A

LECTURE NOTE

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Agron. 6.10 (1 + 1 = 2)

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FARMING

SIXTH SEMESTER
Polytechnic in Agriculture
College of Agriculture,
NAU, Bharuch
Agron. 6.10 (1 + 1 = 2)

Principles of Organic Farming

Theory:

Chapter Chapter Page

No. No.
1. ORGANIC FARMING-AN INTRODUCTION
2. PRINCIPLES, SCOPE AND COMPONENTS OF ORGANIC
FARMING
3. COMPONENTS OF ORGANIC FARMING AND THEIR ROLE
IN SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION
4. INITIATIVES FOR PROMOTING ORGANIC FARMING
5. NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC FARMING
6. DISEASE AND PEST MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC
FARMING
7. WEED MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC FARMING
8. OPERATIONAL STRUCTURE OF NPOP AND NATIONAL
STANDARDS FOR ORGANIC FARMING
9. CERTIFICATION AND ACCREDITATION PROCESS OF
ORGANIC PRODUCT
10. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS, MARKETING AND EXPORT
POTENTIAL OF ORGANIC FARMING

Reference books

1. Organic farming-Theory and Practice by S.P. Palaniappan and K. Annadurai

2. Principles of organic farming by S. R. Reddy
3. Principles of Agronomy by S. R. Reddy
4. Organic crop production (Principles and practices Vol-I: Principles and General
Aspects) by J. P. Sharma
5. Principles and practices of organic farming by R. Balasubramanian, K.
Balakrishnan and K. Sivasubramanian
 CHAPTER -1
INTRODUCTION, DEFINITION, CONCEPT, IMPORTANCE, ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES, OBJECTIVES, ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
ORGANIC FARMING
1.1 Introduction:
Green revolution technologies such as greater use of synthetic agro chemicals like
fertilizers and pesticides, adoption of nutrient responsive, high-yielding varieties of crops,
greater exploitation of irrigation potentials etc… has boosted the production out put in most
of cases. Without proper choice and continues use of these high energy inputs is leading to
decline in production and productivity of various crops as well as deterioration of soil health
and environments. The most unfortunate impact on Green Revaluation Technology (GRT)
on Indian Agriculture is as follows:
1. Change in soil reaction
2. Development of nutrient imbalance /deficiencies
3. Damage the soil flora and fauna
4. Reduce the earth worm activity
5. Reduction in soil humus / organic matter
6. Change in atmospheric composition
7. Reduction in productivity
8. Reduction in quality of the produce
9. Destruction of soil structure, aeration and water holding capacity
10. Breeding more powerful and resistant pests and diseases
All these problems of GRT lead to not only reduction in productivity but also
deterioration of soil health as well as natural eco-system. Moreover, to day the rural
economy is now facing a challenge of over dependence on synthetic inputs and day by day
it change in price of these inputs. Further, Indian Agriculture will face the market competition
due to globalization of trade as per World Trade Organization (WTO). Thus apart from
quantity, quality will be the important factor. Agriculture gave birth to various new concepts
of farming such as organic farming, natural farming, bio-dynamic Agriculture, do-nothing
agriculture, eco-farming etc.
The essential concept of these practices is “Give back to nature”, where the
philosophy is to feed the soil rather them the crop to maintain the soil health. Therefore, for
sustaining healthy ecosystem, there is need for adoption of an alternatives farming system
like organic farming.
1.2 Definition of organic farming
Many scientists at different levels have elaborated the concept of organic farming;
the important descriptions are as follows;
 Lampkin (1990) Organic farming is a production system which avoids or largely
excludes the use of synthetic compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and live
stock feed additives.
Koferi (1992) (Korean organic farming environment Research Institute) It is the
farming method by which we never use compound chemical fertilizers, agricultural
chemicals, pesticides, growth hormones and uses natural sources such as organic
matters, minerals, and microbes.
According to national organic standards board of the U.S. defines organic farming as
an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances bio diversity,
biological cycles and soil biological activity.
Organic farming refers to organically grown crops which are not exposed to any
chemicals right from the stage of seed treatments to the final post harvest handling and
processing (Pathak & Ram, 2003).
Organic farming relies on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, legumes,
green manures, off-farming organic wastes, agricultural cultivation, mineral bearing rocks
and aspect of biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and tilth to supply plant
nutrients and also to control insects, weeds and other pests (Lamkin-1990). In a broader
sense it includes biofertilizers, bio diversity and biotechnology.
1.3 Concept of organic farming
The basic concepts behind organic farming are:
1. It concentrates on building up the biological fertility of the soil so that the crops take the
nutrients they need from steady turnover within the soil nutrients produced in this way
and are released in harmony with the need of the plants.
2. Control of pests, diseases and weeds is achieved largely by the development of an
ecological balance within the system and by the use of bio-pesticides and various cultural
techniques such as crop rotation, mixed cropping and cultivation.
3. Organic farmers recycle all wastes and manures within a farm, but the export of the
products from the farm results in a steady drain of nutrients.
4. Enhancement of the environment in such a way that wild life flourishes.
In a situation where conservation of energy and resources is considered to be important
community or country would make every effort to recycles to all urban and industrial
wastes back to agriculture and thus the system would be requiring only a small inputs of
new resources to “Top Up” soil fertility.
1.4 Importance of Organic Farming
The agriculture today in the country is hampered by erosion of natural resources viz.,
land, water, biodiversity, fast declining soil fertility and use efficiency of inputs, such as
water, fertilizer and energy. Demographic pressure accelerates the former and the faulty
agronomic practices account for the latter problems. The modern agriculture with its
potential takes the country out of the food trap and to reach an era of self sufficiency in food
grain production.
The present day for self sufficiency in food grain production may not last longer
unless we develop a sustainable agricultural system which maintains and /or improves soil
fertility and productivity with greater acceptance of biological principles so as to assure
adequate/more food production in future. Besides plants are more prone to pest and
diseases in intensive agriculture, use of chemicals can have residues on the produce, in the
soil and in ground water. With more of purchased inputs cost of production is also mounting
up. Pesticides use in paddy, cotton and vegetables which occupy less than 30 per cent of
total area account for more than 80 per cent of the chemicals used.
Organic farming practices that reduces the pressure on land, water and bio-diversity
without adverse effects on agricultural production and nutritive value of food comprise,
judicious use of organic manure, viz. farm yard manure, compost, crop resides,
Vermicompost etc. integrated is an efficient nutrient management practices, cropping
systems, conjunctive use of rain, tank and under ground water, integrated pest
management and conservation of genetic resources. Among them, soil fertility is give top
attention due to its dynamic action with various physical, chemical and biological properties.
Besides this, following advantages derived from organic farming:
1.5 Advantages of organic farming
1. Organic manures produce optimal conditions in the soil for high yields and good quality
crops.
2. They supply all the nutrients required by the plant (NPK, secondary and micronutrients).
3. They improve plant growth and physiological activities of plants.
4. They improve the soil physical properties such as granulation and tilth, giving good
aeration, easy root penetration and improved water holding capacity. The fibrous
portion of the organic matter with its high carbon content promotes soil aggregation to
improve the permeability and aeration of clay soils while its ability to absorb moisture
helps in the granulation of sandy soils and improves their water holding capacity. The
carbon in the organic matter is the source of energy for microbes which helps in
aggregation.
5. They improve the soil chemical properties such as supply and retention of soil nutrients
and promote favourable chemical reactions.
6. They reduce the need for purchased inputs.
7. Most of the organic manures are wastes or byproducts which on accumulation may
lead to pollution. By way of utilizing them for organic farming, pollution is minimized.
8. Organic fertilizers are considered as complete plant food. Organic matter restores the
pH of the soil which may become acidic due to continuous application of chemical
fertilizers.
9. Organically grown crops are believed to provide healthier and nutritionally superior food
for man and animals than those grown with commercial fertilizers.
10. Organically grown plants are more resistant to disease and insects and hence only a
few chemical sprays or other protective treatments are required.
11. There is an increasing consumer demand for agricultural produces which are free of
toxic chemical residues. In developed countries, consumers are willing to pay more for
organic foods.
12. Organic farming helps to avoid chain reaction in the environment from chemical sprays
and dusts.
13. Organic farming helps to prevent environmental degradation and can be used to
regenerate degraded areas.
14. Since the basic aim is diversification of crops, much more secure income can be
obtained than to rely on only one crop or enterprise.
1.6 Disadvantages of organic farming.
1. Small holding: The average size of an operational holding is 1.57 ha and further
decreasing gradually due to population pressure.
2. Poor infrastructure facilities: i.e. lack of sufficient soil testing laboratories.
3. Lack of technological knowledge, lack of knowledge for use of bio-fertilizers, bio-
pesticides, bio-control, IPM and INM etc.
4. Organic farming takes four years for a farmer to free his land completely stopping the
use of chemical as nutrients & crop savers.
5. The neighbouring farmers do not well co-operate regarding use of fertilizer, pesticides,
weedicides etc.
6. Decrease in production of high yielding crops like rice, wheat which needs high fertility
status to get potential yield.
7. The competitive uses of organic materials such as dung-cakes for domestic cook fuel
in villages and bagasse as fuel in sugar factories & villages.
8. Wheat & rice straws are disposed by burning, instead of return to the soil.
9. Dung, slurry & pig manure and other waste used directly in the field (without
compositing), which damage the crop & pollute the ground water.
10. Most of organic material is bulky in nature, hence very difficult to store, carry and use.
11. Sewage, sludge contains pathogens and, some of them survive more than six months,
which may hazard the human life and prove fatal for the animal .
12. City garbage contains un-decomposed materials such as metal, plastic, glass, stones,
needles etc. which causes many problems,
13. Bio control agents are available only for few selected insect pests.
14. Complicated organic certification process and also high cost of certification.
15. High price expectations, delayed delivery, quality restrictions, lack of certification &
marketing net work are the major problems for organic producers.
16. Major Indian and multinational companies are not interested in bio pesticides, also
dealer’s interest in chemical pesticides.
1.7 Objectives of Organic Farming
The objectives of organic agriculture have been expressed in the standard document
of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM) as follows:
1. To produce food of high nutritional quality in sufficient quantity.
2. To work with natural systems rather than seeking to dominate them.
3. To encourage and enhance the biological cycles within farming system involving
microorganisms, soil flora and fauna, plants and animals.
4. To maintain and increase the long term fertility of soils.
5. To use, as far as possible, renewable resources in locally organized agricultural
systems.
6. To work as much as possible, within a closed system with regard to organic matter
and nutrient elements.
7. To given all livestock, conditions of life that allow them to perform all aspects of their
innate behavior.
8. To avoid all forms of pollution that result from agricultural techniques.
9. To maintain the genetic diversity of the agricultural system and its surroundings,
including the protection of plant and wildlife habitats.
10. To allow agricultural producers for adequate return and satisfaction from their work
including a safe working environment.
11. To consider the wider, social and ecological impact of the farming system.
1.8 Essential Characteristics of Organic Farming
The most important characteristics are as follows:
1. Maximal but sustainable use of local resources.
2. Minimal use of purchased inputs, only as complementary to local resources.
3. Ensuring the basic biological functions of soil-water-nutrients-human continuum.
4. Maintaining a diversity of plant and animal species as a basis for ecological balance
and economic stability.
5. Creating an attractive overall landscape which given satisfaction to the local people.
6. Increasing crop and animal intensity in the form of polycultures, agroforestry systems,
integrated crop/livestock systems etc to minimize risks.
 CHAPTER-2
PRINCIPLES, SCOPE AND COMPONENTS OF ORGANIC FARMING
1. Principles of Organic Farming
To understand the motivation of organic farmers, the practices they use and what
they want to achieve, it is important to understand the guiding principles of organic
agriculture. These principles encompass the fundamental goals and caveats that are
considered important for producing high quality food, fiber and other goods in an
environmentally sustainable way. Principles of organic agriculture have changed with the
evolution of the movement and are now codified. The principles apply to agriculture in the
broadest sense, including the way people tend soils, water, plants and animals in order to
produce, prepare and distribute food and other goods. They concern the way people interact
with living landscapes, relate to one another and shape the legacy of future generations.
The principles of organic agriculture serve to inspire the organic movement in its full
diversity. They are the roots from which organic agriculture grows and develops. They
express the contribution that organic agriculture can make to the world and a vision to
improve all agriculture in a global context. Principles of organic agriculture serve to
inspire the organic movement in its full diversity.
The International Federation for Organic Agriculture Movement’s (IFOAM)
definition of organic farming is based on:
1. The Principle of Health.
2. The Principle of Ecology.
3. The Principle of Fairness.
4. The Principle of Care.
Each principle is articulated through a statement followed by an explanation. The
principles are to be used as a whole. They are ethical principles to inspire action.
1.1: The principle of health
Organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal,
human and planet as one and indivisible. This principle points out that the health of
indivisibles and communities cannot be separated from the health of ecosystems – healthy
soils produce healthy crops that foster the health of animals and people.
Health is the wholeness and integrity of living systems. It is not simply the absence
of illness, but the maintenance of physical, mental, social and ecological well-being.
Immunity, resilience and regeneration are key characteristics of health. The role of organic
agriculture, whether in farming, processing, distribution or consumption, is to sustain and
enhance the health of ecosystems and organisms from the smallest in the soil to human
beings. In particular, organic agriculture is intended to produce high quality, nutritious food
that contributes to preventive health care and well-being. In view of this it should avoid the
use of fertilizers, pesticides, animal drugs and food additives that may have adverse health
effects.
1.2: The principle of ecology
Organic agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work
with them, emulate them and help sustain them.
This principle roots organic agriculture within living ecological systems. It states that
production is to be based on ecological processes and recycling. Nourishment and well-
being are achieved through the ecology of the specific production environment. For
example, in the case of crops this is the living soil; for animals it is the farm ecosystem; for
fish and marine organisms, the aquatic environment.
Organic farming, pastoral and wild harvest systems should fit the cycles and
ecological balances in nature. These cycles are universal but their operation is site-
specific. Organic management must be adapted to local conditions, ecology, culture and
scale. Inputs should be reduced by reuse, recycling and efficient management of materials
and energy in order to maintain or improve environmental quality and conserve resources.
Organic agriculture should attain ecological balance through the design of farming
systems, establishment of habitats and maintenance of genetic and agriculture diversity.
Those who produce, process, trade, or consume organic products should protect and
benefit the common environment including landscapes, climate, habitats, bio-diversity, air
and water.
1.3: The principle of fairness
Organic agriculture should build up relationship that ensures fairness with regard to
the common environment and life opportunities.
Fairness is characterized by equity, respect, justice and stewardship of the shared
world; both among people and in their relations to other living beings.
This principle emphasizes that those involved in organic agriculture should conduct
human relationships in a manner that ensures fairness at all levels and to all parties –
farmers, workers, processors, distributors, traders and consumers. Organic agriculture
should provide everyone involved with a good quality of life and contribute to food
sovereignty and reduction of poverty. It aims to produce sufficient supply of good quality
food and other products.
This principle insists that animals should be provided with the conditions and
opportunities of life that accord with their physiology, natural behavior and well-being.
Natural and environmental resources that are used for production and consumption
should be managed in a way that is socially and ecologically just and should be held in trust
for future generation. Fairness requires systems of production, distribution and trade that
are open and equitable and account for real environmental and social costs.
1.4: The principle of care
Organic agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner
to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment.
Organic agriculture is a living and dynamic system that responds to internal and external
demands and conditions. Practitioners of organic agriculture can enhance efficiency and
increase productivity, but this should not be at the risk of jeopardizing health and well-being.
Consequently, new technologies need to be assessed and existing methods reviewed.
Given the incomplete understanding of ecosystems and agriculture, must be taken.
This principle states that precaution and responsibilities are the key concerns in
management, development and technology choices in organic agriculture. Science is
necessary to ensure that organic agriculture is healthy, safe and ecologically sound.
However, scientific knowledge alone is not sufficient. Practical experience, accumulated
wisdom and traditional and indigenous knowledge offer valid solutions, tested by time.
Organic agriculture should prevent significant risks by adoption appropriate technologies
and rejecting unpredictable ones, such as genetic engineering. Decisions should reflect
the values and needs of all who might be affected, through transparent and participatory
processes.
2.0 SCOPE OF ORGANIC FARMING
The movement started with developed world is gradually picking up in developing
countries. But demand is still concentrated in developed and most affluent countries. Local
demand for organic food is growing. Success of organic movement in India depends upon
the growth of its own domestic markets. India has traditionally been a country of organic
agriculture, but the growth of modern scientific, input intensive agriculture has pushed it
to wall. But with the increasing awareness about the safety and quality of foods, long-term
sustainability of the system and accumulating evidences of being equally productive, the
organic farming may emerge as an alternative system of farming which addresses the
quality and sustainability concerns.
Large-scale use of inputs both organic and inorganic has been a common sight in
many of the farming situations in the past several decades. However, in recent times the
concept of organic farming is being forcefully projected as the method for sustaining the
agricultural production in the country.
Organic farming is a form of agriculture which avoids or largely excluded the use of
synthetic fertilisers and pesticides, plant growth regulators and livestock feed additives.
Organic farming relies on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, bio-fertilisers
and mechanical cultivation to maintain soil productivity, to supply plant nutrients and to
control weeds, insects, disease and other pests.
Before jumping into organic farming bandwagon, we need to have answers to the
following: What level of crop yield/productivity is acceptable? It is suitable for country like
India with a large population to feed? Whether available organic sources of plant nutrients
sufficient for pure organic farming? And, are organic farming technologies sustainable in
long run?
 Whether organic farming can address the multitude of problems faced by Indian
agriculture at present is a major issue. Further, the virtues attributed to organic farming need
to be rechecked before coming to any conclusions.
2.1: Issues of concern
Major issues to be considered for a decision on conventional agriculture or organic
agriculture are:
 Organic farming and nutrient supply.
 Organic farming and plant protection.
 Organic farming and crop productivity.
 Organic farming and certification processes.
 Organic farming and heterogeneity of inputs.
 Organic farming and food quality.
 Organic farming products and marketing.
 Organic farming and switch over period.
2.1.1 Organic Farming and Nutrient Supply
At present, there is a gap of nearly 10 M t between annual addition and removal of
nutrient by crops which are met by mining nutrients from the soil. A negative balance of
about 8 M t NPK is foreseen in 2020, even if we continue to use chemical fertilizers,
maintaining present growth rates of production and consumption. The most optimistic
estimates at present showed that only about 25-30 per cent nutrient needs of Indian
agriculture can be met by utilising various organic sources. These organic sources are
agriculture wastes, animal manure etc.
2.1.2 Organic Farming and Plant Protection
Plant protection against the ravages of pests, diseases and weeds is an important
issue if any modern high production system. Exclusion of pesticides for plant protection
poses greater risk of yield losses. Options available under organic production systems are
very few and crop specific. Often they are very slow and the success rate depends on the
prevailing weather conditions leading to low to moderate effectiveness even in the
recommended crops and situations. Thus, they limit the realization of full potential of crop
yields. Any sudden outbreak of insect pests or plant disease can completely destroy the
crops, unless requisite chemical pesticides are used.
2.1.3 Organic Farming and Crop Productivity
In general, it is observed that the crop productivity declines under organic farming.
The extent of decline depends on the crop type, farming systems practices followed at
present etc. The decline is more in high yielding and high nutrient drawing cereals as
compared to legumes and vegetables and in irrigated systems as compared to rainfed and
dryland farming systems. Without using fertilizers, the requirement of area to merely sustain
the present level of food grain production will be more than the geographical area of India!
This is simple neither possible nor sustainable.
2.1.4 Organic Farming and Certification Processes
There are no standard certification processes uniformly applicable across different
agro-climatic conditions. Both process and product certification procedures are still
evolutionary stage and need further progress they can be effectively adopted. Due to
biological nature of both processes and products, there is always an element of dynamism
subject to temporal and spatial conditions. Presently available certification procedures are
very cumbersome and expensive and out of reach for the common farmer. Due to highly
fragmented holdings of the farmers, there is possibility of “contamination” from the
neighbouring farms-besides the temptation to use chemical inputs to boost yields.
2.1.5 Organic Farming and Heterogeneity of Inputs
There is large variability in the inputs used in organic farming. Due to biological
nature of the inputs, prescribing uniform standards and maintaining them in different agro-
climatic conditions is beyond ones control. Thus leads to arbitrariness on the part of organic
farmers as far as input management is concerned.
2.1.6 Organic Farming and Food Quality
It is often opined that the quality of the organically produced food is superior to that
of conventionally produced food. However, there is no such conclusive proof to justify the
nutritional superiority of the organically produced food over conventionally produced food.
If the conventionally produced foods are blamed to contain traces of chemical residues, the
organically produced foods are equally to be blamed for their contamination with harmful
bacteria and other organism inimical to the health of the consumers.
2.1.7 Organic Farming Products and Marketing
There are no diagnostic techniques available as of now to distinguish products from
different farming systems. The perceived belief that organic products are good for health is
fetching them premium prices. However, unscrupulous hawkers may sell anything and
everything as organically produced to unsuspecting buyer at higher prices resulting in
outright cheating.
2.1.8 Organic Farming and Switch over Period
A transition period of 3-4 years is generally required to convert a conventional farm
into an organic farm. In this period, the produce is not considered as organically produced.
The reduced yield and lack of benefits of premium for the produces is a double blow for the
farmers leading to financial losses which are substantial for the small to medium farmers.
2.2: THE POSSIBLE OPTIONS
With all the above concern, organic farming is not feasible as an alternative to
conventional farming under all circumstances in Indian context. The shortfall in inorganic
nutrient supply, uneconomic returns to inorganic inputs under dry land and rainfed farming
systems, inherent better response to organic farming in crops like vegetables, legumes and
millets under traditional farming systems paves way for integration of conventional farming
with organic farming. Such integration on sound scientific basis will be effective in
addressing the problems of micronutrients deficiencies, recycling of crop residues, farm
wastes, rural and urban waste, besides effectively meeting growing food demands of rising
populations. There will also be scope for practicing organic farming on case basis in
traditional strongholds like hilly areas, rainfed and dryland farming system to cater to the
demands of organic produces in urban areas that would pay premium prices for such
commodities.
Organic farming should be considered for lesser endowed region of the country. It
should be started with low volume high value crops like spices and medicinal and aromatic
crops. A holistic approach involving integrated nutrient management, integrated pest
management, enhanced input use efficiency and adoption of region-specific promising
cropping systems would be the best farming strategy for India.
Organic foods are a matter of choice of the individuals or enterprises. If somebody
wants to go for organic farming, primarily on commercial consideration/profits motive, to
take advantage of the unusually higher prices of organic food, they are free to do so.
Organic farming is essentially a marking tool and cannot replace conventional farming for
food security, quality and quantity of crop outputs. With a growing population and precarious
food situation, India may not afford to take risk with organic farming alone as of now.
3.0 COMPONENTS OF ORGANIC FARMING
The components of organic farming are discussed in this section:
3.1: Organic Manures
Organic materials such as farm yard manure, biogas slurry, compost, straw or other
crop residues, biofertilisers, green manures and cover crops can substitute for inorganic
fertilisers to maintain the environmental quality. In addition, the organic farmers can also
use sea weeds and fish manures and some permitted fertilisers like basic-slag and rock
phosphate. Crop rotation with legumes as well as green manuring also provides nutrients
and improves the soil fertility.
3.2: Non-chemical weed control measures
Compared to conventional farmers, the organic farmers use more of mechanical
cultivation of row crops to reduce the weed menace. No herbicides are applied as they lead
to environmental pollution.
3.3: Biological pest management
The control of insect pests and pathogens is one of the most challenging jobs in
tropical and sub-tropical agriculture. Here again non-chemical, biological pest management
is encouraged. The conservation of natural enemies of pests is important for minimising the
use of chemical pesticides and for avoiding multiplication of insecticide-resistant pests.
Botanical pesticides such as those derived from neem could be used. Selective microbial
pesticides offer particular promise, of which strains of Bacillis thuringiensis is an example.
 CHAPTER:3
COMPONENTS OF ORGANIC FARMING AND THEIR ROLE IN SUSTAINABLE
CROP PRODUCTION
1. Crop and Soil Management
Organic farming systems encourage the use of rotations and manures to maintain
soil fertility. Crop rotations with legumes add to soil fertility. Green manuring and
intercropping of legumes is another important aspect for organic farming system not only in
regard to weed control, but also in reducing the leaching of nutrients and in reducing soil
erosion. Carefully managed soils with 2a high proportion of humus offer essential
advantages with respect to water retention, ion exchange, soil erosion and animal life in the
soil. A high proportion of humus in the soil gives uniform distribution of nutrients and also
plant hygiene.
2. On Farm Waste Recycling
The recycling of various forms of residues has advantage of converting surplus farm
wastes in to useful products for meeting nutrient requirement of crops besides maintaining
the soil productivity and improving the ever all ecological balance.
Cereals, pulses, oilseeds commercial crops one animal dropping are the major
source for recycling source for recycling of valuable plant nutrients for sustainable crop
production in India. The estimate of ministry of finance 1990-91 and FAO the available plant
residue is to an extent of 350 million tomes. This potential of crop residues helps to recycle
valuable plant nutrient to an extent of 5 million tonnes of NPK.
Increasing prices of chemical fertilizers have enable organic wastes to regain an
important role in the fertilizer practices on the farm. Good manure management means
improved fertilizer value of manure and slumy and less nutrient losses. Composting of all
organic waste in general, and of farm yard manure or feedlot manure in particular is
important in organic farming (Dahama, 1996).
3. Non-chemical Weed Management
Weed management is one of the main concerns in organic agriculture. To day,
herbicides lead other pesticides in world pesticide trade with 43 % share. The use rate is
particularly high in developed nations. The increased use of pesticides, however, has
resulted in multiple problems. Because of their slow and low degradability the environmental
safety has been doubted. That apart, weed species are developing resistance to chemical
toxicants (Gautam and Mishtra, 1995). e.g. In India, Phalaris minor in wheat belt has
developed resistant to isoproturon herbicide. There is also problem of secondary pest and
resurgence of weeds. In view of all these, developed nations are already taking measures
to reduce chemical load and are trying to find out chemical free means of weed
management.
The elements to consider in preventing and control of weeds problems are tillage
practices, irrigation management, competitive crops intercropping, crop rotation, plant
geometry, solarization, thermal methods (flame gun’s), biological control, green manuring
and manure management. Mulching on a longer scale by using manure spreaders may also
be useful in weed control.
4. Biological Pest Control
4.1 Cultural Practice
Cultural practice is the oldest form of deliberate biological pest control. It is the
baseline, the prime technique which every good farmer uses to protect his products.
However, fine tuning by cultural practices is extremely complex. One can determine the
precise action to maximize yield for each crop with every seed quality in soil types of varying
textures and quality with every alternative method and timing of ploughing and tillage with
possible addition of natural fertilizers at various times, with every possible planting and
harvesting date, under varied conditions of residue removal and destruction, crop rotation,
intercropping, with pretreatments like flooding and lastly, under weather conditions that lack
extremes that are unpredictable and never follow the same pattern twice.
4.2 Resistance
Plant resistance is also included in the definition of biological control. Plant breeders
have had many successes in production varieties resistant to disease and occasionally to
insets, although not so far weeds. Resistance to soil pathogens may also be provided by
the use of resistant root stocks and grafting. Recent research has shown that plant can
locally accumulate antimicrobial compounds (Phytoalexins) in response to invasion by
disease.
Crop Tolerant/Resistant variety Pest/Disease
Cotton (a) LK-861, NI-1280, Kanchana White fly
(b) H-8, NHH-44, NHH-390,L-603 Jassids
(c) Narasimha Helicoverpa
Groundnut (a) ICGS-11, ICGS-44,Vemana Bud rot
(b) ICGS-10, ICGS-4 Root rot

