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The term transfer indicates the transfer of work piece from one station to another station during the
manufacturing process. The unmachined work pieces are loaded at one end and the machined work
piece leave the transfer line at the other end. The transfer machine or transfer line consists of several
machining heads, or units fastened together by conveying units. Transfer machines permit the
maximum number of operations to be performed on work pieces at a maximum production rate.

Transfer units are commonly used in automobile industry, air-craft industry, etc.

Transfer machines can be of the following types:

o In-line transfer machine.

o Rotary Indexing table transfer machine.
o Drum Type transfer machine.

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The defects that are commonly observed in rolled products include the following:

- Folds: Folds occur during plate rolling when reduction per pass is very small.
- Lamination: Small crack appears when reduction in thickness is quite high.
- Edge cracking: This defect is caused either due to low ductility of the work material or because of
uneven deformation near the ends. Cracks are caused during cold rolling if the metal becomes too
much work hardened.
- Fins: Fins are formed on the rolled bars when the metal forces itself in the space between the rolls.
Fins can lead to folds, cracks etc.
- Alligatoring: Alligatoring is splitting of the work piece along a horizontal plate on the exit side.
This defect occurs during slab rolling of aluminum alloys.

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Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material is pushed through
a die of the desired cross-section. The two main advantages of this process over other manufacturing
processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections, and to work materials that are brittle,
because the material only encounters compressive and shear stresses. It also forms parts with an excellent
surface finish.
A rod is made by Forward Hot Extrusion process:
In this process the metal billet is heated to forging temperature and placed in a heavy built cylinder
chamber made up of steel. A ram or plunger then advances behind the billet and forces the metal through
an opening at the other end. A steel disc having a diameter slightly less than the diameter of the steel
chamber and the thickness, 50 to 75 percent of its diameter is kept between the hot billet and the ram. This
disc is called dummy block and protects the ram from the heat. The ratio of the cross section area of billet
to that of the extruded section is called the extrusion ratio. It usually ranges from 20 to 50. Lower side
values are used when a billet is first extruded to an intermediate diameter and then reduced to final size in
the next step.

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An injection molding machine consists of three main parts: the injection unit, the mold - the heart of the
whole process - and the clamping/ejector unit.

Operation:

The main working principle of plastic molding machine is to use the plastic thermal physical properties.
First, we auto loader the plastic material into the barrel, which is surround by heating elements melting
the plastic. In the barrel which is assembled with servo motor screw. The plastic melt will flow up the
screw and under the heating condition get tight and move forward to the screw head. At the same time,
due to the plastic reacting force, the screw will step back. So at the screw head, it formed a plastic melt
saving space to finish its plasticizing process. At the same time, under the injection hydraulic
cylinder force, the screws will injection the plasticizing melt into the plastic mould through the nozzle.
The plastic melt will remain in the mould cavity through the holding pressure, cooling, process, and then
formed into solid shape ejected out of the mould. So the plastic molding machine main recycle process
including: quantitative feeding-plasticizing-injection-molding the shape-pick up the piece, then close the
mould to the 2nd recycle process.
Two arrangements of injection moulding are in use:

- Plunger or ram type injection moulding

- Screw type injection moulding

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Sr.No. Shaper Planer

Shaper is used to machine small work piece
1. which can fit on the table. It can work with large size of work piece.
2. Tool is the moving part in shaper machine. Work piece is the moving part in planer.
3. Work piece remain stationary on this machine. Tool remains stationary on planer.
4. It is light duty machine. It is a heavy duty machine.
It is equipped more than one cutting tool at a
5. It can use only one cutting tool at a time. time.
It also used single point cutting tool but more
6. It uses single point cutting tool. than one tool can be used at same time.
Shaper is used quick return mechanism to drive
the ram. In modern machine hydraulic drive is Planer is driven by gear or hydraulic
7. also used. arrangement.
8. It gives poor accuracy compare to planer. It gives higher accuracy.
Shaper is smaller in size and gives slow cutting
speed. It is not suitable where productivity is
9. prime concern. It is larger in size and gives large productivity.
10. The stroke length can be adjustable. Stroke length can be adjusted.

