Global Society, Vol. 10, No.

3, 1996 225

Integrating Integration Theory:

Neo-functionalism and International Regimes

THOMAS GEHRING

It is common to juxtapose inter-governmentalism and neo-functionalism as the

two most important, and seemingly mutually exclusive, frameworks to interpret
the phenomenon of "European integration" and its institutional dimension, the
European Community. 1
Inter-governmentalism promises to offer a broadly applicable concept for the
analysis of international cooperative institutions. 2 It recognises that the Com-
munity emerged from the self-help based international system and emphasises
the continuing central role of the member states. However, conceiving of the
Community as one international institution among many others it tends to
disregard the specificities of this particular institution. Moreover, inter-govern-
mentalism is conceptionally founded on a state-centred and static approach to
institutions and cannot, therefore, cope with integration as a process of develop-
ment over time, nor does it readily accommodate the role of non-state actors
within the Community system.

1. A single European Community did not formally exist prior to the Maastricht Accord, while the
same treaty established the "European Union" in which three original Communities are now e m b e d d e d .
To ayoid confusion, the present article uses the term "European C o m m u n i t y " for the comprehensive
institution both in its pre-Maastricht and post-Maastricht (i.e. Union) stage.
2. Stanley Hoffmann, "Obstinate or Obsolete? The Fate of the Nation-State and the Case of Western
Europe", Daedalus, Vol. 95, No. 3 (1966), pp. 862-915; Stanley Hoffmann, "Reflections on the
Nation-State in Western Europe Today", journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 21, No. 1 (1982), pp.
21-37; Robert O. Keohane and Stanley Hoffmann, "Institutional Change in Europe in the 1980s", in
Robert O. Keohane and Stanley Hoffmann (eds.), The European Community: Decisionmaking and
Institutional Change (Boulder: Westvievv, 1991), pp. 1-39; Andrew Moravcsik, "Negotiating the Single
European Act: National Interests and Conventional Statecraft in the European Community",
International Organization, Vol. 45, No. 1 (1991), p p . 651-688; Andrew Moravscik, "Preferences and
Power in the European Community: A Liberal Inter-governmentalist Approach", journal of Common
Market Studies, Vol. 31, No. 4 (1993), p p . 473-524.
1360-0826/96/030225-29 e University of Kent at Canterbury
226 T. Gehring

A body of literature that is more or less related to the ideas of neo-functional-

ism avoids these mistakes.3 It is interested in the process of increasing inte-
gration rather than in the interaction of actors in a fairly stable environment. It
emphasises the dynamics of integration and identifies the role of supranational,
transnational and sub-national actors in this process. Not least, it is capable of
taking account of the particularities of the European Community. However,
beyond description of the Community system neo-functionalism has difficulties
in accommodating the role of the member states within the integration process.
Even more problematic, the now exclusive focus on the European Community
jeopardises theory building because serious theory cannot be built upon and
tested against one and the same empirical case.4
Hence, analysts frequently conclude that neither of the two perspectives is
clearly superior to the other and that both of them contribute to explaining
empirically observed outcomes.5 Under these conditions theoretical anarchy and
eclecticism proliferate.
A closer look at the existing divide reveals that it is made up of two
interrelated aspects. At the theoretical level a static and state-centred theory is
juxtaposed with a dynamic theory emphasising the role of supra-national and
non-state actors. And at the empirical level a broad perspective on a wide range
of similar institutions is confronted with a view on a phenomenon sui generis
that is perceived as not really being comparable to anything else. Against this
backdrop, two questions may be posed: If it is accepted that the European
Community is an empirically unique phenomenon, does it really need its own
theory? And vice versa: if it is true that modern neo-functionalism focuses on
phenomena other than traditional inter-governmentalism, is the European Com-
munity the only empirical subject that may be examined in this way?
The present paper answers both questions in the negative. It suggests that a
closer focus on the impact of institutions for governance offers opportunities for
a fruitful integration of the main approaches to European integration. From an
institutional perspective the European Community may be interpreted both as
an institution that has been established by the member states within the
horizontally organised international system to facilitate and stabilise cooper-
ation, and as a polity within which intra-institutional decision processes take

3. Wayne Sandholtz, "Choosing Union: Monetary Politics and Maastricht", International Organiza-
tion, Vol. 47, No. 1 (1993), pp. 1-39; Anne-Marie Burley and Walter Mattli, "Europe Before the Court:
A Political Theory of Legal Integration", International Organization, Vol. 47, No. 1 (1993), pp. 41-76; Gary
Marks, "Structural Policy in the European Community", in Alberta M. Sbragia (ed.), Euro-Politics:
Institutions and Policymaking in the "New" European Community (Washington DC: Brookings, 1992), pp.
191-224; Jeppe Tranholm-Mikkelsen, "Neo-functionalism: Obstinate or Obsolete? A Reappraisal in the
Light of the New Dynamics of the EC", Millennium, Vol. 20, No. 1 (1991), pp. 1-22. On the original
neo-functionalism, see Ernst B. Haas, The Uniting of Europe (Stanford CA: Stanford University Press,
1958); Joseph S. Nye, "Comparing Common Markets: A Revisited Neo-Functionalist Model", in Leon
N. Lindberg and Stuart A. Scheingold (eds.), Regional Integration: Theory and Research (Cambridge MA:
Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 192-231; Philippe C. Schmitter, "A Revised Theory of Regional
Integration", in ibid., pp. 232-264.
4. James A. Caporaso and John T.S. Keeler, "The European Community and Regional Integration
Theory", in Carolyn Rhodes and Sonia Mazey (eds.), The State of the European Union, Vol. 3 (Boulder:
Lynne Riener, 1995), p. 36.
5. Alberta M. Sbragia, "Introduction", in Alberta M. Sbragia, op. cit., pp. 1-2; David R. Cameron, "The
1992 Initiatives: Causes and Consequences", in Sbragia, op. cit., pp. 25-30.
 Integrating Integration Theory 227

place that allow the participation of non-state actors and, to some degree, even
hierarchical governance.
The paper looks first into the common roots of neo-functionalism and regime
theory and locates them in the middle ground between realism and legalism.
Subsequently, it develops a concept of institutionalised international governance
that introduces an institutional perspective into the dominant approach to
international regimes and applies it to the European Community. Finally, it
opens the static concept for feedback effects and development over time.
The paper concludes that the analysis of institutionalised international gover-
nance within the horizontally structured international system may in fact de-
velop an international relations perspective that focuses on horizontal
coordination among states without simply disregarding the institutional particu-
larities of the Community. Rather, this perspective helps draw attention to the
differences between regular dynamic international regimes and the Community.
It is apt to explain w h y (some) hierarchical governance is possible even without
serious accumulation of power at the top of the hierarchy.

From Neo-Functionalism to International Regimes: The Common Roots of

Theories of Institutionalised Cooperation
Unlike modern domestic systems (or at least the conceptional model derived on
their basis) the international system is horizontally, not hierarchically ordered. It
lacks a powerful entity above its component units (i.e. states) that would be able
to establish and enforce collectively oriented norms. However, while the
"anarchy" of the international system relates to this lack of hierarchy, it does not
necessarily imply absence of order. 6 Rather, the evaluation of the consequences
of international anarchy constitutes a central concern of international relations
theory.

Between Legalism and Realism

Legalism and classical institutionalism start from the assumption that inter-
national anarchy (or its adverse affects) may be overcome by the establishment
of international organisations and the development of international law. 7 Within
the context of European integration it is reflected in the belief that the adoption
of a European constitution would itself constitute the key step for transforming
the European Community into a true federal state. 8 Approaches of this type
attribute a considerable amount of independent influence to international insti-
tutions even without a powerful sanctioning apparatus to enforce collectively
oriented norms and policies. They assume that an appropriately designed
institution is capable of steering the decisions of the units and, consequently, of
taming their otherwise self-interested and occasionally conflict-raising behav-
iour. Hence, the establishment of international institutions itself may be con-

6. Helen Milner, "The Assumption of Anarchy in International Relations Theory: a Critique", Review
of International Studies, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 67-85.
7. For example, Grenville Clark and Louis B. Sohn, World Peace through World Law (Cambridge MA:
Harvard University Press, 3rd edn, 1966).
8. Carl J. Friedrich, Europa—Nation im Werden? (Bonn: Europa Union, 1972).
228 T. Gehring

ceived of as an important step for the progressive development of international

relations.
In contrast, political realism argues that the existence of international anarchy
will almost automatically lead to a self-help system in which the survival of the
units (i.e. states) depends first and foremost on their own behaviour.9 Stable
institutions are believed to constitute merely an epiphenomenon of the already
existing constellation of power and interests that is not capable of exerting
independent influence. Therefore, realism warns against following the idealistic
recommendations of legalism and institutionalism. States are advised to accumu-
late power resources and enhance their position within the system vis-a-vis their
counterparts as far as possible. In this view it is far less important whether
cooperation produces mutual gains than how these gains are distributed.10 After
all, a powerful entity does not exist above the state-level to protect the weaker
units from adverse action by the stronger ones. Any trust in the ordering power
of international institutions is completely misconceived and may even aggravate
conflict if it generates unrealistic expectations.
These two approaches constitute the extremes on a continuum. While one of
them believes in the relevance of institutions and recommends their establish-
ment, the other denies their power and warns against relying on them. The
middle ground between these extremes is occupied by theories which_are less
optimistic than legalism and traditional institutionalism but also less pessimistic
than political realism. Generally, they are based on the assumption that situa-
tions frequently allow mutually beneficial collaboration even of self-interested
actors, rather than being zero-sum. Moreover, they emphasise the beneficial role
of institutions even in the absence of serious sanctioning power for the establish-
ment, maintenance and development of international collaboration, while taking
account of the limits of their influence.

