece together to talk peace. The
While the Turkish Grand National Assembly proposed conference was the London Conference
Armies in Western Front were being organized, held on February 2, 1921. What the Allies wanted
Greece was in political turmoil. Alexander, the King to do was to convince the Ankara Government
of Greece, had died and General Elections were held. to accept the terms of the Treaty of Sevrés with
Venizelos hoped to win the elections but he was not minor changes. Britain invited the TGNA to this
successful. The pro-King party won the elections and conference through the Istanbul Government on
called the exiled King Constantine back. However, January 27 both to show that the Allies do not
King Constantine was not supported by Britain and recognize the TGNA as an independent political
even the latter tried to prevent him enter Athens on entity and that the Allies still accepted the Istanbul
December 4, 1920. Through this political turmoil, Government as the representative of the Turkish
Britain warned the Greeks that they should defeat the people. Mustafa Kemal, the President of the TGNA,
Turks in Anatolia otherwise Britain would not grant rejected this invitation. He informed the British
the mandate of Western Anatolia to them. Therefore, that Ankara Government would not participate
King Constantine needed to win favors with Britain in the conference unless a separate invitation was
and France as well as of Venizelos and his supporters issued. Mustafa Kemal also sent a message to
who believed in the Greater Greece. As a result, the Tevfik Pasha, the Grand Vizier, and indicated that
Greek Army which had already occupied Bursa in Istanbul was not independent since it was under
the north and Uşak in the south Anatolia attacked Allied occupation and the Turkish Grand National
Eskişehir and Afyon on January 6, 1921 with a pretext Assembly was the sole independent representative
of following and cleaning the nationalist resistance. of Anatolia. Although Tevfik Pasha did not share
In fact, their main aim was to control the Anatolian the idea, he nevertheless, lifted the earlier death
Railways lines which passed through Ankara and penalty issued for Mustafa Kemal as a show of
Konya via Eskişehir. Thus, the Greeks hoped to goodwill. The Foreign Minister of Italy invited the
control the hinterland of western Anatolia by taking TGNA to the conference separately. This meant
central Anatolia under their control. However, while the recognition of the TGNA as an independent
the Nationalist Army took position around İnönü political entity both by the Allies and Istanbul
River to confront the Greek Army, Çerkez Ethem Government.
rebelled against the Nationalist Army in the Gediz
Region which meant fractioning the national forces.
The Greek Army benefitted from this weakness of
the Turkish army and moved toward İnönü region
and attacked the Turkish positions at İnönü on

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

important wanted a response to these proposals in twenty-five

days. Thus, the London Conference ended without
a resolution of peace but the Ankara Government
One of the major reasons why the British supported
and the TGNA were recognized as an independent
Greek invasion of western Turkey was because they
political entity by the Allies.
did not want to do it themselves. The British army
was worn out after a very cruel four-year world war. While, the Allies were trying to subdue the
On the other hand, the Greeks joined the WWI TGNA, Ankara signed a friendship agreement
in its last year, therefore, the Greek army was fresh, with Afghanistan on March 1, 1921. Afghanistan
strong and eager. One should not make the mistake was the first Muslim nation to recognize the
in believing that the Greek forces in Anatolia were TGNA as an independent entity. The Bolshevik
not trained or weak. As a matter fact they were well government of the Union of Soviet Socialist
equipped and trained, commanded by very talented Republics (hereafter the USSR) also established
Greek military staff. close relations with the TGNA since both were
fighting against the same enemies who were the
imperialist powers of Europe. The Bolsheviks
believed that instead of Britain it was better to
Finally, the Conference in London started with the
have the Turks control the Straits and Anatolia.
participation of Allied Powers; Britain, France, Italy,
They presumed that the nationalists had a better
Greece and Japan. Lloyd George, the Prime Minister
chance of winning and a possible Turkish victory
of Britain, chaired the conference. The Ankara
with the Soviet support could set an example to
and Istanbul delegations joined the conference on
all Muslim societies struggling for independence
February 23 after it had started. Lloyd George,
which could destroy capitalism. The first
to show British support to Greece, gave the first
contact between the Bolsheviks and the Turkish
word to Greece and declared that the Greeks could
Nationalists began when Mustafa Kemal was
defeat the Kemalists -the term used by the Allies
in Amasya in 1919. The official relations were
for the Turkish nationalists- in three months if they
established after the Turkish Grand National
were given the chance. The Greek representatives
Assembly was opened in April 1920 and the
after their speech left the conference before the
TGNA government established a diplomatic
Turkish delegates arrived. Lloyd George, asked
mission in Moscow. The Bolsheviks also sent
Tevfik Pasha, the Grand Vizier, to have the floor
money, weapons and ammunition as well as gas
first. Tevfik Pasha refused telling them that Ankara
masks to Ankara after September 1920. Moreover,
representatives were the actual representatives of
the Bolsheviks signed the Treaty of Moscow (the
the Turkish people. This was important support
Treaty of Brotherhood or Friendship) with the
to Ankara Government and acceptance of the
TGNA on March 6, 1921 after the Turkish
Turkish Grand National Assembly as the sole
victory at İnönü. With this treaty, the Bolshevik
representative of the Turkish people. Bekir Sami
government of the USSR had recognized the
Bey (Kunduh) the head of Ankara delegation also
total independence of Turkey by accepting the
reminded the delegations that Ankara would not
abolition of the Capitulations and the borders
accept the Treaty of Sevrés, instead prefers a peace
determined by the National Pact.
treaty to be designed in accordance with the terms
of the National Pact (Misak-ı Milli). However, this
claim was unconditionally rejected by the Allies. Kütahya-Eskişehir Battles
Instead they proposed minor changes on the Treaty After the London Conference the Greeks did not
of Sevrés such as İzmir would be left to Turks but wait to find out how the Turkish Grand National
to be governed by a Christian Governor with Assembly would respond to the ultimatum given
the support of the Greek Army. There would be at the conference. With great encouragement and
some concessions about the Straits, occupation of provocation from Britain they attacked the Turkish
Istanbul, about possible Kurdistan and the borders positions in Eskişehir on March 23, 1921 with the
planned to be given to Armenia under the control idea of forcing TGNA to accept the terms of the
of international commission. Moreover, the Allies Treaty of Sevrés. This battle would be named the

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Turkish War of Independence: From Sevrés to the Armistice of Mudanya

