Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

Chapter-5
HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
5.1: Introduction:
A Hydraulic circuit is a group of components such as pumps, actuators, and control
valves so arranged that they will perform a useful task. When analyzing or designing a
hydraulic circuit, the following three important considerations must be taken into account:
1) Safety of operation
2) Performance of desired function
3) Efficiency of operation
It is very important for the fluid power (Hydraulics and Pneumatics) designer to have a
working knowledge of components and how they operate in a circuit. Hydraulic circuits are
developed through the use of graphical symbols for all components. The symbols have to
conform to the ANSI specification.
continuous line - flow line dashed line - pilot, drain
large circle - pump, motor small circle - Measuring devices
one square - pressure control function two or
semi-circle - rotary actuator
three adjacent squares -directional control
Spring Flow Restriction
solid - Direction of Hydraulic Fluid Flow open - Direction of Pneumatic flow
Fixed Displacement hydraulic pump Bi
Fixed Displacement hydraulic pump unidirectional
directional

Compressor Pneumatic motor -unidirectional

Pneumatic motor -bidirectional Rotary Actuator pneumatic

Single acting cylinder returned by spring or

Rotary Actuator hydraulic
extended by spring force

Single acting cylinder returned by external force Double acting cylinders double ended piston rod

Normally closed directional control valve with 2

Double acting cylinders single piston rod
ports and 2 finite positions.
Directional control valve (2 ports / 2 positions) Directional control valve (2 ports / 2 positions)
Normally open directional control valve with 2 Normally open directional control valve with 2
ports and 2 finite positions ports and 2 finite positions
Directional control valve (3 ports / 2 positions) Directional control valve (3 ports / 2 positions)
Normally closed directional control valve with 3 Normally open directional control valve with 3
ports and 2 finite positions. ports and 2 finite positions
Directional control valve (4 ports / 3 positions) -
Directional control valve (4 ports / 2 positions)
directional control valve with 4 ports and 3 finite
directional control valve with 4 ports and 2 finite
positions
positions
-(center position can have various flow paths)
Manual Control general symbol (without showing
pushbutton
the control type)

lever foot pedal

Mechanical Control plunger or tracer spring

roller roller(one direction only)

Department of Mechanical Engineering 1 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

Electrical Control Solenoid (the one winding) Pilot Operation pneumatic

check valve -free flow one direction, blocked flow

Pilot Operation hydraulic
in other direction
Pressure Relief Valve (safety valve) normally
Shuttle valve to isolate one part of a system from
closed line pressure is limited to the setting of the
an alternate part of circuit
valve; secondary part is directed to tank.

Proportional Pressure Relief line pressure is limited pressure downstream of valve is limited to the
to and proportional to an electronic signal setting of the valve
Sequence Valve when the line pressure reaches the
setting of the valve, valve opens permitting flow to
Throttle valve adjustable output flow
the secondary port. The pilot must be externally
drained to tank.
with fixed output and relief port to reservoir with
Flow Control valve with fixed output (variations in
relief for excess flow (variations in inlet pressure
inlet pressure do not affect rate of flow)
do not affect rate of flow)

Shut-Off Valve Simplified symbol Accumulators

5.2: Control of a Single- Acting Hydraulic Cylinder

A single-acting cylinder can exert a force in only the extending direction as
fluid from the pump enters the blank end of the cylinder (usually left side of the piston).
Single- acting cylinders do not retract hydraulically. Retraction is accomplished by using
gravity or by the inclusion of a compression spring in the rod end.

Fig 5.1 Symbol

Force during extension stroke is, Fext = p * AP
Velocity during extension stroke is , vP ext = QP / AP
The force and velocity during retraction stroke depends upon spring rate as single –
acting cylinder do not retract hydraulically.
Figure 5.2 shows a two- position, three way, manually operated, spring offset
directional control valve (DCV) used to control the operation of a single – acting cylinder. In
the spring offset mode, full pump flow goes the tank via the pressure relief valve. The spring
in the rod end of the cylinder retracts the piston as oil from the blank end ‘A’ drains back to
the tank. When the valve is manually actuated the pump flow goes to the cylinder blank end
‘A’ via DCV 1 position. This extends the cylinder. At full extension, pump flow goes through
the relief valve. Deactivation of the DCV allows the cylinder to retract as the DCV shift into
its spring – offset mode.

C = Single acting cylinder

P = Pump
E = Electric Motor
T = Tank
F = Filter
R = Relief Valve
D =2-position, 3 way DCV Manually operated and spring return

Department of Mechanical Engineering 2 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

A
1 2

D P T

E
P R
T

F T
Fig 5.2: Control of Single -Acting Hydraulic Cylinder
5.3 Control of Double -Acting Hydraulic Cylinder
Double –Acting cylinders can be extended and retracted hydraulically. Thus, an output
force can be applied in two directions.

A B

Fig 5.3 Double acting cylinder

The output force (F) and piston velocity of double acting cylinder are not the same for
extension and retraction strokes. During the extension stroke, fluid enters the blank end (A)
of the cylinder through the entire circular area of the piston (AP). However during the
retraction stroke, fluid enters the rod end through the smaller annular area between the rod
and cylinder bore ( AP – AR ), where AP = piston area , and AR = rod area. Since AP = is
greater than ( AP – AR ), the retraction velocity is greater than the extension velocity since
the pump flow rate is constant.
Similarly during the extension stroke, fluid pressure bears on the entire area of the
piston (AP). However during the retraction stroke, fluid pressure bears on the smaller annular
area (AP – AR). The difference in area accounts for the difference in output force, with the
output force is greater during extension.
Extending stroke :
Force, Fext = p * AP -------- 1
Velocity, vext = Qp / AP -----2