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 [5]

Sr. Parameters Pattern Core boxes

No.

1 Used for Making the mould. Make the core.

2 Purpose To create cavity for molten material. To make cores.

3 Types Loose, gated, match plate, Cope and Half, Dump, Split, Strickle, Left and
drag, Shell, built-up, lagged. Right hand, Gang.

4 Materials Wood, Metals, Plastic, Plaster. Wood.

5 Supports Core prints. Not needed.

Sr. No. Characteristics Lapping Honing

1 Purpose 1. To obtain good dimensional Mostly used for finishing of surface

and geometrical accuracy. of bores but can also be used for
2. To obtain good surface finish. external cylindrical surfaces and
3. To ensure close fit between flat surface.
mating parts.
4. Correction of minor
imperfection on the surface.

2 Form in which 1. Loaded on a lap. Bonded in the form of stones.

abrasive is used 2. Carried in a suitable vehicle.
3. Bonded abrasive wheel.

3 Machines used Vertical lapping machines, Centreless Horizontal honing machines,

lapping machines, Lapping Vertical honing machines.
machines.

4 Dimensional 5 microns 2 to 3 microns

accuracy
achievable

5 Surface finish 0.1 to 0.4 microns 0.2 to 0.3 microns

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Sr. No. TIG MIG

1 No consumable electrodes are used. Consumable electrodes are used.

2 Electrodes are used of tungsten or tungsten Bare welding wire is made of desired
alloys. composition.

3 Electrode only generates an arc and does not Electrode generates an arc and melts also.
melt.

4 Easier for thin plates and small parts. Widely used for thick plates (above 4mm).

5 Welding torch is water cooled. Welding torch is air or water cooled.

6 Used for joining dissimilar metals. Used for joining similar metals.

7 It is a slow process. It is a faster process.

8 During the process, separate filler material is In this process, metal electrode will act as a filler
used. material.

9 Cost of equipment is lower than MIG. Cost of equipment is high.

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Sr.no. Soldering Brazing

1 The filler metal flows between the joints by Filler metal is fed at one end or more points in the
capillary action. assembly and drawn onto the rest of the joint by
capillary action.

2 Filler metal has melting point below 450°C. Filler metal has melting point above 450°C.

3 The joint is weak. Joint is strong.

4 The joint is weak resistant to corrosion. Better corrosion resistance.

5 Used for carbon, low alloy steels, cast irons, Used for Cu, steels, Al, Mg and alloys.
Al alloys.

6 Fillers are alloys of lead and tin in various Filler used in brazing include Cu and Cl alloys,
properties. Silver alloys and Al alloys.

7 Heat is applied with a soldering iron. Heating is done by torch, furnace, induction,
resistance, infrared techniques.

8 Fluxes use includes zinc chloride, Fluxes used include borax and boric acid.
ammonium chloride.

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The term swaging is applied loosely to a variety of operations in which the forming takes place due to
squeezing action and the material is free to flow perpendicular to the direction of applied force. The most
common used is rotary swaging which is used to reduce diameter, generally over one part of the length a
of rod, bar, or tube. It may also be used to reduce the diameter of tapered work piece. Rotary operation is
done in a rotary swaging machine or rotary swagger. The dies are engaged in a slot provided on the
machine spindle which rotates at a fairly high speed. The race surrounding the spindle rotates the dies
between pairs of opposite rolls. As the spindle rotates, the dies pass between pairs of opposite rolls. As a
result, the dies are closed and opened alternatively as the pass between the rollers and the gaps. The work
piece is fed into the die jaws manually or mechanically. It is gradually squeezed to the desired size. The
process is used for producing ratchets, sockets, various types of pins, pen caps, shaft, spacers, etc.
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The term sheet refers to stock with thickness between 0.5mm to 6 mm. Film is below 0.5 mm. Calendaring
is the process of making sheets and films of plastic.

