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Video game development

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Game development" redirects here. Not to be confused with Board game development.

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Video game development (sometimes shortened to gamedev) is the process of creating
a video game. It is a multidisciplinary practice, involving programming, design,
art, audio, user interface, and writing. Each of those may be made up of more
specialized skills; art includes 3D modeling of objects, character modeling,
animation, visual effects, and so on. Development is supported by project
management, production, and quality assurance. Teams can be many hundreds of
people, a small group, or even a single person.

Development of commercial video games is normally funded by a publisher and can

take two to five years to reach completion. Game creation by small, self-funded
teams is called independent development. The technology in a game may be written
from scratch or use proprietary software specific to one company. As development
has become more complex, it has become common for companies and independent
developers alike to use off-the-shelf "engines" such as Unity or Unreal Engine.[1]

Commercial game development began in the 1970s with the advent of arcade video
games, first-generation video game consoles like the Atari 2600, and home computers
like the Apple II. Into the 1980s, a lone programmer could develop a full and
complete game such as Pitfall!. By the second and third generation of video game
consoles in the late 1980s, the growing popularity of 3D graphics on personal
computers, and higher expectations for visuals and quality, it became difficult for
a single person to produce a mainstream video game. The average cost of producing a
high-end (often called AAA) game slowly rose from US$1–4 million in 2000, to over
$200 million and up by 2023. At the same time, independent game development has
flourished. The best-selling video game of all time, Minecraft, was initially
written by one person, then supported by a small team, before the company was
acquired by Microsoft and greatly expanded.

Mainstream commercial video games are generally developed in phases. A concept is

developed which then moves to pre-production where prototypes are written and the
plan for the entire game is created. This is followed by full-scale development or
production, then sometimes a post-production period where the game is polished. It
has become common for many developers, especially smaller developers, to publicly
release games in an "early access" form, where iterative development takes place in
tandem with feedback from actual players.

Overview
Games are produced through the software development process. [2] Games are
developed as a creative outlet[3] and to generate profit.[4] Game making is
considered both art and science.[5][6] Development is normally funded by a
publisher.[7] Well-made games bring profit more readily.[5] However, it is
important to estimate a game's financial requirements,[8] such as development costs
of individual features.[9] Failing to provide clear implications of game's
expectations may result in exceeding allocated budget.[8] In fact, the majority of
commercial games do not produce profit.[10][11][12] Most developers cannot afford
to change their development schedule midway, and require estimating their
capabilities with available resources before production.[13]

The game industry requires innovations, as publishers cannot profit from the
constant release of repetitive sequels and imitations.[14][neutrality is disputed]
Every year new independent development companies open and some manage to develop
hit titles. Similarly, many developers close down because they cannot find a
publishing contract or their production is not profitable.[15] It is difficult to
start a new company due to the high initial investment required.[16] Nevertheless,
the growth of the casual and mobile game market has allowed developers with smaller
teams to enter the market. Once the companies become financially stable, they may
expand to develop larger games.[15] Most developers start small and gradually
expand their business.[16] A developer receiving profit from a successful title may
store up capital to expand and re-factor their company, as well as tolerate more
failed deadlines.[17]
An average development budget for a multiplatform game is US$18-28M, with high-
profile games often exceeding $40M.[18]

In the early era of home computers and video game consoles in the early 1980s, a
single programmer could handle almost all the tasks of developing a game —
programming, graphical design, sound effects, etc.[19][20][21] It could take as
little as six weeks to develop a game.[20] However, the high user expectations and
requirements[20] of modern commercial games far exceed the capabilities of a single
developer and require the splitting of responsibilities.[22] A team of over a
hundred people can be employed full-time for a single project.[21]

Game development, production, or design is a process that starts from an idea or

concept.[23][24][25][26] Often the idea is based on a modification of an existing
game concept.[23][27] The game idea may fall within one or several genres.[28]
Designers often experiment with different combinations of genres.[28][29] A game
designer generally writes an initial game proposal document, that describes the
basic concept, gameplay, feature list, setting and story, target audience,
requirements and schedule, and finally staff and budget estimates.[30] Different
companies have different formal procedures and philosophies regarding game design
and development.[31][31][32] There is no standardized development method; however
commonalities exist.[32][33]

A game developer may range from a single individual to a large multinational

company. There are both independent and publisher-owned studios.[34] Independent
developers rely on financial support from a game publisher.[35] They usually have
to develop a game from concept to prototype without external funding. The formal
game proposal is then submitted to publishers, who may finance the game development
from several months to years. The publisher would retain exclusive rights to
distribute and market the game and would often own the intellectual property rights
for the game franchise.[34] The publisher may also own the development studio,[34]
[36] or it may have internal development studio(s). Generally the publisher is the
one who owns the game's intellectual property rights.[11]

All but the smallest developer companies work on several titles at once. This is
necessary because of the time taken between shipping a game and receiving royalty
payments, which may be between 6 and 18 months. Small companies may structure
contracts, ask for advances on royalties, use shareware distribution, employ part-
time workers and use other methods to meet payroll demands.[37]

Console manufacturers, such as Microsoft, Nintendo, or Sony, have a standard set of

technical requirements that a game must conform to in order to be approved.
Additionally, the game concept must be approved by the manufacturer, who may refuse
to approve certain titles.[38]

Most modern PC or console games take from three to five years to complete[citation
needed], where as a mobile game can be developed in a few months.[39] The length of
development is influenced by a number of factors, such as genre, scale, development
platform and number of assets.[citation needed]

Some games can take much longer than the average time frame to complete. An
infamous example is 3D Realms' Duke Nukem Forever, announced to be in production in
April 1997 and released fourteen years later in June 2011.[40] Planning for Maxis'
game Spore began in late 1999; the game was released nine years later in September
2008.[citation needed] The game Prey was briefly profiled in a 1997 issue of PC
Gamer, but was not released until 2006, and only then in highly altered form.
Finally, Team Fortress 2 was in development from 1998 until its 2007 release, and
emerged from a convoluted development process involving "probably three or four
different games", according to Gabe Newell.[41]
The game revenue from retail is divided among the parties along the distribution
chain, such as — developer, publisher, retail, manufacturer and console royalty.
Many developers fail to profit from this and go bankrupt.[37] Many seek alternative
economic models through Internet marketing and distribution channels to improve
returns,[42] as through a mobile distribution channel the share of a developer can
be up to 70% of the total revenue[39] and through an online distribution channel
owned by the developer almost 100%.[citation needed]