Retraction Stroke :
Force, Fret = p * ( AP – Ar ) --- 3
Velocity, vret = Qp / (AP – Ar ) --- 4

Department of Mechanical Engineering 3 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

It can be seen from the above 4 equations that force during extension stroke and velocity of
piston during retraction stroke is greater for the same operating pressure and flow rate.
The power developed by a hydraulic cylinder for either the extension or retraction
stroke, can be found out by (velocity multiplied by force) or from (flow rate multiplied by
operating pressure),
Power ( kW ) = vp ( m / s ) * F ( kN ) = Q ( m3 / s) * p ( kPa )
Figure 5.4 shows a circuit used to control a double – acting hydraulic cylinder.
When the four way valve is in centered configuration, the cylinder is hydraulically locked as
the ports A and B is blocked. The pump flow is unloaded back to the tank at essentially
atmospheric pressure.
When the four way valve is actuated into the 1st position, the cylinder is extended
against its load force Fload as oil flows to the blank end of the cylinder from port P through
port A. Also, oil in the rod end of the cylinder is free to flow back to the tank via the four way
valve from port B through port T. Note that the cylinder would not extend if this oil were not
allowed to leave the rod end of the cylinder.
When the four way valve is actuated into the 2 st position , the cylinder is retracts against
as oil flows to the rod end of the cylinder from port P through port B. Oil in the blank end of
the cylinder is returned to the tank from port A to port T.
At the end of the stroke, there is no system demand for oil. Thus, the pump flow goes
through the relief valve at its pressure- level setting unless the four- way valve is deactivated.
In any event the system is protected from any cylinder overloads.

F LOAD
C

A B

1 0 2

D P T

E P R
T
F
T
Fig 5.4 Control of Double -acting hydraulic cylinder.
Problem 1. A double acting cylinder is hooked up to reciprocate. The relief valve setting is 70
bars. The piston area is 0.016 m2 and the rod area is 0.0045 m2. If the pump flow is 0.0013m3
/ s, find the cylinder speed and load- carrying capacity for the
a. Extending stroke
b. Retracting stroke.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 4 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

Solution:
Relief valve pressure setting, p = 70 bars = 70 * 105 N /m2
Piston area, Ap = 0.016 m2
Rod area, Ar = 0.0045 m2
Pump flow, Qp = 0.0013 m3/s
a) Extending Stroke:
Cylinder speed, vp ext = Qp / AP
= 0.0013 / 0.016
= 0.0813 m / s

Load carrying capacity, Fload = p * AP

= 70 * 10 5 * 0.016
= 112000 N = 112kN

b) Retracting Stroke:
Cylinder Speed, vp Ret = Qp / (AP – Ar)
= 0.0013 / ( 0.016 - 0.0045 )
= 0.113 m / s

Load carrying capacity, Fload = p * ( AP – Ar )

= 70 * 105 * ( 0.016 - 0.0045)
= 80500 N = 80.5kN
5.4: Regenerative circuit:
Figure 5.5 shows a regenerative circuit that is used to speed up the extending speed of
a double-acting hydraulic cylinder. Here the pipelines to both ends of the hydraulic cylinder
are connected to pump, one end (A) through the 2 / 3 way DCV and the other end (B)
directly. The operation of the cylinder during the retraction stroke is the same as that of a
regular double-acting cylinder. Fluid flows through the DCV zero position from the actuator
A side during retraction. In this position, fluid from the pump directly enters the rod end of
the cylinder (direct connection). Fluid in the blank end drains back to the tank through the
DCV as the cylinder retracts.
When the DCV is shifted to 1 position due to manual actuation, the cylinder extends.
The speed of extension is greater than that for a regular double-acting cylinder because flow
from the rod end (QR) regenerates with the pump flow (QP) to provide a total flow rate (QT),
which is greater than the pump flow rate to the A side of the cylinder. (Area of blank end is
more than rod end, thereby blank end provide least resistance).
Cylinder Extending Speed
The total flow rate entering the blank end (A) of the cylinder equals the pump flow
rate plus the regenerative flow rate coming from the rod end of the cylinder:
QT = QP + QR
Or QP = QT - QR ---(1)
We know that the total flow rate equals the piston area multiplied by the extending
speed of the piston (Vpext). Similarly, the regenerative flow rate equals the difference of the
piston and rod areas (Ap - Ar) multiplied by the extending speed of the piston. Substituting
these two relationships into the eq (1) yields

Department of Mechanical Engineering 5 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

QP = ApVpext – (Ap – Ar)Vpext

Therefore, QP = ArVp ext
Qp
Hence the extending speed of the piston, V pext = --- (2)
Ar
Thus the extending speed equals the pump flow divided by the rod area. Thus, a
small rod area (which produces a large regenerative flow) provides a large extending speed.
In fact the extending speed can be greater than the retracting speed if the rod area is made
small enough.
C
A B

1 2

D P T

E P

F
T

Fig 5.5. Regenerative circuit.

Ratio of Extending and Retracting Speeds
Let’s determine under what condition the extending and retracting speeds are equal. We
know that the retracting speed (Vpret) equals the pump flow divided by the difference of the
piston and rod areas:
Qp
V pret = ---(3)
Ap − Ar

Vp ext Qp / Ar A p − Ar
Dividing eq(1) with (3) we have = =
Vp ret Qp /( Ap − Ar ) Ar
Simplifying we obtain the ratio of extension speed and retracting speed
Vpext Ap
= −1 --(4)
Vp ret Ar

Department of Mechanical Engineering 6 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

We see that when the piston area equals two times the rod area, the extension and
retraction speeds are equal. In general, the greater the ratio of piston area to rod area, the
greater the ratio of extending speed to retracting speed.
Load-Carrying Capacity during Extension:
It should be noted that the load-carrying capacity of a regenerative cylinder during
extension is less than that obtained from a regular double-acting cylinder. The load-carrying
capacity (Fload) for a regenerative cylinder equals the pressure multiplied by piston rod area
rather than the pressure multiplied by piston area. This is due to the same system pressure
acting on both sides of the piston during the extending stroke of the regenerative cylinder.
Thus Fload = PAr
Thus, the power obtained from the regenerative cylinder is less because the extending
speed is increased at the expense of load-carrying capacity.