In this method a mixture of resin, filler, plasticizer and color pigment is passed between a series of heated
rollers. The process is similar to rolling process in that the material is compressed between the rolls and
emerges as a sheet. The main difference between rolling and calendaring is that the pre-calendared
material is not in the sheet form and in calendaring after the material has reached minimum thickness
there is appreciable thickening of the material.

The first roll gap serves as a feeder, the second as a metering device and the third one sets the final gauge
of the sheet which is wound on a coiler after cooling.
The roller squeezes the mixture into the shape of the sheet or film. The thickness is controlled by the speed
of the rollers and the gap between the rollers. The finished product is cooled by passing it between a set of
water cooled rolls.

E.g.: vinyl tiles and cellulose acetate sheets. Used for the production of rain wear, shower curtains,
lamination sheets, etc.

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Milling machine

There are many types of milling machines, from simple hand mills to complex tape controlled machine.

The usual classification is in accordance with the general design but in every classification there is some
overlapping. According to the design the distinctive classification is as follows:

- Column and knee milling machine

(a) Horizontal milling machine
(b) Vertical milling machine
(c) Universal milling machine
(d) Ram-type universal milling machine
- Bed type milling machine
(a) Simplex milling machine
(b) Duplex milling machine
(c) Triplex milling machine
- Plano-type milling machine
- Special purpose milling machine
 (a) Rotary drum table milling machine
(b) Drum milling machine
(c) Profile milling machine
(d) Duplicating milling machine
(e) Planetary milling machine

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A centreless grinding machine as the name suggest has no centres, drivers and other fixtures required for
holding the work piece. It is used for grinding external cylinder surfaces, tapers and forms with rotational
symmetry.

The essential units of the machines are the grinding wheel, the regulating wheel, the work rest blade and
the slides. The regulating wheel and the work rest blade support the work piece. The regulating wheel also
controls the speed and feed of the work piece. It is made of rubber bonded abrasive material with enough
friction to provide a good grip on the surface speed of the regulating wheel.

The surface speed of the regulating wheel is of the order 0.25 to 1 m/s. The regulating wheels are mounted
on a slide so that its axis of rotation can be moved towards or away from work rest blade. This adjustment
is required to accommodate jobs of different diameters on the machine for grinding. The work rest blade
and the regulating wheel slide are mounted on yet another slide which is moved towards the grinding
wheel for depth motion or in feed. The work piece is supported on a blade on the work rest. The surface of
the blade is inclined towards the regulating wheel.

This operation of centreless grinding can be classified into three types:

- Through feed centreless grinding

- Infeed centreless grinding
- End feed centreless grinding
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Sr. Parameter Core Core print

No.

1 Definition Core is a solid mass in the mould that Core print is the seat provided in the
prevents the metal from filling some mould for supporting the core. The
part of the mould. projection provided on the pattern for
creating the core seat is also called
core print.

2 Composition Core is made from core sand or metal. When provided on the pattern it is of
the same material as the pattern.

3 Shape The shape of the core corresponds to The shape of the core print is decided
the shape of cavity to be created in the by the requirement of the core to be
casting. supported that is its type, weight,
position, etc.

4 Core removal Sand core are crushed and removed Core prints on the pattern leave the
after the casting solidifies. Metal cores mould when pattern is withdrawn.
are removed just before solidification.

5 Characteristics Core may be supported with chaplets. Core prints may be given suitable
taper to facilitate placement of core
prints.

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The basic function of a riser is to provide feed metal to the solidifying casting. In addition, it acts as a large
vent for evacuating the mould and takes care of the hydraulic ram effect. The riser should have sufficient
quantity of hot material and should solidify after the casting it is to feed. The grating system should be
such as to provide a suitable temperature gradient towards the riser.

The area at the junction of the riser to the casting should be large enough so that the riser is not choked.
For the riser to feed the casting its cooling rate has to be lower than that of the casting. This is attained by
keeping the volume to area ratio of the riser larger than the volume to area ratio of casting. The riser
should be located as far as possible, near the top of the mould to take advantage of the gravity head of the
metal.
The shape of the riser is an important parameter in this design. The metal feed volume requirements being
very small mostly riser sizes are guided by cooling rate considerations. The most economical riser is the
one which gives the desired low cooling rate with minimum amount of metal.

