[Type text]

© Albashir Ahmed 2020

This book is in copyright. No reproduction of any part by any
means may take place without the written permission of the
author.

‫ بنغازي‬/ ‫دار الكتب الوطنية‬

9182/871 ‫رقم اإليداع‬

ii
 Introduction

This coursebook is designed to satisfy the need for a coursebook

that is suitable for the university level. It is a practical book which
introduces syntactic concepts in a simple way and which gives a chance
to students of syntax to understand these concepts through practice by
doing related exercises. It is based on my experience of teaching syntax
to university students for several years. It has been found that available
syntax books are not suitable for learners of English as a foreign
language since those learners need more clarifications and simpler
explanations than those required by native speakers of the language being
learned.

The sequencing and the grading of material from simple topics to

more difficult ones makes it easier to understand and grasp the ideas
discussed. For example, Unit One is an introductory unit where syntax as
a subject is clarified and where analysis approaches and methods of
representations that will be used throughout the book are introduced and
explained. Unit Two discusses the internal structure of clauses and
phrases. It is only after a thorough understanding of these constituents
has been ensured through illustrations and practice that the functions of
these constituents are introduced in a separate unit, i.e. Unit three.

Also, each topic in the book is followed by a relevant exercise

which is believed to help students have enough practice to reinforce
understanding of syntactic ideas and concepts. In addition to exercises
covering all topics, each unit is concluded with a summary of the main
points dealt with in the unit. Some students find summaries very useful
when revising and preparing for exams.

Finally, more chance is given to the students to have more

practice on their own by including some samples of previous exams with
their answers as an appendix at the end of the book. . In addition to the
more practice these samples will provide to the students, they will also

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familiarize them with the question types that they may encounter in
exams which will also help them in their preparations for midterm and
final exams.

iv
 Contents

Unit One: Introduction ................................................................................ 1

1.1. Syntactic categories ........................................................................ 1
1.2. What is syntax? .............................................................................. 2
1.3. Constituents .................................................................................... 3
1.4. Testing constituents........................................................................ 4
1.4.1. Substitution .............................................................................. 5
1.4.2. Interrogation ............................................................................ 5
1.4.3. Movement ................................................................................ 6
1.4.4. Passivisation ............................................................................ 6
1.4.5. Clefting .................................................................................... 7
1.4.6. Pseudo-clefting ........................................................................ 7
1.5. Analysis approaches ....................................................................... 9
1.6. Representation methods ................................................................. 9
1.6.1. Labeled bracketing................................................................... 9
1.6.2. Treediagraming ...................................................................... 12
1.7. Abbreviations ............................................................................... 15
1.8. Summary ...................................................................................... 16
Unit Two: Phrases and Clauses................................................................. 18
2.1. Phrase structure rules ................................................................... 18
2.2. Clauses ......................................................................................... 19
2.2.1. Coordination .......................................................................... 19
2.2.2. Subordination......................................................................... 21
2.3. Phrases.......................................................................................... 25
2.3.1. Noun phrases ......................................................................... 28

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 2.3.1.1. Pre-head elements ............................................................... 31
2.3.1.1.1. Determiners...................................................................... 31
2.3.1.1.2. Adjectives ........................................................................ 33
2.3.1.2. Post-head elements ............................................................. 34
2.3.1.2.1. Clauses ............................................................................. 35
2.3.1.2.2. Prepositional phrases ....................................................... 36
2.3.2. Verb phrases .......................................................................... 38
2.3.2.1. Pre-head elements ............................................................... 40
2.3.2.1.1. Tense ................................................................................ 40
2.3.2.1.2. Model auxiliaries ............................................................. 41
2.3.2.1.3. Perfect aspect ................................................................... 42
2.3.2.1.4. Progressive aspect............................................................ 42
2.3.2.1.5. Passive aspect .................................................................. 43
2.3.2.2. Post-head elements ............................................................. 46
2.3.2.2.1. Complements ................................................................... 46
A. Copula verbs ............................................................................... 46
B. Intransitive verbs ......................................................................... 47
C. Transitive verbs ........................................................................... 48
1. Monotransitive verbs ................................................................... 49
2. Ditransitive verbs ......................................................................... 51
3. Complex transitive verb............................................................... 53
2.3.2.2. 2. Adjuncts .......................................................................... 55
2.3.3. Prepositional phrases ............................................................. 57
2.3.4. Adjective phrases ................................................................... 61
2.3.5. Adverb phrases ...................................................................... 63
2.4. Abbreviations ............................................................................... 66
2.5. Summary ...................................................................................... 67
Unit Three: Functions of Constituents ...................................................... 69

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 3.1. Grammatical functions in sentences............................................. 69
3.1.1. Subject ................................................................................... 69
3.1.2. Predicate ................................................................................ 71
3.1.3. Sentence Adjuncts ................................................................. 72
3.2. Grammatical functions in phrases ................................................ 74
3.2. 1. Functions in noun phrase ...................................................... 75
3.2.1.1. Specifiers ............................................................................ 75
3.2.1.2. Modifiers............................................................................. 76
3.2.1.2.1. Premodifiers..................................................................... 76
3.2.1.2.2. Postmodifiers ................................................................... 78
3.2.2. Functions in verb phrases ...................................................... 81
3.2.2.2. Complements ...................................................................... 84
3.2.2.2.1. Object............................................................................... 84
A. Direct object................................................................................ 84
B. Indirect object ............................................................................. 86
3.2.2.2.2. Predicative complement................................................... 87
3.2.2.2.3. Adverbial complement..................................................... 88
3.2.2.2.4. Complex complement ...................................................... 90
3.2.2.3. Adjuncts .............................................................................. 92
3.2.3. Functions in prepositional phrases .................................... 94
3.2.4. Functions in adjective phrases ............................................... 97
3.2.5. Functions in adverb phrases................................................... 99
3.3. Abbreviations ............................................................................. 101
3.4. Summary .................................................................................... 101
References ............................................................................................... 103
Appendix (some previous exams with answers)..................................... 104

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

Unit One: Introduction

1.1. Syntactic categories

Words in a language are commonly known as parts of speech. We
can use these parts of speech to construct sentences. In syntax we call
these parts of speech categories or syntactic categories. They include
nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, determiners and
conjunctions. The following are some examples for each category:

Noun (N): television, town, Benghazi, Ali, intelligence, Morocco.

Verb (V): listen, remember, fight, try, cause, break, love, catch.

Adjective (adj.): clever, beautiful, fantastic, angry, worried, sad.

Adverb (Adv.): quickly, always, then, hardly, seriously, often

Preposition (P): before, of, within, out, on, at, from, into.

Determiner (Det.): a, an, this, all, those, some, the.

Conjunctions (Conj.): and, but, while, although, though, because.

It is a common practice that in determining the category of a word

we rely on semantic and morphological information related to the word.
For example, we say a noun refers to a place (Tripoli) or a person
(Ahmed) or a thing (table), and that 'handed' is a verb because it ends in -
ed and ‘wonderful’ is and adjective because it ends with the suffix ‘ful’ ..
However, it is not always easy to tell the category of a word from the
word itself. Consider the following examples in which the same word
functions as a noun in one sentence and as a verb in another.

(1.1) He is eating an apple. Eating too much fat is not good for
your health.

She had a break. Kids always break things.

Give me a hand, please Will you hand me that bottle?

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

A more reliable criterion for determining the category of a word

is a syntactic one. That is, the position of the word in the sentence
will always tell its category. Fill in the gaps in the following
sentence with suitable words with the category type indicated. Is it
possible to use a different category for each gap?

The ………............... is interesting. (n)

You can ........................... (v)

That movie was very ................................. (adj)

She sat ………............... you and me. (p)

Mary drove ................. fast. (adv)

It is clear from the examples above that the position of the word
in the sentence determines the category type that should be used. It is
not possible to replace a category with another in the same position.
Studying the distribution of categories and their roles in a sentence is
the major concern of SYNTAX to which we try to give a definition in
the following section.

Exercise 1

1. Specify the syntactic category of the following words. What kind of

information (semantic / morphological / syntactic) that helped you
in your specification.
go - present - wild - pretty - wisely - friendly - prefer - intention - of
- export – unreliable
2. Did you have any difficulty with any word? Explain.

1.2. What is syntax?

Syntax can be defined as the study of the structure of sentences in
a language. In other words, it is the study of how words are grouped
and arranged together to make larger units including phrases, clauses
and sentences. Basically, when we study syntax we first try to

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

determine the parts which make a sentence and then, we describe these
parts. Let us have a look at the sentence in (1.2) below:

(1.2) That handsome boy is a friend of mine.

In order to do syntactic analysis with this sentence, we need to

determine its parts. Relying on your knowledge of the English language,
you will probably say that this sentence includes two nouns, a verb, an
adjective, two pronouns and a preposition plus two determiners. Can you
tell which is which?

In this simplistic analysis you have only identified words. However,

as you proceed with your study in syntax you will discover that there are
parts in this sentence which are bigger than words. For example, 'that
handsome boy' is considered a noun phrase, 'is a friend of mine' is a verb
phrase and 'a friend of mine' is also a noun phrase and, finally 'of mine' is
a prepositional phrase. Also, in syntactic analysis, we may also need to
mention something about the functions of these parts like, for instance,
which part is the subject or object or predicate, etc.

Exercise 2

1. What is syntax and what is it about?

2. Relying on your intuition can you tell the kind of phrase in each of the
following word strings:

- clever boys - in the house - very beautiful

- helped me - peacefully - safety

1.3. Constituents
We have said before, that a sentence is made of a group of words.
However, words are not stringed randomly to make sentences. Can you
tell which of the following is a sentence and which is not and why?

(1.3) Sundus went to school yesterday.

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

*Went school Sundus yesterday to. .

It is clear that the one marked with an asterisk is not a

grammatical sentence. (Using asterisk in this book is a convention to
indicate that something is ungrammatical). Moreover, words can
combine with other words to make larger parts. These parts of a
sentence are known in syntax terminology as constituents. These
constituents which may make a sentence can be clauses, phrases and
words. As you may know and as we will see later, clauses are
syntactically larger units than phrases and phrases are larger than
words. (The word syntactically here is important because as we will
see later, phrases may contain clauses)

We can also have smaller units than words, that is, morphemes.
However, we are not going to do this in this book because breaking
words into morphemes is the concern of another field of study,
namely morphology. In morphology you study how words are made
up of morphemes including stems, suffixes and prefixes. Similarly,
we are not going to study units larger than single sentences because
studying a group of sentences which make larger text is the concern
of another science called discourse analysis. In the units that follow
you will learn how to distinguish between these constituents and
how they are arranged and grouped together to make sentences.

1.4. Testing constituents

In order to ensure that a string of words makes a constituent, we
can conduct a constituency test. A constituency test is a process
through which a constituent goes and which changes the sentence
appearance or pattern but the sentence remains grammatically
correct. In what follows we will discuss some of the constituency
tests. They are substitution, interrogation, movement, passivisation,
clefting and, finally, pseudo-clefting.

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

1.4.1. Substitution
Substitution happens when we do not want to repeat a constituent
that has been mentioned before and, thus, we replace it with a proform.
A proform is any word that can be used to replace a constituent in a
sentence without affecting the meaning of that constituent. The most
common types of proforms are pronouns and forms of the verb do. Have
a look at the following example:

(1.4) Arwa and Enas are friends. They always go to school together.

Ali passed the exam and Anwar did so, too.

Muna went to London last summer and I went there this summer.

In the first example, the string 'Arwa and Enas' is a constituent

because it was possible to replace it with the proform 'they'. In the second
example, the string 'passed the exam' is also considered a string because
it was possible to replace it with the proform 'did so'. In the third
example, the proform 'there' replaces the string 'to London' and that is an
evidence that 'to London' is a constituent.

1.4.2. Interrogation
Another type of proforms is wh-words. When they are used to ask
questions, they replace constituents. Consider the following example:

(1.5) The teacher gave that smart boy a present in the party.

Using this example, we can ask the following question

Who gave that smart boy a present in the party?

(Who asks about 'the teacher')

Whom did the teacher give a present in the party?

(Whom asks about 'that smart boy')

Where did the teacher give that smart boy a present?

(Where asks about ‘in the party').

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

We conclude that all these strings of words which have been

asked about by wh-words represent constituents.

1.4.3. Movement
Some strings of words can be moved to another position in the
sentence. If this happens and the sentence remains correct, then that
moved string is likely to be a constituent. Have a look at these
examples:

(1.6) Duaa had a very nice holiday in Cairo last year.

Last year, Duaa had a very nice holiday in Cairo.

A lot of people left their country during the civil war.

During the civil war, a lot of people left their country.

The child ran into the house when she saw the dog.

In to the house, the child ran when she saw the dog.

Can you think of other constituents that can be moved in the

examples above?

1.4.4. Passivisation
Passivisation is the process of changing active sentences into
passive ones. In active sentences the agent is mentioned before the
patient while in passive sentences the patient is mentioned first. The
agent is who or what performs the activity and the patient is who or what
undergoes that activity. Look at the following example:

(1.7) Libyan people grow olive trees in the western part of the country

Olive trees are grown in the western part of the country (by
Libyan people).

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

The two word strings 'olive trees' and 'Libyan people' are
constituents since moving them to new positions in the passive sentence
does not affect the grammaticality nor the basic meaning of the sentence.

1.4.5. Clefting
The meaning of cleft is related to divide or separate. A cleft
sentence is one which we divide into parts by using [it + be ....... that],
and the purpose is to emphasize something or contrast it with something
else. Let us consider the following example:

(1.8) Muna gave that bag to Jamila in the celebration last month.

1. It was last month that Muna gave that bag to Jamila in the
celebration. (Last month not this month)

2. It was to Jamila that Muna gave the bag in the celebration.

(To Jamila not to Hana)

3. It was that bag that Muna gave to Jamila in the celebration last
month. (That bag not this bag)

4. It was Muna that gave that bag to Jamila in the celebration last
month. (Muna not Ruwaida)

The sentences resulting from such movement are called cleft

sentences, and the moved elements must be constituents. If the string is
not a constituent, it cannot be moved. For example, if we apply clefting
on the string 'Muna gave' the result will be ungrammatical sentence
because this string is not a constituent.

(1.9) *It was Muna gave that that bag to Jamila in the celebration last
month.

1.4.6. Pseudo-clefting
Pseudo-clefting is a process similar to that of clefting but instead of
using it + be, we use what + be. Moreover, 'that' is not used in pseudo-

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

clefting. Let us use the same example used with clefting to help you
compare them.

(1.10) Muna gave that bag to Jamila in the celebration last month.

What Muna gave to Jamila in the celebration last month was

that bag.

That bag was what Muna gave to Jamila in the celebration last
month.

The string 'that bag' is a constituent since applying the pseudo-

clefting test does not affect the grammaticality of the sentence.

To conclude this section about constituency tests, it should be

emphasized that it is not necessary for a string of words to be
considered a constituent to pass all tests. Passing one test is enough
for a string to be considered a constituent. To put it in another way, a
constituent may fail to pass a test but yet it is still considered a
constituent because it passes one or more other constituency tests.

Exercise 3

Apply as many constituency tests as you can on the underlined

constituents in the following sentences:

A girl in a white dress sang that amazing song.

Libya produces one million barrels of oil at present.

Madrid is the capital of Spain.

I drank a cup of coffee and my friend drank a cup of coffee at the

party.

Nasreen drove her car along the high way for two hours.

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

1.5. Analysis approaches

Sine Sentences are larger than clauses, clauses are larger than
phrases and phrases are larger than words, our analysis should be
hierarchical. That is, we start from the smallest units (i.e. words) and go
up to phrases and then clauses until we reach the whole sentence. In this
kind of analysis we use a bottom-up approach. Alternatively, we can start
from the top (i.e. sentence) and go down to clauses, then phrases and,
finally, we reach words. This is known as a top-down approach. In this
book, we are going to use the two approaches, that is, the bottom-up
approach and the top-down approach. However, before we go on and
attempt to analyze sentence we need to familiarize ourselves with
methods of representing the structure of a sentence. That is, methods that
clearly show us the constituents which make a sentence.

Exercise 4

1. Arrange the following constituents hierarchically from the smallest to

the largest: clause - sentence - phrase - word

2. Mention two approaches that can be used to analyze sentences

syntactically and illustrate how these two approaches work.

1.6. Representation methods

In fact, there are several methods that can be used for such
representation. In this book, we will focus on two of them and practice
using them. These methods are (1) Labeled bracketing and (2)
Treediagraming. Let us start with labeled bracketing before we discuss
treediagraming in a subsequent section.