4.3 Growing Trap Crop

Crop plants more preferred by the pest for egg laying and feeding are grown as trap
crops on the bunds of the main crop or one row after every 10 rows.
Crop Pest Trap crop
Cotton, Groundnut Spodoptera Castor, sunflower
Cotton, Chickpea Helicoverpa Marigold
Pigeonpea Helicoverpa Marigold
Sesamum Red hairy caterpillar Cowpea
Green gram Red hairy caterpillar Sunnhemp
Removal and destruction of egg masses and small caterpillar from trap crop.
4.4 Monitoring Pest Population
(a) Pheromone traps
(b) Light traps: Use one light trap for five hectare area
4.5 Erecting Bird Perches
Bird perches help in attracting birds, keep water in a small bowl and spread
cooked yellow rice to attract insectivorous birds.
4.6 Releasing Parasites and Predators
For management of boll worm of cotton, egg-larval parasites viz., Trichogamma sp.
and Chelonus sp. and predators viz. crysopa were found effective. For the control of pyrilla,
Epiricania melanoleuca and for top borer and stem borer Trichodermma chelonis and
Trichodermma japonicum should be released in sugarcane field.
4.7 Biological Chemicals
Another definition of biological control is the use of natural chemical. The
identification of natural chemicals and subsequent formation of their derivatives can open
new areas of pest control. Chemicals which do not kill the insects, but either attract, repel
modify their usual behavior, may also be regarded as biological control agents. Behavior
modifying chemicals which reduce mating frequency or release large number of sterile
insects, control pests biological by reducing their numbers.
 Pest Biochemical Action
Spodoptera, Helicoverpa Control by neem oil Azadirection active
Leaf folder, all defoliator and ingredient act as a repellent
sucking pest. and antifident
White fly, Aphids, Jassids, Tobacco decocting (Not be Nicotine Sulphate acts as a
Helicoverpa used more than two times) contact poison and
fumigants.
4.8 Biological Disease Control
A major success in plant disease control has been the discovery. Development and
marketing of Agrobacterium rediobacterium for the prevention of crown gall caused by
Agrobacterium temufaciens. When root pruned seedlings are dipped in liquid suspensions
of A. radiobacter, crown galls do not develop on the newly planted seedlings even in fields
infested with A. temufaciens. Trichogramma has potential as a preventive agent against
Sclerotium and Rhizoctonia.
4.9 Bioherbicides
Bioherbicides are biological control agents applied in similar ways as chemical to
control weeds. The active ingredient in a bio-herbicide is a living organism, mostly a micro
organism. A herbicide made of mycelia fragments or spore of fungi is called mycoherbicide.
Commercial bioherbicides first appeared in the market in the USA in the early 1980’s with
the release product “Devine” in 1981 and “Collego” in 1982.
The Bureau of Plant Pathology of the division of plant industry in Gainsville, Florida
has developed the use of Phytophthora palmivora for the control of milk weed vine in citrus
orchards.
Aeschynomene virginica, a leguminous weed in rice, can be effectively controlled by
collecting Trichum gloeosporidis Sp. Aeschynomene.
4.10 Bio-insecticides
Biological control of insects by microorganisms has been the subject of most
research and development efforts in the past and is consequently the most successful
aspect of biological control. At present 3000 organisms have been reported to cause
disease in insects. In viruses, two most important subgroups are (i) Nuclear Polyhedrosis
Viruses (NPV) (ii) Granulosis virus (GV). In Bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) is known to
infect of the caterpillars and few beetle grubs. Bacillus thuringiensis has been commercially
available for the last 30 years. Improvements in the strain and formulations have led to a
substantial in the market size for the control of over 100 insect species. A new strain of B.
thuringiensis var. israclienesis available for control of mosquitoes including Anopheles.
 Chapter-3.
Initiatives for Promoting Organic Farming
In ability of Indian agriculture to meet the demand for food in the country during the
two and a half decades immediately after independence had been a matter of concern at
those times. The system of our agriculture based on traditional knowledge and practices
handed down from generation to generation could not produce enough to feed the
increasing population. The ignominy of our dependence for food on the western developed
nations and the politics of food aid practiced by them added to our determination to be self-
sufficient in food production by modernising agriculture. The “Green Revolution” fulfilled
our aspirations by changing India from a Food importing to a food exporting nation.
However, the achievement was at the expense of ecology and environment and to
the determent and of the well-being of the people. Agriculture system adopted from the west
has started showing increasing unsustainability and once again the need for appropriate
method suitable to our requirements is being felt.
The practice of organic farming, said to the best known alternative to the conventional
method, also originated in the west, which suffered from the ill – effects of chemical
agriculture. However, organic farming is based on the similar principles underlying our
traditional agriculture. Organic agriculture aims at the human welfare without any harm to
the environment which is the foundation of human life itself.
Conventional farming had helped India not only to produce enough food for own
consumption but also generated surpluses for exports. However, the increasing population
and income will lead to further increase in demand for food and also for raw materials for
industry. The modern system Of farming, it is increasingly felt, is becoming unsustainable
as evidenced by declining crop productivities, damage to environment, chemical
contaminations etc. The necessity of having an alternative agriculture method which can
function in friendly ecosystem while sustaining and increasing the crop productivity is
realized now Organic farming is recognised as the best known alternative to the
conventional agriculture.
The first conference of NGOs on organic farming in India was organized by the
Association for Propagation of Indigenous Genetic Resource (APIGR) in October 1984 at
Wardha. Several other meetings on organic farming were held at different places in the
country towards the end of 1980s. Here, mention must be made of the Bordi Conference
in Maharashtra, the state which was the focal point for the organic farming movement in
India. The Rajasthan College of Agriculture with the support of the state government
organized a meeting on organic agriculture in 1992. The United Planters’ Association of
South India (UPASI) organized two national level conference on organic farming in 1993
and 1995. Then ARISE (Agricultural Renewal in India for a Sustainable Environment) is a
major organization in the country engaged in the Promotion of organic farming. The ARISE
comprises of a supporting network of regional groups aiming at sustainable environment by
protecting bio – diversity and promoting organic agriculture practices. The selection of
Auroville for the conference was apt as it housed the Arabindo Ashram and pioneering work
under its auspices on building technology, alternative energy research, wasteland
development, afforestation and organic agriculture.
By 1980, three groups of Indians had taken to Organic farming. The first one
consisted of urban educated technocrats for peripheral interest, which did not last long.
Educated farmers consisted of the second group whose farming practices were based on
scientific knowledge. The third group practiced organic farming through trail and error.
Successful organic farmers in India are those who have access to sufficient natural
resources like, water and other organic inputs mostly on their own farms. These farms
Produce crops like sugarcane, areca, cocoa, coconut, pepper, and spices. Many of them
have shown that switch over to organic farming to do not affect yields and income and more
importantly, knowledge/expertise is available for successful adoption of organic farming in
the country.
The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) estimates
that an area of about 42,000 has in India is under organic farming representing about 0.18
per cent of the world organic acreage as in the year 2015. Non – Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) are spearheading organic farming in India. About 15,000 tonnes of
organic products have been raised in India. They include tea, coffee, rice, wheat, pulses,
fruits, spices and vegetables. India exports organic agricultural products to European Union,
USA, Canada, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Japan, Singapore and Australia, among others.
The international conference on “Indian Organic Product-Global Markets” at the end
of 2002 was the first to be held in India. IFOAM predicts that India and China have great
potential to be organic farm produce exporters in the future. An important event in the history
of the modern organic farming in India was the unveiling of the National Programme for
Organic Production (NPOP) on 8th May, 2000 and the subsequent Accreditation and
Certification Programme in October, 2001. The logo “Indian Organic” was released on
26th July 2002 to support the NPOP.
3.1 INDIA ADVANTAGE
India is endowed with various types of naturally available organic form of nutrients in
different parts of the country and it will help for organic cultivation of crops substantially.
There is diversity in climates: 100 – 10,000 mm rainfall, hill, desert, strong traditional farming
stem – crop – tree animal, innovative farmers, vast dry lands ( 60% agriculture land), least
use of chemicals. In fact, the rainfed, tribal, north – east and hilly regions of the country
where egligible chemicals used are practicing subsistent agriculture for a long period.
These areas are organic by default. As regards the availability of major organic nutritional
inputs (NPK) in India, the estimate of National Centre of Organic Farming, Ghaziabad is as
follows:
 Crop residue = 3.865 million tonnes.
 Animal dung = 3.854 million tonnes.
 Green manure = 0.223 million tonnes.
  Bio – fertilizer = 0.370 million tonnes.

Besides, there is enough scope of using bio –dynamic preparation, vermicompost,

Amrit pani etc. on on-farm production basis.
An appropriate national agriculture policy, giving a prominent place to organic
farming addressing the issues related to its coverage, financial support during the
conversion period, creation of linkages among the farmers, processors, traders and
consumers, inspection and certification and organic products and increasing the public
awareness of the benefits of organic agriculture along with the ill effects of the conventional
system, should be designed. This must be followed by concrete action on the ground if we
do not want to miss the far reaching changes all over the world heralded by the organic
farming movement.
3.2 GOVERNMENT POLICY ON PROMOTING ORGANIC FARMING
Organic farming appears to be one of the options for sustainability. Starting of organic
agriculture in India in 1900 by Sir Albert Howard, a British agronomist in North India,
Development of Indore Method of aerobic compost ( Howard 1929), Bengaluru method of
anaerobic compost ( Archarya 1934), NADEP Compost (ND Pandari Panda, Yeotmal
1980) initiated organic agriculture in India.
The year 2000 is very important year for India from organic point of view. The four
major happenings were made during the year 2000. These are:
1. The Planning Commissions constituted (2000) a steering group on agriculture who
identified organic farming as national challenge and suggested that it should be taken
in the form of a project as major thrust area for 10th Plan. The group recommended
organic farming in NE region, rainfed areas and in the areas where the consumption
of agrochemical is low or negligible.
2. The National Agricultural Policy (2000) recommended promotion of tradition
knowledge of agriculture relating to organic farming and its scientific up gradation.
3. The Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC), Ministry of Agriculture
constituted (2000) a Taskforce on Organic farming under the chairmanship of Shri
Kunwar ji Bhai Yadav and this task force recommended promotion of organic
farming.
4. The Ministry of Commerce launched the National Organic Programme in 2000 and
Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Author (APEDA) is
implementing the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) Under the
NPOP, documents like national standards, accreditation criteria accrediting
inspection and certification agencies, accreditation producer, inspect and
certification procedures have been prepared and approved by National Steen
Committee (NSC).
 The policy of Ministry of Agriculture seeks to promote technically sound, economical
viable, environmentally non-degrading and socially acceptable use of natural resources
favour of organic agriculture. The policy seeks to actualize the area and crop potential
strengthening rural economy, promoting value addition, accelerating growth of agribusiness
and securing a fair standard of living for the farmers and agricultural and their families.

3.2.1 NATIONAL PROJECTS ON ORGANIC FARMING

The Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC), Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India has launched a new Central sector scheme ‘ National Project on
Organic Farming’ (NPOF) with an outlay of ₹ 57.05 crore for production, promotion and
market development of organic farming in the country during 10 th Plan on pilot basis. The
project is operation since 1st October, 2004. Its Headquarter is NPOF, Ghaziabad which
has six regional centers (RCOFs) at Bengaluru, Bhubneshawar, Hisar, Jabalpur, Imphal
and Nagpur.
The unique feature of this scheme is to promote group certification by capacity build
through service provider where the service provider will help organic farmers by providing
training, educating on record management, supervising internal control system, assisting
certification and market access. One Service provider will be registered with 1500 farmer
working in identical geographical condition with similar type of crop. The group certification
will reduce cost of certification.

3.2.2 FAO-DAC PROJECT ON ORGANIC FARMING

The Ministry of agriculture has taken up the Technical Cooperation Program (TCP)
of FAO (TCP/IND/3003 – Development of Technical capacity Base for the Promotion of
Organic Agriculture in India) to overcome the knowledge gap by quickly production basic
information tailored to various ecological zones of the country on the current state
knowledge on organic crop productivity packages, input production and utilization and
certification issue including legal and institution aspects. The project is operational since
April, 2005.

3.2.3 CONSTITUTION OF ORGANIC EXPERT PANEL BY DAC

There are many issues on crop productivity and input use under organic farming
which have been raised by various concerns. To address all these issues, the Ministry Of
Agriculture constituted (July, 2005) an organic expert’s panel under the chairmanship Of Dr.
H.P. Singh, Dean, G.B. Pant Agricultural University. Based on the recommendation of this
panel, the approach towards organic farming could be reviewed.

3.2.4 ORGANIC FARMING APPROACH BY NAAS

The National Academy of Agriculture Science (NAAS) has issued a Policy Paper on
Organic Farming, Which concludes that while synthetic pesticides can be avoided, complete
exclusion of fertilizers may not be advisable under all situations. The NAAS recommends
that a “holistic approach Involving Integrated Nutrient Management (INM), Integrated Pest
Management (IPM), enhanced input use efficiency and adoption of region-specific
promising cropping system would be the best organic farming strategy for India”. To begin
with, the practice of organic farming should be foe low volume, high value crops like spices,
medicinal plants, fruits and vegetables. The NAAS has also emphasized the need for
intensive research on soil fertility and plant health management and on issues relating to
microbial contamination of food arising from the use of farm yard manures.