History
The history of game making begins with the development of the first video games,
although which video game is the first depends on the definition of video game. The
first games created had little entertainment value, and their development focus was
separate from user experience—in fact, these games required mainframe computers to
play them.[43] OXO, written by Alexander S. Douglas in 1952, was the first computer
game to use a digital display.[22] In 1958, a game called Tennis for Two, which
displayed its output on an oscilloscope, was made by Willy Higinbotham, a physicist
working at the Brookhaven National Laboratory.[44][45] In 1961, a mainframe
computer game called Spacewar! was developed by a group of Massachusetts Institute
of Technology students led by Steve Russell.[44]

True commercial design and development of games began in the 1970s, when arcade
video games and first-generation consoles were marketed. In 1971, Computer Space
was the first commercially sold, coin-operated video game. It used a black-and-
white television for its display, and the computer system was made of 74 series TTL
chips.[46] In 1972, the first home console system was released called Magnavox
Odyssey, developed by Ralph H. Baer.[47] That same year, Atari released Pong, an
arcade game that increased video game popularity.[48] The commercial success of
Pong led other companies to develop Pong clones, spawning the video game industry.
[49]

Programmers worked within the big companies to produce games for these devices. The
industry did not see huge innovation in game design and a large number of consoles
had very similar games.[50] Many of these early games were often Pong clones.[51]
Some games were different, however, such as Gun Fight, which was significant for
several reasons:[52] an early 1975 on-foot, multi-directional shooter,[53] which
depicted game characters,[54] game violence, and human-to-human combat.[55]
Tomohiro Nishikado's original version was based on discrete logic,[56] which Dave
Nutting adapted using the Intel 8080, making it the first video game to use a
microprocessor.[57] Console manufacturers soon started to produce consoles that
were able to play independently developed games,[58] and ran on microprocessors,
marking the beginning of second-generation consoles, beginning with the release of
the Fairchild Channel F in 1976.[citation needed]

The flood of Pong clones led to the video game crash of 1977, which eventually came
to an end with the mainstream success of Taito's 1978 arcade shooter game Space
Invaders,[51] marking the beginning of the golden age of arcade video games and
inspiring dozens of manufacturers to enter the market.[51][59] Its creator
Nishikado not only designed and programmed the game, but also did the artwork,
engineered the arcade hardware, and put together a microcomputer from scratch.[60]
It was soon ported to the Atari 2600, becoming the first "killer app" and
quadrupling the console's sales.[61] At the same time, home computers appeared on
the market, allowing individual programmers and hobbyists to develop games. This
allowed hardware manufacturer and software manufacturers to act separately. A very
large number of games could be produced by an individual, as games were easy to
make because graphical and memory limitation did not allow for much content. Larger
companies developed, who focused selected teams to work on a title.[62] The
developers of many early home video games, such as Zork, Baseball, Air Warrior, and
Adventure, later transitioned their work as products of the early video game
industry.[citation needed]
The industry expanded significantly at the time, with the arcade video game sector
alone (representing the largest share of the gaming industry) generating higher
revenues than both pop music and Hollywood films combined.[63] The home video game
industry, however, suffered major losses following the video game crash of 1983.
[64] In 1984 Jon Freeman warned in Computer Gaming World:

Q: Are computer games the way to fame and fortune?

A: No. Not unless your idea of fame is having your name recognized by one or two
astute individuals at Origins ... I've been making a living (after a fashion)
designing games for most of the last six years. I wouldn't recommend it for someone
with a weak heart or a large appetite, though.[65]

Chris Crawford and Don Daglow in 1987 similarly advised prospective designers to
write games as a hobby first, and to not quit their existing jobs early.[66][67]
The home video game industry was revitalized soon after by the widespread success
of the Nintendo Entertainment System.[68]

Compute!'s Gazette in 1986 stated that although individuals developed most early
video games, "It's impossible for one person to have the multiple talents necessary
to create a good game".[69] By 1987 a video game required 12 months to develop and
another six to plan marketing. Projects remained usually solo efforts, with single
developers delivering finished games to their publishers.[67] With the ever-
increasing processing and graphical capabilities of arcade, console, and computer
products, along with an increase in user expectations, game design moved beyond the
scope of a single developer to produce a marketable game.[70] The Gazette stated,
"The process of writing a game involves coming up with an original, entertaining
concept, having the skill to bring it to fruition through good, efficient
programming, and also being a fairly respectable artist".[69] This sparked the
beginning of team-based development.[citation needed] In broad terms, during the
1980s, pre-production involved sketches and test routines of the only developer. In
the 1990s, pre-production consisted mostly of game art previews. In the early
2000s, pre-production usually produced a playable demo.[71]

In 2000 a 12 to 36 month development project was funded by a publisher for US$1M–

3M.[72] Additionally, $250k–1.5M were spent on marketing and sales development.[73]
In 2001, over 3000 games were released for PC; and from about 100 games turning
profit only about 50 made significant profit.[72] In the early 2000s it became
increasingly common to use middleware game engines, such as Quake engine or Unreal
Engine.[74]

In the early 2000s, also mobile games started to gain popularity. However, mobile
games distributed by mobile operators remained a marginal form of gaming until the
Apple App Store was launched in 2008.[39]

In 2005, a mainstream console video game cost from US$3M to $6M to develop. Some
games cost as much as $20M to develop.[75] In 2006 the profit from a console game
sold at retail was divided among parties of distribution chain as follows:
developer (13%), publisher (32%), retail (32%), manufacturer (5%), console royalty
(18%).[37] In 2008 a developer would retain around 17% of retail price and around
85% if sold online.[11]