1.6.1. Labeled bracketing

In bracketing we include constituents between square brackets. Let
us consider the sentence in (1.11) below:

(1.11) The girl smiled and the boy laughed.

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

The analysis approach we are going to adopt with this

representation method is the top-down approach. This is so because
it is more convenient with this method to start with the whole
sentence, the highest level (i.e. the top) in the hierarchical structure
of the sentence. By using brackets we can analyze this sentence in
the following steps:

1. Put the whole sentence between square brackets. This is so

because, as mentioned above, the sentence is considered the
largest constituent. Put capital S in the lower corner of the left
side bracket. This S is an abbreviation for a sentence and it labels
(or names) what is inside the brackets.

[S The girl smiled and the boy laughed]

2. Look for clauses and, if you have any, put each clause between
square brackets. As can be seen here, this sentence has two
clauses separated by the coordinator 'and'. From your previous
knowledge of the English language, you know that a clause is
basically a sentence within a sentence. Therefore we will use the
same abbreviation used for a sentence which is 'S' .This, however,
will result in some ambiguity since we have three Ss in the
analysis above. To solve this, we just number the three Ss to be
able to distinguish between them. The main sentence is given
number 1 and the two clauses contained inside it are given
numbers 2 and 3 respectively. This makes our syntactic analysis
of this sentence more obvious.

[S1 [S2 The girl smiled] and [S3 the boy laughed]]

3. For each clause identify phrases and square bracket them. S2

contains a noun phrase 'the girl' and a verb phrase 'smiled', and S3
contains a noun phrase 'the boy' and the verb phrase 'laughed'. As
you will see later when we study phrases in detail, a phrase may
consist of just one word. Therefore, the verb phrase in S2 is a single
word and the verb phrase in S3 is also a single word.

[S1 [S2 [NP The girl][ VP smiled]] and [S3 [NP the boy][VP laughed]]]

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

4. Now it is time to break down phrases into words. Put each word in
each phrase in square brackets. Do this throughout the whole
sentence. Do not forget to label your words. Use N for noun, Det for
the determiner 'the', V for verb and, finally, Coord for the
coordinator 'and'.

(1.12) [S1 [S2 [NP [Det The][N girl]][ VP [V smiled]]] [Coord and] [S3 [NP [Det
the][N boy]] [VP [V laughed]]]]

You may have had some trouble doing step 2 and 3 because the
idea of clause and phrase is not clear enough at this point. Do not worry
because the more we proceed with our study in the subsequent sections
the clearer and more obvious these ideas will be. Also, our main aim in
this section is to familiarize you with these methods of representation and
not to make you understand the structure of phrases and clauses.

The labeled bracketing might not be clear enough at this time

because we are still at the beginning. Therefore, do not worry and
remember that this is just the beginning and things will be more
understandable the more we proceed with our study of syntax. As you
can see, Abbreviations are used to label constituents. We will use
abbreviations for labels throughout the book so be ready to learn them
and how to use them. In particular, notice the place where we put the
label. It is in the low corner of the square bracket at the beginning of the
constituent.

Exercise 5

1. Practice analyzing the sentence in (1.11) by following the steps again

and again until you can do it from your memory.

2. Following the above mentioned steps, try to bracket and label the
following sentences:

a. Ali came

b. Lubna prepared tea and her sister cooked lunch.

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

c. All students did well in the exam

d. She dances energetically.

1.6.2. Treediagraming
As you have seen from the steps above, the approach used is a
top-down one. That is, we started our analysis from the whole
sentence and then moved down to clauses, then phrase and, finally,
ended up with words, the smallest units in syntax. The other
approach we have mentioned before is the bottom-up approach and
in which we start the analysis from the bottom (i.e. words) and then
go up to phrases, then clauses until finally reach the top (i.e. the
whole sentence). The preferred method of representation used with
this approach is treediagraming. It is called so because the
representation is like a tree with a trunk and branches. To clarify this
kind of representation let us use the same sentence used with
bracketing repeated in (1.13) below:

(1.13) The girl smiled and the boy laughed.

Again we need the four steps we used with labeled bracketing but
in the opposite order starting with words in step 1 and ending with
the whole sentence in step 4.

1. In a separate paper write the words of the sentence in the same order
found in the sentence but separated by some space between each
word and the other. Write them in a line at the bottom of the paper to
have enough space for your analysis when you go up to clauses,
phrases and, finally, the whole sentence. Do not forget to label your
words.

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

2. Identify your phrases and project them as can be seen below. Again
do not forget to label them.

3. Identify your clauses and project them like what you have done with
your phrases.

4. Finally project your sentence by combining the two clauses together.

Because you have now three Ss, give them numbers for easy
distinction and to avoid ambiguity and confusion. Give number one
to the main sentence and numbers 2 and 3 to the two embedded
clauses respectively. Also, do not forget to draw a line between S1
and the Coordinator 'and' to complete you analysis.

(1.14)

This treediagraming basically contains the same information

found in the labeled bracketing for the same sentence in (1.12)
above. However, while the labeled bracketing technique is more

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

economical in terms of space, the treediagraming procedure shows

the hierarchy of constituents more clearly.

Hierarchy of constituents means that the structure of a sentence

has levels. For example, in the tree diagram above, there is a
sentence level at the top, then a clause level, a phrase level and,
finally, a word level at the bottom of the structure.

In order to talk about this hierarchical structure we need some

special terms to describe such hierarchy. In the following description
of the sentence structure in the tree diagram above, all syntactic
terms are written bold and italic so that you can concentrate on,
understand and memorize them.

The tree diagram is called so because it is similar to a tree turned

upside down. The lines shown in the tree diagram are called
branches and the points where these branches meet are called nodes.
S1 is expanded as S2 and S3 which are coordinated by 'and'.
Therefore, S2 and S3 are considered immediate constituents of S1.
Similarly, each clause expands as NP and VP. That is, S2 expands as
NP and VP and S3 expands as NP and VP. Thus, the NP and VP
under S2 are its immediate constituents and the NP and VP under S2
are its immediate constituents.

Because the relationship between constituents in the sentence is

hierarchical, we can express this relationship in terms of dominance.
For example, S1 dominates S2 and S3, and both S2 and S3 each
dominates a NP and a VP. In fact, S1 dominates all the nodes
contained in the diagram. However, it is important here to
distinguish between dominance and immediate dominance. For
example, S1 immediately dominates S2 and S3. S1 also dominates
the NPs and VPs under S1 and S2 but that dominance is not
immediate or direct. Similarly, S3 immediately dominates a NP and
a VP. S3 also dominate a N and a V but that dominance is not
immediate.

A final word that should be said here is that we do not need to

show all levels of the structure in our representation. Our

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

representation will depend on our interest or purpose of the analysis.

For instance, if we are not interested in the word level and we are
only interested in the phrase level and the clause level, we can have a
representation like the following:








The triangles above simply indicate that the analysis has not been
completed and that we are not interested in the level below the phrase
level. Similarly, we can stop at the clause level if we are not interested in
the levels below that clause level. 




1.7. Abbreviations
The use of abbreviations is very common in syntax in general and
particularly in sentence structure analysis. Thus, in this section we give a
list of all the abbreviations used so far to give them special attention due
to their importance during this course and any subsequent study of
English syntax.

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Sentence (S) Conjunction (Conj)

Noun (N) Noun Phrase (NP)

Verb (V) Verb Phrase (VP)

Adjective (Adj.) Adjective Phrase (Adj.P)

Adverb (Adv.) Adverb Phrase (Adv.P)

Preposition (P) Prepositional Phrase (PP)

Determiner (Det.) Coordinator (Coord.)

Subordinator (Sub.)

Exercise 6

1. Practice analyzing the sentence in (1.13) using the

treediagraming method by following the steps again and again
until you can do it from your memory.
2. Following the above mentioned steps, try to treediagram the
following sentences:
a. Ali came
b. Lubna prepared tea and her sister cooked lunch.
c. All students did well in the exam
d. She dances energetically.
3. Compare your treediagraming with the labeled bracketing you
have done for the same sentences in exercise 5 above.
4. Which representation method do you like more and why?

1.8. Summary
In this introductory chapter, the science of syntax is introduced
and defined as the study of the structure of sentence in a language.
Moreover, the concept of syntactic categories was clarified. In
syntax, categories do not only refer to word classes which include
nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, determiners and

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conjunctions, but also to other categories including phrases and

clauses which make the structure of a sentence. It was obvious from
the discussion that a sentence is not merely made of a string of
words in a random order, but these words are structurally arranged in
phrases and clauses which make, together with words, the
constituents of a sentence.

In order to ensure that a string of words makes a constituent, we

can carry out some tests known as constituency tests. These include
substitution, interrogation, movement, passivisation, clefting and pseudo-
clefting. Passing one test of these is enough for a string of words to be
considered a constituent.

Two approaches are used in our analysis of the structure of a

sentence, namely, bottom-up and top-down. In the bottom up approach,
we start our analysis with the smallest units in a sentence, namely words,
and go up to phrases then clauses until we reach the top in which we
have the whole sentence. However, in the top-down approach, we take
the opposite direction. We start from the top which is the whole sentence
and go down until we reach the bottom in which we have words, the
smallest units in the syntactic structure of a sentence.

To represent the analysis of the syntactic structure of a sentence,

two representation methods are used, namely labeled bracketing and
treediagraming. In labeled bracketing, constituents are enclosed in square
brackets and given abbreviated labels for easy identification and
recognition of these constituents. In treediagraming, the structure of a
sentence is shown by an upside down tree with branches which clearly
indicate the hierarchical structure of the constituents making the
sentence.

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Unit Two: Phrases and Clauses

2.1. Phrase structure rules

In Unit One, we have seen that sentences are made of strings of
words. We have also seen that the grouping of these words in
sentences is not random. That is, you cannot have these words in any
order but they should be arranged according to rules. These rules are
known as phrase structure rules because phrases are the basic
constituents of any sentence. Consider the following example:

(2.1) Anwar caught a cold.

Analyzing this simple sentence will give us the following

structure representation using labeled bracketing in (2.2a) and
treediagraming in (2.2b):

(2.2a) [S[NP Anwar][VP caught a cold]]

(2.2b)

As you can see, the immediate constituents of this sentence are

phrases. That is, the sentence is expanded as a NP and a VP. We can,
therefore, provisionally formulate this expansion as a phrase structure
rule which can be notated as in (2.3).

(2.3)

This phrase structure rule can be translated as follows: A

sentences is expanded as a noun phrase plus a verb phrase. Speakers
of the language can use this rule to generate and produce infinite
number of simple sentences. However, this rule is still provisional.
That is, this rule will undergo further adaptations since we can have
other types of sentences besides simple sentences. These types include
compound sentences, complex sentences and compound complex

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sentences which result from a combination of compound and complex

ones. Relying on your previous knowledge of these types, can you
give a sentence as an example for each type?

Exercise 7

1. What are phrase structure rules, why are called so, and why are
they important?
2. How do you say this phrase structure rule in words:
3. Complete the analysis given in (2.2a) and (2.2b) to show lower
levels.
4. Analyze the following sentences using labeled bracketing and
treediagraming.
- The baby is crying. - He plays the piano.
-Madonna is a celebrity. - They went there.
5. Provide an example for the following types of sentences and
explain the difference between them:
Simple sentence - compound sentence - complex sentence
- compound complex sentence

2.2. Clauses
As we have seen in Unit One, a sentence may expand as two
coordinated clauses. In fact, sentences can be expanded using
coordination and subordination to which we turn in the following
subsections.

2.2.1. Coordination
As we have seen before, a sentence can be expanded by
coordinating two (or more) clauses using coordinators like and, or, but,
etc. Let us consider the following example:

(2.4) His wife keeps cats and feeds them on biscuits.

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The labeled bracketing and treediagraming representations of this

sentence will give the structure in (2.5a) and (2.5b) respectively.

(2.5a) [S1 [S2 [NP His wife] [VP keeps cats]]and[S3 [NP (she)][VP feeds
them on biscuits]]]

(2.5b)

Although the noun phrase of the third sentence (she) is omitted in the
surface structure, it is retained in the representation due to its
importance to the grammaticality of the deep structure of the sentence.
It is included between brackets to indicate this omission in actual
speech. Since all sentences in the language are generated according to
rules, we need to incorporate this sentence type possibility into phrase
structure rules. We do this by formulating the following phrase
structure rule:

(2.6)

Now we have two phrase structure rules for generating sentences;

the one found in (2.3) and the one shown in (2.6). However, the
tendency in syntax and in any other field is to keep the number of
rules as small as possible for obvious reasons. Thus, these two rules
can be merged together in one phrase structure rule which is shown in
(2.7) below.

(2.7)

This notation shows that a sentence can be produced through two

possibilities. In the first possibility, a sentence expands as a noun
phrase plus a verb phrase, and in the second possibility a sentence
expands as two clauses connected together using a coordinator like
'and'. However, because it is possible theoretically at least to
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coordinate any number of clauses, our phrase structure rule in (2.7) is

still provisional since it lacks this possibility. In the following section
we will discuss another possibility of expanding sentences. That is,
subordination.

Exercise 8

1. What is coordination? Give examples using at least three different

coordinators

2. How do you say this phrase structure rule in words?

3. Analyze the following sentences using labeled bracketing and

treediagraming.

- Yousef is a naughty boy but his brother is a quiet one.

- We go together or stay together.

- Zainab helps her mother in the kitchen and Hiba does the
washing-up.

2.2.2. Subordination
Subordination means that we have a subordinate clause embedded
inside a main clause or a sentence using a subordinator like what, when,
if, because, though, although, since, etc. Let us clarify this by using the
example in (2.8) below:

(2.8) I know what you did last summer.

The structure of this sentence can be represented with labeled

bracketing as in (2.9a) and with treediagraming as in (2.9b) below:

(2.9a) [S1 [NP I][VP [V know] [Sub what] [S2 you did last summer]]].

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(2.9b)

This additional possibility of sentence structure is compatible

with the revised phrase structure rule given in (2.7). There is no need
for formalizing additional rules. Can you tell why? It is obvious that
the embedded clause is immediately dominated by the VP which in
turn is immediately dominated by the main sentence. That is, S1.

What needs to be considered here though not in a lot of detail is

the VP structure rule to show how verb phrases can include imbedded
clauses inside them. (Verb phrases and their expansion will be
discussed in a separate section in this unit) The two possibilities of the
structure of the verb phrase we have already seen in previous
examples can be clarified more using the following two sentences:

(2.10) The criminal attacked the woman.

I got what you mean.

Excluding the two noun phrases at the beginning of these two

sentences, we can have the following representations of the verb
phrases in both sentences.

(2.11a) [VP [V attacked][NP the woman]]

[VP [V got] [Sub what] [S you mean]]

(2.11b)

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It is obvious that we can have verb phrases in two ways. In the first
way, a VP expands as V plus NP and in the second, a VP expands as a V
plus a clause or a sentence. These two possibilities are formulated in the
following phrase structure rule.

(2.12)

Yet, this rule is still provisional because verbs subcategorize for

other structures and, thus, may have other possibilities. The various
possibilities for verb phrases will be discussed later in a separate section.

Similar to verb phrases, noun phrases can expand using

subordination. Compare the following two sentences:

(2.13) The man is my uncle.

The man whom you met yesterday is my uncle

The noun phrase 'the man whom you met' in the second sentence
can be represented using labeled bracketing and treediagraming as in
(2,14a) and (2.14b) respectively.

(2.14a) [NP [Det The][N man] [Sub whom][S you met yesterday]]

(2.14b)

The simple sentence 'the man is my uncle' was expanded to a

complex one 'the man whom you met yesterday is my uncle'. The
embedded clause in the expanded sentence is found inside the first noun
phrase in the sentence. More detail about noun phrases and their structure
will be given in a subsequent section devoted to noun phrases.

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To finish this section about clauses and their types, let us consider
an example related to compound complex sentences and see how this
type is expanded and structured. Have a look at the example in (2.15)
below.

(2.15) I know what I should do and (I know) where I should go.

In this example, we have two complex sentences coordinated with

'and'. The inclusion of the string 'I know' between round brackets means
that it can be omitted in speech. Analyzing the sentence using labeled
bracketing and treediagraming will give the representations in (2.16a)
and (2.16b) respectively.