3.3 GLOBAL SCENARIO OF ORGNIC FARMING

The negative effects of modern chemical based farming system were first
experienced by those countries, which introduce it initially. So, naturally, it was in those
countries organic farming was adopted in relatively large scales. There are very large
organizations promoting the organic farming movement in European countries, America,
Australia etc. These organizations, for example, the International Federation of Organic
Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) and Greenpeace have studied the problems of the
chemical farming methods and compared the benefits accruing to the organic farming with
the former. Organic farming movements have since spread to Asia and Africa too.

3.3.1 PRE – WORLD WAR II

Organic Agriculture ( as opposed to conventional) began more or less simultaneously
in Central Europe and India. The British botanist Sir Albert Howard is often referred to as
the father of modern organic agriculture. From 1905 to 1924, he worked as an
agricultural adviser in Pusa, Bengal, where he documented traditional Indian farming
practices and came to regard then as superior to his conventional agriculture science. His
research and further development of these methods is recorded in his writings, notably, his
1940 book, An Agricultural Testament, which influenced many scientist and farmers of the
day.
In Germany, Rudolf Steiner’s development, bio-dynamic agriculture, was
probably the first comprehensive organic farming system. This began with a lecture series
Steiner presented at a farm in Koberwitz (now in Poland) in 1924.
In 1909, American agronomist FH King toured China, Korea and Japan, studying
traditional fertilization, tillage and general farming practice. He published his findings in
Farmers of Forty Centuries (1911, Courier Dover Publication). King foresaw a “World
movement for the introduction of new and improved methods” of agriculture and in late years
his book became an important organic reference.
The term organic farming was coined by Lord Northbourne in his book Look to
the Land (written in 1939, published 1940). From his conception of “the farm as organism”,
described a holistic, ecologically balanced approach to farming.
In 1939, influenced by Sir Albert Howard’s work, Lady Eve Balfour launched
Haughley Experiment on farmland in England. It was the first scientific, side – by – side
comparison of organic and conventional farming. Four years later, she published The soil,
based on the initial findings of the Haughley Experiment.
In Japan, Masanobu Fukuoka, a microbiologist working in soil science and plant
pathology, began to doubt the modern agricultural movement. In 1937, he quit his job as
research scientist, returned to his family’s farm in 1938 and devoted the next 60 years
developing a radical no-till organic method for growing grain and many other crops, no
known as Nature Farming (Natural Farming), ‘do-nothing’ farming or Fukuoka Farming.

3.3.2 POST – WORLD WAR II

Technological advance during World War II accelerated post – war innovation in
aspect of agriculture. At the same time, increasingly powerful and sophisticated farming
machinery allowed a single farmer to work larger areas of land and fields grew bigger.
In 1944, an international campaign called green revolution was launched in Mexico
with private funding from the US. It encouraged the development of hybrid plants, Chemical
controls, large-scale irrigation and heavy mechanization in agriculture around the world.
During the 1950s, sustainable agriculture was a topic of scientific interest, but
research tended to concentrate on developing the new chemical approaches. In the US,
began to popularize the term and methods of organic growing particularly to consumed
through promotion of organic gardening.
In 1962, Rachel Carson, a prominent scientist and neutralist, published Silent spring
chronicling the effects of DDT and other pesticides on the environment.
In the 1970s, global movements concerned with pollution and the environment
increase their focus on organic farming. As the distinction between organic and
conventional food became clearer, one goal of the organic movement was to encourage
consumption of local grown food.
In 1975, Fukuoka released his first book, The One-Straw Revolution, with a strong
impact in certain areas of agricultural world. His approach to small – scale grain production
emphasized meticulous balance of the local farming ecosystem and a minimum of human
and labor.
In the 1980s, around the world, farming and consumer groups began seriously
pressuring government regulation of organic production. This led to legislation and
certification being enacted through the 1990s and to date.
Since the early 1990s, the retail market for organic farming in developed economies
has growing by about 20 per cent annually due to increasing consumer demand. Concern
the quality and safety of food and the potential for environmental damages from
conventional culture are apparently responsible for this trend.
In approximately 150 countries of the world, organic farming is being practiced and
the under organic management is continuously growing.
TABLE 3.1 Land area of major countries under organic management (2017)
(FiBL Survey – 2019)
 No. Name of Area under No. Name of Area under
country organic (m ha) country organic (m ha)
1. Australia 35.65 7. China 3.01
2. Argentina 3.39 8. Japan 0.009
3 USA 2.03 9. India 1.7
4. UK 0.49 10. Pakistan 0.05
5. Germany 1.37 11. Sri Lanka 0.17
6. South Africa 0.41 12.
All World 69.85
Standard
Globally there are more than 60 standards which include IFOAM basic standard
CODEX Alimentations Commission guidelines, EU Regulation 2029/91, NOP of USA.
SOME FACTS ON INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
1 IFOAQM  Established in 1972
 Headquarters in Germany
 Umbrella for organization Organic Agricultural Association
 Developed internal basic standards of organic agriculture
 Set up International Organic Accreditation Service (IOAS)
July 2001
2 CODEX  Codex Alimentarious Commission – A joint FAO/WHO
 Intergovernmental body
 Established in 1962
 Produce a set of guidelines for organic production
3 EU  Laid out a basic regulation for European Union organic
REGULATION standard in counsel Regulation No 2092/91 (June 1991)
4 DEMETER  Demeter internationals is worldwide network of 19
International certification Bodies in Africa, Australia, Europe
 Developed guidelines for biodynamic preparation
5 JAS  A set of guidelines Japan Agricultural Standards For organic
Farming

Certification
As per Organic Certification Dictionary, 2003 as published by Grolink, there are 3
certification bodies across the world, but they are unevenly spread. Around 300 of them
located in European Union, USA, JAPAN, Canada and Brazil. There is IFOAM accreditation
programme, launched in 1992, by initiating International Group accreditation Service (IOAS)
 CHAPTER :5
NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC FARMING
Introduction
In order to realize the potential of production systems on a sustained basis, efficient
management of resources is crucial (essential). A successful farming system relies on the
management of organic matter to enhance physico-chemical and biological properties of
the soil. The effects of soil organic matter are dynamic as it is a source of gradual release
of essential plant nutrients; improves soil structure, its drainage, aeration and water holding
capacity (WHC); improves soil buffer capacity; influence the solubility of minerals and
serves as a source of energy for the development of micro-organisms.
According to a conservative estimate, around 600 to 700 m t of agricultural waste is
available in the country but it is not managed properly. We must convert waste into wealth
by converting this biomass into energy, nutrient to starved soil and fuel to farmers. India
produces about 1800 m t of animal dung per annum. Even if ⅔ of the dung is used for
biogas generation, it is expected to yield about 440 m t/ annum of manure, which is
equivalent to 2.90 m t N, 2.75 mt P2O5 and 1.89 m t K2O.
CONCEPT AND DEFINITION OF INM
The concept of biological INM is the continuous improvement of soil productivity on
long-term basis through appropriate use of organic manures, green manures, BGA,
biofertilizers and other biological derived materials and their scientific management for
optimum growth, yield and quality of crops and intensive cropping systems in specific agro-
ecological situations.
Definition of Biological INM
According to Sanchaz (1994). It should relay on biological processes by adapting
germplasm to adverse soil conditions, enhancing soil biological activity and optimizing
nutrient, cycling to minimize external inputs and maximize the efficiency of their use.
It can also be defined as “a system for approaching of soil nutrient management
which maintain soil health, soil fertility, sustaining agricultural productivity and improving
farmers profitability through effective, judicious and intensive use of biological based
nutrient management resources”. The resources are biofertilizers, organic manures green
manuring crop rotation, N-fixing organisms, mycorrhizae, PSM etc.
Role of different sources for biological INM
4.1 ORGANIC MANURES
Term ‘manure’ was used originally for denoting materials like cattle manure and other
bulky natural substances that were applied to land, with the object of increasing the
production of crops. Therefore, manures are defined as the plant and animal wastes which
are used as sources of plant nutrients.
Urine is normally low in phosphorus and high in potash, where as about equal parts
of nitrogen may be excreted in faeces and urine of the cattle. Hence the manure in which
the proportion of the urine was allowed to drain away would be relatively low in N and K.
Poultry manure is very important for organic farming due to there will be no loss of urine,
since both liquid & solid portions are excreted together.
Fresh poultry manure creates local alkalinity, it may hamper the standing crop.
Therefore, it is recommended to preserve the excreta at least for six months with suitable
amendments and appropriate microbes.
ADVANTAGES OF MANURING
 Manures supply plant nutrients including micro nutrients
 They improve soil physical properties
 Increase nutrient availability
 Provide food for soil micro organisms
  Provide buffering action in soil reaction
 Improve soil tilth, aeration and WHC of the soil
On the basis of concentration of nutrients, manures can be grouped into two
categories-
(A) Bulky organic manures
Contain small percentage of nutrients and they applied in large quantities like FYM,
compost, green manure, biogas slurry, night soil, sewage and sludge, poultry manure,
sheep & goat manure, animal waste, crop residue etc.
A.1 FARM YARD MANURE (FYM)
Most commonly used organic manure in India. It refers to the decomposed mixture
of dung and urine of farm animals along with litter and left over materials from roughages
or fodder fed to the animals. It contains 0.5% N, 0.2% P 2O5 and 0.5% K2O. Urine contains
1% N and 1.35% K2O. Litter is the straw, peat, sawdust and dry leaves used as bedding
material for farm animals and birds. The N present in urine is mostly in the form of urea
which is subjected to volatilization losses. Chemical preservatives are used to reduce losses
and enrich FYM e.g. gypsum, kainite and super phosphate. These preservatives absorb
urine and prevent volatilization loss of urea and also add nutrients.
A.2 COMPOST
Compost means ‘a product obtained by the controlled decomposition of organic
wastes (composting), finally used as organic manure’. Composting is the process of
reducing animal and vegetable refuse (except dung) to a quickly utilizable condition for
improving and maintaining soil fertility. The final well decomposed manure having lower C:
N ratio is termed as ‘compost’. The recycling of organic materials by biological
decomposition as manure is very important for organic farming as it kills weed seeds,
pathogenic organisms, and dispose off agricultural / industrial wastes to produce a uniform,
slow release organic fertilizer which stimulates soils life, improve soil structure and control
insect-pests and diseases. Compost contains 0.5-0.15-0.5 N,P,K, respectively.
A.3 BIOGAS SLURRY
Instead of directly using the animal dung for composting it can be used for production
of biogas by feeding through Biogas Plants. It contains (1–1.8% N, 0.4–0.9% P2O5 and 0.6-
1% K2O) due to low volatilization losses of ammonia.
A.4 NIGHT SOIL (Poudrette)
Night soil is human excreta, both solid and liquid. It contains 5.5% N, 4% P 2O5 and
2% K2O. The dehydration of night soil, as such or after admixture with absorbing materials
like soil, ash, charcoal and sawdust produces a poudrette that can be used easily as
manure. Poudrette contains about 1.32% N, 2.8% P2O5 and 4.1% K2O.
A.5 SEWAGE AND SLUDGE
1.1.1 The solid portion in the sewage (human excreta + water) is called sludge and liquid
portion is sewage water. It can be recycled for crop fertilization, irrigation to the crop,
aquaculture production, application to forest land, biogas production and land reclamation.
It was estimated that total waste generated by 217 million people in urban areas is 39 mt/
year (2001). The total NPK content of this would be 2.5 lac tone of N, 2.6 lac tone of P and
2.6 lac tone of K. Both the components are separated and are given a preliminary
fermentation and oxidation treatments to reduce bacterial contamination and offensive
smell, otherwise soil quickly becomes “sewage sick” owing to the mechanical clogging by
colloidal matter in the sewage and the development of anaerobic organisms which not only
reduce the nitrate already present in the soil but also produce alkalinity. These defects can
be removed by thoroughly aerating the sewage in the settling tank by blowing air through it.
The sludge that settles at the bottom in this process is called “activated sludge” (3.6% N,
2% P2O5 & 1% K2O).
A.6 SHEEP & GOAT MANURE
 The droppings of sheep and goat contain higher nutrients than FYM and compost.
On an average, the manure contains 3% N, 1% P2O5 & 2%K2O). It is applied to the field in
two ways- i) Sweeping of sheep and goat sheds are placed in pits for decomposition and it
is applied later to the field. ii) Sheep penning- wherein sheep and goats are allowed to stay
over night in the field and urine and faecal matter is added to soil.
A.7 POULTRY MANURE
Poultry manure can supply higher N and P to the soil than other bulky organic
manures. The average nutrient content is 2.87% N, 2.93% P 2O5 & 2.35% K2O.
A.8 GREEN MANURING
Green un-decomposed plant material used as manure is called green manure. By
growing green manure crops (usually leguminous crops) are grown in the field and
incorporating it in its green stage in the same field is called green manuring. It adds organic
matter and nitrogen to the soil. On an average green manuring gives 60-80 kg N/ha.
(B) Concentrated organic manures
These have required in small quantities and contain higher nutrients as compared to
bulky organic manures. The most commonly used are oil cakes, fish meal, meat meal, blood
meal, horn & hoof meal, bird guano, raw bone meal etc. which act a good source of organic
manures for organic farming system.
B.1 OIL CAKES
Oil cakes are generally grouped into two groups, viz., edible oil cakes suitable for
feeding the cattle and other domestic animals and non-edible oil cakes exclusively used as
manure due to their higher content of plant nutrients. It has been estimated that India
produced about 2.5 million tones of oil cakes annually
Non-edible oil cakes are used as manure especially for horticultural crops. Nutrient
present in oil cakes, after mineralization, are made available to crops 7-10 days after
application. Oil seed cakes need to be well powdered before application for even distribution
and quicker decomposition. Neem cake acts as Nitrification Inhibitor.
Average nutrient content of different oil cakes
Per cent composition
Oil cakes
N% P% K%
Edible oil cakes (feed for livestock)
Safflower (decorticated) 7.9 2.2 1.9
Groundnut 7.3 1.5 1.3
Cotton seed (decorticated) 6.5 2.9 2.2
Non-edible oil cakes (not fed to livestock)
Safflower (un-decorticated) 4.9 1.4 1.2
Cotton seed (un-decorticated) 3.9 1.8 1.6
Caster 4.3 1.8 1.3
Neem 5.2 1.0 1.4
B.2 FISH MEAL
Sea food canning industries are present in almost all coastal states of India, Fishes
which is not preferred for table purposes due to their small size, bonny nature and poor
taste can be converted into very good organic manure. The fish is dried, powdered and filled
in bags. It contains average nutrients are 4-10, 3-9 & 0.3-1.5 NPK. These manures are
highly suitable for fruit orchards and plantation crops.
B.3 MEAT MEAL
An adult animal can provide 35 to 45 kg of meat after slaughter or death. It contains
8-9% N and 7% P2O5.
B.4 BLOOD MEAL
 Blood manure contain about 13-20%N, rich in Iron and its application gives a deep
rich colour to foliage,.
B.5 HORN & HOOF MEAL
A healthy animal can give about 3 to 4 kg of horn and hoof. These materials are
dried, powdered, bagged and marketed as manure. It contains 13% N.
B.6 GUANO (Bird / Fish)
The excreta and dead remains of the bird is called bird guano (11-14% N & 2-3%
P2O5) and the refuse left over after the extraction of oil from the fish in factories, dried in
cemented yards and used as manure is called as fish guano (7% N & 8% P2O5).
B.7 RAW BONE MEAL
An excellent source of organic phosphorus. It contains 3 to 4% N and 20 to 25%
P2O5.
4.2 VERMICOMPOSTING
Definition: The process of composting organic wastes through domesticated earthworms
under controlled conditions is vermicomposting.
Earthworms have tremendous ability to compost all biodegradable materials. Waste
subjected to earthworm consumption decompose 2 to 5 times faster than in conventional
composting. During composting the wastes are deodorized, pathogenic micro-organisms
are destroyed and 40 to 60 % volume reduction in organic wastes take place. It is estimated
that the earthworms feed about 4 to 5 time their own weight of material daily.
Earthworms bears both male and female reproductive organs. However, two worms
are needed for successful copulation. The self fertilization does not occur generally in the
earthworms. Fertilization take place in the egg case or cocoon.
Earthworm species such as Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae, lumbricus rubellus,
L. mauritee and perionix excavatus have been recommended for vermiculture technology.
Vermicompost is the compost which is prepared by earthworms. It is a mixture of worm
casting (faecal excretions) organic materials including humus, live earthworms, their
cocoons and other micro organisms.
Vermiculture : It is the process of rearing and breeding of earthworms in controlled
condition and presently it is known as earthworm biotechnology. It is estimated that 1800
worms which is an ideal population for one sq. meter can feed on 80 tonnes of humus per
year. Faecal matter or excretions of earthworms is known as vermin cast. Vermi wash is a
liquid fertilizer collected after the passage of water through a column of worm activation,
which is useful for foliar spray. It may be diluted with water before use. It can also be diluted
with 10% urine of cow. The average nutrient content of vermicompost is about 0.5 to 0.9-
0.1 to 0.2- 0.67 % N,P,K respectively.
VERMIWASH – A liquid manure: It is a transparent pale yellow coloured fluid collected
after the passage of water through a column of worm action or it a collection of excretory
products and mucus secretions of earthworm along with nutrients from the soil organic
molecules. It is very useful as a foliar spray to enhance the plant growth and yield and to
check development of diseases.
BENEFITS OF VERMICOMPOST
1. When added to clay soil, loosens the soil and provides the passage for the entry of
air.
2. The mucus associated with it being hygroscopic, absorbs water and prevents water
logging and improves water holding capacity.
3. In the vermicompost, some of the secretions of worms and the associated microbes
act as growth promoter along with other nutrients.
4. It improves physical, chemecal and biological properties of soil in the long run on
repeated application
 5. The organic carbon in vermicompost releases the nutrients slowly and steadily into
the system and enables the plant to absorb these nutrients.
6. The multifarious effects of vermicompost influence the growth and yield of crops.
7. Earthworm can minimize the pollution hazards caused by organic waste by
enhancing waste degradation.
APPLICATION OF VERMICOMPOST
In orchards the dose depends on the age of the tree. It can be used @ 500 g in small
fruit plants and 3 – 4 kg/tree whereas for vegetable crops @ 3 kg/10 m 2 area. For general
use in agriculture, vermicompost should be applied @ 5 t/ha. Vermicompost is mixed with
equal quantity of dried cow dung and used as broadcast when seedlings are 12-15 cm
height and water should be sprinkled.
4.3 GREEN MANURING
4.3.1 Definition :Crops grown for the purpose of restoring or increasing the organic matter
content in the soil are called green manure crops while there green undecomposed plant
material used as manure is called green manure. Their use in cropping system is generally
referred as green manuring. It is obtained in two ways-either by grown in situ or brought
from out site. In both ways, the organic material should be worked into the soil while they
are fairly young for easy and rapid decomposition.
i) In situ green manuring: Growing of green manure crops in the field and
incorporating it in its green stage in the same field (i.e. in situ) is termed as green
manuring.
ii) Green leaf manuring: is the application of green leaves and twigs of trees, shrubs
and herbs collected from nearby location and adding to the soil. Forest tree leaves
are the main source of green leaf manuring. Legumes are usually utilized as green
manure crops as they fix atmospheric nitrogen in the root/stem nodules through
symbiotic association.
4.3.2 ADVANTAGES OF GREEN MANURING
1. It adds organic matter to the soil. This stimulates the activity of soil micro organisms
2. Green manuring concentrates plant nutrient in the surface layer of the soil
3. It improve the structure of soil by deep rooting system
4. It facilitates the penetration of rain water, thus decreasing run off & soil erosion.
5. It holds plant nutrients that would other wise be lost by leaching (eg.N)
6. It increases the availability of certain plant nutrients like P,Ca,K,Mg & Fe.
7. It checks weed growth by quick initial growth
8. It aid in reclamation of sodic soils by release of organic acids.
DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS FOR GREEN MANURE CROPS
The criteria for which green manure crops are selected should have following characters,
It should be high biomass production
It should be deep rooting system
It should be leguminous family
It should be fast initial growth
It should be more leafy than woody
It should be low C/N ratio
It should be non-host for crop related pathogens
It should be easy and abundant seed producer
It should be useful for ‘by-products’
4.3 RECYCLING OF ORGANIC RESIDUES
A variety of organic residues include crop residues in the form of straw, husk, forest
litter; animal wastes like dung urine, bones etc., guano, city or household residues, oil
cakes, bye products of food and sugar industries, pond silt, marine wastes, sea weeds and
human habitation wastes. There are two major components of crop residues available, i. e.
harvest refuse (straw, stubbles, haulm of different crops) and process wastes (nut shell,
oilcakes and cobs of maize, bajra and sorghum). Crop residues are defined as ‘the non-
economic plant parts that are left in the field after harvest and remains that are generated
from packing sheds or that are discarded during crop processing’. The benefits of proper
organic residue recycling are that they supply essential plant nutrients, improve soil
properties, protect the soil from erosion hazards, reducing residue accumulation at the sites
they produced, providing employment as well as income to many, enhancing environmental
qualities and illustrate that man is not a waste generator but also its wise 29tilizer/ manager.
4.4 BIO-FERTILIZERS (Microbial inoculants)
The atmosphere over an hectare of land consists of 80,000 tones of N. Though
atmospheric N is present in sufficient quantity (80%), it is not available to plants since it
exists in inert form. Biological nitrogen fixation is the conversion of atmospheric N by living
organisms into forms that plants can use. This process is carried out by a group of bacteria
and algae which fix atmospheric Nitrogen (N2) in to assimilable forms of nitrogen (NH3)
It can be defined as bio-fertilizers or microbial inoculants are preparations containing
live or latent cell of efficient strain of N-fixing or P-solubilizing micro organisms used for
seed or soil application with the objectives of increasing the numbers of such micro
organisms in the soil or rhizosphere and consequently improve the extent of
microbiologically fixed N for plant growth.
4.5:1 Use of bio-fertilizers
Azospirilum is applied as seed treatment or soil application in crop like rice, sugarcane,
pulses, soybean and vegetables. It increase in root length, top dry weight, root dry weight,
total leaf area and yield were reported. The inoculants like nitroplus (legume inoculants)
and VAM (Vesicular Arbuscular Micorrhizae) are also effective for crop yield improvement.
The Bacillus sp. and pseudomonas sp. are help full in synthesizing the insoluble form of
phosphorus. The combined application of phosphobacteria, rock phosphate and FYM to
commercial crops have greatly unhanced biomass production, uptake of nutrients and yield
4.5.2 Enrichment of compost with microbial inoculants.
Compost prepared by traditional method is usually low in nutrients and there is need
to improved its quality. Enrichment of compost using low cost nitrogen fixing and phosphate
solubilizing microbes is one of the possible way of improving nutrient status of the soil. It
could be achieved by introducing microbial inoculants, which are more efficient than the
native strains associated with substrate materials. Both the nitrogen fixing and phosphate
solubilizing microbes are more exacting in their physiological and ecological requirements.
The only alternative is to enhance their inoculum potential in the composting mass.
4.5.3 Benefits of bio- fertilizers in organic farming
 Bio-fertilizers are eco-friendly and do not have any ill effect on soil health and
environment.
 They reduce the pressure on non-renewable nutrient sources/fertilizer.
 Their formulations are cheap and have easy application methods.
 They also stimulate plant growth due to excretion of various growth hormones.
 They reduce the incidence of certain disease, pathogen and increase disease
resistance.
 The economic benefits to cost ratio of bio-fertilizers is always higher.
 They improve the productivity of waste land and low land by enriching the soil.
 CHAPTER :6
DISEASE AND PEST MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC FARMING
Introduction:-
The use of synthetic chemicals to manage pests has a number of disadvantages
which cause environmental pollution, phytotoxicity, ground water contamination and
adversely affect the soil and its biotic environment. Indiscriminate use of synthetic pesticides
resulted in insecticide resistance, resurgence and accumulation of pesticide residues in
food, fruits and vegetables.
Integrated pest management measures are either preventive or curative. Control of
insect pest relies on understanding of the pest life cycle, behavior and ecology. It involves
natural enemies, host resistance and cultural practices.
A. CULTURAL METHODS
Cultural control is just a modification or manipulation of the environment to the
disfavour of pests by disrupting their reproductive cycles, eliminating their foods, destroying
their weed hosts or making the environment more favourable for predators, parasitoids and
antagonists. The important cultural practices suitable for organic production to reduce the
severity of insects, pests and diseases are as follows.
1. Tillage operation :-
Plowing or hoeing helps to expose stages of soil inhabiting insects to sun or predatory
birds. Earthing up of soil in sugarcane reduces seedling borer infestation.
2. Field and plant sanitation: -
Regular removal of weeds, pest-affected plant parts, crop stubbles and their
destruction will eliminate the sources of infestation of the diseases and pests.
Distraction of bored shoots and fruits of brinjal, okra prevents further build up of the
pest population. Many virus diseases like leaf curl, bud and stem rot of tomato,
groundnut and sun flower can be minimized by uprooting the infected plants.
3. Crop rotation :
Growing of a non host crop after a host crop of the pest will break the breeding cycle
of pest species and reduce their population. Like wise, crop rotation prevents the
build up of plant pathogen in soil.
4. Growing of pest resistant varieties :
Certain varieties of crops are less damage or less infested than other by insects. The
resistant varieties have physical and physiological features, which enable to avoid
pest attacks. i.e.
Crop Tolerant / Resistant Pest/Disease
variety
Cotton L.K.861, Kanchana White fly
L-603, L-604, Jassids
Narsimha Helicoverpa
Groundnut Vemana, Tirupathi, Bud rot
ICGS-11
Kadiri, ICGS-10 Leaf spot
ICGV-86325 Multiple resistant to pests &
diseases
Red gram ICPL-332 (Abhaya) Pod borer
Castor JI-144 Capsule borer
5. Trap cropping
Some crops are more preferred by the pests for feeding and egg laying are grown
as trap crops on the bunds of the main crop or 1 row after 10 rows. Removal and
 destruction of egg masses and small larvae from trap crop reduce the pest population
i.e.
Crop Pest Trap crop
Cotton, Groundnut Spodoptera Castor, sunflower
Cotton, chickpea, pigeonpea Helicoverpa Merigold
Sesamum Red hairy cater pillar Cowpea
Green gram Red hairy cater pillar Sunn hemp
6. Water management :
Flooding of field whenever possible; kills root grubs, termites and soil borne plant
pathogens. Draining of water for a few days in paddy fields supprss brown plant
hopper population
7. Adjusting time of sowing :
The simultaneous sowing of crops in a locality helps in reducing pest damage. Many
a times early sown crops escape pest attack i.e. Jowar crop sown before the end of
June months usually escapes attack by shootfly.
B. MECHANICAL METHODS :
Hand picking of egg masses, gregarious larvae and sluggish/ lazy adults and their
destruction helps in reducing of pest population
1. Use of phenomones and light traps :
sex pheromones are mostly emitted by female insects to attract the male
insect for matting. Such chemical compounds can be prepared in the laboratory and
make available as lures for use in traps. These pheromones & also light traps attract
the insects in large numbers to the traps, where they get trapped and killed.
Pheromones are non toxic, species specific, safe to other organisms, plants and
environment. Generally at least 5 traps/ha are recommended for monitoring for each
pest species.
2. Use of yellow sticky traps :
It is used to monitor aphids and white fly.
3. Erecting bird perchase :
Bird perches helps in attracting birds, keep water in small bowl and spread
cooked yellow rice to attract insectivorous birds.
4. Soil solarization :
Soil solarization by mulching the soil with polythene cover for 3-4 weeks
during summer months results in killing of soil borne pathogens and weed seeds.
5. Use of nylon net
Growing of vegetable nurcery under nylon net drastically reduces pest
population and virus/ mycoplasma diseases by preventing the entry of vectors.
6. Hot water treatment :
For the control of nematode problem in planting stock of banana suckers
soaked in hot water for 25 minits at 550 C temperature.
C. BIOLOGICAL METHODS
Biological control means “The utilization of any living organisms for the control of
insect-pests, diseases and weeds. This means use of any biotic agent for minimizing the
pest population either directly or indirectly. Conservation of these biotic agents in the field
or multiplying in the laboratory and releasing in the fields is called biological control.
ADVANTAGES OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
1. Bio-control is exercised in a wide range of area and it is safe for human as well as
animal health.
2. Application of biotic agent is easy and possible even in inaccessible areas like
forests, tall trees, podns, rivers, lakes, revines etc.
 3. The bio agents survive in nature till the pests is prevalent and self perpetuating in
nature.
4. There is no need for any special equipments like sprayer, duster except for some
microbial preparation
5. No waiting period is required for harvesting of the crops.
6. Biological agents like parasitoids and predators, etc may be multiplied at farmer’s
level.
7. This method is very economical ones the method is developed, it is usually free of
charges for the farmers.
Some of the important bio-control agents are,
1. Predators: The predators are feeding several of the insect-pests during their life cycle
and hold a key role in minimizing pest population under field conditions. The common
predators are birds, spiders, dragonflies, ladybird beetles, ground beetles, ants,
chrysoperla etc; are helps to control sucking pests, pod borer eggs and larvae i.e.