Second Battle of İnönü. The Greek attacks again important

were directed from Bursa to Eskişehir and from
Uşak to Afyon. The Greek forces occupied Bilecik
When the Turkish Grand National Assembly
on March 24 and Pazarcık on March 25 and
convened, the representatives came from all wakes of
finally they came to İnönü from the northwest.
the society. Some were true nationalists who wanted
In the south they occupied Afyon and Metris
to free the country, some were still loyal to the Sultan
Tepe located north of İnönü. The TGNA Army
in Istanbul and just wanted to free the country
under the command of İsmet Pasha took position
from occupation, some were former Unionists who
and counter attacked the Greek Army and forced
wanted to look after their interests and gain their
them to retreat to Bursa on March 31, 1921. The
former power back, some were loyal to the Caliph in
Greek Army had to leave Bilecik and Söğüt (the
Istanbul in the religious sense, and there were even
first domains of the Kayı Tribe in Central Anatolia)
some communists. When there was such diversity
with heavy losses. This was the second success of
in the Turkish Grand National Assembly, it was
the TGNA Army against the Greeks. In the south
inevitable that Mustafa Kemal would have rivals and
the Greeks were also forced to retreat from Afyon.
opposition to his ideas.
However, the Greek Army had a stronghold in
Dumlupınar near Afyon and they could not be
pushed further back because of the strong logistic
support they had behind their lines. When the British did not achieve their goal they
sent two officers to İnebolu -a town on the Black Sea
The Turkish victory at the battles of İnönü
coast-used in transporting ammunition to the inner
strengthened the image and power of the Turkish
lands via the Black Sea- on June 13, 1921. They were
Grand National Assembly both in the country and
to give a message to Mustafa Kemal from General
in the world. The Istanbul government approached
Harrington, the commander of the occupational
Ankara and all legal actions against the Nationalists
forces in Istanbul, to the fact that he wanted to
that were filed during the rule of Grand Vizier
meet Mustafa Kemal. Later the British again wanted
Damat Ferit Pasha were dropped. Prince Ömer
to approach Mustafa Kemal using the Turkish
Faruk, son of the Sultan Abdülmecit, also wanted
Red Crescent ( full name Osmanlı Hilâl-i Ahmer
to come to Ankara to join the National Struggle
Cemiyeti) on June 18, 1921 wishing to talk about
but he was rejected.
peace terms, but nothing happened. Meanwhile, the
The Turkish victories caused Britain to loose Italians and the French decided to initiate relations
trust in the ability of the Greek Army to be with the TGNA. The Italians had already evacuated
victorious over the Turks. In seemingly good Anatolia. Franklin Bouillon, the president of the
faith, the British released forty Turkish detainees Senate Foreign Relations Committee of France,
whom they kept in Malta on April 28, 1921. This came to Ankara on an unofficial mission on June
move was nothing more than a British duplicity 9, 1921 to meet Mustafa Kemal while the French
since the detainees released were extreme troops were still in southern Anatolia.
Unionist whom the British thought would create
While the French and British were trying to
problems for the TGNA and Mustafa Kemal.
approach Ankara, the Greeks were strengthening
However, their wishful thinking did not come
their position by fresh troops, ammunition and
to a realization. In the end, Mustafa Kemal
supply lines to Anatolian hinterland. The Greek
strengthened his position in the Turkish Grand
command was also working on different tactics
National Assembly against his rivals and he
that would defeat the Turks. To this end, a Greek
founded the Müdafaa-i Hukuk Grubu (National
fleet attacked İnebolu on June 9, 1921 to cut the
Defense Group) in May.
arms and manpower supply lines to Turks on the
same day Bouillon came to Ankara. The Greeks
were so sure of their possible success that they
categorically rejected any changes to the Treaty of
Sevrés proposed by the Allies.

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

The confident Greek King Constantine came

to İzmir on June 13, 1921 and was met with the
slogans of “To Byzantium and to Ankara” in İzmir. important
He was the first Christian King in a war who set
foot to Anatolia since the Crusades. With a new Mustafa Kemal in his Speech in 1927 described
fervor, although repulsed in April, the Greeks the attitudes at the Assembly before the Sakarya
renewed their attacks in July and advanced beyond Battle as “The first excitement became apparent in
the Afyonkarahisar-Eskişehir railway line toward the Assembly. Above all, the representatives of the
Ankara with an offensive attack on July 10 and opposition immediately began to make pessimistic
occupied Afyon in July 13, Kütahya on July 17 and speeches and express themselves in all possible tones:
Eskişehir on July 19, 1921. The TGNA Army waged Where is this army going to? Where are the people
a counter attack on July 21 but failed to stop the being led? There must surely be somebody who is
Greek advance and had to retreat. Mustafa Kemal responsible for what is being done! Where is the
ordered İsmet Pasha to withdraw the Army to the person? He is invisible. We would like to see at the
east of Sakarya River both to gain some more time head of the army the actual originator of the sad and
for the rearrangement of the Army and also to draw deplorable position in which we are today. There was
the Greek forces further inland in order to weaken no doubt that the person to whom these people were
their supply lines. At the same time, the Turkish alluding was none other than myself.”
headquarters was moved to Alagöz Village near Source: http://theataturksocietyofcanada.ca/the-
Polatlı, a town close to Ankara, on July 25. wisdom/thegreatspeech/

Sakarya Battle and Mustafa Kemal

Pasha in Command
Upon this order, Turkish people who lived in
The Deputies in the TGNA were disappointed and
the cities that were not under the Allied occupation
angry after the defeats in Eskişehir. The common people
or under the control of the Istanbul government,
of Anatolia were fearful and in panic, too. The deputies
supplied the army with arms, ammunition, gas,
of TGNA fearing the advance of the Greek troops even
food, clothes, animals and equipment. The army
further proposed to transfer the Assembly to Kayseri -a
was ready once the supplies were received and the
city east of Ankara. The opponents of Mustafa Kemal
arms bought from the Italians arrived. The city
blamed him for defeats in these battles. Mustafa Kemal
of Ankara, where the TGNA was located, was
convinced them to stay in Ankara and the deputies
also fortified against possible Greek occupation.
asked Mustafa Kemal to take the responsibility of
The Greek King Constantine, on August 15,
fighting the Greek army. He requested complete and
ordered his army to take Ankara and even invited
unquestionable authority to take the Army under his
the British officers for a banquet in Ankara since
command. He was given full powers as Commander-
he was so sure of the Greek success. The Greek
in-chief of the Army by the Turkish Grand National
Army started an offensive attack on the Turkish
Assembly on August 5, 1921 for a period of three
positions on August 23, 1921 and advanced 40
months. This position was extended three times later
km near Ankara. The TGNA Army confronted the
-October 31, 1921; February 4 and May 6, 1922. This
Greek attack and stopped the Greek expansion.
decision made Mustafa Kemal both the President of
The ensuing battle that lasted 22 days was the
the TGNA and as well as the commander-in-chief of
bloodiest and the longest battle of the national
the TGNA Army. When he was empowered by the
struggle since the Greek occupation of Anatolia. It
Grand National Assembly, he addressed the deputies
is said that during the battle the sounds of Greek
and the Turkish nation that the enemy would be
artillery could be heard from Ankara. Nevertheless,
annihilated. Then, he ordered the mobilization of
the perseverance of the Turkish army yielded an
“all the moral and material forces of the country” by
unquestionable victory over the Greek Army.
requisitioning “40 percent of all goods in Anatolia
Here is how Mustafa Kemal describes the Battle of
including those of foreign firms” using article 10 of
Sakarya and what he has ordered his troops to do,
the National Tax Orders (Tekâlif-i Milliye Emirleri)
in his own words:
issued on August 7-8, 1921 (Sonyel, 1989, p.78).