(2.16a) [S1 [S2 [NP I][VP [V know][S3 [Sub what][NP I][VP should do]]]]
[Coord and][S4 [NP I][VP [V know][S5 [Sub where][NP I][VP
should go]]]]]

(2.16b)

As you can see from the representation above, whatever the

number of clauses is in the sentence, the basic structure of each clause
or sentence is the same; each sentence expands into a NP and a VP.
You should also notice that the numbers given to sentences do not
imply anything but their order of occurrence in the sentence. S3
occurs before S4 in the sentence and thus it is given number 3
although it is hierarchically lower than S4.

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Exercise 9

1. What is subordination? Give examples using at least three

different subordinators.
2. How do you say this phrase structure rule in words?

3. Analyze the following sentences using labeled bracketing and

treediagraming.

- Nasreen is not coming tomorrow because she is ill.

- I told him what he should do.
- Ayman is watching TV while his sister is studying for the
exam.
- Ali told me that he did not come because he was ill.

2.3. Phrases
A phrase is a group of words which works as a constituent in the
sentence and does not contain a finite verb except for the verb phrase
which must contain a finite verb. Have a look at the following phrases:

(2.17) that tall man with a mustache (NP)

visits his grandmother every weekend. (VP)

quite attractive (AdjP)

very carefully (AdvP)

under the table (PP)

As can be seen from the examples above, no phrase contains a

finite verb except for the verb phrase. A finite verb is one that can take a
subject pronoun as its subject. For example, the verb 'go' can have any of
the subject pronouns as its subject as the following examples show:

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(2.18) I /You /They go -He /She goes.

I /You /He /She /We /They went.

A non-finite verb, on the other hand, is one that does not take a
subject pronoun as its subject as can be seen from the examples in (2.19).

(2.19) *I /You /He /She /We /They to go.

*I /You /He /She /We/ They going.

*I /You /He /She /We/ They gone.

Phrases occupy the third level from the top in the syntactic
structure of sentences. As said before, they come after sentences and
clauses. This, however, does not always coincide with the size of
these constituents. As we have seen before, we may have clauses that
are embedded inside noun phrases and thus they constitute parts of
these noun phrases. Similarly, we have seen clauses embedded inside
verb phrases and, therefore, make parts of these verb phrases.

Phrases in English may be of the following types: noun phrases,

verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases, and, finally,
prepositional phrases. A noun phrase is called saw because the head
word in that phrase is a noun, a verb phrase is called so because the
head word in that phrase is a verb. The same thing applies to other
types of phrases. To clarify the idea of head, let us consider the
phrases in (2.17) above repeated in (2.20) below. The head word in
each phrase is underlined. The phrase type is also given.

(2.20) that tall man with a mustache (NP)

visits his grandmother every weekend. (VP)

quite attractive (AdjP)

very carefully (AdvP)

under the table (PP)

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The head of the phrase is called so because it is the most important

element or part of the phrase. It is the word which determines the nature
of the whole phrase. If the phrase is made of one word, that word
constitutes the head and the whole phrase. Thus, we can have phrases
that are made of just one word each. The following sentence contains two
phrases each of which is made of just one word.

(2.21) Naji came.

Analysis of the structure of this sentence is represented in (2.22a) and

(2.22b) using labeled bracketing and treediagraming respectively.

(2.22a) [S [NP [N Naji]][VP [V came]]

(2.22b)

As you can see, the sentence is expanded into a noun phrase and a
verb phrase and both phrases are made of one word each; the noun 'Naji'
is the head of the noun phrase 'Naji' and the verb 'came' is the head of the
verb phrase 'came'. However, as we have seen from the examples in
(2.20), phrases are often made of strings of words.

Returning to the idea of head, let us have another look at the

examples in (2.20) again. For example, in the noun phrase 'that tall man
with a mustache' the most important word is 'man' because it is the only
word that cannot be omitted. Other words in the phrase are not equally
important and, thus, can be omitted and the remaining continues to carry
the basic meaning of a noun phrase since they only give additional
information about the head. In the following subsections we will deal
with the phrase types in more detail starting with the noun phrase.

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Exercise 10

Identify the phrase type in each of the following phrases and

underline its head and justify you identification and your choice of
heads.
a. A collection of interesting books
b. should find the authentic document
c. towards the solution of the problem
d. highly valuable
e. thoroughly independently

2.3.1. Noun phrases

A noun phrase is a group of words in which the head word is a
noun. Examine the following sentence and try to locate the noun
phrases found in it.

(2.23) That intelligent girl failed her final exams in the

secondary school.

In order to identify noun phrases in a sentence you look for nouns

and then try to find if there are any expansions to these nouns by
trying to find the words before or after these nouns that are directly
related to it and combine with it to make one unit. By looking at the
sentence in (2.23) we can find that it contains three nouns: girl, exams,
and school. These three nouns are the heads of the following three
noun phrases.

(2.24) that intelligent girl

her final exams

the secondary school

These underlined words are considered heads of these phrases

since omitting them will result in loss of the basic meaning of the
phrases while omitting other elements in each phrase is possible.

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

(2.25) *That intelligent girl - That intelligent girl - That intelligent girl

*her final exams - her final exams - her final exams

*the secondary school - the secondary school - the secondary

school

To ensure that these phrases are constituents of the whole sentence

lets conduct some of the constituency tests we studied in Unit One of this
book. By applying substitution by proforms we can obtain the following
sentences.

(2.26) She failed her final exams in the secondary school.

That intelligent girl failed them in the secondary school.

That intelligent girl failed her final exams in it.

Since it was possible to replace these strings of words with pronouns

and the sentence remains grammatical, then these strings must be phrases
and constituents of the sentence.

Another test that would prove the constituency of these phrases is

interrogation.

(2.28) Who failed her final exams in the secondary school?

(Answer: The intelligent girt)

What did the intelligent girl fail in the secondary school?

(Answer: Her final exams)

Which school did the intelligent girl fail her exams in?

(Answer: The secondary school)

Of course using 'where' instead of 'which' is not possible to test

the constituency of the noun phrase 'the secondary school'. Why?

When defined a noun phrase above, we said it is a group of words

which make one unit and in which the head word is a noun. In the

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examples above it was possible to substitute these phrases with pronouns.

It is also possible to substitute noun phrases with nouns and vice versa as
can be seen in (2.29) below. This means that pronouns have the same
distribution as nouns and noun phrases as can be seen from the following
example:

(2.29)...

This means that pronouns, nouns and noun phrases may occupy
the same position in the sentence or, to use syntax terms, have the same
distribution. When categories have the same distribution, they belong to
the same constituent which is a noun phrase in this case. Above, we have
used the interrogative form 'who' to ask a question about the string 'that
intelligent girl' to make sure that this string constitutes a phrase. We can
use the same wh-word 'who' to ask about 'Mary' and 'She' as can be seen
in (2.30) below.

(2.30) A: Mary/She failed her final exam in the secondary school.

Q: Who failed her final exams in the secondary school?

Since single nouns and pronouns have the same distribution as

noun phrases then they themselves are considered full noun phrases
and treated as noun phrase when we analyze the structure of
sentences. To clarify this, let us represent the three phrases 'Mary',
'She' and 'That intelligent girl' in the sentences above.

(2.31a) [NP [Det that] [Adj intelligent][N girl]] [NP [N Mary]] [NP [N
She]

(2.31b)

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Because pronouns occupy the same positions in noun phrases as

nouns and, thus, have the same distribution we use the same abbreviation
used for nouns which is N.

In (2.24) above, we have seen that the head in a noun phrase can be
preceded by some elements with which it constitutes the whole noun
phrase. Heads in noun phrase can also be followed by some elements. In
the subsections that will follow, we will discuss elements before the head
and elements after the head in the noun phrase in more detail before we
reach the point where we can formalize a noun phrase structure rule.

Exercise 11

1. Identify the noun phrases in the sentences below and do the

following; (1) square bracket them. (2)Test their constituency
using a variety of tests. (3)Underline their heads.
a. We should give our children great care.
b. The Libyan people elected their representatives in a
general election.
c. My brother and I are going to the party tonight.
d. I will send you a view of the historical castle by email
e. Hardy has written an amazing detective story.

2.3.1.1. Pre-head elements

The head in the noun phrase may be preceded by elements which
generally belong to two categories. They are determiners and adjectives.

2.3.1.1.1. Determiners
Determiners can be classified according to their position before
the head noun into three subcategories these are pre-determiners, central
determiners and post determiners. The following example illustrates the
idea.

(2.32) All the six players are from Africa.

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The head word 'players' in the noun phrase 'All the six players' is
preceded by three determiners: a pre-determiner 'All', a central
determiner 'the' and a post-determiner 'six'. The pre-determiner
subcategory comprises words like all, both, and half, the central
subcategory includes the articles, the possessive pronouns and the
demonstrative pronouns. Finally, the post determiners subcategory
includes numbers. Look at the following examples and specify the
subcategory of each determiner:

(2.33) both boys all the eleven students some teachers

my school these three books half a bottle

seven apples Ali's mother no money

As you can see from the example 'Ali's mother', the possessive s
is considered a determiner in addition to 'some' and 'no' in 'some
teachers' and 'no money'. All these three determiners are classified as
belonging to the central determiners subcategory.

Another thing about determiners is that it is not necessary to have

all types together before a noun. Sometimes we have all three types,
sometimes two, sometimes one and sometimes no determiner is used
as in 'girls are smarter than boys'

Finally, when representing noun phrases that contain more than

one determiner, there is no need to classify them. The abbreviation
Det is enough to refer to any determiner in the representation. Have a
look at the multiple determiner noun phrase found in (2.33) and
represented in (2.34) below.

(2.34a) [NP [Det all][Det the][Det eleven][N students]]

(2.34b)

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Exercise 12

1. Classify these determiners into pre-determiners, central

determiners and post-determiners.
half - that - our - three - Asma's - a - both - the - an - no - some –
those
2. Use these determiners in noun phrases of your own. In some of
them use three, in others use two and in some other occasions use
one.

2.3.1.1.2. Adjectives
Adjectives are another category that can be found before head nouns
in noun phrases. Let us examine the following examples.

(2.35) a. historical event c. that beautiful Libyan girl

b. a useful course d. these three nice big red apples

The underlined words are the head words in these noun phrases. In (a)
the head word is preceded by the adjective 'historical', in (b) the head
noun is preceded by the adjective 'useful', in (c) the head noun is
preceded by two adjectives: 'beautiful' and 'Libyan', and, finally, in (d)
the head noun 'apples' is preceded by three adjectives: 'nice', 'big' and
'red'.

As you can see from the last two examples, we have more than one
adjective before a head noun. In fact, we can have any number of
adjectives before a head noun in the noun phrase. When we have more
than one adjective before a noun we should put them in a certain order.
Generally the order of adjectives in English is as follows: quantity or
number, quality or opinion, size, age, shape, color, and finally proper
adjectives such as nationality or place of origin. (See examples c and d
above.

You should also notice that when we have determiners in the

noun phrase in addition to adjectives, determiners precede adjectives as
in examples b, c, and d above. To conclude this section let us have an

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idea about the syntactic structure of these noun phrases by representing

the noun phrase 'these three nice big red apples' as an example using
labeled bracketing and treediagraming as can be seen in (2.36) below.

(2.36a) [NP [Det these] [Det three] [Adj nice] [Adj big][Adj red][N apples]]

(2.36b)

However, this representation is a provisional one. As we will see

later, the adjectives here are not just words but each adjective constitutes
an adjective phrase on its own.

Exercise 13

1. Use the following jumbled words to construct noun phrases.

- cow brown that big fat - clever both sisters

- two ugly those girls - delicious these grapes small

- food healthy that - man brave strong young

2. Represent the noun phrases you constructed using labeled bracketing

and treediagraming.

2.3.1.2. Post-head elements

In addition to the elements found before the head noun in the noun
phrase, it is also possible to expand the noun phrase by adding
elements after the head word. In fact, head nouns can be followed by
clauses and prepositional phrases.

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2.3.1.2.1. Clauses
When we discussed types of clauses at the beginning of this unit, we
found that some clauses are found inside noun phrases. Specifically, they
are found after the head word in the noun phrase. Consider the following
sentences in which the first noun phrase in each sentence is put between
brackets:

(2.37) [The film which I told you about] is on TV tonight.

[The man who said nothing] was dumb.

[The girl that we met] is from Malaysia.

[The question whether he knows her] has not been answered.

In all of the examples above the underlined head nouns are followed
by clauses which are related to and describe the noun and without which
important information that specify that noun is missing. To make sure
that these clauses are parts of the noun phrases and belong to them let us
use some constituency tests. By using interrogation, we can have the
following question.

(2.38) Which film is on TV tonight? Answer: The film I told you about.

Who was dumb? Answer: The man who said nothing.

Which girl is from Malaysia? Answer: The girl that we met.

Which question has not been answered? Answer: The question

whether he knows her.

Another test that can be used to ensure the constituency of these

noun phrases is substitution.

(2.38) It is on TV tonight. (It substitutes the film I told you about).

He was dumb. (He replaces the man who said nothing)

If we only replace 'the film' and 'the man' the result will be
ungrammatical structures.

(2.39) *It I told you about is on TV tonight.

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*He who said nothing was dumb.

Let us conclude this section by practicing labeling and

treediagraming noun phrases containing clauses using one of the
examples in (2.37) above.

(2.40a) [NP [Det the] [N girl] [S that we met]]

(2.40b)

Of course we can analyze the clause found in the noun phrase

further; however, that is not relevant to the point we are discussing here
which is the relevance of the whole clause to the noun phrase.

2.3.1.2.2. Prepositional phrases

Head nouns can also be followed by prepositional phrases. Let us
have some examples:

(2.41) [The number of students] is big.

[The boy with the curly hair] is my nephew.

[The red roses in the garden] are beautiful.

In the first example the head noun 'number' is followed by the

prepositional phrase 'of students', in the second example the head
noun 'boy' is followed by the prepositional phrase 'with curly hair',
and finally, in the third example, the head noun 'roses' is followed by
the prepositional phrase 'in the garden'.

To make sure these prepositional phrases are parts of the noun

phrases between brackets, we conduct some constituency tests. By
using clefting test with the first example we will have the sentence in
(2.42a), by using interrogation with the second example we will have

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

the interrogative sentence in (2.42b), and, finally, by using

substitution with the third example we will have the sentence in
(2.42c).

(2.42) a. It is the number of the students that is big

b. Which boy is my nephew?

c, They are beautiful.

All the three sentences resulting from applying constituency tests are
grammatically correct. Therefore, we conclude that the prepositional
phrases belong to the testified noun phrases. Let us finish with practicing
labeling and treediagraming one of the noun phrases found in (2.41)
above as an example.

(2.43a) [NP [Det The][Adj red][N roses] [PP in the garden]]

(2.43b)

Now we are in a point where we can formalize a noun phrase structure

rule like the one in (2.44) below.

(2.44)

Elements between round brackets are optional. The only obligatory

constituent in the noun phrase is the head noun. The raised plus sign after
(Det) and (Adj) means that we can have more than one determiner and
more than one adjective preceding the head noun in the noun phrase.
Elements between curly brackets are alternatives. Here we can have a
clause OR a propositional phrase following the head noun in the noun
phrase.

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Exercise 14

1. Underline the head noun in each of the noun phrases between

brackets in the following sentences.

- [The book that I gave you] is Ali's.

- [The money which you lent me] solved my financial problems.

- [The blue car in that corner] belongs to the oil company.

- [Both windows of the room] are broken.

- [That fat man with a mustache] was elected chairman.

2. Prove that each clause or prepositional phrase following the

underlined noun in each bracketed phrase belongs to the whole noun
phrase.

3. Use labeled bracketing and treediagraming to show the structure of

the noun phrase between brackets.

2.3.2. Verb phrases

A verb phrase is a group of words in which the head word is a
verb. One obvious difference between a verb phrase and other types of
phrases is that a verb phrase must have a finite verb whereas other
phrases must not. Let us have an example.

(2.45) Hana came.

Identifying the verb phrase in a sentence is a simple task. First

you identify the noun phrase at the beginning of the sentence and what
follows the noun phrase to the end of the sentence is considered a verb
phrase. In the example above the verb phrase is made of only one
word. That is the verb 'came' as the analysis of the structure shows in
(46a) and (46b) below.

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(2.46a) [S [NP Hana][VP came]]

(2.46b)

However, we may have longer verb phrases such as the one in (2.47)
below.

(2.47) Hana [came to class late].

As you can see in this example, the whole word string 'came to class
late' makes the VP in this sentence. In order to ensure that the whole
string is a constituent, we conduct some constituency tests.

(2.47) Interrogation: What did Hana do?

Answer: She [came to class late].

Substitution: Hana came to class late and Wafa did so, too.

(did so replaces the whole verb phrase)

Pseudo-clefting: Came to class late is what Hana did.