Beyond the Nation-state: Functionalism and Early Neo-functionalism

There can be no doubt that functionalism11 and its later refinement, i.e. early
neo-functionalism,12 set out to occupy this middle ground. They rejected both
the power-orientation of realism13 and the "grand designs" of legalism and
traditional institutionalism. Instead, they advocated a strategy of institutionally
supported incrementalism. They drew attention to the distinction between
power issues ("high politics") and welfare issues ("low politics") and argued
that the latter, in contrast to the former, bore the potential for the collective
pursuit of common interests. Over time, progress in "low politics" would

9. Edward H. Carr, The Twenty Years Crisis, 1919-1939: An Introduction to the Study of International
Relations (London: Harper, 1939); Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and
Peace (New York: Knopf, 5th edn, 1973); Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Polities (Reading:
Addison-Wesley, 1979).
10. Waltz, op. at., p. 105.
11. David Mitrany, A Working Peace System (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1966).
12. Haas, The Uniting of Europe, op. ät.; Leon Lindberg, The Political Dynamics of European Economic
Integration (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1963); Leon Lindberg and Stuart A. Scheingold, Europe's
Would-Be Polity. Patterns of Change in the European Community (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1970).
13. Ernst B. Haas, Beyond the Nation-State: Functionalism and International Organization (Stanford CA:
Stanford University Press, 1964).
 Integrating Integration Theory 229

produce fundamental political consequences. If peace could be built on its basis,

it would be a "working peace system", "not a peace that would bring the nations
quietly apart, but a peace that would bring them actively together".14
In the highly technocratic functionalist perspective of world politics the proper
administration of things was expected to produce more appropriate results than
political governance. Organisations should be established and invested with
competencies to execute the common interest. Therefore, institutions should be
shaped according to the functions which they were actually intended to perform
for (and that is, in the interest of) the actors concerned, i.e. "form should follow
function".15 Under these conditions institutions were indispensable instruments
to instigate and support the process of integration and could operate without a
concentration of sanctioning power.
Functionalist and neo-functionalist theories focus on the progressive develop-
ment of integration and therefore emphasise the role of "spill over" effects. They
emphasise the relevance of early institutionalisation of limited cooperation and
expect its later expansion. From an institutional perspective, "spill over"
amounts to a (positive) feedback mechanism stressing the possibility of self-sup-
porting social processes that start modestly, gain dynamics and may over time
produce dramatic outcomes.16 (Neo-) functionalism also draws attention to the
relevance of sub-national actors for this process, be they citizens or interest-
groups. For Haas, political integration was immediately linked to the emergence
of "a new political community superimposed over the pre-existing ones"17 and
based on the anticipated shift of the loyalty of elites from the national to the
supranational setting. Accordingly, the establishment of appropriate institutions
and the transfer of the necessary competencies would decrease the role of the
participating nation-states at least in relative terms, because other actors were
expected to partially take over control both at the supranational and at the
sub-national level.
However, it should be recalled that Haas developed his argument in direct
response to the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), an institution of
a particularly functionalist shape governing a limited sector of regional relations
according to criteria quite clearly outlined in the Paris Treaty. Against this
empirical background he put forward an ideal-type process which should
eventually lead to federation.

Collective Decision-making and Integration

A few years later Lindberg drew a significantly different conclusion from his
study of European integration. "My own investigations have led me to adopt a
more cautious conception of political integration, one limited to the develop-
ment of devices and processes for arriving at collective decisions by means other
than autonomous action by national governments".1** It seemed to him that "it is
logically and empirically possible that collective decision-making procedures

14. Mitrany, op. cit., p. 51.

15. Ibid.
16. Later scholars of regional integration discovered also negative ("spill back") and indifferent
("spill around") feedback effects; see Schmitter, op. cit.
17. Haas, The Uniting of Europe, op. at., p. 16.
18. Lindberg, The Political Dynamics of European Economic Integration, op. cit., p. 5 (emphasis added).
230 T. Gehring

involving a significant amount of political integration can be achieved without

moving toward a "political community" as defined by Haas".19
It is worth noting that Lindberg did not induce this modification of the
concept of integration from the dramatic events caused by French foreign policy
later in the 1960s. Rather, he derived it from his empirical examination of the
European Economic Community, the one original Community founded on
general, instead of sector-specific, integration. Apparently, this type of inte-
gration caused different governing mechanisms, presumably because it required
a constant stream of political, and not merely administrative, decisions. It was
precisely this Community which unfolded by far the most rapid and dynamic
development during the past three decades. Accordingly, the integration mech-
anism of the Economic Community that was based on collective decision-mak-
ing could be expected both to dominate the future integration process and to
move into the centre of academic interest.
Lindberg's modification disentangled political integration from the fate of the
participating nation-states and opened neo-functionalism for a more inter-
governmental perspective. While it did not rule out that political integration
might lead to the emergence of a "new political community", it emphasised the
possibility that it could remain in a state dominated by collective decision-mak-
ing (supplemented with some delegation of power). It already envisaged a
Community that was primarily characterised by coordination among the mem-
ber states.20 It was thus not very far from the later conception of a "confederal"
system in which actors at the supranational (i.e. Community organs), national
(i.e. governments of the member states), and transnational level (i.e. interest
groups) operated side by side.21 In a system of this type, which might be stable
over time without necessarily becoming a true federal state in the medium
term,22 many problems of coordination and implementation among states arose
in a similar manner as they did in other settings of international relations.23
When regional integration as a specific field of academic observation and
theorising lost its relevance during the early part of the 1970s and was eventu-
ally declared obsolete24 because the hope for the rapid emergence of a Haasian
"political community" had vanished upon the actual events, two developments
had blurred the theoretical distinction vis-ä-vis the study of international rela-
tions. Lindberg's turn in perspective and the confederal approach suggested that

19. Ibid., p. 5.
20. Not surprisingly, Lindberg employed later on a system-theoretical approach to integrate both
dimensions. See Leon Lindberg, "The European Community as a Political System: Notes toward the
Construction of a Model", Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 5, No. 4 (1967), pp. 344-387.
21. On confederalism, see Donald J. Puchala, "Of Blind Men, Elephants and International
Integration", lourmil of Common Market Studies, Vol. 10, No. 3 (1972), pp. 267-284, and Paul Taylor, "The
Politics of the European Communities: The Confederal Phase", World Polities Vol 27 No 3(1975) np
336-360.
22. William Wallace, "Less than a Federation, More than a Regime: The Community as a Political
System", in Helen Wallace, William Wallace and Carole Webb (eds.), Policy-Making in tiie European
Community (Chichester: Wilev, 1983), pp. 403-436.
23. Donald J. Puchala, "Domestic Politics and Regional Harmonisation in the European Communi-
ties", World Politics, Vol. 27, No. 4 (1975), pp. 496-520; Donald J. Puchala, Fiscal Harmonisation in the
European Communities: National Politics and International Cooperation (London: Pinter, 1984).
24. Ernst B. Haas, The Obsolescence of Regional Integration Theory (Berkeley CA: Berkeley University,
Institute of International Studies, 1975).
 Integrating Integration Theory 231

the development of integration within the European Community might be more

state-centred and therefore conceptionally less unique than assumed. And (neo-)
functional ideas had gained so much relevance within international relations
theory at large that Haas expressly called for the inclusion of regional integration
into, and its subordination to, the study of changing patterns of interdepen-
dence.25

Interdependence and Issue Area-specific Cooperation

Central neo-functional ideas were especially blossoming in the study of inter-
national interdependence.26 Like neo-functionalism, this area of international
relations theorising was clearly directed against the traditional narrow power
orientation of realism. It paid attention to the relevance of functional cooperation
in world politics and the participation of non-state actors therein. It emphasised
the role of lower level communication among functional bureaucracies27 and the
importance of "organisation" and multilateral negotiations as independent ex-
planatory factors beyond power.28 Keohane and Nye developed "complex inter-
dependence" as an ideal type of relationship within the international system
diametrically opposed to the realist type.29
The interest in "international regimes" as a new area of study was rooted in
this neo-functionally informed branch of international relations theorising.30
When Ruggie proclaimed that "international relations were institutionalised",31
it had become clear for some years that the horizontal structure of the inter-
national system did not preclude the emergence of institutions that mattered
because they were capable of influencing the behaviour of actors, and accord-
ingly the outcomes of situations. However, the concept of international regimes
was far from clearly outlined. Originally regimes were not more than somehow
stabilised patterns of interdependence.32 Only much later they became expressly
understood as outcomes of negotiations, that is as arrangements that were
deliberately established by the actors concerned to foster their own interests.33 In
contrast to realists, regime theorists assumed that states have separate interests
in different issue-areas and not a stable hierarchy of interests with security at its
top. Opportunities for cooperation would then depend on the particular condi-

25. Ibid., p. 88.

26. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye (eds.), Transnational Relations and World Politics (Cambridge
CA: Harvard University Press, 1972).
27. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, "Transgovernmental Relations and International
Organizations", World Politics, Vol. 27, No. 1 (1974), pp. 39-62.
28. Ernst B. Haas, "Is there a Hole in the Whole? Knowledge, Technology, Interdependence, and the
Construction of International Regimes", International Organization, Vol. 29, No. 3 (1975), pp. 827-875.
29. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition
(Boston/Toronto: Little Brown, 1977).
30. See, for example, Ernst B. Haas, "On Systems and International Regimes", World Politics, Vol. 27,
No. 2 (1975), pp. 147-174; Keohane and Nye, Power and Interdependence, op. cit.
31. John G. Ruggie, "International Responses to Technology: Concepts and Trends", International
Organization, Vol. 29, No. 4 (1975), pp. 557-583.
32. Keohane and Nye, Power and Interdependence, op. cit.
33. See Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, "Power and Interdependence Revisited", International
Organization, Vol. 41, No. 4 (1987), pp. 725-753; Robert O. Keohane, "The Analysis of International
Regimes: Towards a European-American Research Programme", in Volker Rittberger (ed.), Regime
Theory and International Relations (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993), pp. 23-45.
232 T. Gehring

turns prevailing within a given issue-area. Accordingly, international regimes

were necessarily issue-area specific and their shape was largely determined by
the structure of the respective issue-area (hence, again "form followed function").
However, while it was clear that technological, economic, and later environ-
mental cooperation would almost throughout affect the interests of sub-national
actors, the regime concept did not pay particular attention to interest groups and
other sub-national actors. Moreover, the assumed issue-area specificity of inter-
national regimes made it difficult to accommodate another central concern of
functionalism, namely the "spill over" concept. While the possibility of dynam-
ically expanding substantive cooperation within the international system was
not denied, it was expected normally to take place in the form of the emergence
of new regimes within separate issue-areas. Conceptionally, dynamics was
beyond a theoretical approach that took specific arrangements as its units of
analysis.
These modifications hardly reduced the importance of the new approach
because it was precisely the highly overestimated relevance of spill over in the
case of the European Community and the lacking emergence of a Haasian "new
political community" that had led to the revocation of neo-functionalism. In
essence early regime theory primarily dropped the unsuccessful elements of the
original neo-functionalism. Hence, the regime concept of the late 1970s did not
only attract some important neo-functionalist scholars,34 it may be considered as
the true successor of neo-functionalism. The central message of regime theory
toward neo-functionalism was that states might (in their own interest) play a
positive role in organising international relations, rather than merely being the
opponents and victims of political integration. Implicitly, international relations
theory offered international regimes as the suitable units of comparison for the
European Community.
Regime theorists claimed that institutions could matter and change behaviour
even under conditions of international anarchy. When Waltz35 developed struc-
tural neo-realism and submitted a theoretically clarified version of the realist
argument based on a clear epistemology, some institutionalists accepted the
Waltzian methodology and reacted in defence of the institutionalist argument.36
The "cooperation under anarchy" approach produced a lot of theoretical and, on
that basis, empirical insights about the opportunities and limits of cooperation in
the horizontally structured international system.37 Eventually it decided the long
"neo-realist—neo-institutionalist debate" of belief about the power of institu-
tions in its favour.38