Since the third generation of consoles, the home video game industry has constantly
increased and expanded. The industry revenue has increased at least five-fold since
the 1990s. In 2007, the software portion of video game revenue was $9.5 billion,
exceeding that of the movie industry.[76]
The Apple App Store, introduced in 2008, was the first mobile application store
operated directly by the mobile-platform holder. It significantly changed the
consumer behaviour more favourable for downloading mobile content and quickly
broadened the markets of mobile games.[39]

In 2009 games' market annual value was estimated between $7–30 billion, depending
on which sales figures are included. This is on par with films' box office market.
[77] A publisher would typically fund an independent developer for $500k–$5M for a
development of a title.[34] In 2012, the total value had already reached $66.3
billion and by then the video game markets were no longer dominated by console
games. According to Newzoo, the share of MMO's was 19.8%, PC/MAC's 9.8%, tablets'
3.2%, smartphones 10.6%, handhelds' 9.8%, consoles' only 36.7% and online casual
games 10.2%. The fastest growing market segments being mobile games with an average
annual rate of 19% for smartphones and 48% for tablets.[78]

In the past several years, many developers opened and many closed down. Each year a
number of developers are acquired by larger companies or merge with existing
companies. For example, in 2007 Blizzard Entertainment's parent company, Vivendi
Games merged with Activision. In 2008 Electronic Arts nearly acquired Take-Two
Interactive. In 2009 Midway Games was acquired by Time-Warner and Eidos Interactive
merged with Square Enix.[79]

Roles
Producer
Main article: Video game producer
Development is overseen by internal and external producers.[80][81] The producer
working for the developer is known as the internal producer and manages the
development team, schedules, reports progress, hires and assigns staff, and so on.
[81][82] The producer working for the publisher is known as the external producer
and oversees developer progress and budget.[83] Producer's responsibilities include
PR, contract negotiation, liaising between the staff and stakeholders, schedule and
budget maintenance, quality assurance, beta test management, and localization.[81]
[84] This role may also be referred to as project manager, project lead, or
director.[81][84]

Publisher
Main article: Video game publisher

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A video game publisher is a company that publishes video games that they have
either developed internally or have had developed by an external video game
developer. As with book publishers or publishers of DVD movies, video game
publishers are responsible for their product's manufacturing and marketing,
including market research and all aspects of advertising.

They usually finance the development, sometimes by paying a video game developer
(the publisher calls this external development) and sometimes by paying an internal
staff of developers called a studio. Consequently, they also typically own the IP
of the game.[39] Large video game publishers also distribute the games they
publish, while some smaller publishers instead hire distribution companies (or
larger video game publishers) to distribute the games they publish.

Other functions usually performed by the publisher include deciding on and paying
for any license that the game may utilize; paying for localization; layout,
printing, and possibly the writing of the user manual; and the creation of graphic
design elements such as the box design.

Large publishers may also attempt to boost efficiency across all internal and
external development teams by providing services such as sound design and code
packages for commonly needed functionality.[85]

Because the publisher usually finances development, it usually tries to manage

development risk with a staff of producers or project managers to monitor the
progress of the developer, critique ongoing development, and assist as necessary.
Most video games created by an external video game developer are paid for with
periodic advances on royalties. These advances are paid when the developer reaches
certain stages of development, called milestones.

Independent video game developers create games without a publisher and may choose
to digitally distribute their games.[citation needed]

Development team
Developers can range in size from small groups making casual games to housing
hundreds of employees and producing several large titles. [16] Companies divide
their subtasks of game's development. Individual job titles may vary; however,
roles are the same within the industry.[31] The development team consists of
several members.[22] Some members of the team may handle more than one role;
similarly more than one task may be handled by the same member.[31] Team size can
vary from 3 to 100 or more members, depending on the game's scope. The most
represented are artists, followed by programmers, then designers, and finally,
audio specialists, with one to three producers in management.[86] Many teams also
include a dedicated writer with expertise in video game writing.[citation needed]
These positions are employed full-time. Other positions, such as testers, may be
employed only part-time.[86] Use of contractors for art, programming, and writing
is standard within the industry.[citation needed] Salaries for these positions vary
depending on both the experience and the location of the employee.[87]

A development team includes these roles or disciplines:[31]

Designer
Further information: Video game design
A game designer is a person who designs gameplay, conceiving and designing the
rules and structure of a game.[88][89][90] Development teams usually have a lead
designer who coordinates the work of other designers. They are the main visionary
of the game.[91] One of the roles of a designer is being a writer, often employed
part-time to conceive game's narrative, dialogue, commentary, cutscene narrative,
journals, video game packaging content, hint system, etc.[92][93][94] In larger
projects, there are often separate designers for various parts of the game, such
as, game mechanics, user interface, characters, dialogue, graphics, etc.[citation
needed]

Artist
Further information: Game art design
A game artist is a visual artist who creates video game art.[95][96] The art
production is usually overseen by an art director or art lead, making sure their
vision is followed. The art director manages the art team, scheduling and
coordinating within the development team.[95]

The artist's job may be 2D oriented or 3D oriented. 2D artists may produce concept
art,[97][98] sprites,[99] textures,[100][101] environmental backdrops or terrain
images,[97][101] and user interface.[99] 3D artists may produce models or meshes,
[102][103] animation,[102] 3D environment,[104] and cinematics.[104] Artists
sometimes occupy both roles.[citation needed]
Programmer
Main article: Game programmer
A game programmer is a software engineer who primarily develops video games or
related software (such as game development tools). The game's codebase development
is handled by programmers.[105][106] There are usually one to several lead
programmers,[107] who implement the game's starting codebase and overview future
development and programmer allocation on individual modules. An entry-level
programmer can make, on average, around $70,000 annually and an experienced
programmer can make, on average, around $125,000 annually.[87]

Individual programming disciplines roles include:[105]

Physics – the programming of the game engine, including simulating physics,

collision, object movement, etc.;
AI – producing computer agents using game AI techniques, such as scripting,
planning, rule-based decisions, etc.
Graphics – the managing of graphical content utilization and memory considerations;
the production of graphics engine, integration of models, textures to work along
the physics engine.
Sound – integration of music, speech, effect sounds into the proper locations and
times.
Gameplay – implementation of various games rules and features (sometimes called a
generalist);
Scripting – development and maintenance of high-level command system for various
in-game tasks, such as AI, level editor triggers, etc.
UI – production of user interface elements, like option menus, HUDs, help and
feedback systems, etc.
Input processing – processing and compatibility correlation of various input
devices, such as keyboard, mouse, gamepad, etc.
Network communications – the managing of data inputs and outputs for local and
internet gameplay.
Game tools – the production of tools to accompany the development of the game,
especially for designers and scripters.
Level designer
Further information: Level design
A level designer is a person who creates levels, challenges or missions for video
games using a specific set of programs.[108][109] These programs may be commonly
available commercial 3D or 2D design programs, or specially designed and tailored
level editors made for a specific game.