These three tests prove that the whole string 'came to class late' is a
constituent in the sentence.

Verb phrases are similar in their structure to noun phrases because a

head verb like a head noun may be preceded and followed by elements
belonging to the verb phrase. Therefore, our analysis of verb phrases will
follow the same approach followed in analyzing noun phrases. First we
will discuss elements before the head and then elements after the head
will be dealt with in some detail.

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Exercise 15

1. Identify the verb phrase in the following sentence and put them
between square brackets.
- The mechanic repaired my car.
- He has promised not to do that again.
- She might have done it by mistake.
- Laila will have been watching TV for two hours.
- Mahmud is studying hard to pass the syntax exam
2. Underline the head verbs of the verb phrases in the sentence
above.
3. Test the constituency of the verb phrases in these sentences using
a variety of tests.
4. Label-bracket and treediagram these sentences to show their
basic structure.

2.3.2.1. Pre-head elements

Elements found before the head verb in the verb phrase include
tense, model auxiliary, perfect aspect, progressive aspect and, finally
passive voice. Apart from the tense which is an obligatory element in
the verb phrase. Other elements are optional.

2.3.2.1.1. Tense
The verb phrase should contain a finite verb which shows tense. This
finite verb can be in the present or past tense as the examples in (2.48)
show.

(2.48) He [comes everyday].

He [came yesterday].

As you will see below, it is always the first element in the verb
phrase which exhibits tense. Therefore, except when the verb phrase
starts with the head verb which could be in the present or past, tense is
always shown on elements preceding the head. The structure of the

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two sentences in (2.48) is represented using labeled bracketing and

treediagraming in (2.49a) and (2.49b) respectively.

(2.49a) [VP [V comes][AdvP everyday]] [VP [V came][AdvP yesterday]]

(2.49b)

2.3.2.1.2. Model auxiliaries

Modal auxiliary verbs are found before the head verb in the verb
phrase. Model auxiliaries include will, would, shall, should, may, might,
can, could, must, etc. For example, we may change the time in one of the
sentences in (2.48) to the future by inserting the model 'will' before the
head verb and making the necessary changes.

(2.50) He [will come tomorrow].

In this verb phrase, we have two elements before the head, the
tense which is the present and the model auxiliary 'will'. As you can see,
tense appears on the first element which is the model auxiliary 'will'. To
change this sentence to the past tense, we will have the one in (2.50)
below:

(2.50) (He said) He [would come tomorrow].

As you can see here, it is the first element in the verb phrase (i.e.
the model auxiliary) which is affected by tense. The structure of the verb
phrases in (2.50) can be represented as an example using labeled
bracketing and treediagraming as follows.

(2.51a) [VP [Mod will][ V come][AdvP tomorrow]]

(2.51b)

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2.3.2.1.3. Perfect aspect

The perfect aspect is obtained by have/has + the past participle
form of the main verb. The following are some examples:

(2.52) Amel [has written her homework].

They [have gone].

The head word in the first sentence is 'written' and it is preceded

by the two elements: the tense and the perfect aspect. The tense which is
the present appears on 'has' and the perfect aspect is shown by '-en' in
'written'. Similarly, in the second sentence, the tense affects the verb
'have' and the perfect aspect is shown by 'ne' in 'gone'. To change the
sentences in (2.52) to the past, we will have the following sentences:

(2.53) Amel [had written her homework].

They [had gone].

Again, in these sentences, the tense affects the first element 'had'
while the perfect aspect is shown on the main verbs 'written' and 'gone'.
Representation of the structure of the verb phrase in the first sentence in
(2.53) is shown in (2.54a) and (2.54b) below.

(2.54a) [VP [Perf had][V written][NP her homework]]

(2.54b)

2.3.2.1.4. Progressive aspect

The progressive aspect is made by verb 'be' + main verb + ing.
The following are some examples.

(2.55) Zainab [is reading].

The fourth year students [are studying syntax].

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The head word in the first sentence is 'reading' and it is preceded by

the two elements: the tense and the progressive aspect. The tense which
is the present appears on 'is' and the progressive aspect is shown by the
'ing' in 'reading'. Similarly, in the second sentence, the tense affects the
verb 'are' and the progressive aspect is shown by the 'ing' in 'studying'.
To change the sentences in (2.55) to the past, we will have the following
sentences.

(2.56) Zainab [was reading].

The fourth year students [were studying syntax].

In the last two sentences, the tense affects the first element 'was' in the
first sentence and the first element 'were' in the second sentence while the
progressive aspect is shown by the 'ing' in 'reading' and 'studying'. A
representation of the structure of the second sentence in (2.56) is found in
(2.57a) and (2.57b) below.

(2.57a) [VP [Prog were][V studying][NP syntax]]

(2.57b)

2.3.2.1.5. Passive aspect

The passive voice is obtained by verb 'be' + main verb in the past
participle form. Consider the following two examples.

(2.58) The work [is done perfectly].

The conversations [are recorded for you].

The head word in the first sentence is 'done' and it is preceded by

the two elements: the tense and the passive voice aspect. The tense which
is the present appears on 'is' and the passive aspect is shown by the 'ne' in
'done'. Similarly, in the second sentence, the tense affects the verb 'are'

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and the passive aspect is shown by the 'ed' in 'recorded'. To change the
sentences in (2.58) to the past we will have the following sentences.

(2.59) The work [was done perfectly].

The conversations [were recorded for you].

In the last two sentences , the tense affects the first element 'was'
in the first sentence and the first element 'were' in the second sentence
while the passive voice is shown by the 'ne' in 'done' and 'ed' in
'recorded'. The structure of the second sentence in (2.58) is represented
using labeled bracketing and treediagraming in (2.60a) and (2.60b)
respectively.

(2.60a) [VP [Pass were][V recorded][PP for you]]

(2.60b)

In all the examples above, only one pre-head element is used. It is

possible to have some or all elements together in one verb phrase. Let
us expand the verb phrase [recorded for you] to include other pre-head
elements.

(2.61) a. The conversations [are recorded for you].

(Tense and passive)

b. The conversations [are being recorded for you].

(Tense, progressive and passive)

c. The conversations [have been being recorded for you].

(Tense, perfect, progressive and passive)

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

d. The conversation [may have been being recorded for you].

(Tense, auxiliary model, perfect, progressive and passive)

Representation of the structure of the verb phrase of the last sentence

which includes all pre-head elements is shown in (2.62a) and (2.62b)
below.

(2.62a) [VP [Mod may][Perf have][Pass been][Prog being][V recorded][PP for

you]]

(2.62b)

The obligatory tense specifier affects the first element of the verb
phrase which is the model auxiliary 'may' which is in the present tense.

Exercise 16

1. Name the elements that precede the head in verb phrases and give
an example for each element.
2. Expand the verb phrase in the following sentence by including one
of the given elements each time until all elements are included.
1. You write a letter
b. Model auxiliary
c. Perfect aspect
d. Progressive aspect
e. Passive voice
f. Past tense
2. Label bracket and treediagram each phrase of the phrases you
made in question 2.

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2.3.2.2. Post-head elements

Regarding post-head elements, generally a head verb may be
followed by two types of elements: obligatory and optional.
Obligatory types are called complements and optional types are
called adjuncts. In the following subsections we will discuss these
two main types in more detail.

2.3.2.2.1. Complements
Complements are constituents which are required by head verbs
in verb phrases. Consider the following example.

(2.63) *He told

The sentence in (2.63) is ungrammatical because the verb 'tell'

requires an element that completes the meaning of the verb.

(2.64) *He told me

In spite of the fact that we have added an element to the verb in

(2.63), the result is still an ungrammatical sentence.

(2.65) He told me the truth.

After adding the second element, we have obtained a grammatical

meaningful sentence. It seems that the verb tell requires or
subcategorizes (to use syntax terminology) for two elements. In fact,
the number of elements required by verbs and their types depend on
the type of the verb itself. Verbs can be classified into three main
categories: copula verbs, intransitive verbs, and transitive verbs.

A. Copula verbs
A copula verb is a verb which subcategorizes for a complement
that describes the noun phrase (or subject) preceding it; it joins that
noun phrase with the complement. Examples for copula verbs include
be, seem, look, appear, sound, etc. Consider the following examples.

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

(2.66) a. You [look tired].

b. He [is a student in the faculty of Arts].

c. They [seem in danger].

In sentence (a), the copula verb 'look' subcategorizes for an adjective

phrase, in sentence (b) the verb 'be' subcategorizes for a noun phrase and,
finally, in sentence (c), the verb 'seem' subcategorizes for a prepositional
phrase. The subcategorization of copula verbs can be formally put in a
frame like the one in (2.67)

(2.67)

Exercise 17

1. What is a verb complement? Give an example to clarify your

answer.
2. Use the following copula verbs in sentences of your own. Use
different types of complements: be -appear - sound - look - seem
3. Represent the verb phrases of the sentences you gave in 2 using
labeled bracketing and tree diagramming.

B. Intransitive verbs
An intransitive verb is one which is not followed by an object. The
following are some examples.

(2.68) Hani [laughed]. The baby [cried] The old woman [died].

In the verb phrases of these sentences, the main verbs are intransitive
verbs and, thus, they are not followed by an object. However, there are
some intransitive verbs which require a complement. The following are
some examples.

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

(2.69) Jamila [referred to the house]. Nader [pointed at the gap].

In the two verb phrases each of the two head verbs require a
complement. This complement is not an object since the verb is
intransitive; it is a propositional phrase. This propositional phrase is
required by the intransitive verb to complete the verb phrase. If this
propositional phrase is omitted, the result will be ungrammatical
sentence.

(2.70) *Jamila referred *Nader pointed.

This subcategorization for no complement by some intransitive

verbs and the subcategorization for a prepositional phrase
complements by some other intransitive verbs can be framed as
follows.

(2.71)

The notation Ø means that no complement is required by the

transitive verb, or a prepositional phrase is required as a complements
for some intransitive verbs.

Exercise 18

1. Give an example for an intransitive verb which requires a

prepositional phrase as a complement and another example for
an intransitive verb which requires a zero complement.
2. Put the two verbs you gave in 1 in sentences of your own.
3. Represent the verb phrases in the sentences you gave in 2 using
labeled bracketing and tree diagramming to show their syntactic
structure.

C. Transitive verbs
A transitive verb is one that requires an object or two objects. The
number of objects following the verb depends on the type of the

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transitive verb. Transitive verbs can be classified into three types:

monotransitive, ditransitive, and complex transitive.

1. Monotransitive verbs
A monotransitive verb is a verb which is followed by one obligatory
object. The following are some examples:

(2.72) Yousef [ate an apple]

The cat [killed the rat]

I like [reading]

The head verbs in the sentences in (2.72) are followed by one noun
phrase each. In the first example, the verb 'ate' subcategorizes for the
noun phrase 'an apple', in the second example the head verb 'killed'
subcategorizes for the noun phrase 'the rat' and, finally, in the third
example the head verb 'like' subcategorizes for the noun phrase 'reading'.
The representation in (2.73a) and (2.73b) show the syntactic structure of
the first example.

(2.73a) [VP [V ate][NP an apple]] (2.73b)

In addition to the noun phrase required by monotransitive verbs, some

monotransitive verbs subcategorize for a prepositional phrase as the
example in (2.74) show.

(2.74) She [put the book on the table].

*She [put the book].

As you can see, the monotransitive verb requires the prepositional

phrase 'on the table' in addition to the noun phrase 'the book'. In the
ungrammatical sentence '*she put the book' the meaning is incomplete.

A monotransitive verb can also subcategorize for a clause as the

examples in (2.75) show:

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(2.75) The teacher [will consider what we have done].

I [understand that she is seriously ill].

They [know where they should go].

Each head verb in the sentences in (2.76) is followed by a clause.

The main verb 'consider' in the first sentence is followed by the clause
'what we have done', the main verb 'understand' in the second example is
followed by the clause 'that she is seriously ill' and, finally, the main
verb 'know' in the third example is followed by the clause 'where they
should go'. Representation of the structure of the verb phrase of the first
sentence in (2.75) is given in (2.76a) and (2.76b) as an example.

(2.76a) [VP [Mod will][ V consider][S what we have done]]

(2.76b)

The subcategorization of monotransitive verbs for complements

can be framed as in (2.77) below.

(2.77)

This frame can be translated as follows: a monotransitive verb is

followed by a noun phrase, a noun phrase and a prepositional phrase
OR a clause as its complement.

Exercise 19

1. How do you translate this notation into words?

2. Give each type of a monotransitive verb in a sentence of your own.

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2. Label bracket and treediagram the verb phrases of the sentences

you gave in 2 to show their syntactic structure.

2. Ditransitive verbs
A ditransitive verb is a verb that subcategorizes for two objects: one is
direct and the other is indirect. The following are some examples:

(2.78) Malik [gave his sister a present]

Lubna [told us a story].

I [sent him a letter]

The head verb 'gave' in the first verb phrase above is followed by the
two noun phrases 'his sister' and 'a present', the head verb 'told' in the
second noun phrase is followed by the two noun phrases 'us' and 'a
story', and finally, the head verb 'sent' is followed by the two noun
phrases 'him' and 'a letter'. The structure of the verb phrase 'sent him a
letter' is represented in (2.79a) and (2.79b) using labeled bracketing and
treediagraming.

(2.79a) [VP [V sent][NP him][NP a letter]]

(2.79b)

The ditransitive verb may also subcategorize for a noun phrase and a
prepositional phrase. Using the examples in (2.78) and by reversing the
order of the two noun phrases subcategorized for by the head verb we
obtain the following sentences:

(2.80) Malik [gave a present to his sister].

Muna [told a story to us].

I [sent a letter to him].

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The head verb 'gave' in the first verb phrase above is followed by
the noun phrases 'a present' and the prepositional phrase 'to his sister',
the head verb 'told' in the second verb phrase is followed by the noun
phrases 'a story' and the prepositional phrase 'to us', and, finally, the head
verb 'sent' is followed by the noun phrases 'a letter' and the prepositional
phrase 'to him'. The structure of the verb phrase 'sent a letter to him' is
represented in (2.81a) and (2.81b) using labeled bracketing and tree
diagramming.

(2.81a) [VP sent [NP a letter][PP to him]]

(2.81b)

The subcategorization of ditransitive verbs for complements can

be put in a frame as in (2.82) below.

(2.82)

This frame can be translated as follows: a ditransitive verb

subcategorizes either for two noun phrases or a noun phrase plus a
prepositional phrase.

Exercise 20

1. What is a ditransitive verb? Give three examples and put them in

sentences of your own.
2. How you say this notation in words?

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3. Represent the syntactic structure of the verb phrases in the

sentences you gave in 1 using labeled bracketing and tree
diagramming.

3. Complex transitive verb

A complex transitive verb, like a ditransitive one subcategorizes for
two noun phrases or a noun phrase and an adjective phrase. However,
while the two noun phrases required by a ditransitive verb refer to two
different things or people, the two noun phrases required by a complex
transitive verb refer to one thing. As we will see in the third chapter this
will have consequences on the functions of these noun phrases. To clarify
the difference between noun phrases subcategorized for by ditransitive
verbs and those subcategorized for by complex transitive verbs, let us
consider the following examples.

(2.83) He [lent me some money]. (lent: ditransitive verb)

They [chose him captain]. (chose: complex transitive verb)

Both verbs in the two noun phrase in (2.83) subcategorize for two
noun phrases each. However, while the two noun phrases required by the
head verb 'sent' refer to two different things: 'me' and 'some money', the
two noun phrases required by the head verb 'chose' refer to the same
thing or person; 'him' and 'captain' refer to the same person. When the
two noun phrases subcategorized for by a transitive verb refer to different
things that verb is said to be a ditransitive verb. However, when the two
noun phrases subcategorized for by a transitive verb refer to the same
person or thing then that verb is known as a complex transitive verb. As
have been mentioned before, this difference will have its effect on the
grammatical functions of these noun phrases as we will see in Unit
Three.

The structure of the second verb phrase in (2.83) is represented in

(2.84a) and (2.84b) as an example of a complex transitive verb
complement.

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

(2.84a) [VP [V chose][NP him][NP captain]]

(2.84b)

Complex transitive verbs can also subcategorize for a noun

phrase and an adjective phrase. Let us consider the following
example.

(2.85) The woman [considered that guy crazy].

The complex transitive verb 'considered' is followed by two

complements: the noun phrase 'that guy' and the adjective phrase
'crazy'. This can be shown through a representation of the verb phrase
by using labeled bracketing and treediagraming.