34. This is especially true for Haas and Nye while other scholars of regional integration, for example
Schmitter and I.indberg, retained the interest g r o u p orientation and directed their attention toward the
study ot neo-corporatism in domestic political systems.
35. Walt/, of. cit.
3h. Duncan Snidal, ' T h e Limits of Hegemonic Stability Theory", International Organization, Vol. 34,
No. 4 (1985), pp. 579-614; Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World
Political Economy (Princeton: Princeton University 1'ress, 1984). Keohane, ibid., p. 67, expressiv
endeavoured to avoid the "smuggling in" of idealistic assumptions.
37. Kenneth Oye, "Explaining Cooperation under Anarchy", World Politics, Vol. 38, No. 1 (1985), pp.
1-24; Robert Axelrod and Robert O. Keohane, "Achieving Cooperation under Anarchy" World Politic*
Vol. 38, No. 1 (1985), pp. 226-254.
38. Robert Powell, "Anarchy in International Relations: The Neo-realist—Neo-liberal Debate"
International Organization, Vol. 48, No. 2 (1994), pp. 313-344.
 Integrating Integration Theory 233

In contrast to Waltzian neo-realism, the mainstream approach to regimes is

still an institutional concept that is firmly located in the middle ground between
realism and legalism. It emphasises the positive role of institutionalised cooper-
ation in the international system and draws attention to the opportunities for
mutually beneficial cooperation depending on the constellation of interests
among the participating actors within the issue-area concerned. However, its
strict individualist methodology generates a practically state-centred and largely
static concept of governance that precludes the exploration of feedback mecha-
nisms and the dynamics inherent in institutions.
Although dominating the study of international regimes, the rationalistic
mainstream does not monopolise it.39 A heterogeneous "reflective" (or better,
"constructive") branch that has not yet been synthesised into a coherent rival
approach to international regimes, emphasises a number of other aspects, for
example the autonomous influence of institutions beyond cooperation among
states, the relevance of norms and law and the possibility of (positive) feed-
back.40 Reflective contributions are in one way or another closer to the interde-
pendence-oriented origins of the regime concept of the 1970s than the dominant
mainstream. They centre around the argument that an existing institution may
(as an independent variable) affect not merely the behaviour, but also the
interests of the member states. Hence, international regimes as empirically
observable phenomena might be more than cooperative arrangements among
rationally behaving state actors. And as a field of study international regimes
must not be confused with a particular theoretical perspective. In short, the
domination of the rational choice-based perspective toward international
regimes does not invalidate the suitability of these institutions as units of
comparison for the European Community.

The Nexo Wave of European Community Studies

Since the latter part of the 1980s the theoretically informed study of European
integration attracted considerable renewed interest. Generally, contributions
refrain from speculating about the institutional end-state of the integration
process as well as from measuring integration. They take account of the lasting
role of the member states, but generally emphasise the importance of sub-state
and non-state actors. Surprisingly, it has been observed that the traditional
divide between inter-governmentalism and neo-functionalism continues to

39. Roberto. Keohane, "International Institutions: Two Approaches", International Studie* Quarterly,
Vol. 32, No. 4 (1988), pp. 379-396.
40. Oran R. Young, International Cooperation: Building Regime* for Natural Resources and the Environment
(Ithaca/London: Cornell University Press, 1989); Friedrich Kratochwil, Rules, Norms and Decisions: On
the Conditions of Practical and Legal Reasoning in International Relations and Domestic Affairs (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1989); Andrew Hurrel, "International Society and the Study of Regimes:
A Reflective Approach", in Volker Rittberger (ed.), Regime Theory and International Relations (Oxford:
Clarendon, 1993), pp. 49-72; Thomas Gehring, Dynamic International Regimes: Institutions for International
Environmental Governance (Frankfurt/M: Lang, 1994).
234 T. Gehring

structure the debate,41 with Moravcsik at one side,42 and Sandholtz, Marks and
Sbragia at the other.43
However, a second look reveals that this divide closely resembles the dispute
between the rationalistic and the "reflectivist" (or "constructivist") branch of
regime theory. To begin with, Moravcsik's "liberal inter-governmentalist" ap-
proach is not at all "realist" in the international relations understanding of the
term. It does not in any way contradict the conception of the outcomes of the
major European bargains as cooperative arrangements. Unlike Waltz, Moravcsik
does not focus on positional advantages, nor does he derive state interests from
the structure of the international system. Implicitly, he considers mutually
beneficial cooperation generally possible. He supplements a "cooperation under
anarchy approach" with a second level of analysis at which state interests are
generated. In this way he may incorporate the generation of state interests into
the analysis, but not the genesis of the preferences of the constitutive sub-state
actors (i.e. powerful interest groups). Thus, Moravcsik's approach remains statist
despite the far-reaching reduction of states to intermediaries of the interests of
sub-state actors, because only states are assumed to bargain at the Community
level. It is also static, because there is no feedback mechanism that would open
the approach for (positive or negative) influence of an already established
institution on the later generation of actors' preferences. Development does not
take place within a concept of this type because it lacks a time perspective.
In contrast, other contributors attribute more relevance to established institu-
tions and their effects for later rounds of decision-making.44 Significantly, for
Sandholtz modern neo-functionalism is institutionalism,45 probably not least
because in the case of the European Community institutional effects include the
establishment and empowerment of supranational, subnational and transna-
tional actors. These actors are assumed to be capable of influencing the collective
(supranational) decision process independently of the member states, rather than
of merely acting through them. Accordingly, the assessment of the relevance of
non-state actors is inseparably intertwined with the exploration of the impact of
the established institution on outcomes. After all, the very existence of the
Commission as the predominant supra-national actor may be attributed to the
past integration process, and the role of regions as actors of a specific type may
be interpreted as a direct effect of the preceding regional policy.46 From a
theoretical point of view the institutional issue is clearly superior to the actor-
centred one. This implicit setting of priorities may be taken as indicating where
the principal distinction between the European Community and "normal"
international regimes might be found, namely in the realm of institutionalised
organisation of collective decision processes.

41. Caporaso and Keeler, op. <.'/(.

42. Moravcsik, Negotiating the Single European Act, op. cit.; Moravscik, Preferences and Power in the
European Community, op. cit.
43. Sandholtz, Choosing Union, op. cit.; Marks, Structural Policy in the European Community, op. cit.;
Alberta M. Sbragia, "Thinking about the European Future: The Uses of Comparison", in Sbraeia on
cit., pp. 257-291.
44. Wayne Sandholtz and John Zysman, "1992: Recasting the European Bargain", World Politics, Vol.
42,_No. 1 (1989), pp. 95-128; Marks, Structural Policy m the European Community, op. cit.
45. Sandholtz, Choosing Union, op. cit., p. 2.
46. Marks, Structural Policy in the European Community, op. cit.
 Integrating Integration Theory 235

The preceding discussion allows some conclusions to be drawn about the state
of integration theory. The present debate is not a matter of prediction about
whether the process of European integration will eventually lead to the emerg-
ence of a full-fledged federal state. It is not conducted between those flatly
denying the influence of institutions in the horizontally structured ("anarchic")
international system and those endeavouring to discover factors that might
nevertheless allow institutionally supported cooperation to partially overcome
international anarchy. It is not a dispute between those predominantly focusing
on high politics and relative gains and those advocating progress in positive
sum "low politics" areas. In short, it is not the debate of the 1950s and 1960s
between realists and neo-functionalists, nor is it the debate of the 1980s between
realists and neo-institutionalists (regime theorists). Rather, the dispute is be-
tween those denying the independent influence of institutions beyond the mere
stabilisation of mutually beneficial cooperation among states on the basis of a
given constellation of preferences and those attributing to institutions a certain
degree of influence on the generation of actors' preferences. Hence, the dispute
takes place within the intermediate theoretical camp and centres around the
appropriate conception of the present European Community. In this regard, it
seems to repeat a very similar debate between rationalists and reflectivists about
the influence of international regimes on state actors.

Institutionalised International Governance

The discussion of the last sub-section suggests that the institutional analysis of
the Community, rather than the issue of the relative importance of state and
non-state actors within the Community might constitute the key to the solution
of the dispute. 4 7 From Lindberg's early observation of the relevance of collective
decision-making it may be concluded that institutions of this type are not least
of interest because they organise and support collective decision processes.
Finally, the regime concept reminds that there must be substantial advantage for
the actors concerned for institutionalised cooperation to emerge under condi-
tions of international anarchy. The present section endeavours to develop a
clear-cut concept of "institutionalised international governance" that accommo-
dates these three dimensions.

