EDITORIAL | JANUARY 10 2024

Complex systems and inter/transdisciplinary research: A

review 
Special Collection: Complex Systems and Inter/Transdisciplinary Research

O. Descalzi  ; S. Curilef ; L. Velazquez ; V. Muñoz

Chaos 34, 010401 (2024)

https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0188971

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 Chaos EDITORIAL pubs.aip.org/aip/cha

Complex systems and inter/transdisciplinary

research: A review
Cite as: Chaos 34, 010401 (2024); doi: 10.1063/5.0188971
Submitted: 25 November 2023 · Accepted: 19 December 2023 ·
Published Online: 10 January 2024 View Online Export Citation CrossMark

O. Descalzi,1,a) S. Curilef,2 L. Velazquez,2 and V. Muñoz3

AFFILIATIONS
1
Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de los Andes, Santiago, Chile
2
Departamento de Física, Universidad Católica del Norte, Av. Angamos 0610, Antofagasta, Chile
3
Departamento de Física, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile

Note: This article is part of the Focus Issue on Complex Systems and Inter/Transdisciplinary Research.
a)
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed: odescalzi@miuandes.cl

Published under an exclusive license by AIP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0188971

I. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND During December 2021, the second version of the International

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Complex systems are made up of many components that inter- Workshop on Statistical Physics (IWoSP) was held in Antofagasta,
act with each other, and non-linearity in the dynamics plays an Chile, in online and face-to-face modes. The main topics covered
essential role. The interesting properties of these systems arise were Statistical Mechanics and Fundamentals, Systems out of Equi-
as a result of the interaction of these components and cannot librium, Nonlinear Phenomena, Dynamical Systems, Complex Sys-
be studied by observing only a small part of the system. The tems, and Inter/Transdisciplinary research. The purposes of IWoSP
large number of these makes fluctuations an inherent part of meetings are to keep updating the scientific community on the new
their dynamics. One of the notable characteristics of these sys- developments and tendencies in statistical mechanics and interdis-
tems is that order can arise spontaneously, which is called self- ciplinary research, to incentive collaborative international science
organization, and that “in practice,” the present does not always programs, and to identify and discuss the most relevant advances
determine the future (as Newton teaches), regardless of the num- in the area.
ber of computers we have available. This is what we call chaos.1 The current issue gathers the contribution of leading scien-
There are diverse examples of complex systems, such as the Earth’s tists that delineate the state of the art in areas strongly influenced
global climate, disordered materials, lasers and ultrashort pulses, by Complex Systems and Inter/Transdisciplinary Research. The
social organizations, the human brain, transportation and com- authors have made special effort in writing 26 high-level articles with
munication systems, and air turbulence, essential for the airline an introduction general enough so as to reach a wide audience and
industry. introduce people outside their fields to their research.
In 2021, three laureates shared the Nobel Prize in Physics2,3 for
their studies of complex phenomena. Syukuro Manabe and Klaus
Hasselmann laid the foundation of our knowledge of the Earth’s II. SUMMARY OF AREAS COVERED
climate and how the humanity influences it, and Giorgio Parisi
was rewarded for his revolutionary contributions to the theory of A. Non-interdisciplinary articles
disordered and random phenomena. In recent decades, extensive research has explored non-linear
Complex systems invite inter/transdiciplinary research. Inter- diffusion equations, seeking their application in physical and com-
disciplinary research is understood as that whose subject of study plex systems displaying deviations from standard behavior. The
and research question integrates different disciplines and method- article by Curilef4 has a dual purpose: first, to enhance our under-
ological approaches, while by transdisciplinary research, it is standing of non-linearity in diffusive systems by deriving non-linear
understood that its subject of study and research question cross dif- diffusion equations for two specific examples and second, to intro-
ferent disciplines transversally, generating knowledge that cannot be duce a method for analytically solving a type of non-linear diffusion
produced with the disciplines separately. equations. This method utilizes a power-law ansatz, maximizing