Sr. No. Predators Pest controlled

1. chrysoperla Soft body insects like aphids, White hay, leaf hoppers,
thrips etc.
2. lady bird Aphids, mealy bugs
beetle
3. Spiders Insects

2. Parasitoids : These insects are always require passing at least one stage of their life
cycle inside the host. The tiny adults of parasitoids search for the host eggs and
parasitise them, i.e. they lay their own eggs within the egg of the pests. On haching,
the parasitoid larva feed on the embryonic content of egg. Thus kill only one host insect
during their life. However, due to their high multiplication rate they are of vital
importance in the bio-control agents. For ex.
Crop Pest Parasitoids Dosage/ha
Cotton Boll warms Trichograma chilonis 1,50,000
Sugarcane Early shoot borer, --“-- 50,000
stock borer
Paddy, Maize stem borer T. japonicum 50,000

3. Biological chemicals : The pesticides derived from living organisms are

biopesticides. These products are more selective, eco-friendly and leave no toxic
residues in the environment. The Identification of natural chemicals open new era of
pest control. These chemicals do not kill the insects, but either attract, repel or modify
their usual behaviour. Behaviour modifying chemicals which reduce matting frequency
or release large numbers of sterile insects, control pests biologically by reducing their
numbers.
Biochemical Pests Action
1. Nim oil Grass hopper, leaf minor, white Azadiractin acts as a repellent antifident
flies, scales, mealy bugs pod (Azadirecta indica)
borer, moth etc.
2. Nicotin White flies, Aphids, Jassids, Nicotin sulphate acts as a contact
sulphate Helicoverpa poison and fumigant
3.Pyrethrum/ Ants, aphids, fliees, ticks The trade name pyrenone is a contact
pyrethrins poison act as pyrethroids
 4. Limonene Pests of pet animals such as Trade name d-limonene and linalool
fleas, lice, mites, ticks etc. extracted from orange or citrus fruit-
peels act as contact and fumigant
4. Microbial insecticides: These products are obtained from micro organisms such as
bacterium, soil borne actinomytes and fungal pathogens. The insecticidal crystal
proteins produced by the bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki are effective
against lepidopterous pest species. These toxins are very specific in their action, easily
biodegradable and being stomach poisons, safe for non-target organisms they are as
follows.
No. Bio control Crop Pest/ disease Remarks
agent
1. Trichoderma Tomato, chille, Root rot, stem Fungal antagonists,
harzianum Brinjal, G.nut rot, blight, soil treatment
Trichoderma damping-off,
viridae wilt, nematodes
2. Pseudomonas Banana Wilt Sucker Treatment
florescenes Tomato Wilt, white rot Soil treatment
Potato Tuber rot Seed treatment
Chilli Fruit rot Seed &
Die back Seedling treatment
3. Bacillus Cotton Lepidopterous Foliar application
thurengensis Cabbage, pests
Tomato, Gram
etc.
4. Verticillum Cotton, Aphid, whitefly --“--
lecanii Vegetable
crops
5. Beauveria Gram, Pod borer, Spray application
bassiana Tobacco cater pillar,
thmps
Cotton aphids,
Tomato mealybugs
6. Nuclear Chickpea, Heliothis Spray the extraction of
polyhedrosis Maize, spodoptera 250 crushed larve/ha
viruses (NPV) sunflower
Granylosis pigeon pea
Viruses (GV)
6. Mineral Insecticides: Sulphur : Sulphur is the oldest known pesticide & currently it is
used. It can be used as dust, wettable powder, paste or liquid for control powdery mildews,
rusts, leaf blight etc. Sulphur damage the plants, when it is applied in hot (above 90 0 F)
and dry weather. Do not use sulphur where recently oil compound have been sprayed, it
reacts with the oils to make a more phytotoxic combination.
 CHAPTER-7
WEED MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC FARMING
Introduction:
Increased use of herbicides has resulted many problems. The environment safety
has been doubted with increased pollution hazards. That apart, weed species are
developing resistance to chemical toxicants. In India, continuous use of isoproturan in wheat
crop has resulted in the development of resistance in Phalaris minor. More over there is
also problem of resurgence of weeds. In organic farming weeds can be managed by the
following methods;
A: Preventive methods:
Preventive method of weed control include use of weed free crop seeds, weed free
manure, clear equipments and elimination of weed infestation in and around irrigation
channels and cultivated fields.
B: Cultural methods:
Smother crops are highly competitive with the weed species infesting an area for
light, nutrients and moisture. The crops such as barley, millet, sorghum, alfalfa, clover,
cowpea, sesbania, sunflower etc. Other cultural methods are sowing of cover crops, crop
rotation, line sowing, maintaining optimum plant population, drip irrigation etc. which
reduces weed problems.
C: Mechanical methods:
This method includes practices like hand weeding, hoeing, mowing, flooding,
mulching, burning and tilling the soil for the reduction of weeds.
D: Soil solarization:
This is an eco-friendly technology used to kill weed seeds in soil. It involves mulching
of soil with clear plastic films so as to trap the solar heat in the surface soil. The resultant
temperature increase would be lethal to soil pathogens, nematodes and weeds. This
method can be use where air temperature goes up to 45 0C during summer months. It is
efficient where bright sun light is available for about 4-6 weeks.
E: Biological methods
This method involves utilization of natural enemies for the control of certain weeds.
This can be achieved by direct or indirect action of biological control agents. In direct action,
firstly the bio control agent bores into plant, weakens its structure which leading to its
collapse and consumes as food and destroys the vital plant parts. In indirect action the bio
control agent reserves the competitive ability of weed over other plants and enhances the
condition favorable for plant pathogens.
E1: INSECTS:
For bio-control of weeds, the insect selected should specifically attack on the
targeted weed without harming the other plants.
 S.N. Weed species Bio-agent Remarks
1. Prickly pear Cactoblastis cactorum By leaf feeding beetle
cactus
2. Water hyacinth Neochetina bruchi By leaf eating weevil &
Alternaria eichhornia fungus
3. Parasitic weed Fusarium oxysporum Fungus & Insects both are
Orobanche sp. and fly (Sipha maidis) used
4. Cyperus Bactra minima and By leaf eating insect
rotundus Athespacuta cyperi
5. Parthenium Zygograma bicolorata By leaf eating insect
hysterophorus and Smicronyx
lutulentus
E 2 : PLANT PATHOGENS
The active ingredient in a bio-herbicide is a living organism, mostly a micro organism.
An herbicide made of mycelia fragments or spore of fungi is called mycoherbicide. This
technique holds promise because reduced quantities of spores are needed, when seedlings
are small and emerging.
Mycoherbicide Fungus Weed controlled
De vine Phytophthora palmivora Milk weed vine
Velgo Colletotrichum coccodes Velvet leaf
Collego Collego gloeosphoroides f. sp. Northern joint vetch
Aeschynomene

F: Allelopathy:
Inter-weed-competition determined by allelopathy can be manipulated in the natural
control of weeds. Natural compounds released by some plants inhibit or prevent the growth
of nearby plants. Marigold flowering plant is found to suppress the growth of parthenium.
Thistle exudation inhibits the growth of oats. Wheat, oats & peas suppress the growth of
Chenopodium album. The crop residues from alfalfa, sunflower, wheat, corn and soybean
are toxic to weeds.
 CHEPTER 8
OPERATIONAL STRUCTURE OF NPOP AND NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR
ORGANIC FARMING
To provide a focused and well-directed development of organic agriculture and
quality products, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India, launched a
National Program on Organic Production (NPOP) in the year 2000, which was formally
notified in October 2001 under the Foreign Trade & Development Act (FTDR Act).
7.1 NATIONAL STRUCTURE OF NPOP
The National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) proposes to provide an
Institutional mechanism for the implementation of National Standards for Organic
Production, through a National Accreditation Policy and Programme (NAPP). Aims of the
National Programme for organic production, inter alia, include the following:
1. To provide the means of evaluation of certification programmes for organic
agriculture and products as per the approved criteria.
2. To accredit certification programmes.
3. To facilitate certification of organic products in conformity to the National Standards
for Organic Products.
4. To encourage the development of organic farming and organic processing.
The National Programme for Organic Production shall, among others, include:
1. Policies for development and certification of organic products.
2. National standards for organic products and processes.
3. Accreditation of programmes to be operated by Inspection and Certification
Agencies.
4. Certification of organic products.
Fig 1: Operational structure of National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP).
 Operational structure of National Programme for Organic Production is given in Fig.1.
The programme will be developed and implemented by the Government of India through its
Ministry of Commerce and Industry as the apex body. The Ministry will constitute a National
Steering Committee for National Programme for Organic Production, whose members will
be drawn from Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural and
Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), Coffee Board, Spices
Board and Tea Board and other government and private organizations associated with the
organic movement. To advise the National Steering Committee on relevant issues
pertaining to National Standards and Accreditation, sub-committees will be appointed. The
National Steering Committee for National Programme for Organic Production will formulate
a National Accreditation Policy and Programme and draw up National Standards for Organic
Products, which will include standards for organic production and processes as well as the
regulations for use of the National Organic Certification Mark. National Accreditation Policy
and Programme will be administered by the National Accreditation Body, which will define
the overall objectives for the Accreditation programmes and operations. The National
Steering Committee may amend the Accreditation procedures whenever it deems fit. The
National Accreditation Policy and Programme is subject to periodic internal review, which
will be conducted by the Technical Committee, which will advise the National Steering
Committee about the need and content of such amendments in the National Programme
for Organic Production.
7.1.1 National Accreditation Body
National Steering Committee would also function as the National Accreditation Body.
Members of the National Accreditation Body shall comprise of representatives form Ministry
of Agriculture, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, APEDA, Coffee Board, Spices Board
and Tea Board. The Chairman of the Body shall be the Chairman of the National Steering
Committee. The work of the National Accreditation Body will include:
1. Drawing up procedures for evaluation and accreditation of certification programmes.
2. Formulating procedures for evaluation of the agencies implementing the
programmes.
3. Accreditation of inspection and certification agencies.
Every certifier will implement a certification programme and a programme cannot be
accredited without accrediting the certifier.
7.1.2 Evaluation Committee
Eligible Inspection and Certification Agencies implementing certification programmes
will be evaluated by an Evaluation Committee. The Evaluation Committee will be
appointed by the National Accreditation Body. The members of the Evaluation Committee
will comprise of members drawn from the APEDA, Coffee Board, Spices Board, Tea Board,
Ministry of Agriculture and Export Inspection Council of India (EIC)/Export Inspection
Agencies (EIAs). The APEDA, on behalf of the National Accreditation Body will receive and
screen applications from the certification agencies, will coordinate and arrange evaluation
visits etc. to ascertain the credentials of certification programmes of the applicants. The
Evaluation Committee will submit its recommendations to the National Accreditation Body
for considering accreditation.
7.1.3 Accredited Inspection and Certification Agencies
Based on the recommendations of the Evaluation Committee, eligible Inspection and
Certification Agencies will be accredited by the National Accreditation Body. These
agencies should be well versed with the operating procedures, the NSOP and the
international standards. Their programmes should have been in operation for at least one
year and they should be able to provide the supporting documents.
7.1.4 Inspectors
The inspectors, appointed by the accredited Inspection and Certification Agencies
will carry out inspection of the operations through records maintained by the operators as
per specified formats and also by periodic site inspection. Based on compliance with the
standards and certification programmes, accredited Inspection and Certification Agencies
will certify the organic status of products and operations, specifying their conditions and
recommendations.