International Anarchy and the Demand for Cooperation

The major success of mainstream regime theory within the past 15 years may be
attributed not least to its conceptional clarity that requires theoretically
rigourous argumentation because it is based on parsimonious modelling rather
than description of empirically observed complexity. It allows the theoretical
argument to start from an assumed "state of nature", namely the anarchy of the
international state system in which the relations of the units are not yet
institutionalised (as they in fact are). It also makes quite simple and very little
demanding assumptions about the state-actors, namely that they behave as
unitary and rational utility maximisers. An approach of this type is thus

47. Surprisingly, the institutional dimension of European Community studies has been recognised
as being seriously underdeveloped so far, see Caporaso and Keeler, op. at., pp. 49-51.
236 T. Gehring

designed to help analyse why actors may deliberately engage in establishing

institutions even if they lack collective orientation.
Under conditions of international anarchy rational egoists will usually not care
about deliberate coordination and collective decision-making for its own sake.
They will take the behaviour of their co-actors into account, but they will decide
and act unilaterally. Similar to a market, outcomes of decision situations will
emerge automatically as a consequence of decentralised decision-making and
subsequent action. In many cases this implicit (market-like) coordination mech-
anism will produce results that cannot be improved in the absence of hierarchy
because every change would disadvantage at least one actor involved. These
situations lack a sufficiently high incentive for the participating actors to
deliberately organise their interaction differently from market-like coordination.
However, the analysis of strategic action reveals that there are situations in
which all actors could be better off, if they chose a different behaviour than their
myopic interests (preferences) recommended.48 In these situations the participat-
ing actors are collectively trapped in a dilemma. Even though they are still
assumed to be exclusively interested in maximising their own utility, they have
"mixed motives". Collective action would improve their individual outcomes, if
it could be brought about. Hence, cooperation among egoistic and rational actors
is not entirely impossible, but it may be difficult to establish and sustain.
Cooperation theory draws attention to the substantive dimension of establish-
ing institutions that facilitate cooperation, namely the desire to realise mutual
benefits. It emphasises that the demand for cooperative institutions depends on
the particular constellation of preferences prevailing within a given issue-area.
And it outlines the substantive function of these institutions. They should help
overcome the cooperation problem and for that purpose modify the preferences
of the member states so that individually rational behaviour and collective
demands coincide and the actors are motivated to adapt their behaviour in a
way that promises improved outcomes both collectively and individually. Im-
plicitly, cooperation theory already indicates what international governance may
be about, namely the establishment of a mechanism by which actors may
purposively coordinate their behaviour in a way that overcomes the failures of
market-like coordination.49

48. Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Croups (Cambridge CA:
Harvard University Press, 1965); Rüssel Hardin, Collective Action (Baltimore/London: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1982); Keohane, After Hegemony, op. cit.; Duncan Snidal, "The Uimits of Hegemonic
Stability Theory", 17). cit.; Michael Zürn, Interessen und Institutionen in der Internationalen Politik.
Grundlegung und Anwendungen des sititationsstrukturellen Ansatzes (Opladen: Leske & Budrich, 1992);
Otto Keck, "Die Bedeutung der rationalen Institutionentheorie für die Politikwissenschaft", in Gerhard
Cöhler (ed.), Die Eigenart der Institution: Zum Profil politischer Institutionentheorie (Baden-Baden- Nomos
1994), pp. 187-220.
49. On international governance, see James N. Rosenau, "Governance, Order and Change in World
Politics", in James N. Rosenau and Ernst-Otto Czempiel (eds.), Governance without Government: Order
and Change in World Politics (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 1-29; Beate
Kohler-Koch, "Die Welt regieren ohne Weltregierung", in Carl Bohret and Göttrik Wewer (eds.),
Regieren im 23. Jahrhundert—Zwischen Globalisierung und Regkmalisierung (Opladen: Ueske & Budrich,
1993), pp. 109-141; Thomas Gehring, "Regieren im internationalen System. Verhandungen, Normen
und internationale Regime", Politische Vierteljahresschrift, Vol. 36, No. 2 (1995), pp. 197-219.
 Integrating Integration Theory 237

International Governance and Collective Decision-making

Outlining the demand for cooperative institutions within a group of actors does
not yet indicate the process by which a collective-action dilemma is transformed
into cooperation. Axelrod argued from a behavioural point of view that cooper-
ation may emerge from repeated interaction alone,50 especially if direct reciproc-
ity51 is applicable. In this case the cooperation problem dissolves tacitly. Over
time optimal outcomes are realised by market-like coordination alone. However,
there may be instances in which cooperation is not realised automatically or as
rapidly as desirable. In such cases a group of actors may be inclined actively to
intervene and facilitate its emergence. These actors would desire to coordinate
their behaviour differently from the established market mechanism.
A group of actors commonly intending to deliberately bring about collectively
and individually improved outcomes must actively influence the decisions and
behaviour of its members. It requires appropriate instruments for this purpose.
At this state of social development the group is not at all able to act indepen-
dently of its members. It does also not (yet) dispose of power and resources (e.g.
money) independently of them. However, within the group of actors social
norms may develop that orient the decisions of actors and influence their
behaviour. Norms are under collective "control" inasmuch as they are beyond
the grip of the single actors, even the more powerful, in horizontal societies.
They may constitute a basic instrument for purposive collective governance.
Norms are an almost ubiquitous phenomenon. Even the automatic emergence
of cooperation from repeated interaction according to Axelrod does not exclude
that norms ("conventions") arise tacitly or "spontaneously". Although these
norms do not demand active adaptations of actors' behaviour, they may be
relevant for rational egoists. They reflect and stabilise expectations about appro-
priate behaviour and delimitate the boundary between cooperation and defec-
tion.52 If the rationality of the deciding actors is "bounded" by the limitation of
their information processing capacity and the complexity of decision situations/ 3
spontaneous norms may intervene into the decision process. They become
independent sources of influence to the degree to which decision-makers rely on
their assistance.54 Institutions of this simple type are conceptionally unproblem-
atic because they emerge solely from repeated action among a number of actors.
The relevant actors interact exclusively by a sequence of unilaterally determined
action and generate social norms as a by-product of their interaction.

50. Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984).
51. On the difference between direct and diffuse reciprocity, see Robert O. Keohane, "Reciprocity
in International Relations", International Organization, Vol. 40, No. 1 (1986), pp. 1-27.
52. See Niklas Luhmann, Rechtssoziologie (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 2nd edn, 1980); Keck, Die
Bedeutung der rationalen Institutionentheorie für die Politikicisscnschaft, op. eit.
53. On bounded rationality, see Herbert A. Simon, "Theories of Bounded Rationality", in C.B.
McGuire and Roy Radner (eds.), Decision and Organization (Amsterdam: North Holland, 1972), pp.
161-176; reprinted in Herbert A. Simon, Models of Bounded Rationality, Vol. 2 (Cambridge MA: MIT Press,
1982).
54. On the relevance of norms for interest-driven actors, see Uwe Schimank, "Erwartungssicherheit
und Zielverfolgung. Sozialität zwischen Prisoner's Dilemma und Battle of the Sexes", Soziale Welt, Vol.
43, No. 2 (1992), pp. 182-200; Gehring, Dynamic International Regimes, op. at., pp. 370-373; Thomas
Plumper, "Quasi-rationale Akteure und die Funktion internationaler Institutionen", Zeitschrift für
internationale Beziehungen, Vol. 2, No. 1 (1995), pp. 49-77.
238 T. Gehring

"Spontaneous regimes"55 generated in this way may contribute to stabilising

established behaviour, but they are not suited for the purpose of active gover-
nance because by definition they follow the emergence of patterns of interaction.
If norms are to become instruments for purposive intervention, they must be
shaped independently of the interaction which they are intended to affect and
their moulding must precede the adaptation of behaviour. These norms cannot
emerge from action alone. Rather, the actors concerned must collectively estab-
lish a second sphere of interaction at which they do not immediately act but
merely communicate about norms. A group of states may, for example, continue
to pollute a regional sea (sphere of action) and simultaneously negotiate about
a cooperative arrangement on the reduction of pollution (sphere of communi-
cation). Thus, the clear separation of a sphere of communication in which the
actors collectively mould norms from a sphere of action in which they operate
according to their unilaterally determined decisions is a prerequisite for purpo-
sive international governance.56
The establishment of a sphere of communication has dramatic consequences
for the social organisation of the relevant group of actors. It is this step that
invests the group with the ability to adopt collective decisions beyond the
control of the single members and independently of their individual behaviour.
It establishes an institutional apparatus by which a group of state-actors may
govern a limited sector of international relations. This institutional apparatus is
a collective entity. It does not comprise the member states, because they continue
to exist independently of it and do not sacrifice their ability to decide unilaterally
about their behaviour. These states merely take part, in their common and
individual interest, in the collective employment of instruments that make
certain options of behaviour less attractive than others.
It may be concluded that institutionalised international governance does not
only comprise a substantive component relating to the gains of mutually
beneficial cooperation but also a procedural component that relates to the
making of collective decisions about norms within a sphere of communication.
Cooperative arrangements, that is sets of norms, will be the outcome of this
procedural component. In contrast, cooperation is realised within the sphere of
action, if actors adapt their behaviour accordingly.