Chaos 34, 010401 (2024); doi: 10.1063/5.0188971 34, 010401-1

Published under an exclusive license by AIP Publishing
 Chaos EDITORIAL pubs.aip.org/aip/cha

the Tsallis entropy and producing solutions for coupled equa- particle mass. Open questions for further exploration include find-
tions describing spatial and temporal distributions. The study holds ing an exact relationship for kinetic theory, comprehensive identifi-
promise for uncovering additional non-linear phenomena in nature cation of its components, and investigating the implications of the
through analytical or semi-analytical approaches. inverse relationship between diffusion and mass in various physical
The authors Cisternas et al.5 consider the nontrivial behavior systems.
of a set of macroscopic magnetic rotors, positioned at the vertices of Various models that have been advanced to study processes in
a regular polygon. By adjusting the rotation planes of the magnets, complex systems, ranging from the dynamics of vortices in type-II
it is possible to induce qualitative transitions and find new config- superconductors to the development of social crisis, involve power-
urations. A complete understanding of the system can be obtained law nonlinear density-dependent diffusion. In their contribution,
using group and bifurcation theories. Symmetry considerations are Curilef et al.10 investigate a thermodynamic-like treatment for this
also relevant in the splitting of the phase space into basins of attrac- type of complex systems, based on non-additive entropies, that
tions associated with the stable equilibria. In this article, the analyses incorporates the effects of time-dependent, external driving forces.
are carried out exhaustively for a small number of magnets, but the In particular, the authors derive a lower bound on the work per-
authors are confident that there are patterns that persist for larger formed by the driving forces during a transformation. The bound is
symmetric systems. formulated using a free-energy-like functional expressed in terms of
Self-propelled entities may exhibit surprising collective behav- an appropriate non-additive entropy.
iors under the presence of the appropriate interaction; for example, Curado et al.11 reconsidered Jüttner’s generalization of the
in the flocking transition, the collective moves in unison. Escaff6 Maxwell distribution of velocities for a relativistic gas. Jüttner’s
considers an apolar interaction that leads to the formation of two probability distribution function (PDF), written in the variable
counter-propagating flocks. For short-range interactions, the system rapidity, is not Lorentz invariant. This proposal presents a change in
forms two counter-propagating clusters, which collide, exhibiting curvature at the origin at high energy. However, in one dimension,
typical behaviors of dissipative solitons. They interpenetrate, con- using the additivity law of rapidity and the central limit theorem,
tinuing their movement or forming a bound state where the clusters these authors were able to obtain a new PDF whose curvature at
remain together. All these self-organized behaviors were analyzed by the origin does not change for any energy value, which agrees with
using mean-field strategies. Consequently, there remain open ques- computer dynamics simulations. According to this proposal, the
tions about the role of fluctuations, especially in the meta-stability of temperature is a Lorentz invariant quantity. Further studies are
bound states. required to obtain the distributions of a relativistic gas in two and
Michea and Velazquez7 explore the thermodynamic equilib- three dimensions.

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rium of a binary astrophysical system in the presence of nega- Qi et al.12 address the issue of infrastructure network vulner-
tive heat capacity to extend Thirring conditions of stability. They ability. They consider a model where a network is attacked by
addressed the orbital motion within the quadrupole–orbit approxi- removing nodes with an optimal strategy. Since damage is related
mation to propose a Langevin equation to describe the evolution of not only to the node itself, but also to the complex interactions
collective degrees of freedom under the incidence of thermal fluctua- between nodes given by the network topology, the authors propose
tions associated with internal degrees of freedom. According to their a defense strategy based on hiding links, where the probability to
preliminary calculations, thermal and dynamical stability is possible hide a link is given by some topological property of the node, such
within a quasi-stationary sense: the binary system eventually devel- as its degree or betweenness centrality, thus decreasing the attacker’s
ops instabilities (escape or collapse) that depend on the internal information about the network. The model is applied to a scale-free
temperatures, the angular momentum, and the quadrupole–orbit network, and a realistic IEEE-30 bus system, showing that link hid-
parameter. ing provides an effective strategy to reduce network damage, which
Atenas et al.8 investigate complexity and disequilibrium in a can be useful to design defense for actual infrastructure systems.
system with long-range interactions, known as the d-HMF (dipole- Guo et al.13 address the issue of synchronization in hypernet-
type Hamiltonian mean field) model. It is shown that the behavior works, dealing, in particular, with the effect of the coupling between
of the López–Mancini–Calbet complexity aligns with expectations, nodes within each network layer, and time delay for the interaction
which peaks at a particular value and diminishes at higher tempera- within a layer. Taking a system of Rössler chaotic oscillators as a
tures. On the other hand, the quasi-stationary states are an example model, the authors study both single and two layer networks, show-
of intriguing phenomena observed in nonequilibrium dynamics of ing how the synchronized regions (SRs) of an individual layer are
systems with long-range interactions. Could the complexity or the affected by the existence of an additional one. They find that the
disequilibrium glimpse something about the nature of these states? inner coupling has an important impact on the synchronization of
The article written by González Díaz9 explores the derivation the whole hypernetwork, such as the possibility of having stable syn-
of the diffusion equation using the maximum caliber principle and chronization of the hypernetwork by coupling an unstable and a
the continuity equation. It reveals an inverse relationship between a stable network. As to time delay, for unbounded SRs, the time delay
particle’s mass and diffusion coefficient, with higher mass resulting can change the size and type of the SR.
in lower diffusion and vice versa. Monte Carlo simulations sup-
port these findings, demonstrating diffusion behavior for different
masses by simulations. The study underscores the utility of the max- B. Interdisciplinary articles
imum caliber principle in understanding non-equilibrium physics Descalzi et al.14 in their interdisciplinary article study localized
and offers insights into the diffusion coefficient’s dependence and chaos by modeling of transmission of a light pulse through an optical