(2.86a) [VP [V considered][NP that guy][AdjP crazy]]

(2.86b)

The subcategorization of complex transitive verbs for

complements can be put in a frame as in (2.87) below.

(2.87)

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

This frame can be translated as follows: a complex transitive verb

subcategorizes for two noun phrases or a noun phrase and an adjective
phrase.

Exercise 21

1. What is the difference between a ditransitive verb and a complex

transitive verb? Give an example of each one of them in sentences
to illustrate this difference.
2. Represent the syntactic structure of the verb phrases in the
sentences you gave in 1 using labeled bracketing and tree
diagramming.

2.3.2.2. 2. Adjuncts
In addition to complements required by head verbs in verb phrases,
these phrases can have adjuncts. However, while verb complements are
obligatory, adjuncts are optional because they are not needed to complete
the verb phrase; they only add information to the verb phrase. However,
when they are there in the sentence they are considered part of the verb
phrase. Let us consider the following examples.

(2.88) He opened [the door][for the guest].

She beat [him][violently][with a stick]

In the first sentence, while the noun phrase 'the door' is required for
the meaning of the verb phrase, the prepositional phrase 'for the guest'
can be omitted because it is not required by the head verb to complete the
meaning of the verb phrase. It only gives additional information and thus
can be omitted. Similarly, in the second sentence, while the noun phrase
'him' is needed to complete the meaning of the verb phrase, the adverb
phrase 'violently' and the prepositional phrase 'with a stick' can be
omitted because they are not obligatory constituents.

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(2.88) He opened the door *He opened for the quest

She beat him *She beat violently with a stick.

As you can see in the last example, the phrase has two optional
constituents. A representation of the structure of the verb phrase in the
second example in (2.88) is found in (2.89a) and (2.89b) below.

(2.89a) [VP [V beat][NP him][AdvP violently][PP with a stick]]

(2.89b)

It is possible theoretically at least to add an indefinite number of

adjuncts to verb phrases.

(2.90) She beat him violently with a stick when she met him by
chance at the street corner yesterday.......

Now we reached the point where we can try to formulate a verb

phrase structure rule like the one below:

(2.91)

As you can see from this provisional phrase structure rule, all
elements are optional except for the head word, which is a verb, and
the tense. As we have already mentioned before, verb phrases should
contain finite verbs and these finite verbs by definition carry tense.
That is why the element tense is obligatory in this verb phrase
structure rule.

Due to the complexity of the types of verb complements, they

cannot be specified in such a rule. The abbreviation comp refers to
verb complements and the abbreviation Av refers to verb phrase
adjuncts. We use Av and not Adj for adjuncts because Adj has already
been used to refer to adjectives. Both comp and Av are put between
brackets since complements are not required by all verbs and since

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adjuncts are optional constituents. Can you tell which verbs do not
subcategorize for complements? Also, the raised plus sign following
comp and Av means that we can have one or more of these
constituents in a verb phrase.

Exercise 22

1. What is an adjunct and what is the difference between an adjunct

and a complement? Give a sentence as an example to illustrate
your answer.
2. Represent the structure of the verb phrase in the sentence you
gave in 1 using labeled bracketing and treediagraming.
3. Explain this verb structure rule in your own words:

2.3.3. Prepositional phrases

A prepositional phrase is a group of words in which the head
word is a preposition. What follows the preposition is said to be its
complement.

Preposition complements are of two types: A noun phrase or a clause.

The following are some examples.

(2.92) a. Nour is [at school].

b. The girl [with red hair] is my cousin.

c. Put these words [in the right order].

d. I believe [in what you said].

f. Have you talked [about where she should go].

In the examples a, b, and c. the prepositions at, with and in are

followed by the noun phrases 'school', 'red hair' and 'the right order'
respectively. However in d and c, the prepositions ‘in’ and ‘about’ are

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followed by the clauses 'what you said' and 'where she should go'
respectively. A noun phrase or a clause following a preposition is
considered its complement and belongs to the prepositional phrase as a
whole. Let us represent the structure of the two prepositional phrases in c
and d as examples using labeled bracketing and treediagraming.

(2.93a) [PP [P in][NP the right order]] [PP [P in][S what you said]]

(2.93b)

Sometimes the complement of the preposition itself is a

prepositional phrase. This happens when a preposition is followed by
another preposition in the same prepositional phrase. Here are some
examples:

(2.9 a. The mother watched her child [from behind the curtains].

b. The mouse peeped [from under the cupboard].

c. They have not met [since after Eid]

In the prepositional phrase in (a), the complement of the

preposition 'from' is the prepositional phrase 'behind the curtains'. In
the prepositional phrase (b) the complement of the preposition 'from'
is the prepositional phrase 'under the cupboard'. Finally, in the
prepositional phrase in (c) the complement of the preposition 'since' is
the prepositional phrase 'after Eid'. In (2.95a) and (2.95b) we give a
representation of the structure of the prepositional phrase in (c) as an
example.

(2.95a) [PP [P since][PP after Eid]]

(2.95b)

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In all the examples given above, a preposition complement follows the

preposition. However, there are exceptions to this typical order like the
one in (2.96) below in which the complement precedes the preposition.

(2.96) I met her [two years ago].

The village is [a few miles away].

In the first example, the preposition 'ago' comes at the end of the
prepositional phrase preceded by its complement 'two years'. Similarly,
in the second example, the preposition 'away' comes at the end of the
prepositional phrase preceded by its complement 'a few miles'.

Sometimes the prepositional complement is omitted altogether.

Consider the following examples.

(2.97) She is [inside (the building)].

They looked at the stars [above (them)].

Pull that map [off (the wall)].

In these three examples the complement of the prepositions put

between round brackets can be omitted.

Finally, head prepositions in prepositional phrases, like heads in other

phrases, can be preceded by specifiers. Consider the following examples:

(2.98) a. The player kicked the ball [right in the goal].

b. They walked [straight through the woods].

c. The shot was [two inches above his head].

The underlined head preposition in (a) is specified by the adverb

phrase 'right', the underlined head preposition in (b) is specified by the
adverb phrase 'straight' and the head preposition in (c) is specified by
the noun phrase 'two inches'. Let us represent the preposition phrase in
(b) as an example using labeled bracketing and treediagraming.

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An Introduction to Syntax Albashir Ahmed

(2.99a) [PP [AdvP straight][P through][NP the woods]]

(2.99b)

Now we have reached a point where we can formalize a

provisional prepositional phrase structure rule like the one in (2.100)

(2.100)

In this provisional phrase structure rule the P is obligatory. The

abbreviation Spec refers to the specifier that may or may not precede
the head preposition. Because this element is optional it is put
between round brackets. The same thing applies to the abbreviation
Prepc which refers to the prepositional complement. Although the
absence of prepositional complements is not so common we enclose it
between round brackets to make our rule cover all possibilities.

Exercise 23

1. What is a prepositional phrase? Give an example to clarify your

answer.
2. Put the prepositional phrases in these sentences between square
brackets and circle their heads.
a. She cares about what he does.
b. She stared at the boy from behind the glass door.
c. He slapped her right in the face.
d. Huda left the country ten months ago.
3. Underline the prepositional complement of each prepositional
phrase.
4. Are there any specifiers of prepositions in these prepositional
phrases? Locate them.
5. Represent these prepositional phrases using labeled bracketing
and treediagraming.
6. Explain this rule in your own words:

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2.3.4. Adjective phrases

An adjective phrase is a phrase in which the head word is an
adjective. Let us consider the following examples

(2.101) That building is [old]

This little girl is [very smart].

Sundus is [fond of cats].

Adjective phrases in the sentences in (2.101) are enclosed

between square brackets. These phrases are considered adjective phrases
because their heads are adjectives. The head word in the first phrase is
the adjective 'old', the head word in the second phrase is the adjective
'smart' and the head word in the third phrase is the adjective 'fond'. Like
other phrases, the adjective phrase may be made of one word or more
than one word. Label bracketing and treediagraming these phrases will
give us their syntactic structure in (2.102).

(2.102a) [AdjP [Adj old]]

[AdjP [Adv very][Adj smart ]]

[AdjP [Adj fond][PP of cats]

(2.102b)

As you can see, the head word in an adjective phrase can be preceded
and/or followed by other elements. Consider the following examples.
The head word is underlined.

(2.103) They are [very interested in reading].

His mother was [totally surprised that he passed the exams].

He is [too worried about his health].

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The words 'very', 'totally' and 'too' found before the underlined
heads in these adjective phrases are adverbs and they express the
degree of the adjectives following them. As you have already seen,
elements before the head adjective are optional. i.e., they may or may
not precede the head in an adjective phrase.

In addition to these elements which precede the head, there are

elements which follow the head in the adjective phrase. The elements
which follow heads in adjective phrases are obligatory for some
adjectives and optional for others. In (2.103) the underlined head word
in the first example is followed by the prepositional phrase 'in
reading', the underlined head word in the second example is followed
by the clause 'that he passed the exams' and finally, the head word in
the third example is followed by the prepositional phrase 'about his
head'. All these complements work as complements to these head
adjectives. That is, they complete the meaning of the adjective phrase
in which they are found. A representation of the last adjective phrase
is shown as an example in (2.104)

(2.104a) [AdjP [Adv too][Adj worried][PP about his health]].

(2.104b)

All examples of adjective phrases dealt with so far are found after
the main verb in the sentence. That is they are located inside verb
phrases. As we have seen before, adjective phrases can also be found
inside noun phrases. Let us consider the following examples:

(2.105) That [fat] boy is my son.

[Bright] stars can be seen clearly.

My [new][friendly][English] neighbor is coming to the party.

The adjective 'fat' is found inside the noun phrase 'that fat boy',
the adjective 'bright' is found inside the noun phrase 'bright stars' and,

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finally, the three adjectives 'new', 'friendly' and 'English' belong to the
noun phrase 'my new friendly English neighbor'. As you can see from the
last example, we may have more than one adjective describing the same
noun.

An adjective phrase structure rule can be formulated as follows:

(2.106)

Elements between round brackets are optional. However,

elements between curly brackets are not always optional. This is so to
incorporate adjectives that are obligatorily followed by complements.
Elements separated by a slash are alternatives. That is, you can either use
a prepositional phrase or a clause after an adjective.

Exercise 24

1. Identify the adjective phrases in the following sentences and put

them between square brackets.
- Libyans are aware of the problems their country
encounters.
- She became very angry with him.
- The child was afraid of the cat.
- She married him young.
2. Underline the head words in these phrases.
3. Label bracket and treediagram these phrases.
4. Explain this adjective phrase structure rule in your own words:

2.3.5. Adverb phrases

An adverb phrase is a word or a group of words in which the head
word is an adverb. It often tells us how, when or where something
happened. The following are some examples.

(2.107) He arrived [yesterday].

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I saw him [there].

She has done her work [perfectly].

A representation of the structure of the last example of adverb

phrases is shown in (2.108a) and (2.108b) using labeled bracketing
and treediagraming respectively.

(2.108a) [AdvP [Adv perfectly]] (2.108b)

In the first sentence the adverb phrase 'yesterday' tells us about

time, i.e. it answers the question when. In the second example, the
adverb phrase 'there' tells us about place; it answers the question
where. Finally, in the third example the adverb phrase 'perfectly' tells
us about manner; it answers the question how.

In all the examples above, the adverb phrase is made of one word.
However, the head adverb in an adverb phrase can be preceded by an
element which specifies it. Such element is often an adverb which
works as a degree expression. Consider the following examples:

(2.109) Nour did [very well] in the final exam.

The boxer hit his rival [extremely violently].

The cook prepared the dish [amazingly skillfully].

As can be seen from the examples in (2.109), the underlined head

adverb is preceded by another adverb which works as a specifier and
expresses the degree of the head adverb.

In (2.110) the syntactic structure of the third adverb phrase is

represented as an example using labeled bracketing and tree
diagramming.

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(2.110a) [AdvpP [Adv amazingly][Adv skillfully]]

(2.110b)

In all the examples that have been dealt with so far, the adverb
phrase is found within the verb phrase. An adverb phrase can also be
contained in an adjective phrase. Have a look at the following examples.

(2.111) The program was [extremely interesting].

The result was [unexpectedly positive].

He was a [really kind] person.

The adverb phrases in (2.111) work as specifiers in larger

adjective phrases. In the first example, the adverb phrase 'extremely'
functions as a specifier of the adjective 'interesting'. In the second
example the adverb phrase 'unexpectedly' works as a specifier of the
adjective 'positive'. Finally, in the third example, the adverb phrase
'really' plays the role of a specifier of the adjective 'kind'. The structure
of the last adjective phrase is represented as an example using labeled
bracketing and treediagraming in (2.112a) and (2.112b),

(2.112a) [AdjP [AdvP [Adv really]][Adj kind]] (2.112b)

Now we have reached a point where we can formalize an adverb

phrase structure rule like the one in (2.113) below:

(2.113)

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Exercise 25

1. Identify the adverb phrases in the following sentences and put

them between square brackets.
a. He presented the material very badly.
b. The party was marvelously enjoyable.
c. The musician played the piano completely expertly.
d. They were quite nice people.
e. Come here.
2. Underline the head words in these phrases.
3. Label bracket and treediagram these phrases.
4. Explain this adverb phrase structure rule in your own words:

2.4. Abbreviations
In addition to the abbreviations studied in unit one (See
section 1.7), you also need to study and memorize the following
abbreviations encountered in this unit due to their importance and use
in the syntactic analysis throughout this coursebook and in your future
study of syntax.

Mod. Model auxiliary

Perf. Perfect aspect

Pass. Passive aspect

Prog. Progressive aspect

Comp. Complement

Av Adjunct (in verb phrases)

Spec. Specifier

Prepc. Prepositional complement

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2.5. Summary
In this unit, phrase structure rules were discussed. Phrase
structure rules are those used by speakers of the language to structure
sentences. They are called so because phrases are the basic constituents
of sentences. In addition to phrases, sentences may also contain clauses
which are formed through coordination and subordination.

As for phrases, they are classified into noun phrases, verb

phrases, prepositional phrases, adjective phrases and, finally, adverb
phrases. A noun phrase is called so because the main word in the phrase
is a noun. Similarly, the main word in the verb phrase is a verb, the main
verb in a prepositional phrase is a preposition, the main verb in an
adjective phrase is an adjective and the main word in an adverb phrase is
an adverb. The main word in each phrase type may be followed or
preceded by other words which themselves belong to the phrase. The
main word in a noun phrase can be preceded by determiners and
adjective phrases and followed by clauses and prepositional phrases. All
elements preceding and following the main noun in a noun phrase are
optional.

The main verb in a verb phrase is similar to the main word in a

noun phrase in that it can be preceded and followed by other elements.
Elements preceding the main verb in a verb phrase include ‘tense’ which
is obligatory, ‘model auxiliary’, ‘perfect aspect’, ‘progressive aspect’
and ‘passive aspect’ all of which are optional. Regarding elements
following the main verb in a verb phrase, they are of two types:
complements and adjuncts. Complements are those constituents which
are required by some verbs and which complete the meaning of the verb
in a verb phrase and thus are considered obligatory. Adjuncts are optional
because they give extra information that can be omitted without affecting
the grammaticality of the verb phrase.

The type of complement is dependent on the type of the main verb in

the verb phrase. Copula verbs subcategorize for an adjective phrase, a
noun phrase or a prepositional phrase. Intransitive verbs may
subcategorize for nothing or a prepositional phrase. Monotransitive verbs
subcategorize for a noun phrase or a noun phrase plus a prepositional
phrase or a clause. Ditransitive verbs are followed by two noun phrases

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or a noun phrase plus a prepositional phrase. Complex transitive verbs

are followed by two noun phrases or a noun phrase plus an adjective
phrase.

The main word in a prepositional phrase which is a preposition

can be preceded by specifiers and should be followed by
complements. Similarly, the main word in the adjective phrase can be
preceded by an adverb phrase which specifies it. Some adjectives
require complements which can be realized by prepositional phrases
or clauses. Finally, an adverb phrase can be made of a single adverb or
an adverb preceded by another adverb which specifies it.

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Unit Three: Functions of Constituents

3.1. Grammatical functions in sentences

When we studied the structure of sentence in Unit One, we found
that a sentence is basically made of a noun phrase and a verb phrase.
These two constituents have the functions of a subject and a predicate
respectively.

3.1.1. Subject
The subject of a sentence is the noun phrase which combines with
the verb phrase to make a sentence. It is often found at the beginning of
the sentence. Let us illustrate this through the following example.

(3.1) Hisham is a famous football player.