Risers may be open or blind. An open riser has its upper surface open to atmosphere. Blind risers are
rounded cavities completely surrounded by moulding sand. Such risers do not extend to the top of the
mould and means have to be provided to make the atmospheric pressure reach the molten metal in these
risers.

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Friction welding is a solid state welding process in which the heat required for welding is obtained by
friction between the ends of the parts to be joined.

The sequence of operations for the process is as shown in diagram.

-One of the parts to be welded is rotated at about 3000 RPM with the other part axially aligned with it.

- The second part is advanced to the rotating part and made to rub against it.

- Slight axial pressure is applied on the second part to cause friction between two parts. The temperature at
the interface increases and the metal at the interface become soft to permit formation of forged joint.
- After sufficient heating has taken place, the power drive is disconnected and the parts area abruptly
broken. The axial pressure is increased to forge the two parts together.

Friction welding is carried out on a specially designed machines similar to centre lathe but not much more
rigid and having higher power rating and quick disengagement features. The power required for friction
welding varies between 25 kVA to 175kVA and the axial pressure may range from 40MPa for low carbon
steel to about 450 MPa for alloy steels.

Friction welding process has the following main advantages:

- The process is simple and mostly automatic. Even semi-skilled operator can be employed.
- Cleaning of the components is not critical. Any oxides or contaminants present get removed during
initial rubbing.
- The temperature involved is lower than those in fusion welding.
- There is not much distortion or wrapping.
- Even dissimilar metals can be joined as there is no melting involved.
- The quality of weld is very good.
- Due to these features, friction welding is used extensively in aviation and automobile industry.

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A machining centre is a computer controlled machine tool capable of performing a variety of cutting
operations on different surfaces of a work piece without having to move the work piece from one machine
to another.

Machining centres are classified as:

- Horizontal machining centre

- Vertical machining centre

Vertical Machining Centre:

It carries a vertical machining head which can slide along the vertical guide-ways provided on the column.
The vertical head can be tilted in either direction. These machines are also very heavy in construction.
There machines are suitable for machining flat surfaces with deep cavities like the manufacturing of
mould, dies, etc.
The vertical machining centre machines have following parts:

- Bed: It is a heavy structure which supports the complete machine and carries guide-ways over its
top surface.
- Saddle: It is mounted over the guide-ways on the bed and also carries column over it. It provides Y
axis movement to the machines.
- Table: It is mounted over the guide-ways provided on the saddle. It provides X axis movement to
the machines.
- Column: It is mounted over saddle. It provides Z axis movement to the machine.
- Automatic Tool Changer: It is used to change the tool from the machine spindle rapidly.
- Spindle and servo system: Spindle is mounted on the back stock and it provides Z axis movement
to the machining centre. Servo system contain of servo motors and feedback system. It provides
accurate and rapid movement to all the axis.

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Sr.No. Characteristics Open loop system Closed loop system

1 System This is cheaper and simple system. This comparatively costlier and more
complicated system.

2 Feedback Does not have a feedback It has feedback system.

arrangement mechanism.

3 Machine system The machine tool controls have The machine tool controls have a
only motion control but do not motion control with provision for
have any provision for a feedback feedback which can be used for
which needs to be compared with accurately controlling the drive
the input for better controls. system.

4 Accuracy of nob Because of the absence of feedback Feedback system provides a

there is no built in check on the comparison between the motion
motion imparted. imparted and motion intended. Hence
better accuracy.

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In this process the mould is made from reclaimable dry sand and is vacuum sealed in a plastic film. Due to
application of vacuum the surface finish is excellent, and vacuum holds the mould rigid during the
pouring the solidification of casting.