Chaos 34, 010401 (2024); doi: 10.1063/5.0188971 34, 010401-2

Published under an exclusive license by AIP Publishing
 Chaos EDITORIAL pubs.aip.org/aip/cha

fiber. Localized chaos means that the power spectrum appears irreg- isomorphism of the zero-component limit of the n-vector model
ular, while the moduli are smooth, asymmetric, and well-defined with self-avoiding random walk.
curves in time. This article is interdisciplinary as it integrates the In his interdisciplinary research, Muñoz20 studies how connec-
methodology of the study of nonlinear optics with the study of com- tivity affects the wealth distribution in an economic system. An
plex systems. The equation that models the stable transmission of agent-based money exchange model is considered, with spending
pulses has the following essential ingredients: Energy dissipation, propensity, which determines the amount of money agents can risk
which is a result of the absorption of light in the optical fiber, energy in each transaction, and over a complex network, so that interactions
injection to compensate for the loss, nonlinearity coming from are only possible between previously connected nodes. This allows
the instantaneous response (Kerr effect) and the non-instantaneous one to consider the fact that, in general, not all interactions are possi-
response (Raman effect) of matter, and dispersion. ble, due to, e.g., location, transportation, or friendship issues. Results
Cartes15 in his article aims to understand the riots that affected show that network topology weakly affects the wealth distribution,
Chile’s capital, Santiago, in October 2019. To achieve this, an epi- which may explain why the Pareto distribution of wealth is so robust,
demiological non-local model, previously used to explain the French for a large variety of economic systems. However, it is also observed
riots from 2005 successfully, is extended and implemented. The that the behavior deviates from the Pareto case for large values of
extension takes into account the effects of the subway network on the characteristic exponent of scale-free networks, which may have
the riot’s distribution, which seems essential in the disorder activity. implications for the topological properties of interaction networks
While the model adequately described the riots’ aggregated tempo- in actual societies.
ral evolution, it could not deliver a result close to the actual disorder Davis et al.21 illustrate an interdisciplinary application of sta-
spatial distribution. The main reason for this failure is attributed to tistical inference and the use of information theory, which aims
the lack of a population transport mechanism, which seems vital to to correct evaluation biases found in quite general contexts of sci-
explain Santiago’s riots. The work is founded on different areas of ence and education. Grade assignments in tests, as well as scores
knowledge, including non-linear science, crime science, and trans- from recommendation letters and similar numerical assessments,
port engineering. All of them are essential to studying the subject of are inherently uncertain due to human bias. In this work, we have
crowd dynamics, making the article an interdisciplinary one. presented a statistical method, based on Jaynes’ maximum entropy
Individual behaviors and social relations influence each other. principle, providing an unbiased correction to an initial grade. This
However, understanding the underlying mechanism remains chal- correction takes into account the uncertainty in the trust we put on
lenging. Through simulating the weak prisoner’s dilemma in finite the evaluator. Our results naturally agree with our intuition that
populations, Zhang et al.16 found that neither a simple reward mea- extreme scores should most of the time be moderated, meaning