Representing this sentence by labeled bracketing and

treediagraming will give us the structure representation in (3.2) below.

(3.2a) [S [NP Hisham][VP is a famous football player]]

(3.2b)

The noun phrase immediately dominated by the sentence and

found at the beginning of the sentence before the verb phrase functions as
the subject of the sentence, or (to use syntax terms) realizes the function
of the subject. As you can see, the representation only shows labels of

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constituents. Incorporating functions into our representations needs some

modifications in such representations as can be seen in (3.3) below.

(3.3a) [S [NP/Su Hisham][VP is a famous football player]]

(3.3b)

By using a slash between the label and the function, it was

possible to show functions on both representations. The function
'subject' is abbreviated as 'Su'. We will continue to use this convention
to show grammatical functions of all constituents.

In the example above, the noun phrase realizing the function of

the subject is made up of a single word. As we have seen in unit two,
a noun phrase can consist of a string of words like the one at the
beginning of the following sentence.

(3.3) All students who pass the entry exam will join this class.

Representing this sentence with labeled bracketing and

treediagraming will give the syntactic structure representation in (3.4).

(3.4a) [S [NP/Su All students who pass the entry exam][VP will join this

class]

(3.4b)

As you can see from both representations, the whole noun phrase
'all students who pass the entry exam' realizes the function of subject.

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Because we have not studied the function of the VP yet, it does not
show in these representations. The function of the VP will be clarified
in the following section.

3.1.2. Predicate
While the noun phrase at the beginning of a sentence realizes the
function of the subject, the verb phrase which follows it functions as the
predicate. A predicate is called so because it predicates something of the
subject. Consider the following examples and see in particular how the
VP or the predicate of each sentence is related to the NP or the subject of
the same sentence.

(3.5) The Libyan people are generous.

Syntax is a very interesting subject.

They come here every month.

I believe in ghosts.

In all the sentences in (3.5) the VP or the predicate of every

sentence tells something of the NP or the subject of that sentence. Let us
repeat the representations of the sentence in (3.3) but now showing the
function of the verb phrase as the predicate of the sentence.

(3.6a) [S[NP/Su All students who pass the entry exam][VP/Pred will join this

class]

(3.6b)

As you can see from the representation, the predicate is the verb
phrase immediately dominated by the sentence and which realizes the
function of the predicate. Pred is the abbreviation.

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3.1.3. Sentence Adjuncts

In Unit Two, we mentioned that adjuncts are optional elements
found in verb phrases and which give additional information. In
addition to these optional elements found in verb phrases, there are
optional elements attached to the sentence and, thus, they do not
constitute a part of the basic structure of the sentence. They are known
as sentence adjuncts. The label is abbreviated as As to distinguish it
from adjuncts found in verb phrases and abbreviated as Av.

Sentence adjuncts (As) can be grouped in two types: speaker

attitude expressions and sentence connecters.

3.2.3.1. Speaker attitude expressions

This type of adjuncts includes elements that are used to express
the attitude of the speaker towards the idea of the sentence. Examples
of this type include items like luckily, hopefully, sadly, certainly, in
my opinion, in my view, in fact, etc. Consider the following examples
which contain these expressions.

(3.7) Sadly, we will not be able to go for a picnic this weekend due to
bad weather.

Hopefully, she will finish her exams by the time we are there.

In my opinion, the problem of large-size classes should be

solved immediately.

As you can see from these examples, these expressions do not

make a part of the basic structure of the sentences in which they are
found and, therefore, they are separated by commas from the rest of
the sentence. The representations in (3.8) show the structure of the
second sentence in (3.7) as an example.

(3.8a) [S [AdvP/As Hopefully] [NP/Su She][VP/Pred will finish her exams by

the time we are there]]

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(3.8b)

3.2.3.2. Sentence connectors

This type of sentence adjuncts includes elements that are used to
connect sentences in discourse whether written or spoken such as
therefore, however, yet, moreover, etc. The following are some
examples:

(3.8) It is raining heavily. Therefore, I will not go out.

Waleed failed all his exams. However, his sister passed them.

She is fat and short. Yet, she is very attractive.

As can be seen from these examples, Sentence connectors do not

belong to the basic structure of the sentences they are found in, but their
role is mainly to connect these sentences to others preceding them in the
text. The following is a representation of the structure of the second
sentence found in the second example using both labeled bracketing and
treediagraming.

(3.9a) [S[AdvP/SA However][NP/Su his sister][VP/Pred passed all of them]]

( 3.9b)

To conclude this section, we present a table in which we show the

constituents making the basic structure of the sentence and their
grammatical functions with some examples.

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Table (3.1)

Function Sentence Subject (Su) Predicate (Pred)

Adjunct (As)
Category AdvP/PP NP VP
Certainly, that little boy is smart.
Luckily, I met her before.
Examples In fact, that girl did it purposefully.
..... However, the weather got terrible.
..... Yet, the football team played very well.

Exercise 26

1. In each of the following sentences, circle the subject and underline

the predicate.
a. In fact, you have broken my pencil.
b. Hiba and Nour will arrive before noon, fortunately.
c. Yet, your transcript show many high grades, .
d. The old woman embraced her long lost daughter.
e. The guy with long hair is a good swimmer, however.
2. Identify sentence adjuncts and specify their types.
3. Represent the structure of the sentences above using both labeled
bracketing and treediagraming methods of representation.

3.2. Grammatical functions in phrases

When we discussed the structure of phrases, we said that every
phrase has a head. The head of the noun phrase is a noun, the head of
a verb phrase is a verb, the head of a prepositional phrase is a
preposition, the head of an adjective phrase is an adjective and the
head of an adverb phrase is an adverb. By definition, the function of
the head words in phrases is a head. The head noun realizes the
function of the head of the noun phrase and the head verb realizes the
function of the head of the verb phrase and so on. Heads of phrases
may be preceded or followed by other elements. These elements have
functions in their phrases. In the following subsections, functions of
elements preceding and following heads in phrases will be discussed.

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3.2. 1. Functions in noun phrase

3.2.1.1. Specifiers
Head nouns in noun phrases may be preceded by determiners. As
said before, determiners are divided according to their position into three
categories: pre-determiners, central determiners and post-determiners.
However, all determiners, whatever their type is, realize the function of
specifier. They specify the head noun in the noun phrase. Let us consider
the following examples:

(3.10) [A new teacher] came today.

[Both girls] are my friends.

[Three cars] were sold to that rich man.

In the first example, the indefinite article 'a' functions as a

specifier of the noun head 'teacher', in the second example, the
determiner 'both' also functions as a specifier of the head noun 'girl' and,
finally, in the third example, the determiner 'three' realizes the function
of a specifier of the head noun 'cars'. The following is a representation of
the noun phrase in the second sentence in (3.10) as an example.

(3.11a) [NP [Det/Spec Both][N/H birds]] (3.11b)

As you can see from this representation, the abbreviation of

'specifier' is 'Spec' and the abbreviation of 'head' is 'H'. In all the
examples in (3.10), there is only one specifier preceding the head noun.
As we have seen in Unit Two, we may have a number of determiners
preceding the head noun in a noun phrase. All determiners preceding the
head noun function as specifiers. The following are some examples.

(3.11) [All the five red apples] are fresh.

[Half a bottle of milk] is enough.

[both my little kids] are naughty.

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In these sentences, noun phrases are enclosed between square

brackets and their heads are underlined. In the first example, the head
noun is preceded by three determiners and an adjective; in the second
sentence, the head noun is preceded by two determiners. Likewise, in
the third example the head noun is preceded by two determiners. All
these determiners realize the function of specifier. Let us represent the
noun phrase in the first sentence as an example using labeled
bracketing and treediagraming.

(3.12a) [NP [Det/Spec All][Det/Spec the][Det/Spec five][AdjP red][N/H apples]]

3.12b)

As you can see from this representation, the only element that
does not show a function is the adjective phrase 'red' immediately
preceding the head noun. The function of adjective phrases preceding
head nouns is discussed in the following subsection.

3.2.1.2. Modifiers
Modifiers are those words which may be found in a noun phrase
and modify the head noun. They are classified in two categories:
premodifiers and postmodifiers. Premodifiers precede the head noun
and postmodifiers follow it.

(3.13) Premodifiers - Head noun - Postmodifiers

3.2.1.2.1. Premodifiers
In addition to the fact that head nouns in noun phrases can be
preceded by determiners which function as specifiers, these nouns can

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also be preceded by adjectives. These adjectives realize the function

of premodifier since they come before the noun and premodify it.
Have a look at these examples. Premodifiers are usually adjectives.

(3.13) [cheap clothes] are sold in this store.

This is [a great idea].

[These four French girls] came to visit my grandmother.

In these examples, adjectives preceding head nouns are

underlined. In the first example the head noun 'clothes' is preceded by the
adjective 'cheap' which premodifies it. In the second example, the head
noun 'ideas' is preceded by the adjective 'great' which functions as a
premodifer of that noun. In the third example, the head word 'girls' is
preceded by the adjective 'French' which realizes the function of a
premodifier of the head noun.

In addition to the above mentioned adjectives found in these noun

phrases and which realize the function of premodifier, the second and
third example contain determiners which realize the function of specifier.
In the second example, there is the indefinite article 'a' and in the third
example, there is the demonstrative 'these' and the number 'three' both of
which are determiners and function as specifiers. It is particularly
important to notice here that when we have specifiers and premodifiers
together in the same noun phrase, specifiers precede adjectives and
adjectives come immediately before head nouns.

(3,14) These four French girls *These French four girls

Like determiners in noun phrases, we may have more than one

adjective preceding a noun head and premodifying it.

(3.15) a white horse.

those useful scientific books

three nice little black kittens

While the underlined head noun in the first example is preceded

by one adjective, the head word in the second noun phrase is preceded by
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two adjectives. In the third noun phrase, the head word is preceded by
three adjectives all of which function as premodifiers of the head noun.
This noun phrase is represented as an example using labeled bracketing
and treediagraming.

(3.16a) [NP [Det/Spec three][AdjP/Premod nice][Adjp/Premod little][AdjP/Premod

black][N/H kittens]]

(3.16b)

It is clearly seen from both representations that the adjectives

constitute an adjective phrase each and that each adjective phrase
realizes the function of a premodifier which is abbreviated as Premod.

3.2.1.2.2. Postmodifiers
As we have seen in Unit Two when we discussed the structure of
noun phrases, a head noun in a noun phrase may be followed by a
clause or a prepositional phrase. These elements which follow the
noun phrase realize the function of postmodifier because they
postmodify the head noun. The following are some examples.

(3.17) The car which you bought yesterday

The woman whom I met at the party

The question whether she can afford it

As can be seen from these examples, the underlined head nouns

in these noun phrases are followed by clauses. In the first noun phrase,
the head word 'car' is followed by the clause 'which you bought
yesterday', the head word 'woman' in the second noun phrase is

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followed by the clause 'whom I met at the party', and finally, the head
noun word 'question' in the third noun phrase is followed by the clause
'whether she can afford it' These clauses realize the function of
postmodifier. Here is a representation of the third noun phrase as an
example using both labeled bracketing and treediagraming.

(3.18a) [NP [Det/Spec the][N/H question][S/Postmod whether she can afford it]]

(3.18b)

In addition to clauses, head words in noun phrases can be

followed by prepositional phrases which also function as postmodiers of
the preceding head nouns. The following are some examples:

(3.19) The key of the main door

A television with flat screen

The book at the top

In the first example the head word 'key' is followed by the

prepositional phrase 'of the main door'. In the second example, the head
noun ‘television’ is followed by the prepositional phrase 'with flat
screen', Finally, the head word 'book' in the third noun phrase is followed
by the prepositional phrase 'at the top'. All these prepositional phrases in
these noun phrases realize the function of postmodifier since they
postmodify the nouns preceding them. Here is a representation of the
third example using labeled bracketing and treediagraming.

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(3.20) [NP [Det/Spec the][N/H book][PP/Postmod at the top]]

(3.20)

To conclude this section about grammatical functions in noun

phrases, we present a table in which we show the constituents preceding
the head word in a noun phrase and elements following this head along
with their functions illustrated with some examples:

Table (3.2)

Function Specifier Premodifier Head Postmodifier

(Spec) (Premod) (H) (Postmod)
Category Det AdjP N S/PP
A white house
Examples clever boys
These men with long hair
The palm tree which I planted

Exercise 28

1. Put noun phrases in the following sentences between square

brackets and underline their heads.

- The young English prince participated in the celebration.

- This is the one I wanted.
-Those red roses with a pleasant natural sent are grown in my
garden.
- That is the bird which you gave me.
- She gave birth to three little beautiful babies.

2. Analyze these noun phrases showing both their labels and functions
of their constituents using labeled bracketing and treediagraming.

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3.2.2. Functions in verb phrases

Like other types of phrases, the main function in the verb phrase
is realized by the head word in the phrase. That is, the head word in the
verb phrase is the main verb and which realizes the function of head.
Other functions found in a verb phrase can be divided in two categories:
those preceding the head and those following it. Elements preceding the
head in a verb phrase realize the function of specifier. Elements which
follow the head word in the verb phrase realize two main functions:
complement and adjunct. Let us start with specifiers in the verb phrase.

3.2.2.1. Specifiers.
Like noun phrases, verb phrases may contain elements which
come before the head word. These elements work as specifiers. As said
in Unit Two when the structure of the verb phrase was discussed, the
head verb can be preceded by a model auxiliary, a perfect aspect, a
progressive aspect, and a passive aspect. All of these elements work as
specifiers of the main verb in the verb phrase. However, while these
specifiers are optional in that the head verb may or may not be preceded
by any one or all of them, the tense element is always there in the verb
phrase. As we will see later, the tense is always shown by the first finite
verb in the verb phrase. It is shown by the head verb if that head is not
preceded by specifiers. If, however, it is preceded by specifiers, the first
specifier will carry tense. The verb which shows tense in the verb phrase
should either be in the present or the past. This tense element, thus, is
considered an obligatory specifier of the head verb. In fact, it is the only
obligatory specifier in the verb phrase. Let us consider the following
examples.

(3.21) I clean my car regularly.

You will go with me to the party.

Salwa has done her house work perfectly.

The girls are dancing.

The letter was sent to him.

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In addition to tense which is found in the first element in each

verb phrase in every sentence in (3.21), there is a specifier preceding
the head verb with the exception of the first sentence in which the
head verb 'clean' is not preceded by any specifier apart from tense
which is present. In the second sentence, the head verb has two
specifiers: the model auxiliary 'will' and the present tense which is
shown by the first element in the verb phrase: the auxiliary verb 'will'.
In the third sentence, the head verb is preceded by the perfect aspect
and the tense which is present. Both specifiers are carried by 'has', and
the perfect aspect is shown by the past participle form of the main
verb 'done'. In the fourth sentence, the head verb is preceded by the
progressive aspect and the tense which is present. The progressive
aspect is shown by the ing form of the main verb. Both specifiers are
carried by 'are'. Finally, in the sixth sentence, the head verb is
preceded by two specifiers: the passive aspect and the tense which is
past. Both specifiers are carried by 'was', and the passive aspect is
shown by the past participle form of the main verb 'sent'. The
following is a representation of the verb phrase of the last sentence as
an example.

(3.22a) [VP [Pass/Spec was][V/H sent][PP to him]

(3.22b)

As you can see from these representations, the function of the

tense element as a specifier does not show in the representation but it
is evident from the first lexical element in the verb phrase 'was'. Can
you represent the other examples in (3.21) using both labeled
bracketing and treediagraming? The abbreviations of verb specifiers
are as follows: Model Auxiliary (Mod), Perfect (Perf), Progressive
(Prog) and, finally, Passive (Pass).

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In all examples above, there is only one optional specifier

preceding the head verb in each verb phrase. As said before, we may
have more than one specifier of a head word in the same verb phrase.
The following are some examples.

(3.23) You should have studied hard.

Ridha has been told to join the army.

They must have been waiting for ages.

In the first example we have a model auxiliary and the perfect

aspect as specifiers. In the second example, we have the perfect and the
passive aspects as specifiers. Finally, in the third example we have the
model auxiliary and the perfect and the passive aspects as specifiers.
Here is a representation of the verb phrase in the last example:

(3.24a) [VP [Mod/Spec must][Perf/Spec have][Prog/Spec been][V/H waiting][PP

for ages]

(3.24b)

Exercise 29

1. Identify verb phrases in the following sentences and put them

between square brackets.
a. I have read the book several times.
b. She will pay off her mortgage in ten years.
c. Laila must have been living here for a long time.
d. Fourth year students ought to study harder.
e. The message should have been sent earlier.
2. Underline head verbs and circle their specifiers.
3. Represent these sentences using labeled bracketing.

