Evaporation

“Evaporation means the free escape of vapours from the

surface of a liquid below its boiling point. It is a slow
process and can take place even at room temperature.”
Evaporation is a type of vaporization that occurs on
the surface of a liquid as it changes into the gas
phase.
PRINCIPLES OF EVAPORATION
 The surrounding gas must not be saturated with the
evaporating substance.
 When the molecules of the liquid collide, they transfer
energy to each other based on how they collide with each
other.
 When a molecule near the surface absorbs enough energy
to overcome the vapor pressure, it will escape and enter the
surrounding air as a gas. When evaporation occurs, the
energy removed from the vaporized liquid will reduce the
temperature of the liquid, resulting in evaporative cooling.
 On average, only a fraction of the molecules in a liquid have
enough heat energy to escape from the liquid.
 The evaporation will continue until an equilibrium is reached
when the evaporation of the liquid is equal to its
condensation. In an enclosed environment, a liquid will
evaporate until the surrounding air is saturated.
 For molecules of a liquid to evaporate, they must be located
near the surface, they have to be moving in the proper
 direction, and have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome
liquid-phase intermolecular forces.
When only a small proportion of the molecules meet these
criteria, the rate of evaporation is low. Since the kinetic energy of
a molecule is proportional to its temperature, evaporation
proceeds more quickly at higher temperatures.
 As the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining
molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the
temperature of the liquid decreases. This phenomenon is
also called evaporative cooling.
Evaporative equilibrium
If evaporation takes place in an enclosed area, the escaping
molecules accumulate as a vapor above the liquid.
Many of the molecules return to the liquid, with returning
molecules becoming more frequent as
the density and pressure of the vapor increases. When the
process of escape and return reaches an equilibrium, the vapor is
said to be "saturated", and no further change in either vapor
pressure and density or liquid temperature will occur.
 For a system consisting of vapor and liquid of a pure
substance, this equilibrium state is directly related to the
vapor pressure of the substance, as given by the Clausius–
Clapeyron relation:
ln(P2/P1)=-Hvap/R(1/T2-1/T1)
 where P1, P2 are the vapor pressures at
temperatures T1, T2 respectively, ΔHvap is the enthalpy of
vaporization, and R is the universal gas constant.
The rate of evaporation in an open system is related to the
vapor pressure found in a closed system. If a liquid is
 heated, when the vapor pressure reaches the ambient
pressure the liquid will boil.
 The ability for a molecule of a liquid to evaporate is based
largely on the amount of kinetic energy an individual particle
may possess. Even at lower temperatures, individual
molecules of a liquid can evaporate if they have more than
the minimum amount of kinetic energy required for
vaporization.
Factors influencing the rate of evaporation
Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air
If the air already has a high concentration of the substance
evaporating, then the given substance will evaporate more
slowly.
Flow rate of air
This is in part related to the concentration points above. If
"fresh" air (i.e., air which is neither already saturated with the
substance nor with other substances) is moving over the
substance all the time, then the concentration of the
substance in the air is less likely to go up with time, thus
encouraging faster evaporation. This is the result of
the boundary layer at the evaporation surface decreasing
with flow velocity, decreasing the diffusion distance in the
stagnant layer.
The amount of minerals dissolved in the liquid
Inter-molecular forces
The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in
the liquid state, the more energy one must get to escape.
This is characterized by the enthalpy of vaporization.
Pressure
 Evaporation happens faster if there is less exertion on the
surface keeping the molecules from launching themselves.
Surface area
A substance that has a larger surface area will evaporate
faster, as there are more surface molecules per unit of
volume that are potentially able to escape.
Temperature of the substance
the higher the temperature of the substance the greater the
kinetic energy of the molecules at its surface and therefore
the faster the rate of their evaporation.