04 May 2024 11:58:51

sure nor a pure punishment mechanism can extensively promote shifted toward the center of the grading scale. These results open
cooperation. Instead, a combination of appropriate punishment and the way toward a systematic study of biases in human evaluation.
reward mechanisms can promote cooperation’s prosperity regard- In his interdisciplinary research, Granado et al.22 use intracra-
less of how large or small the temptation to defect is. These results nial electroencephalography (iEEG) recordings to analyze deep
demonstrate that dispensing rewards and punishments impartially brain electrical activity, bringing together insights from neurology,
in society is essential to social harmony. mathematics, and physics that allow describing the dynamic activ-
Velazquez et al.17 in their interdisciplinary article address the ity of the deep brain. In this paper, they investigate the dynamics of
question of the student workload, namely, the development of quan- preictal and basal signals in patients with refractory epilepsy using
titative methods to determine the training time required by students entropy and complexity quantifiers. The results show that minutes
to fulfill the learning outcomes of a course. They exploited the activ- before an epileptic seizure, the system evolves from a highly dissipa-
ity logs of digital platforms to collect empirical evidence about the tive chaotic state of the basal period to a state where entropy reaches
complex character of educational systems. Their analysis revealed a maximum and complexity is significantly reduced, corresponding
statistical patterns analogous to the ones observed in financial mar- to the preictal period.
kets with respect to the usage of available time of individuals to The article of Camargo et al.23 embodies inter/transdisciplinary
perform different academic activities. Atenas et al.18 exploited the research by integrating concepts from nonlinear dynamics, net-
precedent findings to develop two agent-based models to describe work theory, and macroeconomics to model and analyze economic
the learning phenomenon and introduce a new estimation method synchronization phenomena. Their research explores the intricate
for the academic credits based on the observed academic perfor- dynamics between coupled economies in an idealized macroeco-
mance of students after a follow-up period. nomics. They investigate how these systems transit between chaotic
Tsallis and Oliveira19 in their interdisciplinary work present and cyclical behaviors and the conditions that lead to their syn-
strong numerical evidence of an isomorphism connecting the energy chronization. The study provides insights into the complex nature
q-exponential distribution with a specific geographic growth ran- of economic cycles, the factors that can disrupt harmony between
dom model based on preferential attachment through exponentially interconnected economies, and the potential for predicting and
distributed weighted links. This connection is fully analogous to mitigating financial crises. This work contributes to a deeper under-
the well known examples of isomorphism between models within standing of economic resilience and the propagation of economic
Boltzmann–Gibbs thermostatistics and nontrivial random geomet- phenomena on a global scale.
rical models. Such examples include the Kasteleyn–Fortuin theorem The connection between information geometry and thermo-
related to bond percolation, the zero-state limit of the Potts fer- dynamics has long posited that information geometry curvature
romagnet related to random resistor networks, and the de Gennes diverges at phase transitions. Recent research on Bose–Einstein

Chaos 34, 010401 (2024); doi: 10.1063/5.0188971 34, 010401-3

Published under an exclusive license by AIP Publishing
 Chaos EDITORIAL pubs.aip.org/aip/cha