Level designers work with both incomplete and complete versions of the game. Game
programmers usually produce level editors and design tools for the designers to
use. This eliminates the need for designers to access or modify game code.[110]
Level editors may involve custom high-level scripting languages for interactive
environments or AIs. As opposed to the level editing tools sometimes available to
the community, level designers often work with placeholders and prototypes aiming
for consistency and clear layout before required artwork is completed.

Sound engineer
Further information: Video game music
Sound engineers are technical professionals responsible for sound effects and sound
positioning. They are sometimes involved in creating haptic feedback, as was the
case with the Returnal game sound team at PlayStation Studios Creative Arts' in
London.[111] They sometimes oversee voice acting and other sound asset creation.
[112][113] Composers who create a game's musical score also comprise a game's sound
team, though often this work is outsourced.

Tester
Further information: Game testing
The quality assurance is carried out by game testers. A game tester analyzes video
games to document software defects as part of a quality control. Testing is a
highly technical field requiring computing expertise, and analytic competence.[101]
[114]

The testers ensure that the game falls within the proposed design: it both works
and is entertaining.[115] This involves testing of all features, compatibility,
localization, etc. Although, necessary throughout the whole development process,
testing is expensive and is often actively utilized only towards the completion of
the project.

Development process
Game development is a software development process, as a video game is software
with art, audio, and gameplay. Formal software development methods are often
overlooked.[2] Games with poor development methodology are likely to run over
budget and time estimates, as well as contain a large number of bugs. Planning is
important for individual[10] and group projects alike.[72]

Overall game development is not suited for typical software life cycle methods,
such as the waterfall model.[116]

One method employed for game development is agile development.[117] It is based on

iterative prototyping, a subset of software prototyping.[118] Agile development
depends on feedback and refinement of game's iterations with gradually increasing
feature set.[119] This method is effective because most projects do not start with
a clear requirement outline.[117] A popular method of agile software development is
Scrum.[120]

Another successful method is Personal Software Process (PSP) requiring additional

training for staff to increase awareness of project's planning.[121] This method is
more expensive and requires commitment of team members. PSP can be extended to Team
Software Process, where the whole team is self-directing.[122]

Game development usually involves an overlap of these methods.[116] For example,

asset creation may be done via waterfall model, because requirements and
specification are clear, [123] but gameplay design might be done using iterative
prototyping.[123]

Development of a commercial game usually includes the following stages:[124][125]

Pre-production
Pre-production[126] or design phase[71] is a planning phase of the project focused
on idea and concept development and production of initial design documents.[125]
[127][128][129] The goal of concept development is to produce clear and easy to
understand documentation,[125][130] which describes all the tasks, schedules and
estimates for the development team.[131] The suite of documents produced in this
phase is called production plan.[132] This phase is usually not funded by a
publisher,[125] however good publishers may require developers to produce plans
during pre-production.[131]

The concept documentation can be separated into three stages or documents—high

concept, pitch and concept;[124][133] however, there is no industry standard naming
convention, for example, both Bethke (2003) and Bates (2004) refer to pitch
document as "game proposal",[126][131] yet Moore, Novak (2010) refers to concept
document as "game proposal".[124]

The late stage of pre-production may also be referred to as proof of concept,[126]

or technical review[124] when more detailed game documents are produced.
Publishers have started to expect broader game proposals even featuring playable
prototypes.[134]

High concept
High concept is a brief description of a game.[124][126] The high concept is the
one-or two-sentence response to the question, "What is your game about?".

Pitch
A pitch,[124][126] concept document,[124] proposal document,[131] or game
proposal[126] is a short summary document intended to present the game's selling
points and detail why the game would be profitable to develop.[124][126]

Verbal pitches may be made to management within the developer company, and then
presented to publishers.[135] A written document may need to be shown to publishers
before funding is approved.[131] A game proposal may undergo one to several green-
light meetings with publisher executives who determine if the game is to be
developed.[136] The presentation of the project is often given by the game
designers.[137] Demos may be created for the pitch; however may be unnecessary for
established developers with good track records.[137]

If the developer acts as its own publisher, or both companies are subsidiaries of a
single company, then only the upper management needs to give approval.[137]

Concept
Concept document,[126] game proposal,[124] or game plan[138] is a more detailed
document than the pitch document.[124][126][130] This includes all the information
produced about the game.[138] This includes the high concept, game's genre,
gameplay description, features, setting, story, target audience, hardware
platforms, estimated schedule, marketing analysis, team requirements, and risk
analysis.[139]

Before an approved design is completed, a skeleton crew of programmers and artists

usually begins work.[137] Programmers may develop quick-and-dirty prototypes
showcasing one or more features that stakeholders would like to see incorporated in
the final product.[137] Artists may develop concept art and asset sketches as a
springboard for developing real game assets.[137] Producers may work part-time on
the game at this point, scaling up for full-time commitment as development
progresses.[137] Game producers work during pre-production is related to planning
the schedule, budget and estimating tasks with the team.[137] The producer aims to
create a solid production plan so that no delays are experienced at the start of
the production.[137]

Game design document

Main article: Game design document
Before a full-scale production can begin, the development team produces the first
version of a game design document incorporating all or most of the material from
the initial pitch.[140][141] The design document describes the game's concept and
major gameplay elements in detail. It may also include preliminary sketches of
various aspects of the game. The design document is sometimes accompanied by
functional prototypes of some sections of the game.[citation needed] The design
document remains a living document throughout the development—often changed weekly
or even daily.[142]

Compiling a list of game's needs is called "requirement capture".[10]

Prototype

Placeholder graphics are characteristic of early game prototypes.