Evaporator
An evaporator is a device in a process used to
turn the liquid form of a chemical substance such
as water into its gaseous-form/vapor. The liquid is
evaporated, or vaporized, into a gas form of the
targeted substance in that process.
One kind of evaporator is a kind of radiator coil used in a closed
compressor driven circulation of a liquid coolant. That is called
an air-conditioning system (A/C) or refrigeration system to allow a
compressed cooling chemical, such as R-22 (Freon) or R-410A,
to evaporate/vaporize from liquid to gas within the system while
absorbing heat from the enclosed cooled area, for example a
refrigerator or rooms indoors, in the process. This works in the
closed A/C or refrigeration system with a condenser radiator coil
that exchanges the heat from the coolant, such as into the
ambient environment.
A different kind of evaporator can be used for heating and
possibly boiling a product containing a liquid to cause the liquid to
evaporate from the product.
The appropriate process can be used to remove water or other
liquids from liquid based mixtures. The process of evaporation is
widely used to concentrate liquid foods, such as soup or make
concentrated milk called "condensed milk" done by evaporating
water from the milk. In the concentration process, the goal of
evaporation is to vaporize most of the water from a solution which
contains the desired product.
TYPES OF EVAPORATORS
SMALL SCALE EVAPORATOR
Small quantities of liquids may be evaporated in a procelain or
glass dish. Generally direct heating by bunsen burner or electric
hot plate is used for evaporation but it should not be employed,as
direct heating leads to decomposition of the substances towards
the end of evaporation.
LARGE SCALE EVAPORATOR
Evaporating pans
On a manufacturing scale,liquid extracts containing water as a
menstrum are evaporated in open pans called evaporating pans.
Natural/forced circulation evaporator
Natural circulation evaporators are based on the natural
circulation of the product caused by the density differences that
arise from heating. In an evaporator using tubing, after the water
begins to boil, bubbles will rise and cause circulation, facilitating
the separation of the liquid and the vapor at the top of the heating
tubes.
The amount of evaporation that takes place depends on the
temperature difference between the steam and the solution.
DISADVANTAGE
Problems can arise if the tubes are not well-immersed in the
solution. If this occurs, the system will be dried out and
circulation compromised.
  In order to avoid this, forced circulation can be used by
inserting a pump to increase pressure and circulation.
Forced circulation occurs when hydrostatic head prevents
boiling at the heating surface. Common uses of forced
circulation evaporators include waste streams, crystallizers,
viscous fluids, and other difficult process fluids as
suppressed boiling can reduce scaling and fouling. A pump
can also be used to avoid fouling that is caused by the
boiling of liquid on the tubes; the pump suppresses bubble
formation. Other problems are that the residing time is
undefined and the consumption of steam is very high, but at
high temperatures, good circulation is easily achieved.
Falling film evaporator
This type of evaporator is generally made of 4–8 m (13–26 ft)
tubes enclosed by steam jackets. The uniform distribution of the
solution is important when using this type of evaporator. The
solution enters and gains velocity as it flows downward. This gain
in velocity is attributed to the vapor being evolved against the
heating medium, which flows downward as well. This evaporator
is usually applied to highly viscous solutions, so it is frequently
used in the chemical,sugar, food, and fermentation industries.
Rising film (Long Tube Vertical) evaporator
In this type of evaporator, boiling takes place inside the tubes,
due to heating made (usually by steam) outside the same.
Submergence is therefore not desired; the creation of water vapor
bubbles inside the tube creates an ascensional flow enhancing
the heat transfer coefficient.
This type of evaporator is therefore quite efficient, the
disadvantage being to be prone to quick scaling of the internal
surface of the tubes. This design is then usually applied to clear,
non-salting solutions. Tubes are usually quite long, typically 4+
meters (13+ ft). Sometimes a small recycle is provided. Sizing this
type of evaporator is usually a delicate task, since it requires a
precise evaluation of the actual level of the process liquor inside
the tubes. Recent applications tend to favor the falling-film pattern
rather than rising-film.
Climbing and falling-film plate evaporator
Climbing and falling-film plate evaporators have a relatively large
surface area. The plates are usually corrugated and are
supported by frame. During evaporation, steam flows through the
channels formed by the free spaces between the plates. The
steam alternately climbs and falls parallel to the concentrated
liquid. The steam follows a co-current, counter-current path in
relation to the liquid. The concentrate and the vapor are both fed
into the separation stage where the vapor is sent to a condenser.
This type of plate evaporator is frequently applied in the dairy and
fermentation industries since they have spatial flexibility. A
negative point of this type of evaporator is that it is limited in its
ability to treat viscous or solid-containing products.