5.5 Regenerative center in Drilling Machine:

C F LOAD

A B C – Double acting cylinder

D – 3 Position, 4 Way,
1 0 2 Regenerative center,
D P T solenoid actuated,
spring centered DCV
R – Relief Valve
E
R F - Filter
P E – Electric Motor
F T T- Tank
T P - Pump

Fig 5.6 Application in Drilling Machine

Figure 5.6 shows an application of regenerative circuit in a drilling machine. Here a 3-
position, 4-way, regenerative center directional control valve is used.
When the DCV is in the spring-centered position, port P is connected to A and B and tank
port T is blocked. In this position pump flow goes to A and flow from rod end of the cylinder
also joins the pump flow to gives rapid spindle advance (no work is done during this period).
Why does the spring-centered position give rapid extension of the cylinder (drill spindle)?
The reason is simple. Oil from the rod end regenerates with the pump flow going to the
blank end. This effectively increases pump flow to the blank end of the cylinder during the
spring-centered mode of operation. Once again we have a regenerative cylinder. It should be
noted that the cylinder used in a regenerative circuit is actually a regular double-acting
cylinder. What makes it a regenerative cylinder is the way it is hooked up in the circuit. The

Department of Mechanical Engineering 7 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

blank and rod ends are connected in parallel during the extending stroke of a regenerative
center.
When the DCV shifts to 1st position, P is connected to A and B to T gives slow feed
(extension) when the drill starts to cut into the work piece. Similarly when the DCV shifts to
2nd position, P is connected to B and A is connected to T, since the ring area is less the
cylinder will have fast return motion.
Problem 2. A double acting cylinder is hooked up in the regenerative circuit. The relief valve
setting is 70 bars. The piston area is 0.016 m2 and the rod area is 0.0045 m2. If the pump flow
is 0.0013m3 / s, find the cylinder speed and load- carrying capacity for the
a. Extending stroke
b. Retracting stroke.
Solution:
Relief valve pressure setting, p = 70 bars = 70 * 105 N /m2
Piston area, Ap = 0.016 m2
Rod area, Ar = 0.0045 m2
Pump flow, Qp = 0.0013 m3/s
a) Extending Stroke:
Cylinder speed, vp ext = Qp / Ar
(Regenerative Speed) = 0.0013 / 0.0045
= 0.29 m / s

Load carrying capacity, Fload = p * Ar

= 70 * 105 * 0.0045
= 31500 N = 31.5kN
b) Retracting Stroke:
Cylinder Speed, vp Ret = Qp / (AP – Ar)
= 0.0013 / ( 0.016 - 0.0045 )
= 0.113 m / s

Load carrying capacity, Fload = p * ( AP – Ar )

= 70 * 105 * ( 0.016 - 0.0045
= 80500 N = 80.5kN
3. A double acting cylinder is hooked up in the regenerative circuit. The relief valve setting
is 100 bars and the pump flow is 0.0016m3 / s. If the regenerative and retracting speed are
equal to 0.25m/ s, find the piston and rod area and also load- carrying capacity for the
a. Extending stroke
b. Retracting stroke
Solution:
Relief valve pressure setting, p = 105 bars = 105 * 105 N /m2
Pump flow, Qp = 0.0016 m3/s, Speed = 0.25 m/ s
We have regenerative cylinder speed, vp ext = Qp / Ar
Therefore Rod area, Ar = Qp / vp ext
= 0.0016 / 0.25
= 0.0064m2

Department of Mechanical Engineering 8 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

•
Piston Area, AP = 2 Ar = 2* 0.0064 = 0.0128 m2

a) Extending Stroke:
Load carrying capacity, Fload = p * Ar
= 105 * 105 * 0.0064
= 67200 N = 67.2kN

b) Retracting Stroke:

Load carrying capacity, Fload = p * ( AP – Ar )

= 105 * 105 * ( 0.0128 - 0.0065 )
= 67200 N = 67.2kN

5.6: Pump – unloading circuit

F LOAD
C

A B
1 0 2

D P T

CV

P
U
F T
T
Fig 5.7. Pump unloading circuit.
In Fig. 5.7 we see a circuit using an unloading valve to unload a pump. The unloading valve
opens when the cylinder reaches the end of its extension stroke because the check valve
keeps high-pressure oil in the pilot line of the unloading valve. When the DCV is shifted to
retract the cylinder, the motion of the piston reduces the pressure in the pilot line of the
unloading valve. This resets the unloading valve until the cylinder is fully retracted, at which
point the unloading valve unloads the pump. Thus, the unloading valve unloads the pump at
the ends of the extending and retraction strokes as well as in the spring-centered position of
the DCV.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 9 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