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Turkish War of Independence: From Sevrés to the Armistice of Mudanya

Sakarya Meydan Muharebesi

(23 Ağustos - 13 Eylül 1921)

Maliköy xxx
Ankara
xxx
ııı Mürettap Alagöz
16
Dua
Tepe
prü
i k Kö
y l Polatlı
xx Be
xxx Çaldağ
7 12 xxx Haymana
1
Sivrihisar xxx Türbe Tepe
Kavuncu 4 Güzelcekale
Köprüsü Mangal Dağı
xxx xxx
Beşköprü 3 2
xxx
xxx
Fettahoğlu xxx
Su
Köprüsü Uzunbey 3 xxx xxx
1 2
Emirdağ

Figure 8.3 Sakarya Battle Ground – August 23- September 13 1921

Source: http://www.ata.tsk.tr/01_hayati/milli_mucadele_donemi.html

the 13th September no trace of the enemy was

“I said that there was no line of defense but to be found east of the Sakarya.
a plain of defense, and that this plain was The great battle of the Sakarya, which lasted
the whole of the country. Not an inch of the from the 23rd August to the 13th September,
country should be abandoned until it was both days included, continued without
drenched with the blood of the citizens. interruption for twenty-two days and twenty-
Every unit, large or small, can be dislodged two nights and constitutes a unique example
from its position, but every unit, large or of a battle of the widest extent, not alone in
small, re-establishes its front in face of the the historical records of the new Turkish State
enemy at the first spot where it can hold its but also in the pages of the world’s history.”
ground, and goes on fighting. Units which http://theataturksocietyofcanada.ca/the-
observe the neighboring ones forced to retire wisdom/thegreatspeech/
must not link their own fate to theirs; they
must hold their positions to the end. The Turks defended “their territories” with
In this way every man of our troops obeyed all their might and defeated the Greek Army
this principle and fought step by step with the and forced it to retreat. The TGNA Army lost
greatest devotion, and thus finally succeeded thousands of soldiers including 350 officers. The
in crushing the superior hostile forces and moral and material support of the Turkish people
deprived them of their power of attack and contributed much to the victory at the Battle of
the possibility of continuing their offensive, Sakarya. The defeat was inevitable for the Greeks
and defeated them. since they had lengthened their lines of supply and
communication when they expanded
As soon as we were sure of this phase of the battle,
their occupation up to Central
we went over to a counter-attack, especially
Anatolia and run out of ammunition.
with our right wing east of the Sakarya river
They even could not find food since
against the left wing of the enemy, and then
they ravaged the countryside and
against the chief parts of the front. The Greek
slaughtered the Turkish people.
army was beaten and was forced to retire. On

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

After the Sakarya Battle Mustafa Kemal returned prisoners with the Ankara government and released
to Ankara in triumph and was awarded with the other Turkish detainees in Malta. Moreover, the
title of Ghazi and the rank of Field Marshal (müşir). foreign ministers of Britain, France, and Italy
It has to be remembered that once Mustafa Kemal offered a truce to the governments in Istanbul,
resigned from the Ottoman army he did not have Ankara and Greece on March 22, 1922. Mustafa
a military rank. Through Sakarya Battle he had Kemal stated that the Turkish nation would agree
been reinstated as a military officer by the TGNA. to a peace treaty only and only when all foreign
The ranks of other brave commanders of this battle forces withdrew and evacuated Turkey. This
were also upgraded (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p. 361). stipulation was not agreeable to neither Britain nor
While the Battle of Sakarya enhanced the Greece, therefore, a peace settlement could not be
reputation and image of the TGNA and its army realized (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p. 361). Sakarya
in the country, the most significant aftermath Battle left one adversary in western Anatolia, the
was seen in foreign relations. Most notable was Greek Army who would be forced to leave after
that the countries that sympathize with the the Turkish Grand Offensive in August 1922.
Turks signed either friendship treaties or treaties
to solve the border disputes with the Ankara
government. The most concrete example of
the treaties was the Treaty of Kars signed with 1
the USSR on October 13, 1921 solving border
What might be important
disputes. The Allied Powers were shocked by the
results of the Battle of Sakarya
Turkish victory and tried to establish peaceful
for the course of the Turkish
relations with the Turks again. Meanwhile, there
War of Independence?
was political crisis in Greece and this reflected
itself in the Greek army. The Greek Army in their
attempt at least to keep the cities they occupied in
western Anatolia in their hands, started to build DEVELOPMENTS IN ANATOLIA
a strong defense. The attitudes and beliefs of the DURING THE TURKISH WAR
Allies towards Greece have also changed. Italy OF INDEPENDENCE AND THE
which had a stance against Greece long before ISTANBUL GOVERNMENT
had already established friendly relations with the
Ankara Government. When the Greeks asked for
help for a new attack, France also responded to The TGNA Administration and
it by making peace with the Turks. The French Ankara Government
troops left Anatolia by signing a separate treaty, The opening of the Turkish Grand National
the Treaty of Ankara (Ankara Antlaşması) with the Assembly in Ankara on April 23, 1920 in fact was
Ankara Government on October 20, 1921. This birth of a new state in Anatolia. Both the Ottoman
treaty indicated a real break among the Allied Sultan and his government (Istanbul Government)
Powers leaving the British and the Greeks alone as well as the Allied Powers were aware of this fact.
in Anatolia. Moreover, France with this treaty has Because this Assembly was the first in the Turkish
recognized the Ankara Government as the sole history to implement national sovereignty and
political authority in Anatolia. She also recognized using Turkey as geographical name for Anatolia.
stipulations of the National Pact instead of the The first TGNA was composed of deputies with
Treaty of Sevrés and agreed to evacuate southern different world views. What brought them together
Anatolia by withdrawing its forces from Cilicia to was to save the country from occupation. The first
her Syrian Mandate with the exception of Hatay declaration in the Assembly was “no superior power
(Alexandretta) whose fate to join Turkish Republic over the assembly” and “sovereignty unconditionally
was determined later- the city became part of the belongs to the nation”. These were the pledges in
Turkish Republic on 23 July, 1939 (Shaw and declaring the war of independence both against the
Shaw, 2002, p. 361). Britain, though protesting Allied powers and against the Sultan. The second
the Ankara Treaty, also agreed on an exchange of motto “sovereignty unconditionally belongs to

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Turkish War of Independence: From Sevrés to the Armistice of Mudanya