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4. Represent verb phrases using treediagraming.

3.2.2.2. Complements
Complement is the other type of functions found in verb phrases.
Complements are often found after head verbs. A verb complement
can be of the following types: object, predicative complement,
adverbial complement, and a complex one which combines
predicative complement and adverbial complement.

3.2.2.2.1. Object
When verbs were discussed in Unit Two, we saw that they are
classified into certain subcategories depending on the complements
they require. For example, some intransitive verbs require no
complements, monotransitive verbs are followed by one object and
ditransitive verbs require two objects and so on. These objects which
follow transitive verbs are of two types: direct and indirect. .

A. Direct object
An object whether direct or indirect is whatever or whoever
receives the action of an action verb. Let us consider the following
examples.

(3.21 The dog chased the cat.

The girl put the cups in the cupboard.

That kind man offered me some help.

The underlined words in these examples are direct objects; they

receive the action of the verbs 'chased', 'put' and 'offered' respectively.
That is they realize the function of direct objects in these sentences.
An object in an active sentence becomes the subject of a passive one.
Therefore, to make sure that these are objects we simply change them
to passive.

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(3.22) The cat was chased by the dog.

The cups were put in the cupboard by the girl.

I was offered some help by that kind man.

The underlined words in the sentences in (3.21) have become subjects

in the passive sentences in (3.22). This indicates that these words realize
the function of object, more specifically direct object. Let us represent
the verb phrase in the first sentence in (3.21) using labeled bracketing
and treediagraming.

(3.23a) [VP [V/H chased][NP/Od the cat]] (3.23b)

As can be seen from both representations, direct object is abbreviated

Od with Object before Direct. This is so because we have another type of
the object function which is indirect object abbreviated as Oi giving the
function in both types first followed by its type. The indirect object
function is discussed in the section that follows this section.

In all examples discussed above, direct object function is realized

by a noun phrase. However, full clauses can also realize this function as
the following examples show.

(3.24) She decided [that she would never marry him].

Runda felt [that she needs more love from her family].

Libyans believe [that war is not the solution].

In these sentences the head verbs are followed by full clauses

which realize the function of direct object. Here is a representation of the
verb phrase of the last one as an example.

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(3.25a) [VP [V/H believe][ S/Od that war is not the solution]].

(3.25b)

B. Indirect object
Indirect object is found in the sentence when the head
verb is a ditransitive one. A ditransitive verb by definition requires two
objects: direct and indirect. The following are some examples.

(3.26) The teachers gave [the students][ homework] today.

My mother always brings [me][ presents] when she travels

abroad.

Will you fetch [her][ that book], please?

In these examples, each underlined verb is followed by two

objects, one is direct and the other is indirect. This is so because these
verbs are ditransitive verbs and, thus, each requires two objects: one is
direct and the other is indirect. The one which receives the action of
the verb is the indirect object and the one to which the direct object is
passed is the indirect object. Thus, in the first sentence in the
examples above, the direct object is 'homework' and the indirect one is
'the students', in the second sentence, the direct object is 'presents' and
the indirect one is 'me'. Finally, in the third sentence the direct object
is 'that book' and the indirect one is 'her'.

If you are in doubt of which is the direct object and which is the
indirect one, you change the order of the two objects and use the
preposition 'to' (or 'for') before the second one. The object which is
directly preceded by 'to' is the indirect object and the other one is the
direct object.

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(3.27) The teachers gave [homework] [to the students] today.

My mother always brings [presents][ to me] when she

travels abroad.

Will you fetch [that book][ for her], please?

As you can see from these examples, the indirect object is realized as
a prepositional phrase. The following are representations of the structure
of the verb phrase in the first sentence as an example using both labeled
bracketing and treediagraming.

(3.28a) [VP [V/H gave][NP/Od homework][PP/Oi to the students][AdvP today]

(3.28b)

Exercise 30

1. Circle direct objects and underline indirect objects in the

following sentences.
a. The president gave a speech.
b. Libyan farmers grow barley and wheat in winter.
c. She had given the small bag to her before she left.
d. The sad girt told me her story.
2. Represent verb phrases in these sentences using labeled
bracketing and treediagraming.

3.2.2.2.2. Predicative complement

Copula verbs like be, seem, look, sound, appear subcategorize for
predicative complement (Pc). A predicative complement is one which

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gives some property to the subject of the sentence. Have a look at the
following examples.

(3.29) You seem [very happy] today.

Alaa is [a high school student].

They appear [in a good health].

Predicative complements in these examples are put between

square brackets. In the first example the copula verb 'seem' is followed
by a predicative complement which is realized as an adjective phrase, in
the second example, the predicative complement required by the copula
verb 'is' is realized as a noun phrase and, finally, in the third sentence the
copula verb 'appear' subcategorizes for a predicative complement that is
realized as a prepositional phrase. Let us represent the structure of the
verb phrase in the third sentence as an example.

(3.30a) [VP [V/H appear][PP/Pc in a good health]

(3.30b)

As we have seen when the basic structure of sentence was

discussed, a verb phrase as a whole has a predicative function because
it predicates something related to the subject of the sentence and thus
we call it predicate. Can you tell which constituent is the predicate in
each sentence in (3.26) above?

3.2.2.2.3. Adverbial complement

Another function found in the verb phrase after the head word is
the adverbial complement. It is realized by constituents which give
information related to time or duration, place, manner, etc. When

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these constituents are obligatory, they function as adverbial

complements. Let us consider the following examples:

(3.31) She remained [in hospital] for three days.

They were [at school] when it rained.

The midterm exam is [next week].

The earthquake lasted [for three seconds].

The negotiations ran [very smoothly].

The constituents enclosed in square brackets are considered

complements because they cannot be omitted. Their existence is
necessary for the meaning of these sentences. They are specifically
adverbial complements. In the first two examples these adverbial
complements tell us about place, in the third and fourth examples, they
tell us about time and in the last sentence, the adverbial complement
expresses manner. In the first, second and fourth examples, the adverbial
complements are realized respectively by the prepositional phrases 'in
hospital', 'at school' and 'for three seconds'. In the third and fifth
examples, it is realized by the two adverbial phrases 'next week' and 'very
smoothly' respectively. Let us represent the structure of the verb phrase in
the fourth sentence as an example using labeled bracketing and
treediagraming.

(3.32a) [VP [N/H ran] [AdvP/Ac very smoothly]].

(3.32b)

In all the examples discussed above, the main verbs

subcategorizing for an adverbial complement are intransitive verbs.
Adverbial complements can also be found after transitive verbs. The
following are some examples.

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(3.33) They put the body [in the coffin].

The film reminded me [of my childhood].

She keeps her jewelry [in a safe].

The underlined verbs in these sentences each subcategorizes for

two complements. In each sentence, the first constituent after the verb
realizes the function of a direct object (Od) and the second realizes the
function of an adverbial complement. None of these complements can be
omitted because they are obligatory and, thus, needed to complete the
meaning of the verb phrase.

(3.34) *They put the body. *They put in the coffin.

*The film reminded me * The film reminded of my

childhood.

*She keeps her jewelry. *She keeps in a safe.

The fact that the first constituent following the verb in each of
these sentences is an object can be tested by passivizing these
sentences.

(3.35) The body was put in the coffin (by them).

I was reminded of my childhood (by the film).

Her jewelry was kept in a safe (by her).

3.2.2.2.4. Complex complement

A complex complement is one which is combined of both
predicative complement and adverbial complement. Let us consider
the following examples.

(3.36) The kids called their father boss.

They chose him captain of their team.

She considers her husband stupid.

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In these examples, each of the underlined constituents realizes a

complex function. In the first sentence, the noun phrase 'boss' realizes the
function of a predicative complement because it attributes the property of
being boss to the noun phrase 'their father'. Simultaneously, it realizes
the function of an adverbial complement because it is related to the verb
'called'. In other words it answers the question: ‘What did the kids call
their father?’ and the answer: The kids called their father BOSS. Because
of this dual function of the constituent 'boss', it is considered as having a
complex function that comprise a predicative function and an adverbial
one. The same thing applies to the underlined noun phrase in the second
sentence and to the underlined adjective in the third sentence. Can you
explain how?

The following is a representation of the verb phrase in the third

sentence as an example using labeled bracketing and treediagraming.

(3.37a) [VP [V/H considers][NP/Od her husband][AdjP/Pc+Ac stupid]]

(3.37b)

The complex function is illustrated further with the diagram in

(3.38) below using the second example in (3.36) above.

(3.38) Complex function

Exercise 31

1. Put the complements in the following sentences between square

brackets and give their types in the space provided.

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- They live in a luxurious house. ...........

- Waleed is a moody person. ...........
- Nada called her baby spider man. ............
- The lesson will be given tomorrow. ............
- Mr Nader is a physician in the local clinic. ...........
2. Represent the structure of these sentences using labeled
bracketing and treediagraming.

3.2.2.3. Adjuncts
In addition to specifiers and complements found in verb phrases,
there is a third function that may be found in verb phrases. That
function is known as adjunct and it is an optional one. That is, it is
not required by head verbs because it does not provide necessary
information for the completion of the meaning of verb phrases but it
merely adds extra information that can be omitted without affecting
the basic meaning of the verb phrase nor its grammaticality. Let us
consider the following examples:

(3.39) The surgeon operated on the patient

The surgeon operated on the patient (carefully).

The surgeon operated on the patient (carefully)(last week).

(Last week), the surgeon (carefully) operated on the

patient (because her life was in real danger).

While the elements in the first sentence are obligatory and, thus,
cannot be omitted, the added elements (between brackets) to this
sentence in the subsequent examples can be left out without affecting
the basic meaning of the sentence, and, thus, are considered optional.
Each of these optional constituents realizes the function of adjunct.

Also, as can be noticed from these examples, there is no fixed

position for adjuncts. Their position will depend on how much
emphasis the speaker puts on them in speech. The following is a
representation of the verb phrase of the third sentence with some

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change in the position of these adjuncts as an example using labeled

bracketing and treediagraming. The adjunct in a verb phrase is
abbreviated as (Av) to distinguish it from Adjuncts in sentences (As).

(3.40a) [VP [V/H operated][PP/Ac on the patient][AdvP/Av carefully][AdvP/Av

last week]

(3.40b)

As we have seen before, sentences also may have adjuncts which

are different from verb phrase adjuncts. Go back to section (3.1.3) and
study it again carefully before you do this exercise on both verb phrase
adjuncts (Av) and sentence adjuncts (As)

Exercise 32

1. Put adjuncts in the following sentences between square brackets

and indicate their type (Av) or (As) in the space provided.
- My father bought me a gold watch when he travelled to
London.
- I did not attend the lecture because I was ill.
- .... Therefore, they will not join us.
- She prepared the table skillfully.
- .... However, she managed to do it.
- Sadly, I did not see her again.
- I still know what you did last summer.
2. Show the syntactic structure of these sentences using labeled
bracketing and treediagraming.

Now we reached a point where we can summarize the structure of

verb phrase and its functions in the following table with some examples:
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Table (3.3)

Function Specifier Head Complements Adjuncts

(Spec) (H) (Od/Oi/Pc/ (Av)
Ac/Pc+Ac)
Category Tns- V AdjP/NP/ NP/PP/
Mod/Perf/ PP/S AdvP/S
Prog/Pass
- eat apples every day
- elected him president
has named her baby Jerry -
will give me some cakes tomorrow
Examples are reading love stories in the
- sounds interesting evening
could have lived in Benghazi -
- think that she is -
was taken right -
to hospital because she
is ill

3.2.3. Functions in prepositional phrases

In addition to the head function which is realized by the preposition,
there are two other functions that are found in prepositional phrases:
prepositional complement and specifier.

3.2.3.1. Prepositional complement

In a prepositional phrase, like other types of phrases, the main
function is head which is realized by the head word in a prepositional
phrase which is a preposition. In addition to the head function, a head
preposition is often followed by a complement which is called a
prepositional complement and abbreviated as (PrepC) to distinguish it
from other types of complements. The following are some examples.

(3.41) They opened the gate [of the school].

The mechanic repaired the car [in a jiffy].

The girl [with a long black hair] is my sister.

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In these sentences the heads in the prepositional phrases (between

square brackets] are the prepositions of, in and with. In the first example,
the head preposition is followed by the noun phrase 'the school' which
functions as a prepositional complement. In the second example, the head
preposition is followed by the noun phrase 'a jiffy' which also realizes a
prepositional complement function. In the third example the
prepositional complement is realized by the noun phrase 'my sister'. The
syntactic structure of the prepositional phrase in the first sentence is
represented below as an example.

(3.42a) [PP [P/H of][NP/PrepC the school]]

(3.42b)

In all the examples above, the prepositional complement is realized by

noun phrases. Clauses can also function as prepositional complement.
The following are some examples:

(3.43) I do not believe in [what you said].

They enquired about [whether they can do it later].

Arwa gave a presentation on [how bees produce honey].

In these examples the prepositional complement is realized by the

clauses found between square brackets. Here is a representation of the
structure of the prepositional phrase in the last sentence as an example.

(3.44a) [PP [P on][S/PrepC how bees produce honey]

(3.44b)

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3.2.3.2. Specifier
In addition to complements found in prepositional phrases, a head
preposition may be preceded by a specifier. The following are some
examples.

(3.45) I will be there [fifteen minutes] before the meeting.

The player kicked the ball [right] in the goal.

The scout went [straight] through the woods.

The elements before the head preposition realize the function of

specifier in these prepositional phrases. In the first sentence the specifier
'fifteen minutes' is a noun phrase. In the second and the third sentences,
the specifiers 'right' and 'straight' are adverb phrases. The structure of the
prepositional phrase in the second example is represented using labeled
bracketing and treediagraming.

(3.45a) [PP [AdvP/Spec right][P/H in][NP/PrepC the goal]

(3.45b)

To conclude this section, a summary of the structure of the

prepositional phrase is given in the following table:

Table (3.4)

Function Specifier (Spec) Head (H) Complement (PrepC)

Category AdvP/NP P NP/S
right in the middle
examples two meters under water
regarding what is going on
about how you do it

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Exercise 33

1. Square bracket the prepositional phrases in the following

sentences and circle their heads.
- You should find it under the table.
- The post office is three blocks from the crossroads.
- She talked about why he did this.
- Yousef gave Yaseen a slap right on his face.
- We need to talk about what we should do next.
2. Identify specifiers and underline them.
3. Identify complements and double underline them. Give their types.
4. Represent the structure of these sentences using labeled
bracketing and treediagraming.

3.2.4. Functions in adjective phrases

The basic structure of a an adjective phrase is similar to that of a
verb phrase in that an adjective head may or may not be preceded by a
specifier and may or may not be followed by a complement.

3.2.4.1. Specifier
A specifier function in an adjective phrase is realized by adverb
phrases as the following examples show:

(3.46) That guy is [Libyan].

She looks [very young].

They are [quite attractive].

Adjective phrases in these sentences are put between square

brackets. In the first sentence, the head adjective is not preceded by a
specifier. However, in the second and third sentences the head adjectives
are preceded by the adverb phrases 'very' and 'quite' respectively. These
two adverb phrases function as specifiers of the head adjective in these
adjective phrases. 'Very' specifies 'young' and 'quite' specifies 'attractive'.
Here is a representation of the structure of the adjective phrase in the

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third sentence as an example using labeled bracketing and

treediagraming.

(3.47a) [AdjP [AdvP/Spec quite][Adj/H attractive]]

(3.47b)

3.2.4.2. Complement
Regarding elements following the head adjective in an adjective
phrase, a head word in an adjective phrase can be followed by a
prepositional phrase or a clause both of which realize the function of a
complement. The following are some examples.

(3.48) The lady is [worried about her children].

He is [very satisfied with the results].

They are [afraid that they may not be allowed to enter].

In these adjective phrases, the head adjective is followed by an

element which works as a complement. While the complement function
in the first and second example is realized by a prepositional phrase, in
the third example it is realized by a clause. In the second example, the
head adjective is also preceded by a specifier. Let us have a clear
representation of the structure of the adjective phrase in the second
sentence as an example using both labeled bracketing and
treediagraming.