Writing prototypes of gameplay ideas and features is an important activity that
allows programmers and game designers to experiment with different algorithms and
usability scenarios for a game. A great deal of prototyping may take place during
pre-production before the design document is complete and may, in fact, help
determine what features the design specifies. Prototyping at this stage is often
done manually, (paper prototyping), not digitally,[citation needed] as this is
often easier and faster to test and make changes before wasting time and resources
into what could be a canceled idea or project. Prototyping may also take place
during active development to test new ideas as the game emerges.

Prototypes are often meant only to act as a proof of concept or to test ideas, by
adding, modifying or removing some of the features.[143] Most algorithms and
features debuted in a prototype may be ported to the game once they have been
completed.

Often prototypes need to be developed quickly with very little time for up-front
design (around 15 to 20 minutes of testing).[citation needed] Therefore, usually
very prolific programmers are called upon to quickly code these testbed tools. RAD
tools may be used to aid in the quick development of these programs. In case the
prototype is in a physical form, programmers and designers alike will make the game
with paper, dice, and other easy to access tools in order to make the prototype
faster.

A successful development model is iterative prototyping, where design is refined

based on current progress. There are various technology available for video game
development[144]

Production
Production is the main stage of development, when assets and source code for the
game are produced.[145]

Mainstream production is usually defined as the period of time when the project is
fully staffed.[citation needed] Programmers write new source code, artists develop
game assets, such as, sprites or 3D models. Sound engineers develop sound effects
and composers develop music for the game. Level designers create levels, and
writers write dialogue for cutscenes and NPCs.[original research?] Game designers
continue to develop the game's design throughout production.

Design
Main article: Game design
Game design is an essential and collaborative[146] process of designing the content
and rules of a game,[147] requiring artistic and technical competence as well as
writing skills.[148] Creativity and an open mind is vital for the completion of a
successful video game.

During development, the game designer implements and modifies the game design to
reflect the current vision of the game. Features and levels are often removed or
added. The art treatment may evolve and the backstory may change. A new platform
may be targeted as well as a new demographic. All these changes need to be
documented and disseminated to the rest of the team. Most changes occur as updates
to the design document.

Programming
Main article: Game programming
The programming of the game is handled by one or more game programmers. They
develop prototypes to test ideas, many of which may never make it into the final
game. The programmers incorporate new features demanded by the game design and fix
any bugs introduced during the development process. Even if an off-the-shelf game
engine is used, a great deal of programming is required to customize almost every
game.
Level creation
Main article: Level design
From a time standpoint, the game's first level takes the longest to develop. As
level designers and artists use the tools for level building, they request features
and changes to the in-house tools that allow for quicker and higher quality
development. Newly introduced features may cause old levels to become obsolete, so
the levels developed early on may be repeatedly developed and discarded. Because of
the dynamic environment of game development, the design of early levels may also
change over time. It is not uncommon to spend upwards of twelve months on one level
of a game developed over the course of three years. Later levels can be developed
much more quickly as the feature set is more complete and the game vision is
clearer and more stable.

Art production
Main article: Game art design
During development, artists make art assets according to specifications given by
the designers. Early in production, concept artists make concept art to guide the
artistic direction of the game, rough art is made for prototypes, and the designers
work with artists to design the visual style and visual language of the game. As
production goes on, more final art is made, and existing art is edited based on
player feedback.

Audio production
Further information: Video game music
Game audio may be separated into three categories—sound effects, music, and voice-
over.[149]

Sound effect production is the production of sounds by either tweaking a sample to

a desired effect or replicating it with real objects.[149] Sound effects include UI
sound design, which effectively conveys information both for visible UI elements
and as an auditory display. It provides sonic feedback for in-game interfaces, as
well as contributing to the overall game aesthetic.[150] Sound effects are
important and impact the game's delivery.[151]

Music may be synthesized or performed live.[152]

There are four main ways in which music is presented in a game.

Music may be ambient, especially for slow periods of game, where the music aims to
reinforce the aesthetic mood and game setting.[153]
Music may be triggered by in-game events. For example, in such games as Pac-Man or
Mario, player picking up power-ups triggered respective musical scores.[153]
Action music, such as chase, battle or hunting sequences is fast-paced, hard-
changing score.[154]
Menu music, similar to credits music, creates aural impact while relatively little
action is taking place.[154]
A game title with 20 hours of single-player gameplay may feature around 1 hour.
[154]

Testing
Main article: Game testing
Quality assurance of a video game product plays a significant role throughout the
development cycle of a game, though comes more significantly into play as the game
nears completion. Unlike other software products or productivity applications,
video games are fundamentally meant to entertain, and thus the testing of video
games is more focused on the end-user experience rather than the accuracy of the
software code's performance, which leads to differences in how game software is
developed.[155]
Because game development is focused on the presentation and gameplay as seen by the
player, there often is little rigor in maintaining and testing backend code in
early stages of development since such code may be readily disregarded if there are
changes found in gameplay. Some automated testing may be used to assure the core
game engine operates as expected, but most game testing comes via game tester, who
enter the testing process once a playable prototype is available. This may be one
level or subset of the game software that can be used to any reasonable extent.
[155] The use of testers may be lightweight at the early stages of development, but
the testers' role becomes more predominant as the game nears completion, becoming a
full-time role alongside development.[155] Early testing is considered a key part
of game design; the most common issue raised in several published post-mortems on
game development was the failure to start the testing process early.[155]

As code matures and the gameplay features solidify, then development typically
includes more rigorous test controls such as regression testing to make sure new
updates to the code base do not change working parts of the game. Games are complex
software systems, and changes in one code area may unexpected cause a seemingly
unrelated part of the game to fail. Testers are tasked to repeatedly play through
updated versions of games in these later stages to look for any issues or bugs not
otherwise found from automated testing. Because this can be a monotonous task of
playing the same game over and over, this process can lead to games frequently
being released with uncaught bugs or glitches.[155]