the nation” was written on the wall of the Turkish assembly needed to make administrative decision
Grand National Assembly and has been kept there in a short time and became the sole representative
since then. On the day the TGNA was opened of people in Anatolia. Additionally, the Assembly
Mustafa Kemal submitted a proposal to the also had to run the National Struggle against the
Assembly. In this proposal he affirmed that: Armenian Army in the East, French in the South
• There should be no power superior over the and the Greek Army in the West.
Assembly, The TGNA also aimed to nullify the Istanbul
• There should be no appointed deputy in government and its decisions with a law passed on
place of the sultan and the caliph whether June 7, 1920. It nullified not only all the treaties
temporary or not, that had been signed but also the treaties to be
• The government should be responsible only signed by the Istanbul government. In addition,
to the Parliament, the law rejected any official decision or privileges
• The president of the Assembly should granted to foreign states by Istanbul government
preside over the government, and especially those given after the occupation of
• The future of the sultan caliph should be Istanbul. In short, Turkish Grand National
determined by the Assembly. Assembly had effectively refused the representation
These proposals constituted the basics of of Istanbul for the Turkish people. Moreover, a
national sovereignty. Mustafa Kemal was elected fundamental rights commission was established
as the president of the Turkish Grand National and it began to discuss and prepare a draft law
Assembly on April 23. He was already empowered for the “The Establishment and the Nature of
as the leader of the national resistance against the the Grand National Assembly”. This law laid the
Allied occupations. The first government or council basis of the first constitution of Modern Turkey
of ministers, called the Assembly Government (Meclis called Teşkilât-ı Esasiye Kanunu (the Law of
Hükümeti), was founded by a law issued on May 2, Fundamental Organization) accepted on January
1920. This law ascertained the executive power. 20, 1921 and was to authorize decisions and acts
The council was composed of eleven ministers and of the government of Turkish Grand National
they were elected by the TGNA not by Mustafa Assembly.
Kemal. Moreover, national forces were united to
be commanded by the Turkish Grand National
Assembly. The first TGNA was powerful in the
The Ottoman Sultan, His
sense that it combined all three branches of Government and the Turkish
government plus the command of the army. The National Struggle
Turkish Grand National Assembly had established When the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice
a new state. One of the important features of this of Moudros, Sultan Vahidettin by name Mehmed
assembly was that it worked with the principle VI, has been on the Ottoman throne only for six
of unity of administrative powers. This assembly months. After the Armistice, the Sultan found
both enacted laws and executed them. It kept the himself in an impossible situation and yielded to
country’s salvation in the foreground for the sake of whatever the Allied Powers demanded. He believed
national unity. The institutions of the Sultan and that the Allied occupations would be temporary.
the Caliphate were not touched. The main reason However, it was obvious with the secret pre-war
for the first parliament to have such characteristics agreements and very severe demands of the Treaty
was that the conditions required quick decisions of Sevrés that this would not be the case. Firmly
and quick action to take effect immediately. Since holding on to his belief, he did not take heed of the
the Sultan and the Istanbul government were warnings made by the patriotic officers, instead,
reluctant to take action against the occupation it the Ottoman government condemned Mustafa
was up to Mustafa Kemal and the TGNA to act Kemal and the other nationalists to death in
against the occupations. Furthermore, the attitude their absentia. Moreover, after the Turkish Grand
of the Ottoman Palace made it very hard to National Assembly was opened, the sultan and
convince people of Anatolia about the dangers and Istanbul government declared Mustafa Kemal and
consequences of the occupations. Therefore, the all nationalists as rebels and the Assembly an illegal

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

organization. The Istanbul government even took order was also circulated in most of Anatolia by
fetvas (religious order issued by the clregy) from the help of British planes. The sultan also resorted
Şehyülislam to declare the nationalists as sinners to bribery in Anatolia by distributing gold so as to
and Muslim clergy was used to provoke people provoke an anti-nationalist reaction
against Mustafa Kemal and all nationalists. Along with these measures, Damat Ferit also
The Grand Vizier Damat Ferit also cooperated founded Kuvâ-yi İnzibâtiye (Security Army) or
with the Allied occupation forces, thinking that the known as Hilafet Ordusu (Caliph Army) on April
peace would be secured in the near future and thus 13, 1920 under the command of Süleyman Şefik
any actions that could provoke the Allies should be Pasha. Moreover, he established Anadolu Fevkalade
avoided. Consequently, he was adamant to show Müfettiş-i Umumiliği (Anatolian Supreme General
the National Struggle as an illegal movement and Inspectorship) on April 28, 1920 under the
the nationalists in Anatolia, especially Mustafa command of Marshall Zeki Pasha to establish the
Kemal, as Unionists and Bolsheviks and provoked authority and order in the name of the sultan in
people against the nationalists. Damat Ferit, in Anatolia.
cooperation with the British, propagated that All these measures and propagandas worked out
the nationalists collected the troops and taxes and the supporters of the sultan rebelled against
without the approval of the sultan. The Ottoman the nationalists. A series of internal rebellions
government also presented the Greek Army not as started in Anatolia following the Armistice of
an invader, but as the “Caliph Army” present in the Moudros in 1919. These rebellions specifically were
country to provide security. And these efforts bore directed and disseminated in a centralized and
fruit and rebellions against the Ankara Government planned manner to suppress the National struggle
started in Anatolia. in Anatolia.
In addition to these Damat Ferit established
advisory committees (Heyet-i Nasiha) who would
advise and prompt people not to resist the Allied
Internal Rebellions in Anatolia
troops. In fact, the minorities with encouragement There were many reasons behind the internal
from the Allies threatened the Turks and there was rebellions against the Nationalist in Anatolia. Some
an increasing distrust among the people against the people wanted to establish their own supremacy
minorities and the Allies. These advisory committees and be the sole leader in their regions such as the
Heyet-i Nasiha under the name of Extraordinary rebellions of Demirci Mehmet Efe and Çerkez
Committee (Heyet-i Fevkalâde) were sent around Ethem. In some cases, semi-feudal local notables
to reassure the public that the sacred rights of and the clergy were effective especially in rural areas
the state and nation had been preserved. There where they wanted to maintain their economic and
were also two separate committees with Ottoman social exploits that they have been pursuing for
Princes, well known military and civilians, and centuries. The purpose of these rebellions were to
the clergy that would be sent to Anatolia. These consolidate their existing positions. Various ethnic
committees were effective wherever they went in groups such as the Greeks and Kurds also rebelled
convincing the people to show reaction to the to establish their own independent states.
National Struggle. In spite of these efforts there These rebellions happened in Anatolia in
were patriotic intellectuals, civilians, and officers dangerous times when the Turkish Grand
who were organized to resist the occupations and National Assembly Army was busy confronting
try to save the only homeland left in their hands the Greek occupation in the west and French
which was Anatolia. But the Istanbul government occupation in the southern Anatolia. Moreover,
threatened the nationalists with the trials in courts the British provocations were also effective in
founded specially to punish them and also used some of the rebellions especially the ones that
the religion card against them. For example, in a occurred in western Anatolia in the Marmara
fetva issued by Şeyhülislam Dürrizade Abdullah on region. The aim was to secure the control of the
April 11, 1920, the national forces were declared Dardanelles and the Straits. Because Britain was
as rebels causing anarchy. This order legitimized not satisfied with the lands they could grasp at
their execution according to Sharia. This religious the end of World War I and wanted to take full

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Turkish War of Independence: From Sevrés to the Armistice of Mudanya

control of the Straits to create a buffer zone with the propaganda that Britain was the protector of the
caliphate. When they discovered that this would not be possible if the Nationalists became dominant in
Anatolia, Britain cooperated with the Ottoman Sultan and his government.

Anzavur Rebellion Demirci Mehmet Efe Konya and Bozkır Çerkez Ethem Kuvayi İnzibatiye Yozgat Çapanoğlu
Rebellions Rebellion

Düzce - Bolu - Adapazarı Afyon Musa Çopur Ali Batı Milli Aşiret Cemil Çeto Koçgiri Rebellions

Figure 8.4 The locations of internal rebellions in Anatolia

The first of internal rebellions was led by Ahmet Anzavur, a discharged officer from the Ottoman
army, who was loyal to the Sultan in Manyas against the National movement in September 1919 at the
time of the Sivas Congress. He rebelled at three different times with the provocation of the British who
wished to secure the control of the Dardanelles. The Istanbul government also supported these rebellions.
Anzavur’s rebellion was directed to Bandırma and Susurluk region with the aim of preventing Balıkesir and
Alaşehir Congresses. Although his first attempt was suppressed by Çerkez Ethem, his later attempts were
suppressed by the national forces lead by Ali Fuat Pasha (Cebesoy).
Another rebellion took place in western Anatolia that started in a large area covering Düzce, Bolu, Hendek
and Adapazarı by a group of bandits who were let out of prison. This rebellion was organized by the Allied
powers with the whole hearted support of the the Ottoman Sultan and the government. The rebellion in
Düzce started on April 13, 1920 and spread to its vicinity and surrounding towns all the way to Beypazarı-a
town near Ankara. In a short time, the number of the rebels reached four thousand. The National forces
suppressed this rebellion in Düzce at the end of May 1920 under the command of Ali Fuat Pasha.
In addition to the rebellions in western Anatolia, others broke out in central Anatolia. Konya and
Bozkır Rebellions in September and October 1919 were first of them. They were provoked by the pro-
Sultan governor of Konya and by Dr. Robert Frew, a Scottish priest and an Intelligence Service agent of
the British High Commission in Istanbul and the founder of the Friends of the English Association in
Istanbul. It so happened that Damat Ferit was one of the members of this society. When the rebels were