7.2 NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR ORGANIC FARMING

Under NPOP Programme, the Govt. of India has developed National Standard for
organic export. The Ministry of Agriculture, in principle, has accepted this standard for
domestic purpose also. The scopes of these standards are:
1. Lay down policies for development and certification of organic products.
 2. Facilitate certification of organic products confirming to the National Programme
containing the standards for organic production.
3. Institute a logo and prescribe its award by accrediting bodies on products qualifying
for bearing India organic label.
A National Steering Committee (NSC) comprising Ministry of Commerce, Ministry of
Agriculture, APEDA, Spices Board, Coffee Board, Tea Board and various other Government
and private organisations associated with the organic movement is monitoring the overall
organic activities under the National Programme for Organic production (NPOP).
7.2.1 Conversion Requirements
Conversion period is the time between the start of organic management and the
certification of crops as organic:
General Principles
Organic agriculture means a process of developing a viable and sustainable agro-
ecosystem. The time between the start of organic management and certification of crops
and/or animal husbandry is known as the conversion period. The whole farm, including
livestock, should be converted according to the standards over a period of three years.
Recommendations
For a sustainable agro-ecosystem to function optimally, diversity in crop production
and animal husbandry must be arranged in such a way that there is interplay of all the
elements of the farming management. Conversion may be accomplished over a period of
time. A farm may be converted step by step. The totality of the crop production and all
animal husbandry should be converted to organic management. There should be a clear
plan of how to proceed with the conversion. This plan shall be updated if necessary and
should cover all aspects relevant to these standards. The Certification Programme should
set standards for different farming systems so that they can be clearly separated in
production as well as in documentation and the standards should determine norms to
prevent a mix up of input factors and products.
Standards
 The standards requirements shall be met during the conversion period. All the
standards requirement shall be applied on relevant aspects from the beginning of
conversion period itself.
 If the whole farm is not converted, the certification programme shall ensure that the
organic and conventional parts of the farm are separate and inspectable.
 Before products from a farm/project can be certified as organic, inspection shall have
been carried out during the conversion period. The start of conversion period may
be calculated from the date of application of the certification programme or from the
date of last application of unapproved farm inputs provided it can demonstrate that
standards requirements have been met form that date of implementation.
  Simultaneous production of conventional, organic in conversion and/or organic crops
or animal products which cannot be clearly distinguished for each other, will not be
allowed.
 To ensure a clear separation between organic and conventional production, a buffer
zone or a natural barrier should be maintained. The certification programme shall
ensure that the requirements are met.
 A full conversion period is not required where de facto full standards requirements
have been met for several years and where this can be verified through several
means and sources. In such cases, inspection shall be carried out with a reasonable
time interval before the first harvest.
7.2.2 Maintenance of Organic Management
Standards
 Converted land and animals shall not get switched back and forth between organic
and conventional management.
7.2.3 Landscape
The certification programme shall set standards for a minimum percentage of the
farm area to facilitate bio-diversity and nature conservation.
Standards
 The certification programme shall develop landscape and bio-diversity standards.
 CHAPTER: 9
CERTIFICATION AND ACCREDITATION PROCESS
OF ORGANIC PRODUCT
Introduction
India with its varied agro-climatic conditions and agricultural biodiversity offers
tremendous scope for production and export of a wide range of organic products having
great demand in a number of developed countries. Ministry of Commerce, Government of
India launched the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) in 2000 to ensure
the well-directed development of organic agriculture. Subsequently various components of
NPOP, viz., (i) National standards for production, processing, labeling, storage and
transport of organic products, (ii) Systems, criteria and procedures for accreditation of
certification and inspection programmes by certification and inspection programmes by
certification agencies to facilitate certification, (iii) A national Organic Logo India Organic to
be used on certified organic products have been notifies. Agricultural and Processed Food
Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) was entrusted with the coordination work
of NPOP.
Organic trade is also a rapidly growing reality. A wide variety of organic products are sold
world wide and the demand is growing rapidly in Europe, US, Japan and Australia. India is
already exporting a range of organic products like tea, spices, coffee, coconut, cotton, rice
etc. Even the domestic market is growing though it is still very small.
Certified organic products are those which have been produced, stored, processed, handled
and marketed in accordance with precise technical specifications (standards) and certified
as "organic" by a certification body. Once conformity with organic standards has been
verified by a certification body, the product is afforded a label. This label will differ depending
on the certification body but can be taken as an assurance that the essential elements
constituting an "organic" product have been met from the farm to the market. It is important
to note that an organic label applies to the production process, ensuring that the product
has been produced, processed and handled in an ecologically sound manner. The organic
label is therefore a production process claim as opposed to a product quality claim.
What is organic certification?
Certification is the procedure by which a third party gives written assurance that a product,
process or service conforms to specified requirements. Certification in organic farming in
simple terms refers to the process of verification and authentication by an independent body
that certain products have been produced, processed and or marketed in accordance with
certain standards. A certification body does this through a set of procedures established for
the purpose. This involves physical inspection of the production location, conditions,
verification of records, interviews with the personnel involved and when required subjecting
the samples to laboratory analysis.
Standards and Regulations
International Voluntary Standards
National Madatory Standards
Local Voluntary Standards:
1. IFOAM Standards

2. The Codex Alimentarius

3. EU Regulation (EEC) No.2092/91

4. The National Organic Program (NOP), USDA

5. Japanese Agricultural Standard (JAS)

6. National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP), India

The National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) was released in 2000 to provide
as institutional mechanism for the implementation of National Standards for Organic
Products (NSOP) through a National Accreditation Policy released in May 2001. The NPOP
is developed and implemented by Government of India through its Ministry of Commerce.
The Ministry constitutes a Steering Committee for NPOP, The Steering Committee for
NPOP formulates a National Accreditation Policy and Programme and draw up NSOP,
which includes standards for organic production and processes. The NPOP accreditation
requirements are based on ISO/IEC Guide 65. No organic products from India can be
exported unless they are certified by an agency accredited by one of the accreditation body
designated by the Government of India. These agencies are:
• Agricultural Product Export Development Authority (APEDA)
• Spices Board
• Coffee Board
• Tea Board
• Coconut Development Board
CERTIFICATION and ACCREDITATION
Organic Agriculture is based on the commitment of farmers and processors to work
according to set standards and regulations that define the organic production system.
Furthermore, organic agriculture is based upon transparency that makes the production
system comprehensive and reliable, and ensures the consumer confidence necessary for
market development. The certification and accreditation systems primarily serve as tools to
enhance trade, market development and foster confidence.
Accreditation and certification mechanisms are developing rapidly worldwide. With regard
to food, organic food production and processing set the precedents for the conventional
industry. Codex Alimentarius, with its organic chapter, defines the common international
framework for governments. Today, about 60 countries have already regulated organic
agriculture with national standards and further requirements regulating recognition of
inspection bodies and some defining inspection procedures as well. The major consuming
and importing markets like Europe, the USA and Japan are leading, but countries like India,
China and Brazil are following this path.
Inspection and certification is accredited or at least supervised by government authorities
as defined in the regulations, Control and supervision at all levels should guarantee that all
inspectors and certifiers are evaluated and accredited (accreditation means “the evaluation
of certifiers”). Additionally, several private standard and labeling schemes exist mainly in
areas of the world where the organic market is well developed. Estimations count 419
certification bodies certifying according to private standards and/or set regulations over
the world.
It is still necessary to achieve a minimum (worldwide) equivalency guaranteed throughout
the system in order to let products flow. Lacking acceptance and recognition between the
different certification and accreditation systems contradicts the objective of enhancing trade,
market development and fostering confidence.
Organic certification:
Certification is a procedure for verifying that a product conforms to certain standards. In the
case of organics, certification gives consumers a formal assurance that organic
production standards have been met. These standards may be of private associations or
companies, or of certification bodies, or of the state. However, a producer/exporter must
have certification that meets the requirements of the target market, including legal
regulations and standards in the importing country. In most importing countries description
of goods as organic requires formal certification in accordance with legislation.
Minimum requirements:
In organic farming system, certain minimum requirements are to be met to fulfill its
objectives. Then only the farm is certified as organic.
i) Conversion: When a farmer switches over to the system of organic farming from the
conventional system of farming, it is known as conversion. The time between the start of
organic management and certification is called conversion period. The farmers should have
a conversion plan prepared if the entire field is not converted into organic at a time. In that
case it is necessary to maintain organic and non-organic fields separately. In the long run
the entire farm including livestock should be converted into organic. The conversion period
is
 Farm yard manure, slurry, green manures, crop residues, straw and other mulches from
own farm.
 Saw dust, wood shaving from untreated wood.
 Bacterial preparations (Bio-fertilizers), e.g. Azospirillum, Rhizobium
 Bio-dynamic preparations
 Plant preparation and extracts, e.g. neem cake.
 Vermicompost
ii) Pest, Disease and Weed management: Use of synthetic/chemical pesticides,
fungicides and weedicides is prohibited. Natural enemies shall be encouraged and
protected. (e.g. raising trees in the farm attracts birds which kills pests of the crops, nest
construction etc.) Products collected from the local farm, animals, plants and micro-
organisms and prepared at the farm are allowed for control of pests and diseases. (e.g.
neem seed kernel extract, cow urine spray). Use of genetically engineered organisms and
products are prohibited for controlling pests and diseases. Similarly, use of synthetic growth
regulators is not permitted.
The products that are permitted for control of pest & diseases are:
 Neem oil and other neem preparations like neem seed kernel extract
 Chromatic traps
 Mechanical traps
 Pheromone traps
 Plant based repellants
 Soft soap
 Clay
vii) Soil and water conservation: Measures like stone pitching/contour wall construction
are to be taken up to prevent soil erosion. In case of saline soils, saline resistant varieties
may be grown. Judicious irrigation is to be practiced. Mulching is required. Pollution of
surface and ground water shall be prevented. Clearing of primary forest is prohibited.
Cleaning of land through straw burning should be restricted to minimum
viii) Contamination control: It is necessary to take the following measures to minimize the
contamination from outside and within farm.
a) If neighbouring fields are non-organic, a buffer zone should be maintained. The
height of buffer crop shall be twice the height of organic crop and the width of the
buffer shall be 10-15 m. (When chilli is grown as the main organic crop, castor or
Agathi (Sesbania) can be grown as buffer crop. The crops from the buffer zone
should be sold as non-organic).
b) If the farm is under conversion, equipments used for conventional areas shall be well
cleaned before using for organic areas.
c) Products based on polythene, polypropeline and other polycarbonates are allowed
to cover protected structure, insect netting, nursery, drying, etc. subject to the
condition that these materials shall be removed from the field after use and they shall
not burnt or put in the soil. Use of polychloricle based products like PVC pipe is
prohibited.
ix) Processing: Processing technologies like solar drying, freeze drying, hot air chambers
are permitted. Irradiation of agricultural produce is not permitted. No synthetic
additives/days are to be added during processing.
x) Labelling: The label should convey clear accurate information on the organic status of
the product. (i.e. conversion in progress or organic). The labels for organic and conversion
in progress products should be distinguishable by different coloured labels. The details like
name of the product, quantity of the product, name and address of the producer, name of
certification agency, certification, lot number etc. are to be given in the label.
xi) Packaging: For packing, recycling and reusable materials like clean jute bags, shall be
used. Use of bio-degradable materials shall also be used. Unnecessary packaging material
should be avoided. Organic and non-organic products shall not be stored and transported
together except when labeled. ]
xiii) Documentation: Documentation of farm activities is must for acquiring certification
especially when both conventional and organic crops are raised. The following
documents/records are to be maintained.

a) Field map g) Storage record

b) Field history
h) Sales record
sheet
c) Activity register i) Pest control records
d) Input record j) Movement record
e) Output record k) Equipments cleaning records
f) Harvest record l) Labeling records.
Certification Process: Certification of organic farms is required to satisfy the consumers
that the produce is totally organic. Certification agency conducts the inspection that
minimum requirements prescribed for organic agriculture is fully met and issues certificate.
The producer makes contact with certifying agency. Certification agency provides
information on standards, fees, application, inspection, certification and appeal procedures.
The producer then submits application along with field history, farm map, record keeping
system etc. Then the contract indicating scope, obligation, inspection and certification,
sanction and appeals, duration, fee structure is executed.
Then the Inspector of agency comes and carries out inspection. The Inspector gives
inspection report with his recommendation to the agency, then the agency issues approval
or denial of certificate. Certificate is given for current year's harvest only and hence annual
certification is required.
In our country majority of the farming community belongs to marginal and small farmers
(76.2 per cent) who have only 29 per cent of the total operational holding, while 71 per cent
of the operated area is possessed by farmers who have medium and large size holdings.
The food, fodder and fuel production will have to be increased by 60 per cent in next 25
years to meet the needs of growing population. With the decline in the per capita availability
of land, it would be increasingly difficult to produce enough food for the family by the end of
the century. Only 25-30 per cent of modern agricultural technology has reached the farmers.
This modern technology however has been restricted to favourable farming situations.
Since there is no scope for horizontal expansion of land for cultivation, the only alternative
left is vertical expansion and that too through diversification of farming systems including
organic farming.
The most important aspect in modern era of organic farming is certification programmes
which consist of standards (rule), inspection (checking whether the rules are implemented)
and certification (judgment). Only by this certification programme, organic farming can be
distinguished from other methods of sustainable agriculture. These standards define what
can be labeled 'certified organic' and sold commercially as such. Certificate is valid only if it
is done by accredited certifying agency. Certification programme vary among countries or
regions because of differences in environmental, climatic, social and cultural factors.
Needless to say, from a commercial perspective it is not enough that product is produced
organically, what is equally important is that it should be certified as such. Technology
Packages Conventional practices cannot be followed for growing crops organically. It
includes land preparation, selection of variety, organic fertilization, biological control of pest-
diseases-weed, harvest, storage etc. Globally there are more than 60 standards which
include IFOAM basic standards, CODEX Alimentations Commission guidelines, EU
Regulation2029/91,NOPof USA etc. This year NPOP standard has got equivalency with the
standard of ED commission. Now Indian Standard is acceptable in European Countries.
Efforts for equivalency with NOP (USA) are under process. Certification Bodies There are
12 accredited certifying agencies in the country. Tentative tariff structure for certification is
as below: Travel and Inspection: Rs.12000 - Rs.19000 per day (depending on small
farmers, cooperative, estate manufacturers, large and medium sized processors). . Report
preparation: Rs.5000/- . Certification: Rs.5000/-
S. Name of Address S. Name of Address
No. Certifying & No. Certifying &
Inspection Inspection
agencies agencies
1. Association Alumni Association 7. Bioinspectra C/o Indocert
for promotion Building, Bellari Thottumugham
of organic Road, Hebbal, P.O. Aluva
farming Bangalore 560024 683105 Cochin,
(APOF) Ph. 080-23516060 Kerala State
Ph. 0484-
2630908
2. Indian society Rasi Building 8. SGS Pvt. 250, Udyog
of 162/163 India Ltd Vihar, Phase- IV,
certification Ponnaiyaraja- Gurgaon 122015
of organic Puram, Coimbatore, Ph. 0124-
products Tamil Nadu 641001 2399757
(ISCOP) Ph 0422-2471181
 3. Indian Thottumugham, 9. LACON Mithradham
organic P.O. Aluva- 683105 Chunangardi
certification Cochin, Kerala
agency State
(INDOCERT) Ph. 0484-2630909
4. Skal Mahalaxmi Layout, 10 International Sona Udyog Unit
inspection No. 191, 1st Main Resource for No. 7, Parsi
and Road, Bangalore fair trade Panchayat Road,
certification 560086 (IRFD) Andheri (E),
agency Mumbai 400069
Ph. 022-
28235246
5. IMO Control 26, 17th Main HAL, 11 One Cert Agarsen farm
Pvt. Ltd. 2nd A Stage, Asia Vatika, Road off
Bangalore 560008, Ton Rd., Jaipur
Ph. 080-25285883 Rajasthan
6. Ecocert 54 A, Kanchan 12 National Pune
International Nagar, Organic
Nakshetrawadi, Certification
Aurangabad Association
413002, Ph. 0240- (NOCA)
2376336
ACCREDITATION
Accreditation is a process in which certification of competency, authority or credibility
is presented. Organisations that issue credentials or certify third parties against official
standards are themselves formally credited by accreditation bodies (such as UKAS); hence
they are sometimes known as “accredited certification bodies”. Accreditation process
ensures that their certification practices are acceptable, typically meaning that they are
competent to test and certify third parties, behave ethically and employ suitable quality
assurance.
In India, as per the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP), an
accreditation refers registration by the accreditation agency for certifying agency for
certifying organic farms, products and processes as per the guidelines of the National
Accreditation Policy and Programme for Organic Product.
The NPOP programme in context of Indian accreditation scenario, defined the
function of accreditation agencies like:
1. Prescribe the package of practices for organic products in their respective schedule.
2. Undertake accreditation of inspection and certifying agencies who will conduct
inspection and certify products as having been produced in accordance with NPOP.
3. Monitor inspection made by the accredited inspection agencies.
4. Lay down inspection procedures.
5. Advise the National steering Committee on organic Production.
6. Accept accredited certification programme if such programme confirm to National
Standard.
7. Accreditation agencies shall evolve accreditation criteria for inspection and /or
certifying agencies and programme drawn up by such agencies for their respective
area of operation and products.
8. Accreditation agencies shall prepare an operating manual to assist accredited
agencies to abide by such a manual must contain appropriate directions,
documentation formats and basic agency and farm records for monitoring and
authentication of adherence to the organic production programme.
 9. Eligible inspection and certification agencies implementing certification programmes
will be identified by the Accreditation Agency.
In the year 2000, Ministry of Commerce, GoI has launched the NPOP. The following
accreditation agencies are designated vide trade Notice (No ORG/004/2001) dated June13,
2001.
1. Agricultural and Processed Food Product Export Development Authority (APEDA)
2. Coffee Board
3. Spice Board
4. Tea Board
5. Coconut Development Board
6. Cocoa and Cashewnut Board