There are other factors simply inherent to video games that can make testing
difficult. This includes the use of randomized gameplay systems, which require more
testing for both game balance and bug tracking than more linearized games, the
balance of cost and time to devote to testing as part of the development budget,
and assuring that the game still remains fun and entertaining to play as changes
are made to it.[155]

Despite the dangers of overlooking regression testing, some game developers and
publishers fail to test the full feature suite of the game and ship a game with
bugs. This can result in customers dissatisfaction and failure to meet sales goals.
When this does happen, most developers and publishers quickly release patches that
fix the bugs and make the game fully playable again.[155] Certain publishing models
are designed specifically to accommodate the fact that first releases of games may
be bug-ridden but will be fixed post-release. The early access model invites
players to pay into a game before its planned release and help to provide feedback
and bug reports.[155] Mobile games and games with live services are also
anticipated to be updated on a frequent basis, offset pre-release testing with live
feedback and bug reports.[155]

Milestones

Video game development milestones follow a similar process as with other software
development.
Commercial game development projects may be required to meet milestones set by
publisher. Milestones mark major events during game development and are used to
track game's progress.[156] Such milestones may be, for example, first playable,
[157][158] alpha,[159][160] or beta[160] game versions. Project milestones depend
on the developer schedules.[156]

Milestones are usually based on multiple short descriptions for functionality;

examples may be "Player roaming around in game environment" or "Physics working,
collisions, vehicle" etc. (numerous descriptions are possible). These milestones
are usually how the developer gets paid; sometimes as "an advance against royalty".
These milestones are listed, anywhere from three to twenty depending on developer
and publisher. The milestone list is usually a collaborative agreement between the
publisher and developer. The developer usually advocates for making the milestone
descriptions as simple as possible; depending on the specific publisher - the
milestone agreements may get very detailed for a specific game. When working with a
good publisher, the "spirit of the law" is usually adhered to regarding milestone
completion... in other words if the milestone is 90% complete the milestone is
usually paid with the understanding that it will be 100% complete by the next due
milestone. It is a collaborative agreement between publisher and developer, and
usually (but not always) the developer is constrained by heavy monthly development
expenses that need to be met. Also, sometimes milestones are "swapped", the
developer or publisher may mutually agree to amend the agreement and rearrange
milestone goals depending on changing requirements and development resources
available. Milestone agreements are usually included as part of the legal
development contracts. After each "milestone" there is usually a payment
arrangement. Some very established developers may simply have a milestone agreement
based on the amount of time the game is in development (monthly / quarterly) and
not specific game functionality - this is not as common as detailed functionality
"milestone lists".

There is no industry standard for defining milestones, and such vary depending on
publisher, year, or project.[161] Some common milestones for two-year development
cycle are as follows:[156]

First playable
The first playable is the game version containing representative gameplay and
assets,[156] this is the first version with functional major gameplay elements.
[157] It is often based on the prototype created in pre-production.[158] Alpha and
first playable are sometimes used to refer to a single milestone, however large
projects require first playable before feature complete alpha.[157] First playable
occurs 12 to 18 months before code release. It is sometimes referred to as the
"Pre-Alpha" stage.[160]

Alpha
See also: Alpha release
Alpha is the stage when key gameplay functionality is implemented, and assets are
partially finished.[160] A game in alpha is feature complete, that is, game is
playable and contains all the major features.[161] These features may be further
revised based on testing and feedback.[160] Additional small, new features may be
added, similarly planned, but unimplemented features may be dropped.[161]
Programmers focus mainly on finishing the codebase, rather than implementing
additions.[159]

Code freeze
Code freeze is the stage when new code is no longer added to the game and only bugs
are being corrected. Code freeze occurs three to four months before code release.
[160]

Beta
See also: Beta release
Beta is feature and asset complete version of the game, when only bugs are being
fixed.[159][160] This version contains no bugs that prevent the game from being
shippable.[159] No changes are made to the game features, assets, or code. Beta
occurs two to three months before code release.[160]

Code release
Code release is the stage when many bugs are fixed and game is ready to be shipped
or submitted for console manufacturer review. This version is tested against QA
test plan. First code release candidate is usually ready three to four weeks before
code release.[160]
Gold master
See also: Release to manufacturing
Gold master is the final game's build that is used as a master for production of
the game.[162]

Release schedules and "crunch time"

See also: Crunch (video games)
In most AAA game development, games are announced a year or more in advance and
given a planned release date or approximate window so that they can promote and
market the game, establish orders with retailers, and entice consumers to pre-order
the game. Delaying the release of a video game can have negative financial impact
for publishers and developers, and extensive delays may lead to project
cancellation and employee layoffs.[163] To assure a game makes a set release date,
publishers and developers may require their employees to work overtime to complete
the game, which is considered common in the industry.[164] This overtime is often
referred to it as "crunch time" or "crunch mode".[165] In 2004 and afterwards, the
culture of crunch time in the industry came under scrutiny, leading to many
publishers and developers to reduce the expectation on developers for overtime work
and better schedule management, though crunch time still can occur.[166]

Post-production
After the game goes gold and ships, some developers will give team members comp
time (perhaps up to a week or two) to compensate for the overtime put in to
complete the game, though this compensation is not standard.[citation needed]

Maintenance
Once a game ships, the maintenance phase for the video game begins.[167]

Games developed for video game consoles have had almost no maintenance period in
the past. The shipped game would forever house as many bugs and features as when
released. This was common for consoles since all consoles had identical or nearly
identical hardware; making incompatibility, the cause of many bugs, a non-issue. In
this case, maintenance would only occur in the case of a port, sequel, or enhanced
remake that reuses a large portion of the engine and assets.[citation needed]

In recent times popularity of online console games has grown, and online capable
video game consoles and online services such as Xbox Live for the Xbox have
developed. Developers can maintain their software through downloadable patches.
These changes would not have been possible in the past without the widespread
availability of the Internet.[citation needed]

PC development is different. Game developers try to account for majority of

configurations and hardware. However, the number of possible configurations of
hardware and software inevitably leads to discovery of game-breaking circumstances
that the programmers and testers did not account for.[citation needed]