gases challenged this curvature to converge to zero rather than methodology to track the dynamical changes of rolling bearing and
diverge. Examining information geometry curvature at a finite num- turbine gearbox time series, observing better performance than that
ber of particles, which increases, curvature values decrease propor- achieved with other methods.
tionally to the power of the number of particles. The temperature Chen and Yong29 studied the controllability of complex net-
at which maximum curvature occurs approaches the defined criti- works for understanding how to control a complex social network.
cal temperature. In the thermodynamic limit, curvature maintains The extended precedent work, under the assumption that all nodes
a finite value, contradicting the idea that it diverges at phase transi- are compliant, passing on information neutrally without any pref-
tions. This study provides insights into the interplay of information erences, by another model where there is the presence of stubborn
geometry and thermodynamics in finite systems. The interdisci- agents, or zealots, who hold steadfast to their beliefs and seek to
plinary aspect of this research of Pessoa24 lies in the connection influence others. They reported that the presence of zealots alters
between information geometry and thermodynamics, challenging the energy cost at a quadratic rate with respect to their own fixed
conventional beliefs by examining curvature behavior at phase tran- beliefs, among other results.
sitions in finite systems.
In their interdisciplinary article, Kao et al.25 study the slid- III. CONCLUSIONS
ing mode control method for coupled delayed fractional reac-
tion–diffusion Cohen–Grossberg neural networks on a directed Complexity can be studied from different view angles. The
non-strongly connected topology. A novel fractional integral slid- first 12 articles mentioned in this review on Complex Systems
ing mode surface and the corresponding control law are designed and Inter/Transdisciplinary Research study complex systems from
to realize global Mittag–Leffler synchronization. The sufficient con- a non-interdisciplinary point of view. Topics covered include Con-
ditions for synchronization and reachability of the sliding mode densed Matter Physics, Magnetic Ordering, Soliton-like Behav-
surface are derived via the hierarchical and Lyapunov methods. iors, Stochastic Processes, Information Theory Entropy, Game
Finally, simulations are provided to verify the theoretical findings. Theory, and Network Theory. The following 14 articles men-
The interdisciplinary nature of this research is evident from the tioned in this review can be considered Inter/Transdisciplinary.
fusion of mathematics, fractional calculus, and neural networks. It As previously mentioned, interdisciplinary research means that the
addresses complex problems in diverse fields, from fluid dynamics subject of study and research questions integrate different dis-
to engineering control. ciplines and methodological approaches, while transdisciplinary
Feng et al.26 propose a model to optimize investment portfo- research cross different disciplines transversally. Examples of Inter-
lios, based on the Markowitz mean-variance portfolio model, but disciplinary research included in the Focus Issue are Nonlinear

04 May 2024 11:58:51

considering that asset returns follow an asymmetric power-law dis- Optics—Localized Chaos, Social Issues—Epidemiological Models,
tribution, which in turn suggests that fractal methods are more Social Networks—Game Theory, Economics—Teaching–Learning
appropriate to deal with this system. Thus, the authors consider frac- Processes, Wealth distribution in an economic system—Network
tal expectation and variance measures, allowing them to determine Theory, Statistics—Information Theory, Brain Activity—Nonlinear
asset returns and risks. The authors find analytical expressions for Dynamics, Operations Research—Fractals Theory, SIS Model—
the investment weights for assets under this model and apply their Phase Transitions, Wind Turbines–Complex Time Series—Social
results to the industry indexes of Shanghai Stock Exchange. The Networks, Social Networks—Network Theory. We hope that this
analysis shows that the fractal analysis for the portfolio improves on collection will be enjoyed by our readers. Although the covered
the traditional approach, based on nonfractal measures, and, thus, topics are vast, they are far from complete. Future contributions
provides a better technique to optimize investments. will be expanded to cover new hot topics, such as machine learn-
Chen et al.27 study the dynamics of epidemics over a net- ing and artificial intelligence, which are now receiving a progressive
work, where traffic is allowed along vertices, as a model for the and increasing interest for the wide audience, impacting many areas
spread of biological or computational virus, where people travel or beyond academic research.
information transport is inherent to the network and, thus, to the
propagation of the disease. In this work, the authors consider the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
classical SIS model over a scale-free network, adding a parameter for
the allocation of protection resources in each node, which, if enough, We thank all the authors for their interesting contributions,
may avoid infection of a node, but which may be inhomogeneously and we are grateful for the invaluable help of the referees who crit-
distributed along the network. Thus, the authors study how hetero- ically evaluated the papers that now form the present Focus Issue:
geneity in protection resources modifies the threshold needed for Complex Systems and Inter/Transdisciplinary Research. We also
widespread contagion and how the effectivity of a given resource appreciate the professionalism of the Chaos editorial staff, especially
distribution depends on the traffic flow. Professor Michael Small, Deborah Doherty, Felisa Conrad-Burton,
Dong et al.28 proposed reverse transition entropy, which is as well as editor-in-chief Professor Dr. Jürgen Kurths, all of whom
combined with refined composite multi-scale analysis and gen- provided unfailing support through every step of the process.
eralized fractional-order entropy to construct the refined com-
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 Chaos EDITORIAL pubs.aip.org/aip/cha

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