(3.49a) [AdjP [AdvP/Spec very][Adj/H satisfied][PP/Comp with the results]]

(3.49b)

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The structure of the adjective phrase can be summarized in the

following table with some examples:

Table (3.5)

Function Specifier Head Complement

(Spec) (H) (Comp)
Category AdvP Adj PP/S
clever
quite beautiful
Examples Interested in politics
extremely fond of adventure
very worried that he might fail
terribly sorry that he could not make
it

Exercise 34
1. Identify adjective phrases in these sentences and square bracket
them.
- A very big black dog jumped over the high fence.
- I am terribly sorry because I could not help you.
- You mother is rather clever with her hands.
- Dina is lazy today.
- My father is proud of me.
- She is content that she passed with a moderate grade.
2. Underline their heads.
3. Identify any specifiers of these heads and circle them.
4. Identify any complements of these heads and circle them.

3.2.5. Functions in adverb phrases

An adverb phrases may consist of a single element which is an
adverb functioning as the head of an adverb phrase. Another possibility is
that a head adverb may be preceded by a specifier which is also occupied
by another adverb. The following are some examples.

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(3.50) a. quickly b. very skillfully

then quite well

here rather easily

rather extremely fast

While the adverb phrases in the first column are made of single
words, the adverb phrases in the second column are made of two words
each. The underlined word realizes the function of head and the word
preceding the head realizes the function of a specifier of the head word.
Let us have a representation of two adverb phrases as examples using
labeled bracketing and treediagraming.

(3.51a) [AdvP [Adv/H quickly]] [AdvP [Adv/Spec very][Adv/H skillfully]]

(3.51b)

A summary of this syntactic structure of adverb phrases is given

in table (3.6) with some clarifying examples.

Table (3.6)

Function Specifier (Spec) Head (H)

Category Adv Adv
typically
Examples very smartly
rabidly
rather clearly

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Exercise 35

1. Identify adverb phrases in these sentences and square bracket

them.
- The film we watched was really interesting.
- They answered all the competition questions quite easily.
- She did very well in her interview.
- -The kids are waiting eagerly for the trip.
- Your suggestion is practically impossible.
2. Underline their heads.
3. Identify any specifiers of these heads and circle them.

3.3. Abbreviations
The following are the abbreviations related to the grammatical
functions found in Unit Three which need to be focused on and
memorized due to their importance in any analysis of syntactic
structures.

Head (H) Specifier (Spec)

Subject (Su) Object (O)

Direct object (Od) Indirect object (Oi)

Complement (Comp) Predicativ complement (Pc)

Adverbial complement (Ac) Complex function (Pc+Ac)

Verb phrase Adjunct (Av) Sentence Adjunct (As)

Prepositional complement (PrepC)

3.4. Summary
In this unit, grammatical functions were discussed. They were
classified into grammatical functions in sentences and grammatical
functions in phrases. In sentences, the main constituents making the basic
structure realize two functions. A noun phrase at the beginning of the
sentence realizes the function of the subject and the verb phrase
following it realizes the function of a predicate. In addition to these two
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obligatory functions, a sentence may also include optional elements that

are called adjuncts.

Phrases in English are classified into five types: noun phrase,

verb phrase, prepositional phrase, adjective phrase and adverb phrase. In
the noun phrase, the main word functions as the head of the phrase. The
head noun can be preceded by specifiers and premodifiers and followed
by postmodifiers: specifiers are realized by determiners and premodifiers
are realized by adjectives. Postmodifiers in noun phrases can be occupied
by prepositional phrases or clauses.

In the verb phrase the main verb is the head. The head verb, like
the head noun may be preceded by specifiers. Specifiers of head include
tense which is obligatory and other optional specifiers. These include
model auxiliaries, progressive, perfect, and passive aspects. Some head
verbs subcategorize for complements. These complements are of these
types: direct object, indirect object, predicative complement, adverbial
complement and another type which has a complex function combining
predicative and adverbial complements. Verb phrases can also include
adjuncts which are optional constituents.

Head words in a prepositional phrase, like other types of phrases,

may be preceded by specifiers. A specifier in the prepositional phrase is
realized by a noun phrase or an adverb phrase. The head preposition is
often followed by a complement which is called prepositional
complement and abbreviated as PrepC.

In adjective phrases, head adjectives can be preceded by

specifiers realized by adverb phrases. Some head adjectives also require
complements which are realized by prepositional phrases or clauses.

Finally, heads in adverb phrases can constitute phrases on their

own or they may be preceded by other adverbs which function as
specifiers.

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References

Carine, Andrew ( 2011) Modern Syntax: A Coursebook. Cambridge

University Press.

Hayes, B. P. (2015) Introductory Linguistics. Los Angeles: University of

California.

Kim, J. B. & Sells, P. (2008) English Syntax: An Introduction.

Researchgate: https://www.researchgate.net

McIntyre, A. (2014) Fundamentals of English Syntax.

https://www.angl.hu-berlin.de/department/staff
faculty/other/mcintyre/unterrichtsmaterialien/fundamental-engl-syntax-
2014-online-doppelseitig.pdf

Tallerman, M. (2011) Understanding Syntax. London: Hodder Education

Wekkr, Herman & Haegeman, Liliane (1996) A Modern Course in

English Syntax. London: Routledge.

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Appendix (some previous exams with answers)

Final exam 2015 - Course: Syntax - Third year – Instructor: Dr. Albashir
Ahmed

Answer all of the following questions (60 marks):

Q1. Give the full form of the following abbreviations: (10 marks)

 PS rules phrase structure rules

 Det Determiner
 AdjP Adjective phrase
 A Adjunct
 Comp Complement
 Art Article
 COMP Complementizer
 Poss Pron Possessive pronoun
 Premod Premodifier
 Perf Perfect

Q2. Give the type of the constituency test used in each of the following
sentences. (10 marks)

Pronominalisation - Passivisation - Fronting - Pseudoclefting -

Clefting

 It is the final result that we must concentrate on. Clefting

 What Mary keeps in the garden is a little dog. Pseudo-
clefting
 To know what is happening in the world, I always listen to the
news. Fronting
 Millions of Beatles records were sold in the 1960s.
Passivisation

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 When there is a better alternative, It is often preferred. Fronting

 It is hard work that makes people succeed in life. Clefting
 What the criminal did after killing the victim was go to the police.
Pseudo-clefting
 After talking to you, I always feel better. Fronting
 Millions of pounds were stolen from a train in 1957.
Passivisation
 If you fail this midterm, you still have the chance to pass in the
final exam. Fronting

Q3. Indicate whether the following sentences below are simple,

compound, complex or compound-complex. (10 marks)

 Things have changed a lot since the end of the war. Simple
 He was watching TV and his wife was cooking dinner in the
kitchen. Compound
 That is the dog that attacked me in garden. Complex
 The man who is there is the university president and he is my
father. Compound-complex
 We will try to finish the work before midnight. Simple
 The doctor wants to examine you all over. Simple
 Amira did not attend the exam, for she was sick. Compound
 This is the skirt I bought from the supermarket yesterday.
Complex
 The card Ken sent to the man was nice but the man was rude.
Compound-complex
 Mary was staying with her friend in a big house in Scotland.
Simple

Q4. Identify whether the following phrases below are NP, VP, AdjP,
AdvP or PP. (15 marks)

 just before 6 o'clock PP

 am making an omelette VP

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 the happiest period of my life AdjP

 disappointed by the film AdjP
 harder than her sister does AdvP
 opposite the cinema PP
 told me to wait in front of her office VP
 the last fence of the farm NP
 extremely tiring AdjP
 worse than me AdjP

Q5. Put the words in the right order to make meaningful sentences. (15
marks)

 ill - who - treat - are - people - doctors.

Doctors treat people who are ill.
 weather - like - country - a - live - people - cold - don't - hot - in -
who.
People who live in a hot/cold country don’t like cold/hot
weather.
 invitation - receive - as - as - should - you - the - soon - reply -
you.
You should reply as soon as you receive the invitation.
 yet - in - a - you - London - hotel - booked - have?
Have you booked in a hotel in London yet?
 lunchtime - coast - reach - hoping - we - by - the - to - are.
We are hoping to reach the coast by lunchtime.
 paper - your - hand - your - check - when - question - in - answers
- all - you.
Hand in your paper when you check all your answers.
 book - very - like - it - depressing - a - sounds.
It sounds like a very depressing book.
 world - in - beautiful - the -Venice - say - many - the - city - most
- is - that - people.
Many people say that Venice is the most beautiful city in the
world.

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 closed - area - in - all - anything - not - we - were - the - shops -

because - buy - could.
We could not buy anything because all shops in the area were
closed.
 information - got - have - because - to - decide - can - enough -
not - I - do - what - not - I.
I cannot decide what to do because I have not got enough
information.

Final examination - 2015/2016 - Course: -Syntax - Examiner: Dr Albashir Ahmed

- Time allowed: 2 hours only

Answer all of the following questions (60 marks)

Q. Indicate whether the pronoun between brackets has a subjective form (Su)
or an objective form (O) in each of the following sentences. Use the
abbreviations (Su )and (O) to answer. (5 marks)

 [He ] was going to fall down. Su

 She struck [him ] on the face. O

 [We] are doing our best to pass the exam. Su

 She said hello to [them] before she left. O

 [It] was taken to the end of the corridor. Su

Q. Put the subject of each of the following sentences between square
brackets. (5 marks)

 [People who live in glass houses] should not throw stones.

 [Those who are late] will not be allowed to come in.
 [Which color] goes with which color?
 [The couple we met at the party last night] got married a year ago.
 [We] have been waiting for two hours when they came.

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Q. Put the predicate of each of the following sentences between square

brackets. (5 marks)

 The meeting [was cancelled because of the heavy rain].

 The roses that girl has in her hands [are red].
 His wife [was nagging all the time because he could not buy her
precious presents].
 The Libyan people [are suffering because of instability in the country].
 Those who cheat in the exam [will be punished].
Q. Put the sentence adjuncts in the following sentences between square
brackets. (5 marks)

 [Unfortunately], I will not be able to be there in time.

 When the chance to talk to her came, he did not have the courage,
[however].
 [In fact], he did not do it properly.
 She is lazy and, [therefore], she will never finish her task.
 [In my opinion], you should see a doctor.
Q. Put the predicative complements in the following sentences between
square brackets. (5 marks)

 Nadia seemed [a good student].

 Jane looked [ugly] in that suit.
 He is [an engineer].
 They were[ in a good mood] at the party.
 Salah is [in love with that blonde girl].
Q. Put the direct object in the following sentences between square brackets.
(5 marks)

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 She said [something] to the old women who was standing in the street
corner.
 They have forgotten [what he did] last summer.
 His parents gave him [no money] when he travelled abroad.
 Please let [me] go by myself.
 The baby did [it] on his own.
Q. Put the indirect object in the following sentences between square
brackets. (5 marks)

 He told [her] his secrets.

 This boring exam gives [me] a headache.
 Dr Albashir taught [you] the tricks of syntax but you never cared.
 The rich man donated all his money [to the poor family].
 They gave [us] a valuable piece of advice.
Q. Put the adverbial complements in the following sentences between square
brackets. (5 marks)

 The tired girl leaned [against the wall].

 The exam takes[ two hours].
 The party was organized [very carefully].
 I put the money [in a briefcase].
 She drove her car [dangerously].
Q. Put complements which have a complex function (Pc+Ac) in the following
sentences between square brackets. (5 marks)

 The police set the accused man [free].

 She called her twins [Tom and Jerry].
 Who left the window [open] when we left.
 He considered the whole affair [a joke].
 He was elected [president] last year.

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Q. Give a sentence as an example for each of the following things. (5 marks)

 Dative Movement

The boy showed the mouse to the cat –

the boy showed the cat the mouse.

 Zero complementation

He is writing OR They are eating OR Hana is reading

 Intransitive verb+PP

Hani pointed at the driver OR Hana referred to the dog.

 Transitive verb+PP

Ahmed put the book on the table. OR Muna took a pen from the box.

 Subject verb agreement

He likes apples and they like apples too.

Q. Give an example for each of the following verb types and put it in a
sentence of your own. (10 marks)

DO NOT USE SENTENCES FROM THE PREVIOUS QUESTIONS

 Intransitive verb smiled: The baby smiled happily.

 Monotransitive verb understand: The students understood the lesson.

 Ditransitive verb show: She showed him a false photo.

 Complex transitive verb choose: The players chose him captain.

 Copula verb look: You look different today.

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Final examination - 2016/2017 - Course: -Syntax - Examiner: Dr Albashir

Ahmed - Time allowed: 2 hours only

In the space provided give LABEL and FUNCTION of the [constituent] between
square brackets in each of the following sentences. Use abbreviations.
(30x2=60 marks)
Label /
Function

 [The electricity company] sent the costumer a bill. NP/Su

 His son was the only boy in [the research group]. NP/PrepC
 [The] staff members chose Dr. Ali head teacher. Det/Spec

 Inspector Johnson [will] question the suspect first. Mod/Spec

 She [is] looking forward to travel to Canada. Prog/Spec

 The police [have arrested the criminal]. VP/Pred

 The letter [was] sent to the university a month ago Pass/Spec

 The Americans elected Trump [president of the US]. NP/PC+AC

 Olive [trees] do not grow in the Green Mountain. N/H

 Two of the boys [in that class] finished their exam.

PP/Postmod.

 The head teacher gave [that] clever girl a present. Det/Spec

 The soldiers were [ordered] to stay awake all night. V/H

 They went to Benghazi a month [ago]. P/H

 Dr Albashir will examine [the second group] first. NP/Od

 My aunt was waiting for her [favorite] program.

AdjP/Premod

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 All the students have completed their exam [very] quickly.

AdvP/Spec
 My husband brought [me] some clothes from Paris. NP/Oi

 They were still in the museum [when I saw them]. S/Av

 The scouts choose her captain of [their] team. Det/Spec

 You must search for it [very carefully] everywhere. AdvP

 They were playing football when their dad [came]. VP/Pred

 She [has] praised him for what he did. Perf/Spec

 He was told not to be absent [again]. AdvP/Ac

 The baby is crying because he is [hungry]. AdjP/Pc

 The mechanic has fixed the car [since four o'clock]. PP/Av

 Please give her some help with [that heavy suitcase]. NP/PrepC
 They are ashamed [of what they have done]. PP/Comp

 She travelled [to] the capital by train. P/H

 You might not need [that] in the short run. NP/Od

 The plane was landing when [it] was hit by a rocket. NP/Su
_________________________________________________________
Final exam 2017/2018 - Fourth year – Course: Syntax - Time: 2 hours
Answer all of the following questions (60 marks)
Indicate the underlined verb type in each of the following sentences:
Copula, Intransitive, Monotransitive, Ditransitive, Complex transitive. (5
marks)
- She handed me what was there Ditransitive
- Muna groaned sadly when her boyfriend left her. Intransitive
- The class chose him their speaker. Complex transitive
- They clean the room daily. Monotransitive
- Marwan is a hard working student. Copula

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Give the kind of constituency test used in each of the following

sentences: Clefting, Pseudoclefting, Passivisation, Substitution, interrogation.
(5 marks)
- The little kid stopped crying when he saw me. Substitution
- It is me who gives permissions for leaving. Clefting
- What was she doing when you came in? Interrogation
- The syntax exam is being sat at the moment. Passivisation
- What you should do after finishing the exam is leave the room.
Pseudoclefting
Put the first noun phrase in each of the following sentences between
square brackets and underline its head. (10 marks)
- [The little child hiding there] is mine.
- [A beautiful bunch of roses] was taken away today.
- [That man sitting over there] is my uncle.
- [You] are too stupid to pass.
- Please leave me alone. (The first head in this sentence is [you] is
omitted because the sentence is an imperative one.).
Put the first verb phrase in each of the following sentences between
square brackets and underline its head. (10 marks)
- They [must have finished their exam by the time you got there].
- I [wonder if I can do it without your help].
- It[ has already been sent to him[.
- You [are such a fool].
- Naji [is skillfully taking part in the discussion].
Put the prepositional phrase in each of the following sentences
between square brackets and underline its head. (10 marks)
- Nour lives [three miles away].
- Look [inside] and you will see everything.

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- The hunter shot the animal [right in the head].

- The classroom is [in a terrible mess].
- Put a circle exactly [around the right answer].
Put the adjective phrase in each of the following sentences between
square brackets and underline its head. (10 marks)
- She is [terribly depressed].
- Are you [interested in going with us]?
- His parents are [worried that he may not be found].
- That movie was [really fantastic].
- I am [optimistic about your chance of passing syntax].
Put the adverb phrase in each of the following sentences between
square brackets and underline its head. (10 marks)
- My two-year child can speak [very fluently].
- We are [very] tired after such a long exam.
- That fat lady dances [extremely skillfully].
- I am [terribly] sorry for lack of warning.
- They were [quite] certain that she will fail.

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