Certification and inspection agencies: The role of certification agencies is most critical.
The certification agency has to be impoartial and non government agency. Its accreditation
by an authorized accreditation agency is mandatory. Presently only 11 certification
agencies having overseas collaboration are accredited by APEDA.The certification agency
may appoint Inspection agents and responsibility of certification agencies to ensure strict
compliance of national standards of Organic Farming. They prescribe specific documents
to be maintained a the level of farmers/ farmer groups. They also prescribe minimum
conversion period after inspection to farm and other details. They are also authorized to
issue necessary certificate of organic production to the farmers. Only after the issuance of
accreditation certificate by accreditation agencies certification bodies can function as
inspection and certification agency.
There standards already prescribed by the Ministry of Commerce, GOI, continue to be valid
standards for both domestic and export market.
PROCESSING METHOD
Standards
 The following kinds of processes are approved:
a. Mechanical and physical
b. Biological
c. Smoking
d. Extraction
e. Precipitation
f. Filtration
 Extraction shall only take place with water, ethanol, plant and animal oils, vinegar,
carbon dioxide, nitrogen or carboxylic acids. These shall be of food grade quality
appropriate for the purpose.
 Irradiation for the purpose
 Filtration substances shall not be made of asbestos nor may they be permeated with
substances which may negatively affect the product.
PACKAGING
Standards
The materials used must not affect the organoleptic character of the product or
transmit to it any substances in quantities that may be harmful to human health.
LABELLING
Standards
 The person or company legally responsible for the production or processing of the
product shall be identifiable.
 Single ingredient product may be labeled as producer of organic agriculture or a similar
description when all standards requirements have been met.
 Mixed products where not all ingredients, including additives are of organic origin may
be labeled in the following way
- Where a minimum of 95 per cent of the ingredients are of certified organic origin,
products may be labelled “Certified organic”.
- Where less than 95 per cent but not less than 70 per cent of the ingredients are of
certified organic origin, products may not be called organic. The word organic may be
used on the principal display in statements like “made with organic ingredients”
provided there is a clear statement of the proportion of the organic ingredients.
- Where less than 70 per cent of the ingredients are of certified origin, the indication that
an ingredient is organic may appear in the ingredients list. Such product may not be
called organic.
 Added water and salt shall not be included in the percentage calculations of organic
ingredients.
 The label for in conversion products shall be clearly distinguishable from the label for
organic products.
 All raw materials of a multi ingredient product shall be listed on the products label in
order of their weight percentage. It shall be apparent which raw material are of organic
certified origin and which are not. All additives shall be listed with their full name. If
herbs and /or spices constitute less than 2 per cent of the total weight of the product,
they may be listed as spices or herbs without stating the percentage.
 Organic products shall not be labeled as GE (genetic engineering) or GM (genetic
modified) free in order to avoid potentially misleading claims about the end product.
Any reference to genetic engineering on product labels shall be limited to the
production method.
 CHAPTER 10
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS, MARKETING AND EXPORT POTENTIAL OF
ORGANIC FARMING
Farming in India was fundamentally organic till the middle of the twentieth but
industrial revolution; desire to make quick and more money and to get rid pests and disease
brought in the concept of chemical farming after independence. Farmers started using
chemical fertilizers to increase the yield and to meet the demand of growing population.
Though, initially it looked extensively amazing, its adverse effects started to appear in
1980s. Extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides resulted in pests and diseases resistance
of the cultivars and polluted the crop growing environment including groundwater. It appears
that health conscious people are looking for healthy options and shifting towards organic
products.
9.1 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
Productivity of organic farming may be less in initial years, but the yield increases
progressively under organic farming, equating the yield under inorganic farming by sixth
year. A long -term experiment conducted by ICRISAT also sustains the view that yield of
different crop in low cost sustainable systems, the annul productivity (rain + post rainy
season yield), in particular, is comparable to that in the conventional system.
In areas of intensive farming system, shifting to organic agriculture decrease yield;
the range depends on the intensity of external input use before conversion. In the so-called
green revolution era (irrigated lands), conversion to organic usually leads to almost
identical yields. In traditional rainfed agriculture (with low external inputs), organic
agriculture has shown the potential to increase the yield.
Replacement of external inputs farm-derived organic resources normally leads to
a reduction in variable input costs under organic management. Expenditure on fertilizers
and plant protection inputs is substantially lower than in conventional systems in almost all
the cases. In a few cases, higher inputs costs due to purchase of compost and other organic
manures have been reported. Studies have shown that the common organic agricultural
combination of lower input costs and favorable premiums can offset reduced yields and did
not include organic farms equally and often more profitable than conventional farms. Farms
that did not include organic price premiums have given mixed results on profitability.
Economics of organic cotton cultivation over a period of six years indicated that there is a
reduction in cost of cultivation and increased gross and net returns compared to
conventional cotton cultivation in India.
10.2 VIABILITY OF ORGANIC FARMING
Farmers will only be able to convert to organic farming if their livelihood is secured
during the transition phase and if their farming is economically viable in the long run. Crop
yield play an important -though not the only- role in this. It is therefore important to minimize
the initial drop in yield to the best possible extent and to ensure that yield achieve a
satisfying level after the conversion period. At the same time, production costs need to be
kept low. By providing appropriate extension services, projects can support farmers in
identifying and implementing suitable management practice to achieve these goals. In order
to be able to manage the farm in an optimum way, farmers not only need to learn organic
farming methods, but also to develop and understanding on the interrelations between the
different components of an agro-ecosystem: soil fertility, nutrition and water household,
biodiversity, ecological balance etc. Conducting suitable training for farmers interested
in converting to organic farming can help build a basis on which farmers can further develop
their management capacity. Equally important is that farmers can obtain practical can obtain
practical advice to fine-tune their management practices in the field.
Extension staff must be able to create awareness among farmers for the core
principles of organic farming, such as the ecosystem approach, the central role of soil
fertility, closed nutrient cycles and ecological balance .If the manage to convey the
philosophy of organic agriculture, it is more likely that farmers whole heartedly stick to
organic farming about is potential benefits and persuade farmers to join the initiative. They
should openly address the difficulties that farmers are likely to face during the conversion
process and provide a realistic picture own the limitations of the project. In this, they need
to take into consideration the different resource bases and degrees of vulnerability of
marginal and wealthier farmers. It is important to create an atmosphere in which problems
and short- comings are openly addressed by all stakeholders, so that the team and the
management can work on improvements. Most probably the farmers are technically more
familiar with cotton farming practice than the extension staff and after some time they will
also be more experienced in the practical implication of organic farming methods. The role
of extension staff should, therefore, change to being facilities or coaches who farmers in
developing suitable solutions to problems and in sharing their experience and expertise with
other members of the group. The focus might shift to creating platforms for and moderating
processes of farmer-to farmer exchange.
Application of adequate of organic manures increases soil organic matter content
leading to increasing cotton yields. Especially in fields where synthetic fertilizers were
extensively used before conversion, it is a necessary to apply sufficient amounts of organic
material in order to build up soil organic matter and to stimulate soil life. Projects, therefore,
should advise farmers about producing organic manure from farm-own sources, such as
farmyard manure, compost and liquid manures, Support could also be rendered for
purchasing additional cattle or for building simple infrastructure for efficient collection of
cattle dung and urine and for preparing compost. As farm-own sources of manure might not
be sufficient to achieve satisfying yield levels, projects could further facilitate the supply of
manures and natural mineral fertilizers from off-farm sources (de-oiled castor, sugarcane
press mud, rock phosphate). Increased input of manure, however, is not the only way to
increase soil organic matter and nutrient supply. Appropriate crop rotation patterns that
involve legumes, the cultivation of green manures and intercrop and the recycling of crop
residues can be equally effective.
Results of investigation have shown that small holder organic farming systems can
produce similar yield as in conventional farming after completing a transitional period of
3-4 years. This challenges the argument that conversion to organic farming is not a suitable
option for developing countries as it puts food security at risk. Crop yield are- without a
doubt-an important factor in farming. However, if innovation in farming is to really improve
rural livelihoods, the focus needs to shift away from yields, to a broader perspective that
includes sustainability of the management of the production base, economic viability of the
farm operations (the relation of costs and revenues) and livelihood security. It is in the field
where organic farming offers the most promising potentials. Replacing agro-chemicals with
natural means and management practices has positive impacts on soil fertility
environment and human health. Lower dependency of organic farms on external inputs not
only decreases production costs, thus contributing to improved incomes, but also reduces
the risk of farming in context of insecure climatic and market conditions. While this could to
some extent -also be achieved with integrated farming approaches, organic farming offers
in additional the opportunity to link production with a growing market demand for
environmentally and socially better products.

Organic farming seems to be a particularly suitable option for smallholders and

marginal farmers, who could not benefit from adopting green revolution practices. Their
lack of production means and capital is counter balanced with the availability of under-
utilized family labour and the ability to produce inputs on the farm itself. Once production
costs are intensifying their production and opening up off-farm income sources. However,
small and marginal farmers are also the ones who find conversion to organic farming most
difficult, as yield and incomes in usually in the initial year, thus putting their fragile livelihoods
at risk. The challenge in utilizing the potential of organic farming for achieving development
goals, therefore, lies in enabling poor farms to overcome the obstacles of conversion
period so that they can benefit in the long term, appropriate extension approaches that
facilitate conversion and mechanisms for bridging the initial income gap are thus needed.
The experience of successful organic cotton initiatives in several developing countries
provides ample material to study how project support could be further improved.
For successful extension, certification and marketing, organic cotton farming with
small- holders requires a group approach. Only if the involved farmers develop emotional
ownership for the project and identify as a group, can free-riding b prevented and the long
term sustainability of the project be ensured. Due to its holistic approach that relates to
societal dimensions of rural livelihoods, the organic farming systems seems to be
particularly suitable to create this identify and solidarity among framers. The need to form
strong farmers based project entities poses a considerable challenge to utilizing organic
farming in development work. At the same time -if successful - the group approach allows
implementing a range of joint activities in other fields e.g. in micro-credit community
development and off-farm income generation.

Although our research has shed some ligh on crucial regarding the potential of
organic farming in developing countries, it also opened up a range of new questions. In
some aspects- such as water management, gender aspects and the interface between
farmers and project organisers - we could only touch the surface,leaving a more in-depth
investigation to other researches. It will also be necessary to put the finding on a broader
base of investigated case studies in different countries. Therefore, a lot remains to be done
to fully utilize the potential of organic farming in development work.

MARKETING AND EXPORT POTENTIAL OF ORGANIC PRODUCTS

Organic farming has a place where there is a market to accept the produce at a
higher price as the growing interest in organic farming practice is due to an expectation of
higher premium for organically produced farm commodities. The basic focus of organic
farming should be first to produce farm products for the home (domestic) market and second
for the export market.
Marketing of Organic Products
Major organic produces in India are given in Table. There is no organic production
of meat products like poultry, livestock and fisheries in India as yet. There are three types
of organic producers in India- Traditional organic growers who grow for their subsistence
needs, commercial farmers who have surplus and export their produce through different
channels and private companies which either have their own farms or organize large
conversion programmes with growers.
Table: Major products produced in India by Organic Farming
Type of Product Products
Commodity Tea, coffee, rice, wheat
Spices Cardamom, black pepper, white pepper, ginger, turmeric,
vanilla, tamarind, clove, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, chili
Pulses Pigeonpea, blackgram
Fruits Mango, banana, pineapple, passion fruit, orange, cashewnut,
walnut
Vegetables Okra, brinjal, garlic, onion, tomato, potato
Oilseeds Mustard, sesame, castor, sunflower
Others Cotton, sugarcane, herbal extracts
Organic products available in the domestic market are rice, wheat, tea, coffee, pulses
and vegetables. On the other hand, products available for export market, besides, these,
include cashewnuts, cotton, oilseeds, various fruits and medicinal herbs. Whereas
wholesalers and traders, super markets and own shops are the major channels in the
domestic market which is mainly in metropolitan cities and accounts for only 8.0 per cent of
the total organic production, the market channel for export of organic products is export
companies with the exception of tea which is produced and exported by tea estates. Major
markets for Indian organic products are the EU, USA, Canada, Australia and the Middle
East Asian countries. Quality production with traditional methods, low use of chemical inputs
in mountain and tribal areas, easy availability of cheap labour, NGO interventions and
various types of support provided by the governments as the main advantages of Indian
organic products. High price expectations, delayed delivery, quality restrictions, lack of
certification and marketing networks are some of the constraints in marketing organic
products internationally. On the other hand, in home market, there are no separate markets
for organic products in many commodities like wheat in Rajasthan. Thus, the market does
not offer any incentive for the production of organic produce. But more recently, some
agencies have tried to create separate market outlets for organic produce like the
Maharashtra Cotton Marketing Federation purchased organic cotton from growers
separately for export.

Global organic market-A brief review.

Distribution of organicNorthern
agricultural land by region 2017
Africa
America
3%
5%
Asi…
Latin
America
11% Oceania
51%

Europe
21%

1. Organic market share=1% of total food sales

2. Global market
2000=18 billion USD
2003=25.5 billion USD
2004= 28.7 billion USD
2005=33.2 billion USD
2006=38.6 billion USD
2007=46.1 billion USD
2008=50.9 billion USD
 2009=54.1 billion USD
2010=59.1 billion USD
2011=62.9 billion USD
2012=70.8 billion USD
2013=68.5 billion USD
2014=80.0 billion USD
2015=81.6 billion USD
2016=90.0 billion USD
2017=97.0 billion USD
2018=95.0 billion USD
(Source: www.statista.com)
3. Value of organic food sales in the year 2017
USA = 43.80 billion USD
Germany= 10.99 billion USD
UK = 2.53 billion USD
Italy = 3.43 billion USD
France = 8.67 billion USD
Switzerland = 2.67 billion USD
China = 8.37 billion USD
Canada= 3.29 billion USD
Sweedon= 2.59 billion USD
Spain = 2.08 billion USD
(Source : www.fibl.org)
4. Organic export in India = 0.76 billion USD (2018-19)=5151 Crore
Export Potential of organic products
 170 countries
 69.9 million ha certified organic (1.6%)
 2 million producers
Oceania – 35.9 m ha,
Europe – 14.6 m ha, Latin America - 8.0 m ha,
Asia – 6.1 m ha, North America 3.2 m ha
Africa – 2.1 m ha, 35 m ha wild harvest collection area

Indian organic: An overview (2017)

th
 Total cultivable area 1.70 m ha (15 Rank in the World)
 4.22 m ha forest and wild area
 MP has largest certified organic area fb HP & Rajsthan
 Produced 1.85 m MT organic products
 Exported 263687 MT organic food; 298 m USD (oilseed, processed food, cereals &
millets, tea, pulses, dry fruits etc.)
Export of organic produce from India to EU
Product Quantity(tonnes) Product Quantity(tonnes)
Tea 1997 Cashew nut 126
Pineapple 1320 Walnut 89
Spices 625 Fruit 46
Honey 526 Cotton 26
Rice 432 Pulses 12
Sesame seed 354 Sugarcane 8
 Practical Manual

Principles of Organic Farming

(Agron. 6.10)

Sixth Semester
Polytechnic in Agriculture
Navsari Agricultural University, Bharuch
 INDEX
Sr. Title of the exercise Date Page. Sign
No. No.
1. Study of different organic materials and manures
2. Green manuring for organic farming
3. Preparation of enrich compost and vermicompost
4. Bio fertilizers/bio inoculants for organic farming
5. ITK for nutrient management
6. Non chemical approach for insect, pest, disease and
weed management
7. Cost of organic production system
8. Post harvest management: quality aspect, grading,
packaging and handling
9. Certification for organic farming
10. Visit of organic farms to study the various
components and their utilization
 CERTIFICATE

Uni. Seat No. ______

Registration No. ________________

This is to certified that Mr. _________________________________,

of the Sixth Semester Polytechnic in Agriculture student has satisfactorily carried out
________ exercises as shown in this practical manual of Agron. 6.10 (Principles of Organic
farming) on the Agronomy Farm in the year 2019-20.