5.7 Double Pump Hydraulic system ( Hi – Lo circuit )

C F LOAD

A B
0
1 2

D P T

CV

R P1 P2 U
T T
F F

Fig 5.8 Double pump Hydraulic system

P1 -- Low discharge, High pressure pump CV – Check valve

P2 -- High discharge, Low pressure pump D – 3 Position, 4 Way, closed
R -- Relief valve center, manual actuated DCV
U – Unloading valve C- Double acting cylinder
T - Tank F - Filter
Figure 5-8 shows a circuit that uses two pumps, one high-pressure, low-flow pump and
the other low-pressure, high-flow pump. One can find application in a punch press in which
the hydraulic ram must extend rapidly over a large distance with very low pressure but high
flow requirements. However, during the short motion portion when the punching operation
occurs, the pressure requirements are high due to the punching load. Since the cylinder travel
is small during the punching operation, the flow-rate requirements are also low.
The circuit shown eliminates the necessity of having a very expensive high-pressure,
high-flow pump. When the punching operation begins, the increased pressure opens the
unloading valve to unload the low-pressure pump. The purpose of the relief valve is to protect
the high-pressure pump from overpressure at the end of the cylinder stroke. The check valve
protects the low-pressure pump from high pressure, which occurs during the punching
operation, at the ends of the cylinder stroke, and when the DCV is in its spring-centered
mode.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 10 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

5.8 Counter Balance Valve Application:

CB

F LOAD
CV
A B

1 0 2

D P T

P R
T
F
T
Fig 5.9. Counter balance application
Figure 5.9 illustrates the use of a counterbalance or back-pressure valve to keep a
vertically mounted cylinder in the upward position while the pump is idling i.e., when the
DCV is in its center position. During the downward movement of the cylinder the
counterbalance valve is set to open at slightly above the pressure required to hold the piston
up ( check valve does not permit flow in this direction ). The control signal for the
counterbalance valve can be obtained from the blank end or rod end of the cylinder. If
derived from the rod end, the pressure setting of the counter balance valve equals FL/
(AP-Ar ). If derived from blank end the pressure setting equals FL / AP. This pressure is less
and hence usually it has to be derived from blank end. This permits the cylinder to be forced
downward when pressure is applied on the top. The check valve is used to lift the cylinder up
as the counterbalance valve is closed in this direction. The Tandem -center directional control
valve unloads the pump. The DCV is a manually -actuated, spring-centered valve with
tandem-center flow path configuration.

5.9 Hydraulic Cylinder Sequencing Circuit:

A sequence valve causes operations in a hydraulic circuit sequentially. Figure 5.10 is an
example where two sequence valves are used to control the sequence of operations of two
double-acting cylinders C1 and C2. When the DCV is shifted into its 1st position, the left
cylinder extends completely, and only when the left cylinder pressure reaches the pressure
setting of sequence valve, the valve opens and then the right cylinder extends. If the DCV is

Department of Mechanical Engineering 11 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

then shifted into its 2nd position, the right cylinder retracts fully, and then the left cylinder
retracts. Hence this sequence of cylinder operation is controlled by the sequence valves. The
spring centered position of the DCV locks both cylinders in place.
One can find the application of this circuit in press circuit. For example, the left
cylinder the clamping cylinder C1 could extend and clamp a work piece. Then the right
cylinder C2, the punching cylinder extends to punch a hole in the work piece. The right
cylinder then retracts the punch, and then the left cylinder retracts to de-clamp the work piece
for removal. Obviously these machining operations must occur in the proper sequence as
established by the sequence valves in the circuit.

C1 C2

CV

SV

SV

D
T

P R

Fig 5.10. Cylinder Sequencing circuit

Operation sequence is: C1 + C2+ C2- C1 -
+ is Extension of piston
- is Retraction of piston
C1 & C2 = Double acting cylinder
P = Pump; SV = Sequence Valve;
R = Relief Valve
CV = Check Valve;

Department of Mechanical Engineering 12 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

5.10. Locked cylinder using pilot check valves:

F LOAD
C

PCV1 PCV2

A B
1 0 2

D P T

P R
T
F
T

Fig 5.13. Locked Cylinder using Pilot Check Valve

In many cylinder applications, it is necessary to lock the cylinder so that its piston cannot be
moved due to external force acting on the piston rod. One method for locking a cylinder in
this fashion is by using pilot check valves, as shown in Fig 5.13. The cylinder can be
extended and retracted as normally done by the action of the directional control valve. If
regular check valves were used, the cylinder could not be extended or retracted by the action
of the DCV. An external force, acting on the piston rod, will not move the piston in either
direction because reverse flow through either pilot check valve is not permitted under these
conditions.
5.11. CYLINDER SYNCHRONIZING CIRCUITS:
Cylinder connected in parallel:
Figure 5.14 is a very interesting circuit, which seems to show how two identical
cylinders can be synchronized by piping them in parallel. However, even if the two cylinders
are identical, it would be necessary for the loads on the cylinders to be identical in order for
them to extend in exact synchronization. If the loads are not exactly identical (as is always
the case), the cylinder with the smaller load would extend first because it would move at a

Department of Mechanical Engineering 13 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

lower pressure level. After this cylinder has fully completed its stroke, the system pressure
will increase to the higher level required to extend the cylinder with the greater load. It
should be pointed out that no two cylinders are really identical. For example, differences in
packing friction will vary from cylinder to cylinder. This alone would prevent cylinder
synchronization for the circuit of Fig. 5.14.
C1 F Load

C2
FLoad

A B

1 0 2

D P T

E P R
T
F
T
Fig 5.14. Cylinder hooked in parallel for synchronizing
(will not operate)
Cylinders connected in Series:
The circuit of Fig. 5.15 shows a simple way to synchronize two cylinders. Fluid from
the pump is delivered to the blank end of cylinder 1, and fluid from the rod end of cylinder 1
is delivered to the blank end of cylinder 2. Fluid returns to the tank from the rod end of
cylinder 2 via the DCV. Thus, the cylinders are hooked in series. For the two cylinders to be
synchronized, the piston area of cylinder 2 must equal the difference between the areas of the
piston and rod for cylinder 1. It should also be noted that the pump must be capable of
delivering a pressure equal to that required for the piston of cylinder 1 by itself to overcome
the loads acting on both cylinders. It should be noted that the pressure at the blank end of
cylinder 1 and the rod end of cylinder 2 are equal as per Pascal’s law.
P1Ap1 - P2(Ap1 – Ar1) = F1
And