Organising the Collective Decision Process

The establishment of an institutional apparatus for international governance
does not transform the horizontal structure of the international system into a
hierarchical order. Generally, successful international governance relies on three
conditions, namely: (a) that collective decisions are actually adopted (procedural
dimension); (b) that they are acceptable to the actors concerned and do not
preclude implementation (substantive dimension); and (c) that they actually
affect behaviour. The first two aspects may be directly affected by the appropri-
ate organisation of the collective decision process, while the last one is merely

55. Oran R. Young, "Regime Dynamics: The Rise and Fall of International Regimes" International
Organization, Vol. 36, No. 2 (1982), pp. 277-297.
56. Gehring, Regieren im internationalen System, op. cit.
 Integrating Integration Theory 239

subject to indirect influence because it remains under control of the single actors
concerned.
Negotiations constitute a form of communication that is particularly well-
suited for coordination in horizontal societies. It allows collective decision-mak-
ing in the mode of bargaining. Rational egoists may pursue their interests by
resorting to their power resources that are in international negotiations generally
reflected in credible threats to use the "exit-option".57 Within negotiations,
bargaining is directed at balancing existing preferences and distributing joint
gains. It is a necessary component of the communicative process of collective
norm-moulding because it ensures that cooperation does not leave the area of
overlapping interests. Even if negotiations are limited to pure bargaining,
organisation of communication matters. The relevant constellation of interests
may be collectively manipulated by adding or subtracting actors and subjects.58
Moreover, in the case of multilateral negotiations the sheer complexity of
bilateral relations may motivate the actors to, implicitly or explicitly, accept
limits to participation in the initial round.59 Even then, exclusive bargaining may
jeopardise the successful conclusion of negotiations because it threatens to
engage the actors in a zero sum (i.e. purely distributive) conflict.60
However, negotiations constitute a form of verbalised interaction and there-
fore allow the exchange of reasonable arguments.61 Negotiators may attempt to
convince their co-actors of the reasonableness of their proposals on the basis of
commonly accepted criteria. Hence, the actors may mobilise a second source of
influence (beyond bargaining power) to pursue their individual interests. This
mode of interaction, arguing, is directed at the convergence, and that is, active
modification, of actors' preferences. It may contribute not only to identifying but
also to developing the area of common interests of the actors concerned.62
Obviously, decision-making in negotiations will be facilitated if bargaining is
as far as possible limited to the distribution of joint gains, while arguing is
employed to identify areas of mutual cooperation. Generally, even rational
egoists will accept decisions derived at by arguing based on compelling criteria
that are relevant for their own decision-making. This is especially true for issues

57. Albert O. Hirschman, Exit, Voice, and Loyalty—Responses to Decline in Finns, Organizations, ami
States (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1970).
58. James K. Sebenius, "Negotiation Arithmetics: Adding and Subtracting Issues and Parties",
International Organization, Vol. 37, No. 2 (1983), pp. 281-316.
59. Fritz W. Scharpf, "Positive und negative Koordination in Verhandlungssystemen", in Adrienne
Heritier (ed.), Policy-Analyse: Kritik und Neuorientierung, Politische Vierteljahresschrift, Sonderheft 24
(Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1993), pp. 57-83; M.W. Pinto, "Modern Conference Techniques:
Insights from Social Psychology and Anthropology", in R.St.J. MacDonald and Douglas M. Johnson
(eds.), The Structure and Process of International law: Essays in Legal Philosophy, Doctrine and Theory (The
Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1983), pp. 305-339.
60. David A. Lax and James K. Sebenius, The Manager as Negotiator: Bargaining for Cooperation and
Competitive Gain (New York: Free Press, 1986).
61. Jürgen Habermas, "Wahrheitstheorien", in H. Fahrenbach (ed.), Wirklichkeit und Reflexion,
Festschrift für Walter Schulz (Pfullingen: Neske, 1973), pp. 211-265; Jürgen Habermas, Theorie des
kommunikativen Handelns, Vol. 1: Handlungsrationalität und gesellschaftliche Rationalisierung (Frankfurt/M:
Suhrkamp, 2nd edn, 1982).
62. Thomas Gehring, "Arguing und Bargaining in internationalen Verhandlungen zum Schutz der
Umwelt. Überlegungen am Beispiel des Ozon schutzregimes", in Volker von Prittwitz (ed.), Verhandeln
und Argumentieren: Dialog, Interessen und Macht in der Umweltpolitik (Opladen: Leske & Budrich, 1996),
pp. 207-238.
240 T. Gehring

of pure knowledge (cognitive issues), while matters of pure preference and

parochial choice are less suited for mutually acceptable settlement by arguing. A
group of rational utility maximisers desiring to realise cooperation may thus in
their own interest agree to collectively establish a fair procedure to settle some
issues according to acceptable criteria, while retaining other issues for settlement
by power-based bargaining. Accordingly, a collective decision process may be
fostered by its separation into a number of semi-autonomous decision processes
that discharge limited, functionally dependent tasks within a comprehensive
negotiation.63
Expert committees are a typical example for this type of semi-autonomous
decision-making. Functionally, they are set up to relieve the core negotiations
from discussing technical issues on which the actors are uncertain. They reduce
the danger that these issues become intermingled with the pursuit of parochial
interests by the negotiating state actors. Therefore, expert groups may discharge
their task only if they do not operate according to the same criteria as political
negotiations do. For that reason they may open the negotiation system beyond
the limited group of member states and provide some leverage for non-govern-
mental actors, for example scientists and relevant industries.
Eventually the results of a functionally dependent decision process must be
introduced into the core political negotiations. In a horizontal structure, states
cannot usually be forced to accept the outcome of an expert deliberation (this
would already constitute a hierarchical dimension). However, results constitute
themselves "arguments" that force the negotiators to decide. Either they prefer
to exploit the relief function—and accept the results; or they reject them and
sacrifice the assistance offered by the expert group.
Hence, horizontal coordination and collective decision-making among states
does not imply that states merely balance their unilaterally established interests.
It does not even mean that they decide all issues themselves. The skilful
organisation of collective decision processes matters, non-state actors may par-
ticipate in semi-autonomous decision processes and state preferences may be
affected during collective decision processes. But these sources of influence are
relevant only within the framework of a comprehensive negotiation process that
is itself part of the endeavour of a group of state-actors to govern a limited area
of international relations.

International Regimes as Institutions for International Governance

If international regimes are conceived of as institutions for purposive inter-
national governance, they will necessarily be composed of two different ele-
ments, namely a communication process about norms and the result of this
process, a set of commonly moulded norms to regulate a given issue-area in the

63. Alfons Bora, "Gesellschaftliche Integration durch Verfahren. Zur Funktion von Verfahrens-
gerechtigkeit in der Technikfolgenabschätzung und-bewertung", Zeitschrift für Rechtssoziolo?ic, Vol. 14,
No. 1, pp. 55-79.
64. Gehring, Dynamic International Regimes, op. eil, pp. 37<M00. In contrast, the widely applied
'consensus defmrtion" defines international regimes merely as "sets of implicit or explicit principles,
norms, rules and decision-making procedures around which actors expectations converged in a given
area of international relations"; Stephen Krasner, "Structural Causes and Regime Consequences"
International Organization, Vol. 36, No. 2 (1982), p. 186.
 Integrating Integration Theory 241

The substantive component must be closely adapted to the constellation of

interests in the issue-area in order to become effective, because self-interested
actors will refuse to implement norms that run counter to their interests—and in
the absence of hierarchy nothing would prevent them from doing so. For that
reason the participating states must in the end voluntarily agree on the cooper-
ative arrangement hammered out during the preceding negotiations. Yet, this
does not imply that other (i.e. non-state) actors are precluded from intervening
into the collective decision process, it merely means that they may be successful
only to the degree to which the negotiating states accept (i.e. are convinced by)
their interventions. In short, in this type of international negotiations states may
argue and bargain, while other actors are limited to pursuing their interests by
arguing. Also, it does not imply that non-compliance with agreed upon norms
will be costless. It merely means that the group as a collective entity will hardly
be able to enforce its norms against states in the Weberian sense.65 Rather, the
power to sanction compliance and enforce non-compliance must come from
other member states, and that is, it will be channelled horizontally, not verti-
cally.
There is another important aspect about regime-supported cooperation in the
horizontally structured international system. The benefits of cooperation may be
realised only if the participating states implement the commonly agreed norms
and adapt their behaviour accordingly. However, in numerous low-politics areas
measures to achieve cooperation do not only require immediate state action but
also affect the behaviour (and the interests) of relevant sub-state actors. Cooper-
ating states must therefore be powerful enough to enforce appropriate behaviour
domestically. Accordingly, successful international governance relies—at least to
some degree—on a sufficiently strong hierarchical relationship between the
participating states and their sub-units.
Altogether regime-supported international cooperation in low politics issue-
areas may be conceived of as operating according to the following three-level
model. In the upward (norm-moulding) process unit-level interests influence the
aggregate national interests which governments pursue during an international
negotiation. The national interests of the participating states influence, in turn,
the collective decision process about norms that defines the common interests of
the participating state-actors. In the downward (norm-applying) process collec-
tively agreed norms orient decision-making by states. State-action, in turn,
commands sub-unit actors to adapt their behaviour accordingly. Beyond this
general relationship there may be some direct impact of sub-state actors on the
collective decision process and some direct impact of regime norms on sub-state
actors.
It is important to note, however, that there need not be any actor at the
collective level. This level is the location for collective decision processes and
collectively agreed norms. Conceptionally, the community of states decides and
acts exclusively through its members.b6

65. Max Weber, Wirtschaft unit Gesellschaft: Grundriß der verstehenden Soziologie (Tübingen: Mohr,
edn, 1972), p. 28.
66. However, real-world multilateral international regimes usually comprise a, generally wc
secretariat that forms the nucleus of an independent actor located at the collective level.
242 T. Gehring

collective level (regime) |*

horizontal J unit level (states)

f\
| '
hierarchical J T /
sub-unit level (companies/citizens) |'

Figure 1. Regime-supported international cooperation in low politics issue-areas.