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

promised that the nationalist forces would not to be Seventh Division of the TGNA Army defeated
sent over and that they would not be punished, the them. However, this was not the end of the claims
rebellion ended. Even though the initial rebellion to establish an independent Kurdistan and Cemil
in Bozok, Konya was suppressed, another attempt Çeto from Bahtiyar Tribe rebelled on May 20, 1920
were made by Delibaş Mehmet who was supported in Diyarbakır. This rebellion was also suppressed by
by the British. This rebellion was suppressed by the national forces sent from Diyarbakır and Cemil
Refet Pasha. Çeto had to surrender in June. In fact, the rebellions
Some of the rebellions were organized by of 1920 led to great material and moral losses in
the local notables in their own regions. Yenihan Anatolia. But a large part of these rebellions were
rebellion of May 14, 1920 and Yozgat rebellion annihilated with the measures taken by the Turkish
of May 15 by the feudal Çapanoğlu family were Grand National Assembly in 1921.
among these rebellions. These rebellions were The last Kurdish minority rebellion that the
suppressed by Çerkez Ethem and the national National forces had to cope with happened in a large
forces and their leaders were executed. area covering Sivas, Tunceli and Erzincan region
There were also rebellions which used the by the Koçgiri Tribe to establish an independent
religion card such as the Greek-Çopur Musa Kurdistan. This tribe with around 40.000 of its
rebellion. Çopur Musa was a man from Afyon members rebelled in March 1921 at the time the
who provoked the people that “religion is lost” TGNA rejected the Treaty of Sevrés and when the
(din elden gidiyor) because of the nationalists. second İnönü Battle was in progress. This rebellion
This provocation started in June 1920 and was threatened the order in Eastern Anatolia and kept
suppressed by the nationalist army and Çopur the TGNA Army busy for a long time until it was
Musa took refuge in the Greek Army. suppressed in June 1921. It is understood that
some of the feudal lords who revolted with the aim
There were also rebellions against the Turkish
of establishing an independent Kurdish state in the
Grand National Assembly organized by the
east and south-east were in fact trying to protect
Kurdish tribes in eastern and southeastern Anatolia
their political, economic and social interests in
to establish territorial supremacy and later form
their territories, whereas many other Kurdish tribes
their own independent states. One such rebellion
were supporting the Turkish National Struggle to
was the Kurdish rebellion started and lead by Ali
save the country from occupation.
Batı in Nusaybin-a town on the southern border
of Anatolia- on May 11, 1919 even before the There were two other rebellions against the
formation of the National Assembly to establish Ankara government which came from former
Kurdistan. Ali Batı was killed on August 18 and members of the national resistance forces. Demirci
the rebellion was suppressed. Mehmet Efe who was one of the resistance leaders
against the Greek occupation later turned against
Later in June 1920, the Milli Tribe rebelled to
the National Forces. He and his followers refused
establish an independent Kurdistan in Siverek,
to be part of the regular army established by the
a town in present day Urfa, in southeastern
TGNA. This rebellion was suppressed by Refet Bele
Anatolia. Interestingly this tribe previously helped
before the first Battle of İnönü in August 1920.
the National forces to save Urfa from the French
occupation, but later they were deceived by The other regrettable rebellion was organized
the French against the Turkish Grand National by Çerkez Ethem who had been very active and
Assembly. So on the day Milli Tribe entered Siverek, supportive of the National Struggle from the
the French forces attacked Urfa the second time. But beginning. He and his followers fought not only
the Fifth Division of the TGNA Army suppressed against the Greeks but had given their assistance to
the rebellion and the tribe members had to escape suppress the rebellions against the TGNA in different
to Syria in June 1920. Later they came back with regions in Anatolia. Nevertheless, personal agendas
fortified forces and occupied Viranşehir (a town in interfered. Çerkez Ethem and his brothers who were
present-day Urfa) in August. But when they could members of the TGNA did not wish to continue
not gain the support of the other Kurdish tribes with their support of the national struggle. Çerkez
in the region, they escaped to the desert when the Ethem who was the military side of the family did

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Turkish War of Independence: From Sevrés to the Armistice of Mudanya

not wish to be part of the organized, regular TGNA Then the British forces occupied the Ottoman
army and attacked the national forces during the lands by taking advantage of the Armistice of
first Battle of İnönü. His rebellion was suppressed Moudros and entered Kars on 13 April 1919 and
after the battle in January 1921. later delivered this city to the Armenian Republic
These rebellions unfortunately helped the in Erivan which was established after the October
occupational forces to further their advances into Revolution.
Anatolian hinterland. The TGNA had diverted the The Armenian Republic did not recognize the
national forces into different regions to suppress Treaty of Brest Litovsk and were not content with
the rebellions which cost many lives. On the Kars and its surroundings. They also began to
other hand, once the rebellions were suppressed demand the regions up to Erzurum and Van and
the Ankara Government and the Turkish Grand they burned the villages and towns and killed the
National Assembly became the sole authority in Turks and this started the Ottoman-Armenian
Anatolia. War. Meanwhile, the Armenians applied to the
The Turkish Grand National Assembly had to Paris Peace Conference and in addition to Erzurum
take measures against these rebellions. To this end, they demanded Van, Elazığ, Diyarbakır, Sivas and
in April 1920 a law was decreed by the Assembly Bitlis known as Six provinces (Vilayet-i Sitte) as
named Hıyanet-i Vataniye (Treason against the well as Adana, Mersin, Iskenderun, Tokat, Amasya,
Motherland), and in accordance with this law Trabzon and other villages in Eastern Anatolia to
İstiklal Mahkemeleri (Courts of Independence) be given to them.
were formed to implement the law.
Kazım Karabekir Pasha, the Commander of the
15th Army Corps in Erzurum, was preparing to take
Kars, Ardahan, and Batum back to save the Turks
from Armenian attacks. But when the Red Army
2 (the Soviet Army) entered the Caucasus defeating
What kinds of measures were the British, Kazım Karabekir asked permission
taken by the TGNA to establish from Mustafa Kemal on March 28, 1920 for the
internal security in Anatolia? invasion of these cities up to the border drawn by
Treaty of Brest Litovsk. However, the TGNA found
such an attack disadvantageous in such an adverse
MILITARY CONFRONTATIONS environment since the Armenian problem was also
brought to the attention of international platform
IN THE EASTERN AND in Paris and Rome. Then the Red Army entered
SOUTHEASTERN ANATOLIA Caucasus and Ankara Government changed the
status of 15th Army Corps into the Eastern Front
Military Confrontation in Eastern Command and proclaimed partial mobilization
Anatolia and the Treaty of Gümrü in the region. Meanwhile, the planned operation
The Turkish War of Independence was against the Armenians was also postponed so
maintained not only in western Anatolia but also as not to harm the newly established relations
in eastern and southeastern Anatolia. The TGNA with the Soviet Union. The Armenians, however,
Army did not only confront the Greek Army seizing the opportunity from this delay, occupied
but also the Armenians in eastern Anatolia and Oltu and its environs after August 12, 1920 and
the French armies in southeastern Anatolia. The started a general attack on September 24. The
problems in the eastern Anatolia started after the Turkish Grand Naitonal Assembly Army went into
World War I when the Russian Army evacuated the operation against the Armenians on the morning
region because of the October Revolution in 1917. of September 28th and rescued Sarıkamış and
The Russian troops after evacuation signed the waited for the response from the Soviets. But when
Peace Treaty of Brest Litovsk (3 March 1918) with the Soviets asked Kars, Ardahan, and Batum to be
the Central Powers including the Ottoman Empire. returned to the Armenians, the TGNA Army took