Department of Mechanical Engineering 14 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

P2Ap2 - P3(Ap2-Ar2) = F2
Adding both equations and noting that AP2 = Ap1 – AR1 and that P3 = 0 (due to the drain line to
the tank), we obtain the desired result
P1Ap1= F1 + F2

P1
P2
C1 F Load

P2 P3

C2
FLoad

A B

1 0 2

D P T

P R
T
F
T
Fig 5.15. Cylinder hooked in Series for synchronizing
( Will Operate )

5.12 Speed control of Hydraulic Cylinder: Speed control of a hydraulic cylinder is

accomplished using a flow control valve. A flow control valve regulates the speed of the
cylinder by controlling the flow rate to and of the actuator.
There are 3 types of speed control:
• Meter- in circuit ( Primary control )
• Meter-out circuit ( Secondary control )
• Bleed - off circuit ( By pass control )
1. Meter – in Circuit: In this type of speed control, the flow control valve is placed
between the pump and the actuator. Thereby, it controls the amount of fluid going into the
actuator. Fig 5.16 shows meter-in circuit.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 15 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

F LOAD
C

CV FCV

1 0 2
D

F R

Fig 5.16. Meter – in circuit

C = Double acting cylinder; P = Pump; T = Tank; F = Filter
R = Relief Valve; CV = Check Valve; FCV = Flow control Valve
D =3-position, 4 way, Tandem center, manually operated, Spring Centered DCV
When the directional control valve is actuated to the 1st position, oil flows through the
flow control valve to extend the cylinder. The extending speed of the cylinder depends on the
setting (percent of full opening position) of the flow control valve.
When the directional control valve is actuated to the 2nd position, the cylinder retracts as oil
flows from the cylinder to the oil tank through the check valve as well as the flow control
valve.
Analysis of Extending Speed Control :
During the extension stroke, if the flow control valve is fully open, all the flow from the
pump goes to the cylinder to produce maximum cylinder speed. As the flow control valve is
partially closed its pressure drop increases. This causes an increase in pressure p1. Continued
closing of the flow control valve ultimately results in pressure p1 reaching and exceeding the
cracking pressure of the pressure relief valve (PRV). The result is a slower cylinder speed
since part of the pump flow goes back to the oil tank through the PRV setting and the amount
of pump flow that is not desired by the cylinder flows through the PRV. An analysis to
determine the extending speed is given as follows:
The flow rate to the cylinder equals pump flow rate minus the flow rate through the PRV.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 16 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

Qcyl = Qpump – QPRV

The flow rate through the flow control valve (FCV) is governed by
QFCV = CV √ (∆P / Sg) = CV √ [(p1 – p2 ) / Sg]
Where ∆ P = pressure drop across FCV
CV = capacity coefficient of FCV
Sg = specific gravity of oil
Pressure p1 = pPRV = Relief valve pressure setting
Also, pressure p3 = 0 (ignoring small frictional pressure drop in drain line from rod end of
cylinder to oil tank).
Pressure p2 can be obtained by summing forces on the hydraulic cylinder.
p2Apiston = Fload or p2 = Fload /Apiston ---(a)
Finally the extending speed of the cylinder is found.
Vcyl = Qcyl / Apiston = QFCV /Apiston ------ (b)

using Eqs. (a) and (b) yields the final result.

Cv PPRV − Fload / A piston

Vcyl = ------ ( 1)
A piston Sg
As can be seen by Eq. 1, by varying the setting of the flow control system, and thus the
value of CV, the desired extending speed of the cylinder can be achieved.
2. Meter – out Circuit : In this type of speed control, the flow control valve is placed
between the actuator and the tank . Thereby, it controls the amount of fluid going out of the
actuator. Fig 5.17 shows a meter-out circuit.

F LOAD
C

FCV CV

1 0 2

Department of Mechanical Engineering 17 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

F
R
T
Fig 5.17. Meter – out Circuit.

C = Double acting cylinder; P = Pump ; T = Tank; F = Filter

R = Relief Valve; CV = Check Valve ; FCV = Flow control Valve
D =3-position, 4 way, Tandem center, Manually operated and
Spring Centered DCV

Meter-in systems are used primarily when the external load opposes the
direction of motion of the hydraulic cylinder. An example of the opposite situation is the case
of a weight pulling downward on the piston rod of a vertical cylinder. In this case the weight
would suddenly drop by pulling the piston rod down if a meter-in system is used even if the
flow control valve is completely closed. Thus, the meter-out system is generally preferred
over the meter-in type. One drawback of a meter-out system is the possibility of excessive
pressure buildup in the rod end of the cylinder while it is extending. This is due to the
magnitude of back pressure that the flow control valve can create depending on its nearness
to being fully closed as well as the size of the external load and the piston-to-rod area ratio of
the cylinder. In addition an excessive pressure buildup in the rod end of the cylinder results in
a large pressure drop across the flow control valve. This produce the undesirable effect of a
high heat generation rate with a resulting increase in oil temperature.

3. Bleed – off Circuit : In this type of speed control, the flow control valve is placed
between the pressure line and return line. Thereby, it controls the fluid by bleeding off the
excess not needed by the working cylinder. Fig 5.18 shows the bleed-off circuit.
F LOAD
C

FCV

1 0 2

Department of Mechanical Engineering 18 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

F R
T T

Fig 5.18. Bleed – 0ff Circuit.