Programmers wait for a period to get as many bug reports as possible. Once the
developer thinks they've obtained enough feedback, the programmers start working on
a patch. The patch may take weeks or months to develop, but it is intended to fix
most accounted bugs and problems with the game that were overlooked past code
release, or in rare cases, fix unintended problems caused by previous patches.
Occasionally a patch may include extra features or content or may even alter
gameplay.[citation needed]

In the case of a massively multiplayer online game (MMOG), such as a MMORPG or

MMORTS, the shipment of the game is the starting phase of maintenance.[167] The
maintenance staff for such an online game can number in the dozens, sometimes
including members of the original programming team,[citation needed] as the game
world is continuously changed and iterated and new features are added. Some
developers implement a public test realm or player test realm (PTR) in order to
test out significant upcoming changes prior to release. These specialized servers
offer similar benefits as beta testing, where players get to preview new features
while the developer gathers data about bugs and game balance.[168][169]

Outsourcing
Several development disciplines, such as audio, dialogue, or motion capture, occur
for relatively short periods of time. Efficient employment of these roles requires
either large development house with multiple simultaneous title production or
outsourcing from third-party vendors.[170] Employing personnel for these tasks
full-time is expensive,[171] so a majority of developers outsource a portion of the
work. Outsourcing plans are conceived during the pre-production stage; where the
time and finances required for outsourced work are estimated.[172]

The music cost ranges based on length of composition, method of performance (live
or synthesized), and composer experience.[173] In 2003 a minute of high quality
synthesized music cost between US$600-1.5k.[153] A title with 20 hours of gameplay
and 60 minutes of music may have cost $50k-60k for its musical score.[154]
Voice acting is well-suited for outsourcing as it requires a set of specialized
skills. Only large publishers employ in-house voice actors.[174]
Sound effects can also be outsourced.[151]
Programming is generally outsourced less than other disciplines, such as art or
music. However, outsourcing for extra programming work or savings in salaries has
become more common in recent years.[175][176][177][178][179][180]
Ghost development
Outsourced work is sometimes anonymous, i.e. not credited on the final product.
This might go against the wishes of the developer, or it is something they
reluctantly consent to because it is the only work they can get.[181] See Video
game controversies § Lack of crediting for more information on this.

However, anonymity can also be agreed upon, or even desired by the outsourced
party. A 2015 Polygon article stated that this practice is known as ghost
development.[182] Ghost developers are hired by other developers to provide
assistance, by publishers to develop a title they designed, or by companies outside
the gaming industry. These businesses prefer to keep this hidden from the public to
protect their brand equity, not wanting consumers or investors to know that they
rely on external help. Ghost development can involve (small) portions of a project,
but there have been instances of entire games being outsourced without the studio
being credited.[182]

Ghost development has a particular long history in the Japanese video game
industry.[183] Probably the best-known example is Tose. Founded in 1979, this
'behind-the-scenes' agent has either developed or helped develop over 2,000 games
as of 2017, most of them anonymously. This includes uncredited contributions to
multiple Resident Evil, Metal Gear, and Dragon Quest titles.[184][185] Another
example is Tokyo-based Hyde, which worked on Final Fantasy, Persona, and Yakuza
games.[186] Its president, Kenichi Yanagihara, stated that the approach stems from
Japanese culture, in which many people prefer not to seek the limelight.[187]

Marketing
The game production has similar distribution methods to those of music and film
industries.[34]

The publisher's marketing team targets the game for a specific market and then
advertises it.[188] The team advises the developer on target demographics and
market trends,[188] as well as suggests specific features.[189] The game is then
advertised and the game's high concept is incorporated into the promotional
material, ranging from magazine ads to TV spots.[188] Communication between
developer and marketing is important.[189]
The length and purpose of a game demo depends on the purpose of the demo and target
audience. A game's demo may range between a few seconds (such as clips or
screenshots) to hours of gameplay. The demo is usually intended for journalists,
buyers, trade shows, general public, or internal employees (who, for example, may
need to familiarize with the game to promote it). Demos are produced with public
relations, marketing and sales in mind, maximizing the presentation effectiveness.
[190]

Trade show demo

As a game nears completion, the publisher will want to showcase a demo of the title
at trade shows. Many games have a "Trade Show demo" scheduled.[citation needed]

The major annual trade shows are, for example, Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3)
or Penny Arcade Expo (PAX).[191] E3 is the largest show in North America.[192] E3
is hosted primarily for marketing and business deals. New games and platforms are
announced at E3 and it received broad press coverage.[77][193] Thousands of
products are on display and press demonstration schedules are kept.[193] In the
2000s E3 became a more closed-door event and many advertisers have withdrawn,
reducing E3's budget.[77] PAX, created by authors of Penny Arcade blog and web-
comic, is a mature and playful event with a player-centred philosophy.[34]

Localization
Main article: Video game localization
A game created in one language may also be published in other countries which speak
a different language. For that region, the developers may want to translate the
game to make it more accessible. For example, some games created for PlayStation
Vita were initially published in Japanese language, like Soul Sacrifice. Non-native
speakers of the game's original language may have to wait for the translation of
the game to their language. But most modern big-budget games take localization into
account during the development process and the games are released in several
different languages simultaneously.[194]

Localization is the process of translating the language assets in a game into other
languages.[195] By localizing games, they increase their level of accessibility
where games could help to expend the international markets effectively. Game
localization is generally known as language translations yet a "full localization"
of a game is a complex project. Different levels of translation range from: zero
translation being that there is no translation to the product and all things are
sent raw, basic translation where only a few text and subtitles are translated or
even added, and a full translation where new voice overs and game material changes
are added.[citation needed]

There are various essential elements on localizing a game including translating the
language of the game to adjusting in-game assets for different cultures to reach
more potential consumers in other geographies (or globalization for short).
Translation seems to fall into the scope of localization, which itself constitutes
a substantially broader endeavor.[196] These include the different levels of
translation to the globalization of the game itself. However, certain developers
seem to be divided on whether globalization falls under localization or not.
[citation needed]