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

Kars on October 30 and extended its maneuvers Military confrontations in the

until the borders determined with the National Southern Anatolia and the Treaty
Pact was reached. Then the Armenians evacuated of Ankara
Alexandropol (Gümrü) on November 7 and asked
The British and the French Armies began to
for truce and later the Peace Treaty of Gümrü was
occupy the Ottoman lands in southeastern Anatolia
signed on December 3, 1920. This treaty was the
taking advantage of the provisions of the Armistice
first peace treaty that the Turkish Grand National
of Moudros although there were no justified reasons
Assembly had signed as a result of its military
for their occupations. Britain for example, occupied
success with an internationally accepted state. With first Mosul on November 3, 1918 although Mosul,
this treaty, Kars, Sarıkamış, Oltu, Posof, Şavşat, Antep, Urfa, Maraş and Adana were designated
Kağızman, Kulp, and Iğdır were taken back and the as “French influence area” in the Treaty of Sykes-
Armenians would disarm their army. Furthermore, Picot (1916). The British occupation extended
this treaty removed the Armenians from being an in the following days including İskenderun,
element of constant threat and ended their dreams Kilis, Antep, Maraş and Urfa until March 1919.
of “Greater Armenia”. According to the treaty However, the people in these cities did not resist
Armenia renounced the Treaty of Sevrés, which the British occupation nor did any counter-action
stipulated the Wilsonian Armenia (The Tenth since they were tired of war and also the British
article). The Treaty of Alexandropol changed the did not openly attack the values that the people of
boundary of Armenia to Ardahan-Kars borderline the region regarded as sacred. The French troops
and ceded over fifty percent of the previous also followed a similar policy and occupied first
borders of Armenia drawn by Woodrow Wilson. Dörtyol in Adana on December 11, 1918. Then
The Turkish Grand National Assembly also turned to Cilicia region and occupied Mersin in
demonstrated its peaceful intentions and that there March 1919 and Adana up to Pozantı.
was no intent on the part of the Turks to be hostile After Britain and France signed a mandate
to the Armenians. Armenia also acknowledged agreement in September 1919 to share the
the newly established border between the two Middle East among themselves, Iraq and Palestine
countries. came under the British mandate while Syria and
However, a day after the Treaty of Alexandropol Lebanon were to be under the French. Moreover,
was signed the Bolsheviks took over the rule in Antep, Maraş, Urfa and Adana from Anatolia were
Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan and this caused given to the French mandate as well. The British
tension with the Soviets. Finally, the tension in troops after October 1919 left Kilis, Maraş, Urfa
eastern Anatolia ended when the Treaty of Moscow and Antep to the French troops.
was signed with the Soviet in March. The newly During the French occupation in the
established borders were also recognized with southeastern Anatolia, the Armenians who lived in
the Treaty of Kars signed on October 13, 1921 the region were used as auxilary forces since the
with the Soviet Union and the Caucasian States French Army did not have enough forces to occupy
of Armenian, Georgian and Azerbaijan Soviet Adana, Urfa, Maraş and Antep. The French and the
Socialist Republics. Armenians did brutal and destructive attacks on
The achievement and peace at the eastern front the Turkish people who lived in these cities. This
closed the eastern front in the National Struggle as in part, led to the start of the resistance against the
well as increased the respectability of the Turkish French. Meanwhile, Mustafa Kemal immediately
Grand National Assembly. It has also created the after he learned the mandate agreement, informed
possibility of waging more organized and better the Corps Command in Diyarbakır to prevent the
equipped battles against the Greek Army by French occupation of Maraş, Antep and Urfa and
providing a significant number of soldiers, arms also appointed officers to organize militia forces
there.
and ammunition withdrawn from the Eastern
Front to the Western Front.

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The people in Adana were organized against the when he tried to defend his mother. It was Lieutenant
French occupation with the initiative taken by Hoca Mehmet Sait Bey whom the Antep people called
Mehmet Efendi the Mufti of Karaisalı and later Şahin Bey led the Turks in Antep against the French
defended the city under the command of the Major until he was killed on March 1920 while defending
Osman by name Tufan Bey from January 21, 1920 the road to Kilis to prevent the occupation of this
to October 20, 1921 with the national forces and town (today a city in Southeastern Anatolia) by
the military units of the 13th Army Corps based in the French. The Representative Committee sent
Diyarbakır. Süleyman Asaf Emrullah by name Kılıç Ali as the
commander of the national forces in Antep. He
provided arms and ammunition and organized the
The 13th Army Corps was divided into national forces. The counterattacks continued in
two frontline commands on June 26, Antep between the Armenians and the Turks and the
1920 to defend the southeastern Anatolia city was sieged by the French forces twice in April
against the French Army. 1920 and in August 1920. The people of Antep
during the French siege of the city suffered from
the hunger since all food supplies had finished.
Meanwhile, the French attacks on the people
in Maraş also incited the Turks and this started Finally, the Turkish Grand National Assembly
national resistance in Maraş from October 30, 1919 and France agreed on the return of Antep, Adana and
to February 11, 1920. It was a man called Sütçü their surroundings to the Turks on March 15, 1921.
İmam who started the national resistance when he As a matter of fact, this agreement was finalized with
fired at the French soldiers to save Turkish women the Ankara Agreement in October 1921. The TGNA
from the molestation of the French soldiers. When bestowed the title of Gazhi to Antep at the meeting
people gathered the French and Armenians opened held on February 6, 1921. The last French soldier
fire at the people and Sütçü İmam fired back and left Antep on December 25, 1921 and this date has
killed one French soldier and then had to escape. been celebrated as the day of Antep’s salvation.
The Turkish people struggled against the French Urfa also was one of the cities occupied by the
Army by not only hiding Sütçü İmam but also French troops in southeastern Anatolia in 1919.
organizing attacks on their forces until the French The French troops came to Urfa on October 30 and
troops left the city on 11 February 1920. cooperated with the Armenians and attacked the life,
property and honor of the people. They arrested the
District governor and Gendarmerie Commander of
The French soldiers attacked a group of Suruç to break the resistance of the locals. Mustafa
Turkish women walking on the street Kemal assigned Captain Ali Saip Bey by name Namık
wearing veils. The French soldiers tore to the Urfa Gendarmerie Command to start national
their veils yelling at them that “this city is resistance there. Ali Saip Bey organized people and the
not a Turkish city anymore. You cannot tribes in Urfa around gendarmerie units and issued
walk in French country with a veil.” an ultimatum to the French command to evacuate
the city in 24 hours. When the French response was
not favorable the Turkish protests started in Urfa and
The French occupation in Antep also was not
lasted for two months. The Turkish national forces
welcomed and the national resistance started in
sieged the French troops and prevented any type
this city after the French troops entered to the city
of support they might get. As a result, the French
with the Armenians in January 1920 and ended
evacuated the city on April 10, 1920, and had to
in March 1921. The French and the Armenians
retreat in the direction of Suruç towards southwest
did brutal attacks on the Turks and the Armenian
Urfa close to the Syria border.
aggressions and attack on Turkish women created
tension and resistance to occupation started. Fierce A lasting peace in the southern front in Anatolia
confrontations occurred between the Turks and the was made possible when the French Army accepted
French Army after the French soldiers tried to open defeat and signed the Treaty of Ankara (Ankara
a women’s veil passing by the street killed her son Antlaşması) on October 20, 1921.