C = Double acting cylinder; P = Pump ; T = Tank; F = Filter

R = Relief Valve; FCV = Flow control Valve
D =3-position, 4 way ,Tandem center, Manually operated , Spring Centered DCV
This type of flow control is much more efficient than the inlet restricting type for
meter-in, because the bypass feature allows fluid to be exhausted to the tank at just slightly
higher pressure than that necessary to do the work. With the meter-in type, pump delivery not
used would discharge over the main relief valve at maximum pressure.

Problem 1: An actuator forward speed is controlled by a meter-in circuit. The pressure setting
of relief valve is 50 bar and the pump discharge = 30 litres /min. The cylinder has to carry a
load of 3600 N during the forward motion. The area of piston is 15 cm2 and rod area = 8cm2.
The flow control valve is set to allow only 10 litres/ min. Calculate the power input to motor,
forward speed and return speed and efficiency of the circuit.

Solution:
p2 = Fload / AP = 3600 / 0.0015
= 2400000N/m2 = 24 bar.
∆P = 50-24 = 26 bar
• Power input to the motor = p1*QP / ηm
=50 *105*0.0005/0.85
=2941watts= 2.94 kW Ans
• Forward speed, vF = QFCV / AP
=0.00016 / 0.0015
= 0.16 m/s Ans

• Return speed , vr = QP / (AP- Ar)

= 0.0005 / ( 0.0015 -0 .0008)
= 0.71m/s Ans

• η = output / input = p2 QFCV / p1 QP

Department of Mechanical Engineering 19 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

5
= 24*10 *0.00016
50*105* 0.0005
= 0.1536 = 15.36% Ans

5.14 Speed control of Hydraulic Motor: Figure 5.19 shows a circuit where speed control
of a hydraulic motor (Bi -directional motor) is accomplished using a flow control valve to
control the fluid flow to the motor.
In the spring-centered position of the tandem four-way valve, the motor is
hydraulically locked. When the four-way valve is actuated into the 1 st position, the motor
rotates in one direction. Its speed can be varied by adjusting the setting of the throttle of the
flow control valve. In this way the speed can be infinitely varied as the excess oil goes to the
tank through the pressure relief valve. When the four-way valve is deactivated, the motor
stops suddenly and becomes locked. When the 2 nd position of the four-way valve is in
operation, the motor turns in the opposite direction. The pressure relief valve provides
overload protection if, for example, the motor experiences an excessive torque load.

1 0 2
D

F R

Fig 5.19. Speed control of Hydraulic motor using Flow control valve.
M = Bi-directional Hydraulic motor; P = Pump ; T = Tank; F = Filter
R = Relief Valve; FCV = Flow control Valve
D =3-position, 4 way, Tandem center, Manually operated and Spring Centered DCV

Department of Mechanical Engineering 20 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

The speed of hydraulic motor can be controlled either by meter-in control or meter- out
control.
Figure 5.20 shows an unidirectional hydraulic motor speed is controlled by a meter- in
circuit. Here the flow control valve is placed between the pump and motor.

FCV Q1

P M
R QL
(Q1-QL)
F

Fig 5.20. Meter- in Speed control of Hydraulic motor

M = Uni-directional Hydraulic Motor ; P = Pump ; T = Tank; F = Filter

R = Relief Valve; FCV = Flow control Valve

Figure 5.21 shows a unidirectional hydraulic motor speed is controlled by a meter- out
circuit. Here the flow control valve is placed between the motor and tank.
Q1

P M
QL
FCV
F R
(Q1 - QL)
Fig 5.20. Meter- out Speed control of Hydraulic motor
M = Uni-directional Hydraulic Motor; P = Pump ; T = Tank; F = Filter
R = Relief Valve; FCV = Flow control Valve
We know that the volumetric efficiency of the motor is given by
ηVol = Theoretical flow rate the motor should consume
Actual flow rate consumed by motor

ηVol = QT / QA
Due to leakage, a hydraulic motor consumes more flow rate than it should theoretically
consume. The theoretical flow rate is the flow rate a hydraulic motor would consume if there

Department of Mechanical Engineering 21 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

were no leakage. If Q1 (=QA) is the flow of fluid to the motor, and QL the leakage, Then QT is
equal to Q1 – QL

Then ηVol = (Q1 – QL ) / Q1

In meter- in control Q1 is maintained constant despite varying load, QL varies with load,
therefore volumetric efficiency varies with load. Hence meter-in system will not give precise
control of speed. Whereas in meter – out control Q1 varies with load hence precise control of
speed regardless of flow.

5.15 Hydrostatic Transmission ( HST ): These are special cases of energy transmission
system. It consists of a drive with hydraulic energy as input. Hydraulic motor convert
hydraulic energy to mechanical energy. Hydrostatic transmission is a whole unit in which
pumps and motors are designed to match ( the speed torque characteristics ) to get optimum
transmission. The HST can be open or closed circuit. (fig 5.21)
P. E
M .E PUMP MOTOR M.E

Fig 5.21 Hydrostatic transmission

Open circuit HST : Figure 5.22 shows open type circuit. They are called open circuit
drives because the pump draws its fluid from a tank. Its output is then directed to a hydraulic
motor and discharged from the motor back to the tank. In the closed circuit drive, exhaust oil
from the motor is returned directly to the pump inlet.

Variable displacement pump

M

Fig 5.22 Open circuit (open loop ) HST

Figure 5.23 shows a closed circuit that allows either direction of motor rotation. The
feed pump is provided for replenishing the fluid in the circuit. The check valves prevent the
oil flow from the main pump to the feed pump. Here two relief valve R 1 and R2 are used to
protect the main pump in both the direction of rotation.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 22 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

The motor speed is varied by changing the pump displacement. The torque capacity of
the motor can be adjusted by the pressure setting of the relief valve.
Closed circuit drives are available as completely integrated units with all the controls
and valve enclosed in a single, compact housing.