The European Community as a Regime-like International Institution

This conception applies to virtually all international regimes, including sophisti-
cated ones like the world trade regime (World Trade Organisation—WTO) and
the regime for the protection of the ozone layer. From an international relations
perspective the model also seems to fit the European Community surprisingly
well. Like an international regime the Community has been founded by its
member states to realise mutual gains in certain areas of international relations.
Like an international regime, it has emerged from international anarchy. Like
lasting international regimes of the WTO-type it consists of several cooperative
arrangements that were hammered out in successive rounds of inter-govern-
mental negotiations. The most important of these arrangements are the Paris
Treaty on the establishment of the Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the Rome
treaties on the establishment of the two other Communities, the Single European
Act with its Single Market programme, and the Maastricht Treaty with the
agreement on Monetary Union.
In this type of cooperation the group of original actors remains limited to the
member states, despite the influence of non-state actors on certain aspects of the
negotiations.6' Only the member states are able to promote their interests within
the collective decision process by arguing and by bargaining. For them the exit
option is the primary source of bargaining power. A member state will refuse to
accept the outcome of a negotiation unless it anticipates benefits. As in regular
international negotiations the actors may react in three ways on the threat of exit
by one member state. They may accept a higher degree of compromise. They
may (threaten to) cooperate within a smaller group, or they may accept the
failure of negotiations. In the final result, the major cooperative arrangements
hammered out within the framework of the European Community constitute
packages that carefully balance the interests of the member states. Moreover, like
an international regime the Community lacks almost any serious sanctioning
power against its member states. In the hypothetical case that a member state
considers its interests better protected outside rather than within the Com-
munity, nothing would hinder it to leave the institution, irrespective of the

67. Sbragia, Thinking about the European Future, op. cit., pp. 272.
 Integrating Integration Theory 243

formal legal situation.68 Hence, similar to other cases of international cooperation

the availability of the exit-option effectively relates the sphere of action where
commonly adopted norms will have to be implemented, to the sphere of
communication, where actors negotiate cooperative arrangements.
All actors other than the member states do not dispose of immediately
applicable power resources during this type of negotiations. Even if they have
direct access to the negotiation forum, they are constrained to affecting the
decision process either by arguing or by first influencing the interests of a
state-actor. None of them is able to bargain and "force" the member states to
adopt an agreement which they do not collectively desire. Hence, even though
the European Community comprises actors at the collective level, for example
the Commission, these actors do not dispose of independent power resources.
Last but not least, like international governance in low-politics areas European
governance relies almost entirely on the hierarchical structure of the member
states vis-ä-vis their sub-units. Generally it is for the member states to ensure
that economic actors and citizens comply with European law.
Accordingly, the European Community may be interpreted as a particularly
successful case of international cooperation.69 The member states "pool their
sovereignty"70 in areas in which they expect mutual gains, but they do not lose
their exclusive role as powerful actors within the system, nor their ability to act
independently, if appropriate.71

Institutionall}/ Created Hierarchical Governance within the European Community

Despite these striking similarities to regular international regimes wide-spread
doubt exists whether the Community is really in the first place an international
institution for the promotion and maintenance of horizontal cooperation among
states. Is not the role of Community-specific actors, like the Commission and the
Court, as well as that of non-state actors so important that the Community
system reflects some undeniable aspects of hierarchical governance vis-ä-vis its
member states despite the lack of sanctioning power? May the member states
still be perceived as unitary actors despite their action through a multitude of
sub-unit actors (e.g. functional bureaucracies, national banks, courts)? Does not
decision-making within the Community in many respects resemble more closely
domestic political decision processes than international negotiations, and is not
the Community therefore more appropriately compared with a federal state than
with an international governing institution?72

68. Joseph H.H. Weiler, "The Transformation of Europe", Yale Law journal, Vol. 100, No. 8 (1991),
p. 2412. This is the basis for the "confederal" argument according to which the Community has not yet
tacitly transformed into a federal state; Paul Taylor, The Limits of European Integration (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1983), pp. 269-294.
69. Moravcsik, Negotiating the Single European Aet, op. cit.; Moravscik, Preferences and Power in the
European Community, op. cit.
70. Keohane and Hoffmann, op. cit., pp. 10-13.
71. Taylor, The Politics of the European Communities, op. cit.; Hoffmann, Reflections on the Nation-State
in Western Europe Today, op. cit.
72. Sbragia, Thinking about the European Future, op. cit.; Samuel Krislov, Claus-Dieter Ehlermann and
Joseph Weiler, "The Political Organs and the Decision-Making Process in the United States and the
European Community", in Mauro Cappelletti, Monica Secombe, Joseph Weiler (eds.), Integration Through
Law: Europe and the American Federal Experience (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1986), Vol. 1, Book 2, pp. 3-110.
244 T. Gehring

Theoretically, the question arises why the surprising similarity of the Com-
munity with international regimes diminishes as soon as decision processes
within the institution are explored. From an institutionally informed perspective
the characteristically incoherent perception of the Community may be attributed
to the peculiar distribution of substantive cooperation and related decision-mak-
ing at two different levels.73 It is not uncommon in international relations that a
regime defines the terms of cooperation and assigns executive and administrat-
ive decisions to a regime-specific decision-making apparatus.74 This is basically
what the two sectoral communities on coal and steel and on nuclear energy did.
However, the EEC-Treaty spells out detailed obligations only for some limited
areas (e.g. the initial common market) while it assigns wide-spread competencies
to the new decision-making apparatus in numerous other areas.75 This is
illustrated by the fact that, in principle, the central elements of the two recent
inter-governmentally negotiated cooperative arrangements, namely the Single
Market programme and the Monetary Union, might well have been agreed upon
within the framework of the established Economic Community. Consequently,
far-reaching substantive cooperation may be achieved at two different levels,
namely the upper level of inter-governmental negotiations and the lower level
of intra-institutional decision-making.76
The emergence of a lower level of cooperation does not deprive the member
states of their central role as the original actors of the institution, but it turns
them into multiple stake-holders. On the one hand, they have interests in
cooperation at the upper level. Therefore, they will be inclined to avoid unnec-
essary destabilisation of the related major cooperative arrangements, even
though these arrangements determine the procedural rules for lower-level
decision-making. On the other hand, they have varying interests in numerous
secondary issue-areas in which additional cooperative gains may be made by
secondary cooperation. The institution forces a state-actor to subordinate one of
his interests to the other. If he is primarily interested in upper level cooperation,
he must confine himself to pursuing his interests in the lower level decision
processes within the limits of existing procedural rules. If he considers his
interests within a lower-level process important enough to disobey these limits
and reject the procedural rules, he must withdraw his prior agreement at the
upper level and may have to put into question his future participation in the
institution at large. The French "policy of the empty chair" in 1965/66 illustrates
this effect and draws attention to the enormous costs involved in employing this
mechanism."

73. Thomas Gehring, "Der Beitrag von Institutionen zur Förderung der internationalen Zusamme-
narbeit. Lehren aus der institutionellen Struktur der Europäischen Gemeinschaft", Zeit schritt für
internationale Beziehungen, Vol. 1, No. 2 (1994), pp. 211-242.
74. Thomas Gehring, "International Environmental Regimes—Dynamic Sectoral Legal Systems",
Yearbook of International Environmental Law, Vol. 1 (1990), pp. 35-56.
75. Taylor, The Polities of the European Communities, op. cit.
76. Below these two levels of legislative activity, there are other levels of executive and adjudicative
decision-making.
77. On the "policy of the empty chair", see Hans von der Groeben, Aufbaufahre der Europäischen
Gemeinschaft. Das Rmgen um den Gemeinsamen Markt und die Politische Union (1958-1966) (Baden-Baden-
Nomos 1982) pp. 268-285; John Lambert, "TheConstitutionalCnsis",,ournalofCommon Market Stud.es,
Vol. 4, No. 3 (1966), pp. 195-228.
 Integrating Integration Theory 245

Hence, the particular organisation of the collective decision process merely

forces a member state to choose among his various interests. It does not
automatically close exit for lower-level decisions. However, the more important
overall cooperation is compared to the interests at stake in a single lower level
decision process, the less credible will be the threat of exit. Consequently, the
closure of the exit option will become more effective with increasing differen-
tiation of lower-level decision-making. The numerous functional councils of
which the Council of Ministers is composed78 and the participation of uncounted
civil servants in the "bureaucratic politics" of the Community79 underline the
current high degree of differentiation of the decision-making system.
The effects of the closure of the exit-option are far-reaching.80 Now lower-level
cooperation takes place under the protection of a strong international institution,
rather then in the shadow of international anarchy. Governance is not limited to
horizontal coordination of behaviour among the member states any more, it may
become hierarchical to some degree. If the original state actors are inclined to
accept decisions irrespective of their substantive content provided that they are
adopted according to the accepted procedural rules, applicable power will no
longer depend on resources beyond the institution. The member states may still
bargain to pursue their interests, but they will do so on the basis of institution-
ally allocated power resources. It depends on the results of upper level negotia-
tions, for example, whether the institution assigns veto power to every single
member state or grants a certain number of votes that may be used to influence
decisions under majority voting.81
The closure of the exit option and its replacement by procedural rules as the
principal source of power for intra-institutional decisions has another important
consequence. If the original state-actors depend on institutionally assigned
power, other actors may be invested with the same sort of power. Accordingly,
sub-state actors, such as companies, citizens as well as regions, derive certain
powers from the institution. Probably even more important, new actors may be
institutionally created and invested with power. The Commission with its
exclusive right to initiate legislation, the Court of Justice with its competence to
deliver binding judgements and the Parliament with its right to intervene
substantially into the legislative decision process belong into this category.
Even though these artificially created actors entirely owe their existence to the
institution established within the international system, they become full-fledged
participants in intra-institutional decision processes. Within these processes they
fulfil certain functions. Hence, the Commission helps accelerate the cumbersome
and time-consuming negotiation mechanism and serves as inferior-level (execu-
tive) decision-maker. The increasingly relevant Parliament contributes to
78. Wolfgang Wessels, "The EC Council: The Community's Decisionmaking Center", in Robert O.
Keohane and Stanley Hoffmann (eds.), The European Community: Decisionmaking and Institutional Change
(Boulder: Westview, 1991), pp. 133-154.
79. Guy B. Peters, "Bureaucratic Politics and the Institutions of the European Community", in
Sbragia, op. at., pp. 75-122; Maurizio Bach, "Eine leise Revolution durch Verwaltungsverfahren.
Bürokratische Integrationsprozesse in der Europäischen Gerne inschaft", Zeitschrift für Soziologie, Vol.
21, No. 1 (1992), pp. 16-30.
80. Joseph H.H. Weiler, "The Community System: The Dual Character of Supranationalism",
Yearbook of European law, Vol. 11 (1981), pp. 267-306, identified an auxiliary closure of exit in the stage
of implementation following from a well-operating adjudication mechanism that precludes free riding.
81. Peters, op. cit., p. 83.
246 T. Gehring

legitimating legislative decisions (even though it is still hardly responsible for

their content). The Court removes normative (legal) ambiguities and thus serves
to settle disputes and enhance compliance.
The establishment of powerful institutional actors for intra-institutional de-
cision-making has important consequences. These actors cannot fulfil their
functions properly unless they dispose of a margin of independent decision-
making determined by their position within the Community system. Outcomes
of decision processes do not emerge any more exclusively from interaction
among the member states, although the states still control the upper level
process. The Council of Ministers becomes one organ of the European Com-
munity among others rather than an ordinary state conference.82 And that is, the
collective level within the three-level-model is considerably strengthened vis-a-
vis the unit (state) level. In a typical international regime the collective level
exists predominantly in the form of joint decision-making of the member states.
Within the EC it acquires its own voice separately from the states, although not
independently of them.
The relevance of powerful institutional actors operating at the collective level
is not limited to the relationship between the group of states and its members.
These actors provide new inlets for interventions of sub-state actors. In some
areas sub-unit actors enjoy a formal standing which provides them with direct
access to intra-Community decision processes.83 Beyond that, interventions are
not limited to be channelled via state actors any more. A projected directive may
be effectively influenced by non-state actors through the Commission and, in
some cases, the Parliament.
All these effects increase the leverage of non-state actors at the supra-national
and sub-national level. Inevitably they decrease, at least in relative terms, the
ability of the original state actors to control the collective decision process. Yet,
in a comprehensive approach toward the European Community one should not
overlook that they rely on the peculiar organisation of the collective decision
process that combines substantive cooperation at two different levels and firmly
closes the exit option for lower-level decision-making. It is this specifically
organised communication about norms that fundamentally distinguishes the
Community from (other) international cooperative institutions.