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

According to the terms of the treaty, the French Their material and spiritual support did also
acknowledged the end of the war in Cilicia. In provide further motivation to the Turks to resist
return, Ankara government acknowledged French the occupations. The Indian Muslims, for example,
imperial sovereignty over French Mandate of Syria. kept their loyalty to the Caliphate and when Istanbul
The annulment of French claims over Turkish was occupied they protested and established
territories was officially recognized in the Armistice associations called “Indian Committee of the
of Mudanya. Caliphate” and “All India Caliphate Congress” in
order to preserve the caliphate and put pressure
on the British. They collected financial aid and
sent it to the Turkish Red Crescent. The money
3 they sent was kept and protected by the Ottoman
What might be the importance
Bank on Mustafa Kemal’s initiative. Despite the
of the Turkish victory achieved
financial strains during different stages of the War
in the Eastern and Southern
of Independence, this money was not used until
Anatolia for the Turkish War of
the Great Offensive. A small part of the money
Independence?
was distributed to the people whose homes in the
villages were burned and destroyed and a lesser
amount kept for the needs of the army.
The needs of the army especially ammunition
FINAL BLOW TO THE ALLIED were supplied in different ways. The nationalists
OCCUPATION: THE GREAT first suffered from lack of arms since the guns
and ammunition of the Ottoman Army were left
OFFENSIVE AND DEFEAT OF to the Allied Powers’ control. Whatever left from
THE GREEK ARMY IN 1922 the Ottoman army was with the army units left in
Anatolia. Thus there was naturally a greater need
Preparation for the Great Offensive for arms and ammunition. The nationalists took
The major step to save Anatolia from the Allied precautions to increase the number of weapons
occupation was the Grand Offensive (Büyük and ammunition by establishing workshops
Tarruz) waged against the Greek army in 1922. for the construction and repair of weapons and
Long before this, Mustafa Kemal worked and ammunition and purchased some from foreign
hoped to save whole Anatolia from the Allied countries.
occupation without another battle. But the Allies,
especially Britain and Greece, were adamant to
keep their presence in Anatolia while Ankara
government had already declared that there would
be no concessions from the National Pact. The
time for a final blow was ripe. Anatolia was under
control except the western regions and the Marmara
region, the internal rebellions were suppressed, and
the Turkish people in Anatolia believed in Mustafa
Kemal, the Turkish Grand National Assembly and
its army. Beside their spiritual support the Turkish
people also donated money, cloths, animals, their
property and paid taxes issued by the TGNA.
The Ankara government received financial help
from outside Anatolia as well. These donations Figure 8.5 Women working on ammunition
were made by the Turks who lived abroad and Source: http://www.posta.com.tr/hepimizin-zaferi-
charity organizations located in foreign countries haberi-298948
as well as by the USSR and the Indian Muslims.

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Turkish War of Independence: From Sevrés to the Armistice of Mudanya

The Soviets had been aiding the national The military plans and preparations were
resistance. The French and the Italians also donated underway when the opponents of Mustafa Kemal
arms and ammunition as well as selling planes. The increased their criticisms at the Turkish Grand
Italians also helped the national forces by leaving National Assembly. They were not happy since the
Anatolia without making or requiring an agreement enemy was still in the country and the National
after the second Battle of İnonü. Then, the Ankara Tax Orders was a financial burden on the public.
government bought arms and ammunition and 20 When it was time to discuss an extension of
planes from the Italian factories. Mustafa Kemal’s appointment as the Supreme
Commander there were even more problems.
The Final Stage in the Turkish The Turkish Grand National Assembly could not
War of Independence: The Great convene because of lack of majority. This was the
Offensive way the opponents delayed the decision making
process. It was when the government and Mustafa
Mustafa Kemal the Commander of the Turkish
Kemal offered their resignation that the members
Grand National Assembly Army and his fellow
of the TGNA finally stop their antagonism. On
commanders planned and readied the army for a
May 6, 1922 Mustafa Kemal’s appointment as the
final assault on the Greek Army to be made in the
supreme commander was extended.
spring of 1922. While these plans were being made
in Ankara, the Allies, especially Britain had been The preparations for an offensive against the
sending delegations to Ankara to ensure a peace Greek Army were arranged in the greatest secrecy.
treaty between Ankara and the Allies. In their efforts Only a few people who were close associates of
they tried to convince the Ankara government to Mustafa Kemal, Kazım (Özalp), the Minister
accept the Treaty of Serves with minor changes. In of National Defense, Fevzi (Çakmak) Chief
reality, they wanted to give more time to the Greek of General Staff Marshal, and İsmet (İnönü)
Army to recuperate after the Battle of Sakarya. Commander of the Western Front, knew the
Because, the Allies knew that Ankara government army could launch attack in the middle of June.
would not negotiate any agreement until all The troops were transferred from the eastern and
occupational forces left Anatolia. southeastern fronts to the western since they were
no longer needed in those regions.
Mustafa Kemal laid out the plans for the Great
Offensive to the TGNA Army commanders and
corps commanders on July 28 in Akşehir where
the headquarters for the western front was located.
The first offensive part of the army would move
towards İzmir through Afyon and the secondary
forces would deploy towards Bursa from Eskişehir.
The headquarters of the Commander was later
transported to Kocatepe which constituted the south
wing of the Afyon front. All these actions were done
in utmost secrecy. Mustafa Kemal after a visit to
Ankara came back to Akşehir on August 20, 1922 to
command the forces. Meanwhile as a precaution,
news was published in the newspapers that Mustafa
Kemal Pasha would have a reception at Çankaya
on August 22.