Course Teacher Head of Department

PRACTICAL 1: STUDY OF DIFFERENT ORGANIC MATERIALS
AND MANURES
Organic materials or organic matter is composed of organic compounds that
has come from the remains of dead organisms such as plants and animals and their
waste products in the environment. It is very important in the movement of nutrients
and plays a key role in water retention on the surface of the soil. Organic materials
have longer residual effect besides improving soil physical, biological and chemical
properties of soil.
Major sources of organic materials are
1. Cattle shed wastes: dung, urine and slurry from biogas plants
2. Human habitation wastes: night soil, human urine
3. Poultry litter, dropping of sheep and goad
4. Slaughter house waste: bone meal, meat meal, blood meal, horn and hoot meal
5. Fish wastes
6. By produces of agro-industries: Oil cakes, bagasses and press mud, fruit
and vegetable processing wastes etc.
7. Crop wastes: Sugarcane trash, stubbles and other related material
8. Water hyacinth and other weeds
9. Green manure crops and green leaf manuring material
The term ‘manure’ was used originally for denoting materials like cattle manure
and other bulky natural substances that were applied to land with the object of
increasing the production of crops. Therefore, manures are defined as the plant and
animal wastes which are used as sources of plant nutrients.
Advantages of organic manures
1. Organic manure provides all the nutrients that are required by plants but in limited
quantities.
2. It helps in maintaining C:N ratio in the soil and also increases the fertility and
productivity of the soil.
3. It improves the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil.
4. It improves both the structure and texture of the soils.
5. It increases the water holding capacity of the soil.
6. Due to increase in the biological activity, the nutrients that are in the lower depths
are made available to the plants.
Farm yard manure (FYM)
It is decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along with waste
feeds, fodder, litter etc. Dung comes mostly as undigested material and the urine from
the digested material. More than 50 percent of the organic matter that is present in
dung is in the form of complex products consists of lignin and protein which are
resistant to further decomposition and therefore the nutrients present in dung are
released very slowly. The nutrients from urine, becomes readily available. Straw saw
dust or other bedding materials are used in cattle sheds to reduce the loss of urine
and to increase the bulk of manure. On an average well decomposed farm yard
manure contains 0.5 % N, 0.2 % P2O5 and 0.5 % K2O.
The quantity and quality of FYM depend upon the type (draught, mulch) and
age of the animals, the way they are feed and the care taken to collect and store the
material. Though, FYM is the most common organic manure in India, the farmer, in
general, does not give adequate attention to the proper conservation and efficient use
 of the resource. Hence, effort should be made to prepare the better quality FYM for
increasing the fertility of soil.
Compost
The process of decomposing organic waste is called composting and the end
product of the decomposed material is called compost.
Compost is not particularly high in essential nutrients, (N-P-K), and is
considered a soil conditioner rather than a fertilizer. However, organic matter is a
valuable soil amendment because it: can improved soil structure, aids in necessary
microbial activity in the soil, attracts beneficial insects such as earthworms, can
suppress several soil born diseases and holds its nutrients in organic or slow release
form, allowing for availability throughout the growing season.
Composting is essential for microbial decomposition of organic residues
collected from rural area (rural compost) or urban compost (urban area). Composting
is done either in aerobic or anaerobic conditions. The advantage of aerobic system is
that it is fast but requires moistening and frequent turning. Indoor method, Banglore
method, NADEP method, Coimbatore method, Japanese methods etc. are the
important methods of composting.
Night soil
Night soil is human excreta, both solid and liquid. It is richer in N, P and K than
farm yard manure and compost. Night soil contains on an average 5.5 % N, 4.0 %
P2O5 and 2.0 % K2O.
Sewage and sludge
In the modern system of sanitation adopted in cities and towns, human excreta
are flushed out with water which is called sewage. The solid portion in the sewage is
called sludge and liquid portion is sewage water. Both the components of sewage are
separated and are given a preliminary fermentation and oxidation treatments to reduce
bacterial contamination and offensive smell.
Green Manure
Green manuring can be defined as a practice of ploughing or turning of un-
decomposed green plant tissues into the soil for improving physical structure as well
as soil fertility is referred to as green manuring and the manure obtained by this method
is known as green manure.
Green manuring, wherever feasible, is the principal supplementary means of
adding organic matter to the soil. The green-manure crop supplies organic matter as
well as additional nitrogen, particularly if it is a legume crop, due to its ability to fix
nitrogen from the air with the help of its root nodule bacteria. The green-manure crops
also exercise a protective action against erosion and leaching. Green manure to be
incorporated in soil before flowering stage because they are grown for their green leafy
material, which is high in nutrients and protects the soil.
Sheep and Goat Manure
The dropping of sheep and goats contain higher nutrient content than the FYM
and compost. On an average, sheep and goat manure contains 3.0 % N, 1.0 % P2O5
and 2.0 % K2O.
Sheep and goat manure applied to the field in two ways.
(1) The sweeping (an act of cleaning an area with a broom or brush) of sheep or goat
sheds are placed in pits for decomposition and it is applied later in the field. The
nutrients percent in the urine are wasted in this method.
(2) The second method is sheep penning, wherein sheep and goats are allowed to
stay overnight in the field and urine and fecal matter is added to the soil which is
incorporated to a shallow depth by running blade harrow or cultivator.
Poultry Manure
Poultry manure is the organic waste material consisting of feces and urine.
Poultry manure is an excellent fertilizer material because of its high nutrient content,
especially for nitrogen (3.03 %), phosphorus (2.63 %), and potassium (1.4 %). In
addition to supplying nutrients, poultry manure or litter serves as a soil amendment
increasing the soil organic matter content. The added organic matter increases the
moisture holding capacity of the soil, lowers soil bulk density, and improves overall soil
structure, thus increasing the efficiency of the crop production and irrigation.
Oil-cakes
Oil cake is the solid portion of oilseed crops after extraction of oil from the seeds
and it is used as manure. Many oil cakes such as the castor, neem, madhuca, karanja,
linseed, rapeseed and cotton seed which are non-edible oil cakes may serve as useful
organic manure as these contain high amounts of plant nutrients.
The oil-cakes are of two types:
1. Edible oil-cakes which can be safely fed to livestock; e.g.: Groundnut cake,
coconut cake, cotton cake etc. and
2. Non-edible oil-cakes which are not fit for feeding livestock; e.g. Castor cake,
neem cake, mahua cake etc.
Nutrients present in oil-cakes are made available to crops after mineralization
hence; oil cakes should be applied in the field before 7 to 10 days of sowing. Oil- cakes
need to be well powdered before application for even distribution and quicker
decomposition.
Bone meal
Bone meal is a mixture of finely and coarsely ground animal bones and
slaughter-house waste products. It is used as an organic fertilizer for plants and as a
nutritional supplement for animals. As a slow-release fertilizer, bone meal is primarily
used as a source of phosphorus. Moreover, due to slow acting manure it is ideal for
acid soils and long duration crops.
Guano
It is an admixture of excreta and dead remains of sea birds rich in N and P. It is
collected periodically from island. The refuse left over after extracting oil from fish in
factories is dried and used as manure, known as Fish guano. It is comparable to bird
guano in its effect on soil and crops.
Crop residues
There are two types of agricultural crop residues.
Field residues are the materials left in an agricultural field or orchard after the crop
has been harvested. These residues include stalks and stubble (stems), leaves, and
seed pods. The residue can be ploughed directly into the ground. The crop residues
can be recycled by way of incorporation, compost making or mulch material.
 Process residues are materials left after the crop is processed into a usable resource.
These residues include husks, seeds, bagasse, molasses and roots. They can be used
as animal fodder and soil amendment, fertilizers and in manufacturing.
Average nutrient content of organic manures and crop wastes:
Manure Nitrogen (%) Phosphorus Potash
N (%) (%)
P2 O 2 K2O
Bulky organic manure
Farm Yard Manure 0.5-1.5 0.4-0.8 0.5-1.9
Compost (Urban) 1.0-2.0 1.0 1.5
Compost (Rural) 0.4-0.8 0.3-0.6 0.7-1.0
Green manure (averages) 0.5-0.7 0.1-0.2 0.6-0.8
Sewage sludge dry 2.0-3.5 1.0-5.0 0.2-0.5
Sewage allivated dry 4.0-7.1 2.1-4.2 0.5-0.7
Non-edible cakes
Castor cake 5.5-5.8 1.8-1.9 1.0-1.1
Mahua cake 2.5-2.6 0.9-1.0 1.8-1.9
Karanj cake 3.9-4.0 0.9-1.0 1.3-1.4
Neem cake 5.2-5.3 1.0-1.1 1.4-1.5
Safflower cake (un-decorticated) 4.8-4.9 1.4-1.5 1.2-1.3
Edible cakes
Cotton seed cake (decorticated) 6.4-6.5 2.8-2.9 2.1-2.2
Cotton seed cake (un-decorticated) 3.9-4.0 1.8-1.9 1.6-1.7
Groundnut cake 7.0-7.2 1.5-1.6 1.3-1.4
Manual of animal origin
Fish manure 4.0-10.0 3.0-9.0 0.3-1.5
Bird guano 7.0-8.0 11.0-14.0 2.0-3.0
Bone meal (row) 3.0-4.0 20.0-25.0 -
Bone meal (steamed) 1.0-2.0 25.0-30.0 -
Straw and stalks
Pearl millet 0.65 0.75 2.5
Sorghum 0.40 0.23 2.17
Maize 0.42 1.57 1.65
Paddy 0.36 0.08 0.71
Wheat 0.53 0.10 1.10
Sugarcane trash 0.35 0.10 0.60
Cotton 0.44 0.10 0.66
PRACTICAL 2: GREEN MANURING FOR ORGANIC FARMING
Green manuring can be defined as a practice of ploughing or turning into the
soil un-decomposed green plant tissues for improving physical structure as well as soil
fertility. Green manure is the principal supplementary means of adding organic matter
to the soil. The green-manure crop supplies organic matter as well as additional
nitrogen, particularly if it is a legume crop, due to its ability to fix nitrogen from the air
with the help of its root nodule bacteria. Green manure crop should be incorporated in
to the soil before flowering stage.
The practice of green manuring is performed in different ways according to
suitable soil and climatic conditions of a particular area. Broadly the practice of green
manuring in India can be divided into two types
1. Green manuring in situ: In this system, green manure crops are grown and buried
in the same field, which is to be green manured, either as pure crop or an intercrop
with the main crop. The former system is followed in the northern India while latter is
common in the central and eastern India.
2. Green leaf manuring: Green leaf manuring refers to turning into the soil green
leaves and tender green twigs collected from shrubs and trees grown on bunds,
wastelands and nearby forest areas. This system is generally followed in the central
India.
An ideal green manure crop should possess the following desired
characteristics:
1. It should be a legume with good nodular growth habit indicative of rapid nitrogen
fixation under even unfavorable soil conditions.
2. It should have little water requirements for it’s own growth and should be capable of
making a good stand on poor and exhausted soils.
3. It should have a deep root system, which can be open the sub-soil and tap lower
regions for plant nutrients.
4. The plant should be of a leafy habit capable of producing heavy tender growth
early in its life cycle.
5. It should contain large quantities of non-fibrous tissues of rapid decomposability
containing fair percent of moisture and nitrogen.
6. It should be fast initial growth with more leafy than woody
7. It should be low C/N ratio
Advantages of the Green manuring
Following are the some of the advantages of the green manuring
1. As they decompose rapidly, it is easy to retain the organic matter in the soil.
2. Green manures improve both physical and chemical properties of the soil.
3. They provide energy to microbes.
4. They provide nutrients to the standing crop and also to the next crop.
5. Addition of green manure crops to the soil, acts as mulch and prevent soil erosion.
6. Leaching of nutrients in light soils can be prevented by addition of green manure.
7. Cultivating green manure crops can control weeds.
8. Majority of green manure crops being legumes, use of nitrogenous fertilizers can
be minimized.
9. It increases the availability of certain plant nutrients like phosphorus (P2O5),
calcium, potassium, magnesium and iron.
Disadvantages of the green manuring
Every coin has got a head and a tail and it is the case with the green manuring.
Some disadvantages are also associated with green manuring. When the proper
technique of green manuring is not followed or when weather conditions become
unfavorable, the following disadvantages are likely to become evident/happen.
1. Under rainfed conditions, it is feared that proper decomposition of the green manure
crop and satisfactory germination of the succeeding crop may not take place if
sufficient rainfall is not received after burying the green manure crop. This
particularly applies to the wheat regions of the India.
2. Since green manuring for Rabi season (Wheat) means the loss for the Kharif crop,
the practice of green manuring may not be always economical. This applies to the
regions where irrigation facilities are available for raising Kharif crop along with easy
availability of fertilizers.
3. In case the main advantage of the green manuring is to be derived from addition of
nitrogen, however sometimes the cost of growing green manure crops may be more
than the cost of commercial nitrogen fertilizers.
4. An increase of diseases, insects and nematodes is possible.
5. A risk is involved in obtaining a satisfactory stand and growth of the green manure
crops, if sufficient rainfall is not available.
PRACTICAL 3: PREPARATION OF ENRICH COMPOST
AND VERMICOMPOST
Farm Yard Manure (FYM) is an organic form of fertilizer prepared by
decomposition of animal dung, urine and cattle shed wastes. It is the most
common organic manure used by farmers of India.
Limitations with traditional method
Procedures followed by farmers in India for utilization of FYM are very
crude and far away from modern methods with respect to principle and
procedure. The common practice followed by the farmers is to throw cattle dung
and other farm and household refuse on roadside or into pits specially dug for
manure pit. The dung added to the pit is not uniformly mixed with the urine and
litter. Lumps of dung remain as such for a longer period. Large part of urine is
lost both in cattle shed and in the pit. There is enormous loss of nutrients from
manure heaps and pits which reduce the quality of FYM. Hence, follow certain
guidelines for the production of stable, matured and enriched quality of FYM.
What is enriched compost?
The enrichment of compost with nutrients and beneficial organisms like
Azotobactor, Azospirillum or PSB is called enriched compost.
Nutrient Enrichment
 Feed the cattle with nitrogen rich feed materials like pulse stubbles and
green manures.
 Add phosphates like rock phosphate or SSP @1-2% of the total mass of
dung materials to prevent loss of N and enhance N fixation in the trench
itself and enrich the manure with P.
 For K enrichment adds wood ash.
 Add bio- inoculants like Azotobacter and PSB culture @ 250 g per section
one month after filling in order to enrich the FYM with these important
micro- organisms.
Enrichment of compost with Biofertilizers:
 N-fixing bacteria-Azotobacter, Azospirillum each 2 kg/tone if solid, 1
litre/tone if liquid.
 P-solubilizing bacteria-Bacillus polymixaetc - 4 kg/tone if solid, 2
litres/tone if liquid.
 K-Mobilizing bacteria-Fraturia aurantia 4kg/tone if solid, 2 litres/tone if
liquid.
Enrichment of compost with Bio-Agents:
Bio-Control agents like Trichoderma viride, Pseudomonas
fluorescenceat the rate of 2 kg/tone of each if solid, 500 ml/tone if liquid form.
Composting :
The process of decomposing organic waste is called composting and the
end product of the decomposed material is called compost.
The collected organic refuse may be of rural and urban origin and may
include straw, leaves, paddy husk, ground nut husk, sugarcane trash, bagasses,
cattle dung, urine, crop residues, city garbage, night soil, sewage, kitchen and
vegetable wastes, hedge clippings, water hyacinth and all other residues
counting organic matter. During composting under thermophilic and mesophilic
condition, heaps or pits are required adequate moisture and aeration. The final
product is brown to black colored humified material which on addition to soil
replenishes plant nutrients, maintains soil organic matter content and helps in
 improving the physical, chemical and biological conditions of the soil.
Key factors affecting the composting process
There are certain key environmental factors which affect the speed of
composting. The decomposing organisms that make compost need food (carbon
and nitrogen), air and water. When provided with a balance form, then they will
produce compost quickly. Other organism factors affecting the speed of
composting include surface area/particle size, volume and temperature.
Method of composting:
Although utilizing crop wastes in crop production is known from the earliest
times, systematic work on composting was initiated only in the beginning of this
century. In India, Howard and wad (1931) at Indore and Fowler (1933) at
Bangalore have done some pioneering work. Composting is done either in
aerobic condition or in anaerobic condition. Some methods involve both
conditions. The advantage of aerobic system is that it is fast but it requires
moistening and frequent turning.
i. Indore method:
Sir Albert Howard (1924-26) at Indore, Madhya Pradesh, developed this
method. Waste materials are mixed well and properly moistened with dung or
night soil slurry and built up in to heaps of 4 to 6 m length, 1 m width and 1 m
height or put in to a pit of 30’ x 5’x3’ m with sloping sides. Periodical turn the
materials to provide aeration and mix materials. Water is added if needed. Under
this aerobic process losses of organic matter and nitrogen are to the extent of 40
to 50% of the initial levels. The average composition of manure has been found
to be 0.8% N, 0.3% P2O5 and 1.5 K2O.
ii. Windrow method:
Karnataka Compost Development Corporation Ltd., Bangalore
established in 1975-76 developed a system of composting of city garbage
(Venkatachalaiah, 1996). From the garbage plastics, glass, rubber and debris
are separated. The heaps are arranged as windrows and under aerobic
decomposition ‘BIOAGRO’ compost is produced (with compositions 0.5 to 0.9%
NPK). Neem cake, rock phosphate and gypsum are also added in small quantities
to produce ‘BIOAGRORICH’ compost.
iii. NADEP compost:
Farm wastes are mixed with 30 times dung slurry and clay soil for
composting. It is similar to hip method of composting but is done in brick lined
enclosures (10-15’ x 4’x3’) provided with air holes on all sides. Compos is ready
within 4 to 6 months. The disadvantage is the requirement of large proportion of
soil which at times difficulties to get it is also opinioned that the quality of compost
becomes poor. Moreover, it involves lot of labour and materials in building the
tanks.
iv. Coimbtore method of composting:
In pits 4x2x1m residue are filled to a thickness of about 15 cm in the pit
uniformly (Ramaswami, 1997). Over this layer, cow dung slurry is sprinkled to a
thickness of about 5cm. Above this layer bone meal/rock phosphate at the rate
of 1 kg is spread. This process of residue, cow dung slurry and bone meal is
spread. This process of residue, cow dung slurry and bone meal is repeated till
the height reaches 0.5m above the ground level. Then the material is covered
with mud plaster to prevent entry of rain water. After 4-5 weeks, the material is
turned and aerobic process is allowed. The compost will be ready within five
months. Application of cow dung slurry enhances the rate of biodegradation. The
 application of bone meal/rock phosphate helps to cover the N loss from
composting pit and at the same time adds P to composting material. The losses
of N could be reduced to about 40% by incorporation of mussorie rock phosphate
@ 10% of compostable material (Kapoor et. al., 1996).
v. Bangalore process:
Acharya (1939) has developed a method for composting of town refuse
and night soil in pits. It involves heat fermentation which helps in effective
disposal of offensive wastes. The refuse and night soil are spread in alternate
layers of 15 cm and 5 cm until the pit is filled 30 cm above ground level. Each
layer of night soil should be immediately covered over with refuse and the top
layer at the end of each day should be covered with thin layer of earth (5 cm).
The initial decomposition is aerobic for a period of 2-3 weeks. During this initial
aerobic decomposition, a high temperature (60-50o C) is attained which helps to
destroy harmful pathogens, fly maggots, weed seeds and also completely
removes disagreeable odours. Then the entire mass is pressed down and mud
plastered. After this the decomposition proceeds on anaerobic lines and the
manure becomes ready in 5-6 months.
Recent development in composting:
i. Japanese method of composting:
In this method instead of pits composting is carried out in a enclosure of
18’- 30’ x 3’-4’ x 2.5-3.0’ (height) above the ground. The structure may be of granite
slabs or any other locally available material. The bottom of the structure is sealed
to avoid drainage loss of nutrients. That apart, the method facilitates easy turning
of the materials and avoids temperature exceeding 65-70oC (Shivashankar,
1996).
The organic wastes are spread in the enclosure layer by layer leaving about 2’
at one side of the structure to facilitate turning.
The bottom layer should be of hard materials viz., coconut shells, leaves,
fibrous material, tender tree barks or pieces of wood, ash, etc. The height should
be 10-15 cm.
The next layer (10-15 cm) should be of dried leaves, grasses, residues,
groundnut haulms etc. These two layers being hard and dry absorb moisture and
nutrients leached from the top. Over this layer spread cow dung urine and biogas
slurry singly or mixed. A small quantity of soil and ash can also be spread over
this layer.
In the third layer, dhaincha, sasbenia and crop residues rich in nitrogen
are added to about 10-15 cm thickness.
The fourth layer should contain organic wastes rich in phosphorus (roots
of green manures, Acalypha, rock phosphate, etc.) and potash (Calatropis,
datura, weeds, residues of tomato and tobacco, ash, poultry wastes, etc.). Over
this layer of 10-15 cm spread two to three buckets of cow dung and biogas slurry
to wet the contents. Carbon rich materials like straw, Stover, etc., can be cut in t
pieces of 4-5 cm and mixed with available green biomass. This forms the fifth
layer.
The sixth layer should exclusively contain 20-30 cm of cow dung. Over
this old compost powder, tank silt or soil and ash in small quantity are to be
added.
During filling microbial cultures can be sprinkled on each layer. Care is to
be taken to maintain moisture around 65 per cent and temperature below 60 oC.
It is necessary to turn the sets after 15 days after filling for the first time and at
 monthly interval thereafter. Addition of lime can hasten decomposing hard
materials. To enrich compost 50 to 100 kg of rock phosphate per 100 kg of
compost can be added along with some left over oilcakes during last turning of
the compost.
Vermicompost :
Vermicomposting is a simple process of composting, in which certain
species of earth worms are used to enhance the process of waste conversion
and produce a better end product. This compost is generally called
vermicompost. It provides the vital macro elements such as nitrogen,
phosphorous, potash, Ca, Mg and Micro elements such and Fe, Mo, Zn, Cu, etc.
Suitable species
One of the earthworm species most often used for composting is the Red
Wiggler (Eisenia fetida). African Nightcrawlers (Eudrilus eugeniae) is another set
of popular composter. These species are commonly found in organic-rich soils
and live in rotting vegetation, compost, and manure piles.
Climate and temperature
The most common worms used in composting systems are redworms
(Eisenia foetida, Eisenia andrei and Lumbricus rubellus) feed most rapidly at
temperatures of 15–25 °C (59-77 °F). They can survive at 10 °C (50 °F).
Temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) may harm them. Other worms like Perionyx
excavatus are suitable for warmer climates.
Type of earthworms
There are about 3000 species of earthworms reported in the world. Among
them 509 species are available in India. These earthworms are mainly divided
into three groups
1. Epigeics: Are the species that live above the mineral soil surface.
e.g. Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae, Perionyx excavatus
Above species are prolific feeders and can feed upon a wide variety of
degradable organic wastes.
2. Anecics: Are the species that live in burrows in mineral soil layers.
3. Endogeics: Are species that inhabit mineral soil horizons
e.g. Lampito mauritii
Characteristic of compost worms
The following are the basic characteristics of earthworm species suitable
for vermicomposting:
i) The worms should have feeding preference to wide range of organic
materials.
ii) It should be efficient converter of plant/animal biomass to body proteins.
iii) It should be tolerant to diseases, wide adaptability to environmental
factors and have least inactivity period.
iv) It should have high consumption, digestion and assimilation rates
v) The worms should produce large number of cocoons.
vi) Growth rate, maturity from young one to adult stage should be fast.
vii) The worms should feed near the surface of organic matter.
Advantage of vermicompost in Soil
 It improves soil aeration
 Enriches soil with micro-organisms (adding enzymes such as
phosphatase and cellulase)
 Enhance microbial activity in the soil
  Attracts deep-burrowing earthworms already present in the soil
 Improves water holding capacity of the soil
Plant growth
 Enhances germination, plant growth and crop yield
 Improves root growth and structure
 Enriches soil with micro-organisms (adding plant hormones such
as Auxin and Gibberellic acid)
Environmental
Minimizes the pollution hazards
Methods of vermicompost
In general, following are the three methods of Vermicomposting under field
conditions.
1. Vermicomposting of wastes in field pits
2. Vermicomposting of wastes in ground heap
3. Vermicomposting of wastes in large structures
Vermicomposting of organic wastes in field:
i) Pits: It is preferable to go for optimum sized ground pits and 10 x 11 x 0.5 m
(L x W x D) can be effective size of each Vermicomposting bed. Series
of such beds are to be prepared at one place.
ii) Ground Heaps: Instead of opening of pits, vermicomposting can be taken up
in ground heaps. Dome shaped beds (with organic wastes) are prepared
and vermicomposting is taken up. Optimum size of ground heaps may
be series of heaps of dimensions 5.0 x 1.0 x 1.0 m (L x W x H).
iii) Composting in large structures: Vermicomposting is taken up in large
structures such as series of rectangular brick columns, cement tanks,
stone block etc., which are filled with organic wastes and composting
is taken up.
Vermicomposting involves the following steps which are:
 Cover the bottom of the cement ring with a layer of coconut husk or
polythene sheet.
 Spread 15–20 cm layer of organic waste material on the polythene sheet.
 Sprinkle cow dung slurry and water.
 Paste the top of the ring with soil or cow dung. Allow the material to
decompose for 15 to 20 days.
 After decomposition of the materials (15–20 days after heaping), release
selected earthworms (500 to 700) through the cracks developed.
 Cover the ring with wire mesh or gunny bag to prevent birds from picking
the earthworms.
 Sprinkle water every three days to maintain adequate moisture and body
temperature of the earthworms.
 The vermicompost is ready in about 2 months if agricultural waste is used.
 The processed vermicompost is black, light in weight and free from bad
odor.
 When the compost is ready, do not water for 2–3 days to make compost
easy for sifting. Pile the compost in small heaps and leave under ambient
conditions for a couple of hours when all the worms move down the heap
in the bed.
 Separate upper portion of the manure and sieve the lower portion to
separate the earthworms from the manure.
 The culture in the bed contains different stages of the earthworm’s life
cycle, namely, cocoons, juveniles and adults.
 Transfer this culture to fresh half decomposed feed material. Pack the
compost in bags and store the bags in a cool place.
 Prepare another pile about 20 days before removing the compost and
repeat the process by following the same procedure as described above.
PRACTICAL 4: BIO FERTILIZERS/BIO INOCULANTS FOR
ORGANIC FARMING
The atmosphere over a hectare of land consists of 80,000 tones of N. Though
atmospheric N is present in sufficient quantity (80%), it is not available to plants
since it exists in inert form. Biological nitrogen fixation is the conversion of
atmospheric N by living organisms into forms that plants can use. This process is
carried out by a group of bacteria and algae which fix atmospheric Nitrogen (N2) in
to assimilable forms of nitrogen (NH3)
It can be defined as bio-fertilizers or microbial inoculants are preparations
containing live or latent cell of efficient strain of N-fixing or P-solubilizing micro
organisms used for seed or soil application with the objectives of increasing the
numbers of such micro organisms in the soil or rhizosphere and consequently
improve the extent of microbiologically fixed N for plant growth.
Use of bio-fertilizers
Azospirilum is applied as seed treatment or soil application in crop like rice,
sugarcane, pulses, soybean and vegetables. It increase in root length, top dry
weight, root dry weight, total leaf area and yield were reported. The inoculants like
nitroplus (legume inoculants) and VAM (Vesicular Arbuscular Micorrhizae) are also
effective for crop yield improvement. The Bacillus sp. and pseudomonas sp. are
help full in synthesizing the insoluble form of phosphorus. The combined
applications of phosphobacteria, rock phosphate and FYM to commercial crops
have greatly enhanced biomass production, uptake of nutrients and yield.
Benefits of bio- fertilizers in organic farming
 Bio-fertilizers are eco-friendly and do not have any ill effect on soil health
and environment.
 They reduce the pressure on non-renewable nutrient sources/fertilizer.
 Their formulations are cheap and have easy application methods.
 They also stimulate plant growth due to excretion of various growth hormones.
 They reduce the incidence of certain disease, pathogen and increase
disease resistance.
 The economic benefits to cost ratio of bio-fertilizers is always higher.
 They improve the productivity of waste land and low land by enriching the soil.
Types of Bio-fertilizers
 Biological N fixing micro organisms
 Phosphate solubilizing and mobilizing micro-organisms
 Potash solubilizing micro-organisms
 Sulphur mobilizing micro-organisms
 Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
 Growth promoting substance excreting micro-organisms
a. Biological N-fixing micro-organisms
Biological N-fixing micro-organisms help in reduction of atmospheric N2 to NH3.
The N-fixing organisms such as Rhizobium spp. which live in symbiotic
association with roots of leguminous vegetables, forming nodules and free living
fixers Azotobacter spp. and Azospirillum spp. which live in association with root
system of crop plants. There are two types of Rhizobia; (i) the slow growing
Bradyrhizobium and (ii) the fast growing Rhizobium. Azospirillum fix N from 10
to 40 kg/ha and saves N fertilizer inputs by 25 to 30%. Azotobacter inoculation
 saves N fertilizer by 10 to 20%
Rhizobium and bradyrhizobium
They symbiolically fix N with leguminous plants increasing the amount of
available N for uptake by plants. The quantum of N fixation ranges from 50-300
kg N/ha/crop under most optimum conditions. i.e. cow pea 80-85 kg/ha, Red
gram 168- 200 kg/ha, G.nut 50-60 kg/ha & lucerne 100-300 kg/ha can fix
symbiotically N by legume crop root nodules. An increase in yield about 10-20
% has been observed in pulses treated with Rhizobium.
Azola
Azola symbiotically can fix 30-100 kg N /ha & increase in yield up to 10-25%
and also survive at high temperature in flooded rice crop.
Azotobacter
Azotobacter is free living aerobic N-fixing bacteria can fix 10-25 kg N/ha/season
in cereals. 50% of N requirement of crop can be reduced through Azotobacter
inoculation along with FYM. A. chroococcum is the dominant spices in arable
soils. Vegetable crop such as tomato, brinjal and cabbage responded better to
Azotobacter inoculation than other crops.
Azospirillum
Azospirillum inoculation helps to fix nitrogen from 15 to 40 kg/ha. It is useful in
cereals for better vegetative growth and also saving inputs of nitrogenous
fertilizers by 25-30 %
Beijerinckia :
Its production is high in acidic soils. B. idica is a common species. It is generally
present in the rhizosphere of plantation crops such as coconut, arecanut,
cashewnut, cocoa and pepper.
b. Phosphate solubilizing and mobilizing micro-organism.
Several soil bacteria particularly Pseudomonas straita and Bacillus polymixa
and fungi Aspergillus awamori and Penicilium spp. poses the ability to bring
insoluble phosphates into soluble forms by secreting organic acids. Arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are also responsible for converting fixed Phosphorus
into available phosphorus through inoculation of efficient strains of AMF, 25 to
50 % of P fertilizer can be saved.
c. Potash solubilizing micro-organisms
The bacterium, Frateuria aurantia was isolated from banana plant from Orissa
soil. These bacteria have solubilizing power of 90% within 22 days when the
mineral source of K is in fixed form. These bacteria were tested on banana and
paddy which increased the yield by 20 & 25%, respectively. It can be used as
soil application for all types of crops @ 2.5 kg/ha. It can be mixed with @ 200-
500 kg FYM in furrows before sowing. The bacterium can save up to 50-60 %
of cost of K fertilizer.
d. Sulphur mobilizing micro organisms.
Sulphur present as insoluble sulphur form at 30-35 cm deep in soil and are
associated with oxides of iron and aluminium. Acetobacter pasteurianus helps
in converting this non-usable form to usable form. The use of 625 g/ha of A.
pasteurianus influenced the levels of sulphur in crops like vegetables, cabbage,
turnip, onion etc.
e. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF)
AMF improve plant growth through better uptake of nutrient like P, Zn, Cu etc.
and make the plant root more resistant to pathogens, improve soil texture,
 WHC, disease resistance and better plant growth. AMF saves 25-50 kg P/ha in
addition increase the yield up to 10-12%.
f. Growth promoting substance erecting micro organisms.
The specific strain of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) could
colonize roots of crops like potato, beet root, apple and legumes. They enhance
plant growth indirectly by depriving the harmful micro organisms. PGPR belong
to many genera including Agrobacterium, Arthrobacter, Azotobacter, bacillus,
Pseudomonas, cellublomonas, Rhizobium etc.
General recommendations of bio-fertilizers for different crops
1. For pulses such as Greengram, Black gram, Pigeonpea, Cowpea, kidney bean
etc. and legume oil seeds such as groundnut and soyabean use Rhizobium +
PSB 200 gm each per 10 kg of seed as seed treatment.
2. Non legume crops such as pearlmillet, wheat, sorghum maize, cotton, etc.
use Azotobacter + PSB 200 gm each per 10 kg of seed as seed treatment.
3. Vegetables crops like tomato, brinjal, chilli, cabbage, cauliflower etc. use
Azotobacter/Azospirillum + PSB, 1 kg each as seedling root dip.
4. Low land transplanted paddy Azospirillum + PSB 2 kg each/acre as seeding
root dip for 8-10 hrs.
5. For sugarcane crop, use Acetobacter + PSB 4 kg each/acre as seed set dipping.
METHOD OF APPLICATION
Seed treatment
Suspend 200 gm N bio-fertilizer and 200 gms Phosphotika in 300-400 ml of
water and mix thoroughly. Mix this paste with 10 kg seeds and dry in shade.
Sow immediately.
Seedling root dip
For vegetables 1 kg recommended bio-fertilizers is mixed in sufficient quantity
of water. Dip the roots of seedlings in this suspension for 30-40 min before
transplanting.
For paddy make a bed in the field and fill it with water. Mix bio-fertilizers in water
and dip the roots of seedlings for 8-10 hrs.
Soil treatment
Mix 4 kg each of recommended bio-fertilizers in 200 kg of compost, make moist
and leave it overnight. Apply this mixture in the soil at the time of sowing or
planting.
PRECAUTIONS
 Store bio-fertilizer packets in cool and dry place away from direct sunlight and
heat
 Rhizobium is crop specific, so use in specified crop
 Do not mix with chemicals
 Use the packet before expiry, only on the specified crop, by the recommended
method.
PRACTICAL 5: ITK FOR NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
PANCHGAVYA
Panchagavya, an organic product has the potential to play the role of promoting
growth and providing immunity in plant system. Panchagavya consists of nine
products viz. cow dung, cow urine, milk, curd, jaggery, ghee, banana, Tender coconut
and water. When suitably mixed and used, these have miraculous effects.
 Cow dung - 7 kg
 Cow ghee - 1 kg
Mix the above two ingredients thoroughly and keep it for 3 days with regular mixing
both in morning and evening hours
 Cow Urine - 10 liters
 Water - 10 liters
After 3 days mix cow urine and water and keep it for 15 days with regular mixing both
in morning and evening hours. After 15 days mix the following and panchagavya will
be ready after 30 days.
 Cow milk - 3 liters
 Cow curd - 2 liters
 Tender coconut water - 3 liters
 Jaggery – 0.500 kg or Sugarcane juice 3 liters.
 Well ripened poovan banana – 12 nos.
Preparation
All the above items can be added to a wide mouthed mud pot, concrete tank or
plastic can as per the above order. The container should be kept open under shade.
The content is to be stirred twice a day both in morning and evening. The Panchagavya
stock solution will be ready after 30 days. (Care should be taken not to mix buffalo
products. The products of local breeds of cow is said to have potency than exotic
breeds). It should be kept in the shade and covered with a wire mesh or plastic
mosquito net to prevent houseflies from laying eggs and the formation of maggots in
the solution. If sugarcane juice is not available add 500 g of jaggery dissolved in 3 liter
of water.
Physico-chemical and biological properties of Panchagavya
Chemical composition Microbial Load
pH : 5.45 Fungi : 38800/ml
EC dSm 2 : 10.22 Bacteria : 1880000/ml
Total N (ppm) : 229 Lactobacillus : 2260000/ml
Total P (ppm) : 209 Total anaerobes : 10000/ml
Total K (ppm) : 232 Acid formers : 360/ml
Sodium : 90 Methanogen : 250/ml
Calcium : 25
IAA (ppm) : 8.5
GA (ppm) : 3.5
Physico-chemical properties of Panchagavya revealed that they possess
almost all the major nutrients, micro nutrients and growth hormones (IAA & GA)
required for crop growth. Predominance of fermentative microorganisms like yeast and
lactobacillus might be due to the combined effect of low pH, milk products and addition
of jaggery/sugarcane juice as substrate for their growth.
The low pH of the medium was due to the production of organic acids by the
fermentative microbes as evidenced by the population dynamics and organic detection
in GC analysis. Lactobacillus produces various beneficial metabolites such as organic
acids, hydrogen peroxide and antibiotics, which are effective against other pathogenic
microorganisms besides its growth.
3. Recommended dosage
Spray system
3% solution was found to be most effective compared to the higher and lower
concentrations investigated. Three liters of Panchagavya to every 100 liters of water
is ideal for all crops. The power sprayers of 10 liters capacity may need 300 ml/tank.
When sprayed with power sprayer, sediments are to be filtered and when sprayed with
hand operated sprayers, the nozzle with higher pore size has to be used.
Flow system
The solution of Panchagavya can be mixed with irrigation water at 50 liters per
hectare either through drip irrigation or flow irrigation.
Seed/seedling treatment
3% solution of Panchagavya can be used to soak the seeds or dip the seedlings
before planting. Soaking for 20 minutes is sufficient. Rhizomes of Turmeric, Ginger
and sets of Sugarcane can be soaked for 30 minutes before planting.
Seed storage
3% of Panchagavya solution can be used to dip the seeds before drying and
storing them.
Periodicity
1. Pre flowering phase : Once in 15 days, two sprays depending
upon duration of crops
2. Flowering and pod setting stage : Once in 10 days, two sprays
3. Fruit/Pod maturation stage : Once during pod maturation
Time of application of Panchagavya for different crops is given as follows
Crops Time schedule
Rice : 10, 15, 30 and 50th days after transplanting
Sunflower : 30, 45 and 60 days after sowing
Black gram : Rain fed: 1st flowering and 15 days after flowering
Irrigated: 15, 25 and 40 days after sowing
Green gram: 15, 25, 30, 40 and 50 days after sowing
Castor : 30 and 45 days after sowing
Groundnut : 25 and 30th days after sowing
Bhindi : 30, 45, 60 and 75 days after sowing
Moringa : Before flowering and during pod formation
Tomato : Nursery and 40 days after transplanting: seed treatment with 1 % for 12
hrs
Onion : 0, 45 and 60 days after transplanting
Rose : At the time of pruning and budding
Jasmine : Bud initiation and setting
Vanilla : Dipping setts before planting
Effect of Panchagavya
Leaf
Plants sprayed with Panchagavya invariably produce bigger leaves and develop
denser canopy. The photosynthetic system is activated for enhanced biological
efficiency, enabling synthesis of maximum metabolites and photosynthates.
Stem
The trunk produces side shoots, which are sturdy and capable of carrying maximum
fruits to maturity. Branching is comparatively high.
Roots
The rooting is profuse and dense. Further they remain fresh for a long time. The roots
spread and grow into deeper layers were also observed. All such roots help maximum
intake of nutrients and water.
Yield
There will be yield depression under normal circumstances, when the land is
converted to organic farming from inorganic systems of culture. The key feature of
Panchagavya is its efficacy to restore the yield level of all crops when the land is
converted from inorganic cultural system to organic culture from the very first year.
The harvest is advanced by 15 days in all the crops. It not only enhances the shelf life
of vegetables, fruits and grains, but also improves the taste. By reducing or replacing
costly chemical inputs, Panchagavya ensures higher profit and liberates the organic
farmers from loan.
Drought Hardiness
A thin oily film is formed on the leaves and stems, thus reducing the evaporation of
water. The deep and extensive roots developed by the plants allow to withstand long
dry periods. Both the above factors contribute to reduce the irrigation water
requirement by 30% and to ensure drought hardiness.
5. Cost: Cost of Panchagavya is Rs. 40/Lit
Note: Generally panchagavya is recommended for all the crops as foliar spray at 3.0
% level (3 litre panchagavya in 100 liters of water).
JIVAMRUT
PREPARATION
Ingredients of JIVAMRUT
 10 kg Cow fresh dung
 5 kg cow urine
 2 kg jaggery
 2 kg pulse flour (cow pea)
 1 kg sajiv soil
 200 lit. water
All the above items can be added to a wide mouthed plastic tank having a
capacity of 300 liters. Add 200 lit water in it. The container should be kept under shade.
This mixture is to be stirred twice a day in clock wise direction both in morning and
evening. The jivamrut stock solution will be ready after 7 days. (The products of local
breeds of cow is said to have potency than exotic breeds). It should be kept in the
shade and the mouth of the tank is tied with a cotton cloth. The volume of the final
solution obtained is 200 liters. The rate of application is 500 lit./ha. It may be applied
on soil when it is wet. If possible apply after noon (preferably after 16.00 hrs.). It can
also be applied along with irrigation water.
BIJAMRUT
PREPARATION
Ingredients of BIJAMRUT
 5 kg Cow fresh dung
 100 g lime
 5 lit cow urine
 50 g sajiv soil
 20 lit water
Take 5.0 kg fresh cow dung in cotton cloth and dip it in water. The soluble
elements in the dung will be dissolved in water. In another separate vessel take 100 g
lime and add 1 lit. water in it. Keep it for 12-16 hours. The solid portion of the cow dung
will be separated by squeezing it and in this solution add 5.0 lit cow urine + 1 lit lime
water + 50 g soil (forest uncultivated soil) + 20 lit water. Keep this mixture for 12-16
hours. Filter it and it can be used for seed treatment.
BIODYNAMIC FARMING
Bios = life dynamic = energy
Dr Rudolf Steiner explained how modern science and therefore chemical
agriculture was based on the study of dead things in laboratories, rather than on the
observation of living nature and the complex relationships constantly changing therein.
Among this web of life he also included the cosmos with its moving planets and stars,
and he spoke of how in the past, farmers instinctively knew about the effects of this
movement on the life of plants and also animals and human beings. As modern human
beings, we must find this connection once more to understand how to work best with
nature, but this time in a very conscious, measurable way.
Today there are many people around the globe who concentrate on
understanding and recording the effects of the cosmos on our planet Earth, including
Maria Thun in Germany who publishes a planting calendar for gardeners and farmers
to use. Rudolf Steiner introduced a few preparations based on homeopathic medicine
to enhance the beneficial cosmic influences on plants and the soil, and encouraged
people to experiment and find new ones as well.
Life is a study of energy from the coarse to the fine, and Biodynamics is
primarily concerned with the higher forces, the finer energies and how they influence
plants, animals, and human beings. This knowledge and work with the life forces
brings balance and healing to the soil, and therefore to anything that grows in that soil
and every being that eats those plants.
Main effects of using biodynamic in agriculture
1. To increase the vitality of food
2. To regenerate natural resources such as the soil (by restoring the organic matter
present in the soil), the seeds, and the water
3. To create a personal relationship with the world in which we live, with Nature of
which we are apart of, and to learn to work together
4. Most of all, to be of service to the Earth and its beings by aiding nature where it
is weak due to constant use
DEMETER = Greek goddess of the Earth
Biodynamic methods produce a living soil with revitalized natural forces, in
alignment with planetary cosmic rhythms. At the heart of this activity is the intelligence
and consciousness of the human being who is caring for this piece of the Earth, and
who is the 'ordering principle'. This deep awareness is based on observation and
relationship with the land and with Nature; it's based on love.
Advantages
1. Production of top quality fruits and vegetables, with strong flavours and high levels
of nutrients (protein and vitamin content)
2. Yields always above the average level, higher on average than those produced
by organic farming, and consistently high throughout the years as opposed to the
falling yields obtained by chemical farming as the soil is mineralized and pest
populations become unbalanced and become a problem
3. Little trouble with livestock and plant diseases
4. No spreading of insect pests, and no great economic damage due to their
presence: the question of insect pests is one of balance and control which can
be restored by proper management such as planting shrubs and trees which will
house natural predators
HOMA THERAPY OR AGNIHOTRA :
Homa is a Sanskrit word used synonymously with yajna or havan. Yajna is the
technical term from the Vedic science of bio-energy, which denotes the process of
removing the toxic conditions of the atmosphere through the agency of fire. This
means the healing and purification of the atmosphere with fire as the medium. You
heal the atmosphere and the healed atmosphere heals you. This is the central idea in
homa therapy. This knowledge can be used in agriculture, environment, medicine,
psychotherapy, biogenetics, etc.
Agnihotra is the basic homa for all homa fire practices mentioned in ancient
Vedic science. It is tuned to the biorhythm of sunrise and sunset. The process involves
preparing a small fire in a copper pyramid of fixed size and putting some grains of rice
into the fire exactly at sunrise and sunset accompanied by the chant of two simple
mantras.
Farmers in more than 60 countries practice Homa therapy. There are many
reports from India and abroad which claim that the use of homa therapy in agriculture
improves degraded lands, controls pests and diseases and improves the quantity and
quality of the produce.
PRACTICAL 6: NON CHEMICAL APPROACH FOR INSECT, PEST,
DISEASE AND WEED MANAGEMENT