A vacuum chamber is fitted beneath a pattern plate. Thus when a pattern is mounted over the pattern
plate, the vacuum chamber can be connected to the pattern. After placing the pattern, a heated plastic film
is placed over the pattern and drawn down on to it by vacuum. A moulding box is placed over the pattern
and vibrated. After forming the feeder and risers, the top of the mould is sealed with a second plastic sheet
and a vacuum is applied to the box to compact the dry sand. The mould is then ready for pouring after
withdrawing pattern plate. The other half of the mould is produced in similar manner. Two halves are
assembled and filled with molten metal. During pouring, a vacuum is applied to both upper and lower
boxes.

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Forging:

Forging is the process of forming metal by the application of intermittent blows or pressure to individual
work pieces. It is a process of plastically deforming metals or alloys to a specific shape by applying
compressive forces. Unlike rolling the products of the forging process is not a continuous flowing mass but
discrete piece. Unless specifically stated otherwise forging is understood as a hot working process but cold
forging is also sometimes used.

Difference between closed and open die forging:

Sr. Parameter Closed die forging Open die forging

No.

1 Process Metal is confined in a die cavity of Shaping is done by compressing the work
the shape desired and compressed. piece between two flat die.

2 Metal During compression the metal flows The shape is given by specified blows on
Deformation and fills the die cavity completely. different faces of the work piece.

3 Use Closed impression dies are used in This includes most shaping operations.
drop forging and die forging
operations

4 Accuracy The accuracy of the shape produced The accuracy of the shape produced
depends on the designing die cavity. depends on the skill of the operator.

5 Complexity Comparatively more complex shapes The shapes produced are simple like
of products can be produced particularly when style, discs, rings, etc.
using multiple impression dies.

6 Die cost Higher Lower.

7 Post forging No final machining is necessary. The product may need to be finished by
operation machining.

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Machine tools are defined as a tool which while holding the cutting tool would be able to remove metal
from the work piece. Material is removed from the work piece in order to generate desired shape. Some
examples of M/C tools are milling cutter, drill bit, shaper etc.
(a) On the basis of production capability M/C tools can be classified into following four types
1. General purpose machine tools: They can be used for almost any type of application but, the speed of
production is very low.
2. Production machine tools: Slightly more productive than general purpose M/C tools and are used
for production purposes.
3. Special purpose machine tools: They are specially made for mass production and are designed for
particular application.
4. Single purpose machine tools: They are used for highly automated production processes, where the
production rate is very high. They are least flexible.
(b) Classification based on cutting points in M/C tool
1. Single point cutting tools: They have only one cutting edge for example, tool used in turning in lathe.
2. Multi points cutting tools: They have more than one cutting edge for example milling cutter, drill,
hacksaw etc.

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Automatic machines are those machines in which both the work piece handling and the metal cutting
operations are performed automatically. These machines have played important role in increasing the
production rate and have been in use for long time. Initial process is done very carefully; the process is
repeated automatically to produce duplicate parts without participation of operator. In automatic
machines, right from feeding of stock to clamping, machining and even inspection of the work piece is
carried out automatically. A particular sequence is followed depending upon the requirements of the
work piece and is achieved by using cams, stops, settings, trip dogs and other mechanical movements
of the machines.

During the recent years the concept of automatics has changed altogether due to introduction of
automatic feedback control circuits and the electronic computers. Under the principle of feedback
system the information from the elements being controlled, i.e. the tool or cutter is fed back
electrically into the controlling system where it is compared from set value and the tool is then
accordingly moved and thus a continuous system of monitoring and corrections is used.

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Sr. Parameter Transfer moulding Compression moulding
No.

1 Process difference Material is heated in a separate Material is heated in the mould itself.
chamber and then forced into mould
cavity.

2 Production rate High Low

3 Curing time Less More

4 Quality of work Good Good

5 Components More complex than compression Less complex parts

produced moulding, particularly suitable for
parts with metal inserts and slender
cores.

6 Applications Manufacture of electronic Flatware, dishes, gears, handles,

components, integrated circuits knobs, buttons.
studs, pins, connectors.

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