Variable displacement
Pump ( Main )

M
R1 R2

Feed Pump

Fig 5.23 Closed circuit (open loop ) HST

Performance:
1. Hydraulic power input , Phyd = p QP ( Watts )
where p = pressure setting of relief valve in N / m2
QP = pump theoretical flow rate = pump displacement (m3/ rev) * Speed (rps)
2. Q1 = Qp * ηVP where ηVP = volumetric efficiency of the pump;
Q1 = Actual flow rate to motor
3. Motor theoretical flow rate ,QM = Q1 * ηVM
where ηVM = volumetric efficiency of the motor
1. Motor capacity , CM = QM / speed of motor ( m3/ rev )

Department of Mechanical Engineering 23 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

2. Power delivered to motor, Phyd = System pressure * Q1 ( Watts )

3. Mechanical power generated, PMech = Phyd * ηV M * ηMM

where ηMM = mechanical efficiency of hydraulic motor
4. Actual Torque developed by motor, Ta = PMech / 2π N
Where N = speed of motor in rps
8. Ideal torque , Ti = CM * ∆P / 2π

9. Actual torque, Ta = Ti * ηMM

Problem 2. A Hydrostatic transmission operating at 70 bar pressure has the following

characteristic for the pump and the motor:

Pump : Capacity of pump, CP = 82 cm3/ rev ( pump displacement)

Volumetric efficiency of pump, ηVP = 82 %
Mechanical efficiency of pump, ηMP = 88 %
Speed of pump , N = 500 rev / min
Motor: Capacity of motor, CM = ?
Volumetric efficiency of motor, ηVM = 92 %
Mechanical efficiency of motor, ηMM = 90 %
Desired speed of motor , N = 400 rev / min
Actual Torque, Ta = ?

Solution :
Pump theoretical flow rate, QP = pump displacement * speed
= 82 * 10 - 06 * 500 / 60
3
= 0.00068 m / sec
Actual flow rate to the motor , Q1 = QP * ηVP
= 0.00068 * 0.82
= 0. 00056 m3 / sec
Motor theoretical flow rate, QM = Q1 * ηVM
= 0.00056 * 0.92
= 0. 000515 m3 / sec
• Motor capacity, CM = QM / speed of motor
= 0.000515 / 400/60

Department of Mechanical Engineering 24 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

= 0.0000773 m3 / sec Ans

Power delivered to motor, Phyd = system pressure * Q1
= 70 * 105 * 0.00056
=3920 Watts = 3.92 kW
Mechanical power generated, PMech = Phyd * ηV M * ηMM
= 3.92 * 0.92 * 0.90
= 3.246 kW

• Actual Torque developed by motor, Ta = PMech / 2π N

= 3.246 *1000 / (2 π* 400 )
60
= 77.49 N- m Ans
Ideal torque , Ti = CM * ∆P / 2π
= 0.0000773 * 70 *105 / 2π
= 86.1 N-m
• Actual torque, Ta = Ti * ηMM
= 86.1 * 0.90
= 77.49 N –m Ans

ACCUMULATORS AND ACCUMULATOR CIRCUITS:

A hydraulic accumulator is a device that stores the potential energy of an incompressible

fluid held under pressure by an external source against some dynamic force. The dynamic
force can come three different sources: Gravity, Mechanical Springs, and Compressed gases.
The stored potential energy in the accumulator is a quick secondary source of fluid power
capable of doing useful work as required by the system.
There are three basic types of accumulator used in hydraulic system. They are:
1. Weight – Loaded, or gravity, type
2. Spring -Loaded type
3. Gas – Loaded type
1. Weight – Loaded Accumulator: This type consists of a vertical, heavy- wall steel
cylinder, which incorporates a piston with packing to pressure leakage (Fig 5.24). A dead
weight is attached to the top of the piston. The force of gravity of the dead weight provides
the potential energy in the accumulator. This type of accumulator creates a constant fluid
pressure throughout the full volume output of the unit regardless of the rate and quantity of
output. The main disadvantage of this type of accumulator is extremely large size and heavy
weight which makes it unsuitable for mobile equipment.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 25 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

Dead weight

Container
Piston

Packing
Pressurized Fluid Fluid Port

Fig 5.24 Weight – Loaded accumulator

2. Spring – Loaded Accumulator: A spring loaded accumulator is similar to the weight –
loaded type except that the piston is preloaded with a spring as shown in fig 5.25. The spring
is the source of energy that acts against the piston, forcing the fluid into the hydraulic system.
The pressure generated by this type of accumulator depends on the size and pre-loading of
the spring. In addition, the pressure exerted on the fluid is not a constant. The spring- loaded
accumulator typically delivers a relatively small volume of oil at low pressures. Thus, they
tend to be heavy and large for high- pressure, large –volume systems. This type of
accumulator should not be used for applications requiring high cycle rates because the spring
will fatigue and lose its elasticity. The result is an inoperative accumulator.

Container Spring

Pressurized Fluid
Fluid flow

Department of Mechanical Engineering 26 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

Fig 5.25 Spring - Type Accumulator

4. Gas Loaded Accumulator : Two main categories:

Gas Valve

Gas
Container

Pressurized Fluid
Fluid flow port

Fig 5.26 Non Separator - Type Gas Accumulator

a. Non separator- Type Accumulator: The non separator type of accumulator (fig
5.26) consists of a fully enclosed shell containing an oil port on the bottom and a
gas charging valve on the top. The gas is confined in the top and the oil at the
bottom of the shell. There is no physical separator between the gas and oil and thus
the gas pushes directly on oil. The main advantage of this type is its ability to
handle large volume of oil. The main disadvantage is absorption of gas in the oil
due to the lack of a separator. Absorption of gas in the oil also makes the oil
compressible, resulting in spongy operation of the hydraulic actuators. This type
must be installed vertically to keep the gas confined at the top of the shell.