From Cooperation to Integration: Recognising the Relevance of Development

Over Time
The concept as developed so far is still static. It takes account of the relevance
of the established institution and may help structure empirical inquiry into the

82. Wessels, op. cit.

83. For example the "new approach" to standardisation envisages a central role for interest group
negotiations within European standardisation organisations, see Christian Joerges Josef Falke
Hans-Wolfgang Micklitz and Gert Brüggemeier, Die Sicherheit von Konsumgütern und die Entwicklung
der Europäischen Gemeinschaft (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1988); Volker Eichener and Helmut Voelzkow
"Ko-Evoluhon polihsch-administrativer und verbandlicher Strukturen: Am Beispiel der technischen
Harmomsierung des europäischen Arbeits-, Verbraucher- und Umweltschutzes", in Wolfgang Streek
oti; ^,™r, l T V,ertel ahr h
! ^ "fl Sonderheft 25 (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag,
n the Z l aV \ i 7 ^ ^ " 1 7 7 P r ° C e d u r e a s s ' 8 " s *> C r e s t e d P ^ a t e parties a central rofe
m the judicial control of comphance with EC-norms, see Weiler, The Transformation of Europe op cit
 Integrating Integration Theory 247

origins of specific events taking place within the institution as well as into the
state of integration at a certain point in time. Integration itself, however, is a
notion of process rather than status. It requires a perspective of development
over time. If the institution, i.e. the combination of the specific organisation of
collective decision-making and cooperative norms as outcomes of this process,
constitutes the core of the phenomenon, integration will have to do with
institutional change. Hence, a concept of integration must accommodate institu-
tional development.

Path-dependence and Institutional Development

Some theoretical concepts, like the "cooperation under anarchy" approach and
Moravcsik's "liberal inter-governmentalist approach", reduce governance to
substantive cooperation among a group of actors and the underlying constel-
lation of preferences prevailing within a given issue-area.84 From this perspec-
tive a significant change of the underlying constellation of preferences produces
a new situation that replaces the original one. The new situation is conceived of
as not being connected in any way to the original one. Likewise, a later
cooperative arrangement is not related to a preceding one but emerges from
"international anarchy". Accordingly, changing patterns of cooperation must be
interpreted either as a series of successive arrangements or as the proliferation
of parallel cooperation in different issue-areas. This may lead to the conclusion
that institutional development over time is not an important aspect of institu-
tionalised international governance. Yet, this conclusion is largely related to the
fact that development of cooperation over time cannot be analysed on the basis
of these concepts.
To be sure, from an actor-oriented (i.e. methodologically individually in-
formed) theoretical perspective an institution does not gain a life of its own,
even though it may appear to develop. It will merely influence decision-making
by relevant actors in a way that relates otherwise unrelated successive events in
a meaningful way. Accordingly, a twin set of interrelated issues arises, namely:
(a) how does an existing institution affect the decisions of relevant actors; and (b)
how do these decisions modify the institution in turn.8''
Once again, the limitation of information processing capacity of the participat-
ing actors and the complexity of decision situations have an important impact.
Norms do not necessarily determine the decisions of actors deciding under
conditions of bounded rationality. Single actors may well fail to comply and stir
conflict over originally accepted norms. In international governing institutions
with a permanently established collective decision-making apparatus these
conflicts may be made subject to new, i.e. secondary collective decisions. If the
existing norms are still accepted as valid standards, these decisions would
amount to interpretations in light of the specific circumstances of the case.
A dispute may also indicate that the original cooperative arrangement does
not sufficiently reflect the actual constellation of preferences any more. In this

84. Oye, op. cit.; Axelrod and Keohane, op. cit.; Moravcsik, Preference* and Power in the Europea
Community, op. cit.
85. Hartmut Esser, Soziologie. Allgemeine Grundlagen (Frankfurt/M: Campus, 1993); Zürn, op. a
248 T. Gehring

case the conflict reaches beyond the closure of regulatory gaps in light of existing
norms. It involves the challenge of a, possibly outdated, cooperative arrange-
ment. Certain cooperators may threaten to abandon cooperation and jeopardise
the existence of the cooperative institution altogether unless costs and benefits
are satisfactorily re-allocated. All actors may remain interested in continued
collective governance of the relevant issue-area to realise improved outcomes,
but some of them insist on an adjustment of the terms of the governing
cooperative arrangement. Consequently, the governing institution continues to
enjoy support, but a new arrangement must be negotiated within its framework.
Although there is no general limit as to the issues that may be tabled by the
participating actors in these negotiations, the existing agreement will be highly
relevant for the negotiation process. The reason is the peculiar relationship
between collective and individual interests in international governance.
A core group of actors will continue to support the original terms of cooper-
ation, unless the net gains realised under the original arrangement diminish
because of the exit of too many or too important cooperators. That is, the
community as a collective entity will stay alive and cooperation will continue to
flourish (albeit presumably at a lower level of net gains due to increased free
riding) although some community members may drop out. In this typical
situation of gradual decay a new cooperative arrangement may not replace the
original one unless it wins a higher degree of support.86 This will be more likely
and less risky if the original arrangement is adapted to the new situation, rather
than abandoned and re-established. Accordingly, the existing arrangement es-
tablishes institution-specific baseline criteria that may be invoked during the
negotiations. It structures the collective decision process even though it is the
task of this process to identify a new arrangement that is better adapted to the
new situation. Surprisingly enough, within a community of actors deciding
under conditions of bounded rationality substantive norms establish a link
between decision situations over time both when they are intended to be kept
and when they are intended to be replaced.
There are two other mechanisms that relate decision situations over time.
Established cooperative arrangements always enshrine a regulatory solution to
a common problem87 which may be used as a point of reference when dealing
with similar problems. A group of actors deciding and acting under conditions
of bounded rationality will not always be aware which one out of a number of
competing regulatory approaches will best exploit the existing margin for
cooperation.** For the group at large a mutually agreed solution in a parallel
field will constitute a widely acceptable standard for the appraisal of proposals,
despite the fact that individual preferences vary according to differing cognitive

86. If the threshold for decision-making is high and the group of p articipants is firmly established,
the cooperators may alternatively find themselves locked in the "joint decision trap"; see Fritz W.
Scharpf, "Die Politikverflechtungs-Falle: Europäische Integration und deutscher Föderalismus im
Vergleich", Politische Vierteljahresschrift, Vol. 26, No. 4 (1985), pp. 323-356.
87. Giandomenico Majone, "Policies as Theories", OMEGA, Vol. 8, No. 2 (1980), pp. 151-162.
88. Geoffrey Garrett and Barry R. Weingast, "Ideas, Interests and Institutions: Constructing the
European Community's Internal Market", in Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane (eds.), Ideas and
Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions and Political Change (Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1993) pp
173-206.
 Integrating Integration Theory 249

insights and parochial interests. An existing regulatory approach which might

not have been intended to influence later decisions may thus be taken as the
foundation for community-specific arguments that may be refuted only by
proposals that are "better" either because they are more appropriate to the
substantive problem or more acceptable to the community of actors. Hence, an
existing solution to a parallel problem may exert influence on the structure of a
later decision process,89 whether or not it is eventually adopted. In this sense,
solutions may precede problems rather than follow them.90
Lastly, procedural norms constitute a form of linkage between decisions over
time. They reflect collective decisions that are most directly intended to affect
later collective decisions. It is well-known that procedures may have an impact
on the outcome of decision processes if the actors concerned are inclined to
accept the decisions rendered on their basis. Obviously, it matters whether a
subsequent decision ought to be adopted by consensus or by a qualified majority
of votes, and whether votes are weighted or distributed on a one-country-one-
vote basis. Likewise, it will affect the decision whether a dispute is settled by an
adjudicative dispute-settlement organ, or by the stake-holders themselves. The
task of procedures is to facilitate decision-making, to accelerate and/or rational-
ise (in a discursive understanding) the cumbersome and time-consuming nego-
tiation process, and to define the bargaining space.91
To conclude, there are several mechanisms by which an established institution
may exert influence on rational egoists as soon as they are forced to decide and
act under conditions of bounded rationality. In all these cases an existing
institution intervenes into the calculation of preferences of these actors and the
collective process of hammering out secondary decisions. Under bounded
rationality it matters whether a group of actors endeavours to establish a
cooperative arrangement out of a state of anarchy, or whether it develops,
elaborates or adapts to new circumstances a governing institution that already
exists. Every decision made within the framework of an existing institution adds
to that institution and modifies its future appearance. Over time the institution
develops because of the numerous collective decisions adopted at the various
levels of its decision-making apparatus.