Figure 8.6 Mustafa Kemal Pasha (on the left) and İsmet
Pasha, the Commander of the Western Front, at the Ilgın
maneuvers before the Great Offensive (1 April 1922)
Source: http://ataturkkk.blogspot.com.tr/2012/01/cumhuriyeti-
tarihi-bu-ataturkun-bu.html

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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

Figure 8.7 Commander-in-Chief Marshal Mustafa Kemal (fourth from the right in the front),
Soviet Ambassador Simon Ivanovich Aralov (fifth from the left in the front) Azerbaijani
Ambassador İbrahim Ebilov (third from right in the front) together with the commanders
during an inspection tour on the Western Front at Çay (Afyon) (31 March 1922).
Source: http://cay.meb.gov.tr/atacayda.asp

While the Turkish command was preparing for The speed and swiftness of the Great Offensive
the Great Offensive, the Greek Army had built a was one of the reasons for its success. Turkish forces
strong defensive zone in the Afyon-Eskişehir line used wing formation tactics to encircle the Greek
and was not expecting any attack from the Turkish troops. At the same time the cavalry was organizing
army so soon after the Battle of Sakarya. In fact, swift hit-and-run attacks on the Greek supply lines
the Greek army was not in its best. The internal behind the Greek defensive lines. The Greek army
political struggles between King Constantine and having lost their strategic advantage started to
Prime Minister Venizelos found its reflections in retreat toward west, toward İzmir in a panic.
the army. General Trikoupis was appointed as the The First Army under the command of Nureddin
new commander of the Greek Army. Thinking Pasha won Afyon back and captured Dumlupınar
that everything was under their control, the Greek (between Eskişehir and Kütahya) on August 28. The
command had organized a ball in Afyon. This was success of the first army prevented the Greek forces to
indication of how well the secret of the Turkish retreat further west. On August 30, 1922, Mustafa
attack was kept. Kemal ordered a decisive attack on the Greek forces
The Great Offensive started with heavy artillery from Aslıhanlar district. The ensuring fight was
fire at 5:30 am on August 22, 1922, under the fierce and caused many lives on both sides. This
command of Mustafa Kemal. The Greek trenches battle is named as the Battle of the Commander-in-
were disbanded in a short time. The Turkish Grand Chief (Başkomutanlık Meydan Savaşı) since it was
National Assembly was informed of the attack commanded by Mustafa Kemal. The main forces of
on the same day. The Council of Ministers in the the Greek army were either dead or taken prisoner.
TGNA approved the military decision after the General Nikolaos Trikoupis, the commander-in-
fact. chief of the Greek Army was among the Greek
prisoners and he was treated courteously by
Mustafa Kemal.

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Turkish War of Independence: From Sevrés to the Armistice of Mudanya

The following day, September 1,

Commander-in-Chief Mustafa Kemal
Pasha issued his historic order “Armies,
your first goal is the Mediterranean.
Forward!” The army needed to move fast
so that the Greek forces could not have
time to regain their strength and form
resistance lines. From September 1st until
the 8th, the national army freed Uşak,
Eskişehir, Balıkesir, Bilecik, Aydın and
Manisa from Greek occupation. On
September 9, 1922, the TGNA Army
entered İzmir. The second arm of the
army which had been fighting on the
Eskişehir-Bursa line continued its
operations and moved forward in order
to end the invasion of Thrace. The Great
Offensive had been a success ending
with the unquestionable victory of
the Turkish Grand National Assembly
Army and consequently
of the Turkish people.
The answer to the Treaty Figure 8.8 Mustafa Kemal Pasha (third from the left standing) together
of Sevrés was given in the with the leading commanders during the Great Offensive (1922).
battle fields. Source: http://www.atam.gov.tr/fotograflar/milli-mucadele-donemi

End of the Allied Occupation

in Anatolia: The Armistice of
Mudanya
Finally, the TGNA Army reached the goal set
by Mustafa Kemal. The Turkish flag was raised once
more on the flagpole of the governor’s building in
İzmir. The date was September 9, 1922. The news of
the victory was received with great enthusiasm and
joy in the whole Turkish and Muslim world. The
British command shocked from the developments
wanted to keep their interests in Anatolia intact.
Therefore, they tried to negotiate with the TGNA
while the Great Offensive was in progress. They Figure 8.9 Mustafa Kemal saluting the citizens of İzmir
wanted a cease fire agreement. On September 10, from the Governor’s building
when the Turkish forces reached Salihli they were
Source: http://otarihtebugun.blogspot.com.tr/2014/09/9-
given conditions of a possible cease fire by Mustafa
eylul-tarihte-bugun.html
Kemal. He asked for:
• Retrieval of Greek forces from Thrace according to 1914 agreements and unconditional control
of Thrace to be imparted to the TGNA Government,
• The release of the Turkish prisoners taken by Greece to the ports of Bandırma and İzmit,
• Indemnation to be paid by Greece for the war damages caused in Anatolia.
These conditions had to be met within fifteen days after the declaration of ceasefire, until September 10.
Once İzmir was a free town, Turkish Army moved north towards the Dardanelles Straights. Britain and
France announced that “they will not tolerate the entry of the Turks into the places they declared as the
so-called “neutral” zone. They feared the loss of control of the straights, removal of capitulations and the
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Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution I

rejection of Ottoman debt. They dispatched joint military units to İzmit and Çanakkale. But the Turkish
Army was already on its way. Mudanya-a town on the Coast of Marmara Sea- and its environs were all
freed from the Greek occupation by September 17.
The next line of offensive for the TGNA Army was the British-controlled Çanakkale region. Meanwhile,
the Soviets announced their readiness to help the Turkish Armies if a new war broke out between the Allies and
the Turkish army. The British Prime Minister Lord Curzon, French Prime Minister Raymond Poincare and
Italian Ambassador to Paris Kont Sforza met in Paris and decided to start discussions of a ceasefire with Ankara
on September 23. On the same day, the Turkish troops entered the neutral zone, invaded Erenköy and were
advancing towards the British positions. The Turks had standing orders to attack the British forces if they opened
fire. Turkish and British forces showed great reservation and did not start a fight in the region. On October 3, 1922,
delegations representing the TGNA and the Allies met in Mudanya to discuss the terms of an armistice.
The events in Greece was not very favorable to
the King. The people of Greece holding the King
Constantine responsible for the defeat in Anatolia
started a revolt. King Constantine had to abdicate and
leave Greece.

Armistice of Mudanya
The negations between the delegations for an
armistice started on October 3, 1922 in Mudanya.
İsmet Pasha the commander of the western front was
representing the Turkish Grand National Assembly,
Britain was represented by General Charles Harrington,
France by General Charpy and Italy by General
Figure 8.10 The Allied Delegations and Ismet Pasha
Mombelli. The Greek representative, General Mazaraki,
(second from the left) at Mudanya Conference
refused to participate in the talks. The negotiations
ended in a favorable agreement on October 11, 1922. Source: http://www.mudanyamutarekeevi.org/en/
However, further discussions of peace had to wait for component/content/article/55-mud-mutarekesi.html
another time.
The Mudanya Armistice Agreement had the following stipulations:
1. The hostilities between the two sides would end,
2. The Greek occupation of Thrace was to be terminated and the Greek forces were to be withdrawn
to the left bank of Maritza River,
3. The Turkish gendarmerie forces would be present in Eastern Thrace to prevent possible adversary
acts during the withdrawal,
4. The Greeks would hand over the administration of the region first to the Allied Powers and then to
the Turks within 30 days, under the supervision of the Allied Powers.
5. Both Turks and Greek would not try to reinforce their troops and keep to their current positions.
The terms of the Mudanya Armistice later were recognized by the Greek Government. This was an important
moment for Turkish Grand National Assembly. Finally, the war against the Greeks that lasted for three years was
now completely over. Edirne, Eastern Thrace and Istanbul were rescued without a new confrontation. Istanbul
was free at last. The land-related stipulations of the National Pact were realized to a great extent. The imperialists
also had to realize that they could not implement the Treaty of Sevrés
which aimed at ending the Turkish presence in Anatolia in any manner
possible. Moreover, leaving the control of Istanbul and the Straits to the
4
TGNA Government meant that the Allies recognized the
What might be the importance of Turkish Grand National Assembly as the sole representative
the Great Offensive in the Turkish of Anatolia in place of the Ottoman Empire. The next step
War of Independence? was the peace conference to be held in Lausanne which was
another important step in building Modern Turkey.

217