Multiple-effect evaporators
These evaporators can be composed of up to seven evaporator
stages (effects). The energy consumption for single-effect
evaporators is very high and is most of the cost for an evaporation
system. Putting together evaporators saves heat and thus
requires less energy. Adding one evaporator to the original
decreases energy consumption to 50%. Adding another effect
reduces it to 33% and so on. A heat-saving-percent equation can
be used to estimate how much one will save by adding a certain
number of effects.
There are two types of feeding that can be used when dealing
with multiple-effect evaporators. Forward feeding takes place
when the product enters the system through the first effect, which
is at the highest temperature. The product is then partially
concentrated as some of the water is transformed into vapor and
carried away. It is then fed into the second effect which is slightly
lower in temperature. The second effect uses the heated vapor
created in the first stage as its heat source (hence the saving in
energy expenditure). The combination of lower temperatures and
higher viscosities in subsequent effects provides good conditions
for treating heat-sensitive products, such as enzymes and
proteins. In this system, an increase in the heating surface area of
subsequent effects is required.
Agitated thin film evaporators
Agitated thin-film evaporation has been very successful with
difficult-to-handle products. Simply stated, the method quickly
separates the volatile from the less volatile components using
indirect heat transfer and mechanical agitation of the flowing
product film under controlled conditions. The separation is
normally made under vacuum conditions to maximize ∆T while
maintaining the most favorable product temperature so that the
product only sees equilibrium conditions inside the evaporator
and can maximize volatile stripping and recovery.
DISADVANTAGE
Technical problems can arise during evaporation, especially when
the process is applied to the food industry. Some evaporators are
sensitive to differences in viscosity and consistency of the dilute
solution. These evaporators could work inefficiently because of a
loss of circulation. The pump of an evaporator may need to be
changed if the evaporator needs to be used to concentrate a
highly viscous solution.
Fouling also occurs when hard deposits form on the surfaces of
the heating mediums in the evaporators. In foods, proteins and
polysaccharides can create such deposits that reduce the
efficiency of heat transfer. Foaming can also create a problem
since dealing with the excess foam can be costly in time and
efficiency. Antifoam agents are to be used, but only a few can be
used when food is being processed.
Corrosion can also occur when acidic solutions such as citrus
juices are concentrated. The surface damage caused can shorten
the long-life of evaporators. Quality and flavor of food can also
suffer during evaporation. Overall, when choosing an evaporator,
the qualities of the product solution need to be taken into careful
consideration.
Vacuum evaporation
Vacuum evaporation is the process of causing the pressure in a
liquid-filled container to be reduced below the vapor pressure of
the liquid, causing the liquid to evaporate at a lower temperature
than normal. Although the process can be applied to any type of
liquid at any vapor pressure, it is generally used to describe the
boiling of water by lowering the container's internal pressure
below standard atmospheric pressure and causing the water to
boil at room temperature.
The vacuum evaporation treatment process consists of reducing
the interior pressure of the evaporation chamber below
atmospheric pressure. This reduces the boiling point of the liquid
to be evaporated, thereby reducing or eliminating the need for
heat in both the boiling and condensation processes. There are
other advantages, such as the ability to distill liquids with high
boiling points and avoiding decomposition of substances that are
heat sensitive.
Food
When the process is applied to food and the water
is evaporated and removed, the food can be stored for long
periods without spoiling. It is also used when boiling a substance
at normal temperatures would chemically change the consistency
of the product, such as egg whites coagulating when attempting
to dehydrate the albumen into a powder.
This process was invented by Henri Nestlé in 1866,
of Nestlé Chocolate fame,[ although the Shakers were already
using a vacuum pan before that (see condensed milk).
Wastewater treatment
Vacuum evaporators are used in a wide range of industrial
sectors to treat industrial wastewater.
It represents a clean, safe and very versatile technology with low
management costs, which in most cases serves as a zero-
discharge treatment system.

Thin film deposition

 Vacuum evaporation is also a form of physical vapor
deposition used in the semiconductor, microelectronics,
and optical industries and in this context is a process of
depositing thin films of material onto surfaces.
 Such a technique consists of pumping a vacuum
chamber to pressures of less than 10−5 torr and heating
a material to produce a flux of vapor to deposit the
material onto a surface. The material to be vaporized is
typically heated until its vapor pressure is high enough
to produce a flux of several Angstroms per second by
using an electrically resistive heater or bombardment by
a high voltage beam.