b. Separator – Type Accumulator : The commonly accepted design of gas loaded

accumulators is the separator type. In this type there is a physical barrier between
the gas and the oil. The three major type of separator accumulator are
i) Piston type: The piston type of accumulator consists of a cylinder containing a
freely floating piston with proper seals. The piston serves as a barrier between
the gas and oil.(fig5.27). The main disadvantage of the piston types of accumulator
is that they are expensive to manufacture and have practical size limitation. The
principal advantage of the piston accumulator is its ability to handle very high or
low temperature system fluids through the utilization to compatible O- ring seals.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 27 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

Gas Valve

Gas
Container

Piston

Pressurized Fluid
Fluid flow port

Fig 5.27 Separator - Type Piston Accumulator

ii) Diaphragm Accumulator: The diaphragm type accumulator consists of a

diaphragm, secured in the shell, which serves as an elastic barrier between the oil and
gas (fig5.28). A shutoff button, which is secured at the base of the diaphragm, covers
the inlet of the line connection when the diaphragm is fully stretched. The primary
advantage of this type of accumulator is its small weight- to – volume ratio, which
makes it suitable almost exclusively for mobile applications. The restriction is on the
deflection of the diaphragm

Gas Valve

Gas
Diaphragm

Pressurized Fluid

Fluid Valve
Fig 5.28 Diaphragm Accumulator

Department of Mechanical Engineering 28 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

iii) Bladder type Accumulator: A bladder type- accumulator contains an elastic

barrier (bladder) between the oil and gas (fig5.29). The bladder is fitted in the
accumulator by means of a vulcanized gas- valve element and can be installed or
removed through the shell opening at the poppet valve. The poppet valve closes the
inlet when the accumulator bladder is fully expanded. This prevents the bladder from
being pressed into the opening. The greatest advantage of this type of accumulator is
the positive sealing between the gas and oil chambers. Most widely used type of
accumulator.

Gas Valve

Gas Bladder

Pressurized Fluid

Fluid Valve

Fig 5.29 Bladder type Accumulator

Accumulator Circuits :
1. Accumulator as a auxiliary power source :

Department of Mechanical Engineering 29 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

1
A 2 D

CV

P
R
F
T
Fig 5.30. Accumulator as an auxiliary power source.
C = Double acting cylinder
A = Accumulator
P = Pump; T = Tank ; F = Filter
R = Relief Valve , CV = Check Valve
D =2-position, 4 way , Manually operated DCV

One of the most common applications of accumulator is as an auxiliary power source.

The purpose of the accumulator in this application is to store oil delivered by the pump
during a portion of the work cycle. The accumulator then releases this stored oil on demand
to complete the cycle, thereby serving as a secondary power source to assist the pump. In
such a system where intermittent operations are performed, the use of an accumulator results
in being able to use a smaller size pump.
Figure 5.30 shows such an application in which a four way valve is used in
conjunction with an accumulator. When the four way valve is manually actuated, oil flows
from the accumulator to the blank end of the cylinder. This extends the piston until it reaches
the end of its stroke. While the desired operation is occurring (the cylinder is fully extended
position), the accumulator is being charged by the pump. The four way is then deactivated for
the retraction of the cylinder. Oil from both the pump and accumulator is used to retract the
cylinder rapidly. The check valve prevents the back flow of oil from the accumulator when
the pump is not working. The control signal for the relief valve is obtained after the check
valve, to control the combined pressure of pump and the accumulator.
2. Accumulator as an emergency power source:

C
A

Department of Mechanical Engineering 30 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

1
0
A

P
R
F
T
Fig 5.31. Accumulator as an Emergency power source.
C = Double acting cylinder
A = Accumulator
P = Pump; T = Tank ; F = Filter
R = Relief Valve , CV = Check Valve
D =2-position, 4 way , Manually operated DCV

In some hydraulic system, safety dictates that a cylinder be retracted even though the
normal supply of oil pressure is lost due to a pump or electrical power failure. Such an
application requires the use of an accumulator as an emergency power source.
Figure 5.31 shows such a application in which a solenoid actuated three way
valve is used in conjunction with an accumulator. When the three way valve is energized, oil
flows to the blank end of the cylinder and also through the check valve into the accumulator
and rod end of the cylinder. The accumulator charges as the cylinder extends. If the pump
fails due to an electrical failure, the solenoid will de-energize, shifting the valve to the spring
-offset position. Then the oil stored under pressure is forced from the accumulator to the rod
end of the cylinder. This retracts the cylinder to the starting position. In normal working,
when the solenoid is de-energized, the valve shifts to the spring offset position. In this
position the accumulator will retract the cylinder.
3. Accumulator as a hydraulic shock absorber :

A1 A2

Department of Mechanical Engineering 31 DBIT, Bangalore

Hydraulics and Pneumatics Hareesha N G

1
2

P
R
F
T
Fig 5.32. Accumulator as an Shock Absorber
C = Double acting cylinder
A1, A2 = Accumulators
P = Pump; T = Tank ; F = Filter
R = Relief Valve ,
D = 2/4 Solenoid actuated, spring return DCV
One of the most important industrial applications of accumulator is the elimination or
reduction of high pressure pulsation or hydraulic shock. Hydraulic shock is caused by the
sudden stoppage, sudden impact load, or reversal with heavy loads. Hydraulic shock load
may be reduced considerably if the deceleration time of the flowing fluid mass can be
reduced. The accumulator (Fig 5.32) should be installed as close to the shock source as
possible. Here 2 accumulators are installed near the entry to the cylinder. The oil from the
pump flow to the accumulator first and when accumulator is filled, the oil moves to the
cylinder and piston starts moving.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 32 DBIT, Bangalore