Moreover, in order to fit into the local markets, game production companies often
change or redesign the graphic designs or the packaging of the game for marketing
purposes. For example, the popular game Assassin's Creed has two different
packaging designs for the European and US market.[197] By localizing the graphics
and packaging designs, companies might arouse better connections and attention from
the consumers from various regions.[citation needed]
Development costs
See also: List of most expensive video games to develop
The costs of developing a video game varies widely depending on several factors
including team size, game genre and scope, and other factors such as intellectual
property licensing costs. Most video game consoles also require development
licensing costs which include game development kits for building and testing
software. Game budgets also typically include costs for marketing and promotion,
which can be on the same order in cost as the development budget.[198]

Prior to the 1990s, game development budgets, when reported, typically were on the
average of US$1–5 million, with known outliers, such as the $20–25 million that
Atari had paid to license the rights for E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial in addition to
development costs.[199][200] The adoption of technologies such as 3D hardware
rendering and CD-ROM integration by the mid-1990s, enabling games with more visual
fidelity compared to prior titles, caused developers and publishers to put more
money into game budgets as to flesh out narratives through cutscenes and full-
motion video, and creating the start of the AAA video game industry. Some of the
most expensive titles to develop around this time, approaching costs typical of
major motion picture production budgets, included Final Fantasy VII in 1997 with an
estimated budget of $40–45 million,[201] and Shenmue in 1999 with an estimated
budget of $47–70 million.[202]Final Fantasy VII, with its marketing budget, had a
total estimated cost of $80–145 million.[203]

Raph Koster, a video game designer and economist, evaluated published development
budgets (less any marketing) for over 250 games in 2017 and reported that since the
mid-1990s, there has been a type of Moore's Law in game budgets, with the average
budget doubling about every five years after accounting for inflation. Koster
reported average budgets were around $100 million by 2017, and could reach over
$200 million by the early 2020s. Koster asserts these trends are partially tied to
the technological Moore's law that gave more computational power for developers to
work into their games, but also related to expectations for content from players in
newer games and the number of players games are expected to draw.[204] Shawn
Layden, former CEO of Sony Interactive Entertainment, affirmed that the costs for
each generation of PlayStation consoles nearly doubled, with PlayStation 4 games
have average budgets of $100 million and anticipating that PlayStation 5 games
could reach $200 million.[205]

The rising costs of budgets of AAA games in the early 2000s led publishers to
become risk-averse, staying to titles that were most likely to be high-selling
games to recoup their costs. As a result of this risk aversion, the selection of
AAA games in the mid-2000s became rather similar, and gave the opportunity for
indie games that provided more experimental and unique gameplay concepts to expand
around that time.[206]

Costs of development for AAA games continued to rise over the next two decades; a
report by the United Kingdom's Competition and Markets Authority regarding the
proposed acquisition of Activision Blizzard by Microsoft in 2023. Costs slowing
increased from 1–4 million in 2000, to over $5 million in 2006, then to over $20
million by 2010, followed by $50 million to $150 million by 2018, and $200 million
and up by 2023. In some cases, several AAA games exceeded $1 billion to make, split
between $500-$600M to develop and a similar amount for marketing.[207] In court
documents from regulatory review of the Activision Blizzard merger, reviewed by The
Verge, the costs of Sony's first party games like Horizon Forbidden West and The
Last of Us Part II had exceeded $200 million.[208]

Indie development
Main article: Independent video game development
Independent games or indie games[209] are produced by individuals and small teams
with no large-scale developer or publisher affiliations.[209][210][211] Indie
developers generally rely on Internet distribution schemes. Many hobbyist indie
developers create mods of existing games. Indie developers are credited for
creative game ideas (for example, Darwinia, Weird Worlds, World of Goo). Current
economic viability of indie development is questionable, however in recent years
internet delivery platforms, such as, Xbox Live Arcade and Steam have improved
indie game success.[209] In fact, some indie games have become very successful,
such as Braid,[212] World of Goo,[213] and Minecraft.[214] In recent years many
communities have emerged in support of indie games such as the popular indie game
marketplace Itch.io, indie game YouTube channels and a large indie community on
Steam. It is common for indie game developers to release games for free and
generate revenue through other means such as microtransactions (in-game
transactions), in-game advertisements and crowd-funding services like Patreon and
Kickstarter.[citation needed]

Game industry
Main article: Video game industry
The video game industry (formally referred to as interactive entertainment) is the
economic sector involved with the development, marketing and sale of video games.
The industry sports several unique approaches.[citation needed]

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Locales
United States
Further information: List of video game companies
In the United States, in the early history of video game development, the prominent
locale for game development was the corridor from San Francisco to Silicon Valley
in California.[215] Most new developers in the US open near such "hot beds".[15]

At present, many large publishers still operate there, such as: Activision
Blizzard, Capcom Entertainment, Crystal Dynamics, Electronic Arts, Namco Bandai
Games, Sega of America, and Sony Computer Entertainment America. However, due to
the nature of game development, many publishers are present in other regions, such
as Big Fish Games (Washington), Majesco Entertainment (New Jersey), Microsoft
Corporation (Washington), Nintendo of America (Washington), and Take-Two
Interactive (New York),[216]

Education
Many universities and design schools are offering classes specifically focused on
game development.[14] Some have built strategic alliances with major game
development companies.[217][218] These alliances ensure that students have access
to the latest technologies and are provided the opportunity to find jobs within the
gaming industry once qualified.[citation needed] Many innovative ideas are
presented at conferences, such as Independent Games Festival (IGF) or Game
Developers Conference (GDC).

Indie game development may motivate students who produce a game for their final
projects or thesis and may open their own game company.[209]

Stability
Video game industry employment is fairly volatile, similar to other artistic
industries including television, music, etc. Scores of game development studios
crop up, work on one game, and then quickly go under.[219] This may be one reason
why game developers tend to congregate geographically; if their current studio goes
under, developers can flock to an adjacent one or start another from the ground up.
[citation needed]

In an industry where only the top 20% of products make a profit,[220] it is easy to
understand this fluctuation. Numerous games may start development and are
cancelled, or perhaps even completed but never published. Experienced game
developers may work for years and yet never ship a title: such is the nature of the
business.[citation needed]

See also
Video games portal
International Game Developers Association
List of video gaming topics
Open source video games
Software development process
Video game controversy
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