Positive Feedback and Integrate

tion
Many important international regimes, such as the WTO or the regime on
long-range transboundary air pollution dispose of a twin structure that links
several parallel or succeeding cooperative arrangements to a comparatively

89 Johan P Olsen, "Political Science and Organization Theory. Parallel Agendas but Mutual
Disregard", in Adrienne Wind hoff-Heritier and Roland Czada (eds.), Political Choice. Institutions, Rules,
and the Limits of Rationally (Frankfurt/M: Campus, 1991), pp. 87-119.
90 International governing institutions with a permanent decision-making apparatus may thus
reflect aspects of the "garbage can" phenomenon originally observed in domestic orgamsahons; see
Michael D. Cohen, James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "A Garbage Can Model of Organizahonal
Choice", Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 1 (1972), pp. 1-25.
91 Niklas Luhmann, Legitimation durch Verfahren (Neuwied: Luchterhand, 3rd edn, 1978); Gehnng,
"Arguing und Bargaining" internationalen Veredlungen zum Schutz der Umwelt, op. at.
250 T. Gehring

stable institutional framework.92 In these cases, collective decision-making about

norms continues upon adoption of a first set of governing norms. Therefore, it
may lead to the adoption of further sets of norms that prescribe different
behaviour to realise other common interests of the actors as soon as the relevant
constellation of interests so requires or allows.
It is the combination of the original cooperation-centred mainstream approach
with an institutionally oriented concept of international governance that opens
the regime concept for inquiry into this dynamic development of international
governing institutions. The conceptional separation and functional re-integration
of interest-based cooperation and institutions established to organise cooper-
ation draws attention to reflexive (feedback) mechanisms by which regimes may
affect their own future development. In this regard, the present approach
re-introduces a central functional and neo-functional idea into the analysis of
international institutions. Empirically informed studies especially from the
highly dynamic field of international environmental relations emphasise the
relevance of feedback mechanisms for the development of cooperation over
time.* Obviously, institutional development and feedback effects also matter in
the case of European integration.
Three categories of sources for dynamics and reflexive development may be
distinguished analytically although they may actually appear in combination.
First, an established international governing institution may foster future coop-
eration due to its very existence. Interested actors may simply exploit an already
existing collective decision process that has proven to be effective in previous
cases, once a new issue comes up for cooperation. For example, increased
economic competition between Europe and the Pacific region may lead to the
adoption of the Single Market programme,94 or German unification may remove
interest-based obstacles to the acceptance of Monetary Union.95 The existing
institution offers, in the case of the Community rather actively, its own solution
to the new problem: expanding cooperation within its established framework.
Without some responsiveness to changes in the environment an established
institution may be expected either eventually to break down or lose its relevance
for the actors concerned. However, in this pattern the relevance of feedback is
still limited because the main cause of the expansion of cooperation is located
beyond the institution's confines.
Second, feedback may occur between the collective level and that of the units
(member states). Purposive governance and collective decision-making may
always lead to a (partial) redefinition of actors' preferences. Verbalised exchange

92. Gehring, Dynamic International Regimes, op. cit. On the "nesting" of institutions, see the rather
preliminary remarks by Robert O. Keohane, "The Demand for International Regimes", International
Organization, Vol. 36, No. 2 (1982), p. 334; and Vinod K. Aggarval, Hanging by a Thread: International
Regime Change in the Textile/Apparel System, 1950-1979 (Stanford: Ph.D., 1981), pp. 8-16; Vinod K.
Aggarval, "The Unraveling of the Multi-Fibre Arrangement, 1981: An Examination of International
Regime Change", International Organization, Vol. 37, No. 4 (1983), p. 620.
93. Peter Haas, Saving the Mediterranean: The Politics of International Environmental Cooperation (New
York: Columbia University Press, 1990); Ronald B. Mitchell, "Regime Design Matters: International Oil
Pollution and Treaty Compliance", International Organization, Vol. 48, No. 3 (1994), pp. 425-458;
Sebastian Oberthür, Der Beitrag internationaler Regime zur Lösunv von Umweltproblemen (Berlin- Ph D
1995). '
94. Sandholtz and Zysman, op. cit.
95. Sandholtz, op. cit.
 Integrating Integration Theory 251

during negotiations may draw attention to—originally underestimated or misin-

terpreted—aspects of the substantive problem underlying cooperation
("arguing"). For example, the establishment of the international regime on global
climate change may contribute to raising the awareness of the participating state
actors for the underlying problem and, consequently, affect an actor's perception
of the problem. Likewise, commonly adopted norms may have a stabilising
effect, if effective, because they converge the expectations of the Community
members and orient their decisions of behaviour. This is true for international
governing institutions at large. However, within the European Community this
type of feedback is dramatically strengthened because the Community acquires
the ability to intervene into collective decision-making separately from the
member states. The participation of the Commission and the Parliament in
norm-moulding and, even more fundamental, the rulings of the Court on the
basis of valid norms are examples. Accordingly, the dramatic development of
European law may be conceived of as a consequence of interaction between the
collective and the unit (state) level.96 Moreover, the different actors operating at
the collective level may themselves interact and attempt to reinforce the impact
of this feedback mechanism.97
Third, arrangements designed to bring about cooperation in a dilemma
situation will cause adaptations to the behaviour of the actors concerned, if
effective. In all low-politics issue-areas in which the cooperating states do not, or
do not fully, control the regulated activities this mechanism automatically affects
the interests of sub-state actors. If sub-state actors adjust to the new require-
ments and subsequently lose their interest in its modification this may have a
stabilising effect. If it triggers activities of sub-state actors that provide, in turn,
additional margins for cooperation in later rounds, it may have a dynamising
effect.98 In both cases adaptation of state behaviour has a long-term impact on
the preferences of the relevant state. While developments of this third category
come about as a consequence of an established institution and produce effects on
that institution later on, they involve intermediate changes of substantive
interests at the sub-state level. They are thus very close to the traditional
functional and neo-functional "spill-over" mechanism.
To conclude, the present concept is not at all static. It appreciates institutional
development over time as well as the sources of changes. It is applicable to
international governing institutions that combine substantive cooperative ar-
rangements and permanent collective decision-making processes. This is true for
dynamic international regimes as well as for institutions with a "supra-national
constitution"99 and even for a federation in the analytical understanding of the

96. Hence, the margins of freedom enjoyed by the European Court need not be interpreted either
as virtually unlimited, or as non-existent. For the two positions, see Burley and Mattli, op. cil., and
Geoffrey Garrett, "International Cooperation and Institutional Choice: the European Community's
Internal Market", International Organization, Vol. 46, No. 2 (1992), pp. 533-560. Rather, being strictly
limited in respect of a single decision, rulings may over time produce dramatic consequences, if accepted
by the member states.
'97 Karen J. Alter and Sophie Meunier-Aitsahalia, "Judicial Politics in the European Community:
European Integration and the Pathbreaking Cassis de Dijon Decision", Comparative Political Studies, Vol.
26, No. 4 (1994), pp. 535-561.
98. Oberthür, op. cit.
99. Alec Stone, "What is a Supranational Constitution? An Essay in International Relations Iheory ,
Review of Politics, Vol. 56, No. 3 (1994), pp. 441-474.
252 T. Gehring

term.1"" Despite all their differences, these types of international governing

institutions have central conceptional features in common that recommend a
common approach.101
However, the present concept does not predetermine the standard for measur-
ing and appraising the state of integration achieved at a given time. It keeps
open the decision whether the success of European integration is best assessed
according to its substantive dimension—the expansion of cooperation—or ac-
cording to its transnational dimension—the role of non-state actors compared to
that of the member states within the decision-making system—or according to
its systemic dimension—the strength of the institution in the light of irritations
within its environment.

Conclusion
The present approach is inter-governmental in as far as it attributes a central role
to states. Only states may establish international governing institutions in the
shadow of international anarchy, like the six original members of the European
Community did in 1951 and 1957. And only states may enter an existing
international governing institution as did the three most recent members of the
Community in 1995. By entering the Community these actors do not at all
sacrifice their nature as states. Hence, states constitute a very special class of
actors within the Community.
However, the present approach is also institutional in the sense that it
attributes particular relevance to institutions. Institutions do not act themselves
vis-ä-vis their members, but they influence the decisions of relevant actors, may
lead to the emergence of institutional actors and open new opportunities for
action by other actors. Lastly, the approach is neo-functional not only because it
recognises the relevance of non-state and sub-state actors within intra-institu-
tional decision-making processes but also because it accounts for development
over time and feedback effects that might promote and accelerate the process of
integration.
Accordingly, inter-governmentalism on the one hand and institutionalism as
well as neo-functionalism on the other hand are not at all two mutually
incompatible concepts for the analysis of European integration. Rather, they
focus on two sides of the same coin. Accordingly, the conceptional priority for
the member states as the original actors does not necessarily entail the empiri-
cally explorable priority within a specific decision process. On the contrary, an
international institution established by states may differentiate so much that
non-state and sub-state actors actually begin to dominate relevant decision
processes. However, this is not a suitable matter for deductively generated
assumptions but an issue that should be settled by empirical investigation.
The accommodation of the two rival approaches within a theoretically coher-
ent concept allows one to draw on the insights of the lasting debate on

100. Sbragia, Thinking about the European Future, op. cit,

101. However, the very notions seem to imply that a state may be a member of numerous
international regimes but only of one "federation" simultaneously. Therefore, the decision to join, or
to retreat from, a federation will have a larger effect on a state compared to a similar decision in relation
to a single international regime.
 Integrating Integration Theory 253

international regimes. If the regime perspective is employed, it is of little

assistance to ascertain that the European Community is "more than a regime",102
or that only its sectoral arrangements could be conceived of as regimes.103 The
central issue is of course not the purely definitional matter whether or not the
European Community is an international regime. Rather, the core question
might be how the existing institution actually affects the outcomes of particular
decision processes. To put it differently, how would similar states have decided
on the same matter in the shadow of international anarchy outside the institu-
tional framework of the European Community? From this perspective, the
theoretically derived ideal-type of a cooperative arrangement might constitute
the baseline-hypothesis, while differences would point at particular institutional
influences.

102. Wallace, op. cit.

103 Carole Webb, "Theoretical Perspectives and Problems", in Helen Wallace, William Y\
Carole Webb (eds.), Policy-Making in the European Community (Chichester: Wiley, 1983), p.