In organic agriculture, incidence of insect and disease attacks can be reduced

by sound cultural practices and biological approaches. These practices are region and
crop specific.
A. CULTURAL PRACTICES : The cultural methods are the traditional practices
followed by farmers for modulating crop growth through selection of seed varieties,
appropriate time of sowing and maintenance of specific plant population density for
altering the microclimate.
1. Crop rotation : Rotating the crop belonging to one family with one of a different
family helps to reduce pest incidence to a large extent. Rotating groundnut with maize
will reduce the attack of white grubs. Rotating pigeon pea or chickpea with other non-
leguminous crop helps to control fusarium wilt and nematode problems.
2. Trap crops : Insects are strongly attracted by certain plants and when these are
sown in the field or along the border, they will gather on them rather than on the main
crop. Later they can easily be destroyed. Mustard is a trap crop along with cabbage
for the control of diamond back moths, aphids and leaf webbers. The African marigold
is a good trap crop for the American bollworm and it also attracts the adults of leaf
miners to lay eggs on its leaves. Maize plants are a trap crop to attract fruit flies which
are a pest in vegetable cultivation and the cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera.
3. Intercropping : Intercropping generally has positive effects in terms of reducing the
occurrence of insect pests. Insects find it difficult to locate host plants as the visual
and chemical stimuli for the host plants are not so strong and the aromatic odour of
other plants can disrupt the insects’ ability to locate such host plants. Intercropping
also interferes with the population development and survival of insect pests. For
example, cabbage along with carrot or tomato is an important intercrop combination
to effectively manage diamond back moth. Sowing cowpea as intercrop with groundnut
minimizes leaf miner infestation. Green gram intercropped with sugarcane reduces the
incidence of sugarcane early shoot borer. Growing short-duration pulses like black
gram, cowpea, soybean and green gram as intercrops in cotton, increases the
effectiveness of natural predators like coccinellids, syrphids, trichogrammatids, etc.
4.Use of resistant / tolerant varieties : Genotypes showing tolerance and
resistance to insect pests and diseases are to be selected for sowing. Plants have
sophisticated mechanisms to protect themselves from attacks by insects. Certain
genotypes act as deterrents and antifeedants and some encourage the predators of
pests. There should be a constant watch to update such genotypes in the region. A
number of resistant varieties are available for every crop from all agro climatic zones.
B. BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES : Biological approaches to pest management
comprise the use of:
• plants or botanicals
• microbial pesticides
• biocontrol by insects
• biorationals
1. Botanicals : The plant kingdom is a rich storehouse of biologically active
compounds. Various plant products have been in use for many centuries in India to
minimize losses in crops and grain storage.
A large database of plant species that possess pest-controlling insecticidal,
antifeedant, repellant, attractant and growth inhibiting properties exists in every village.
Some of the plants widely used in the preparation of botanical pesticides are Anona
sp, Azadirachta indica, Chrysanthemum sp., Cymbopogan sp., Nicotiana sp,
Pongamia sp, Vitex sp. , etc. Seeds, leaves, extracts, fruits, kernels, oil and decoctions
from botanicals are used to control the pests. The following are some of the botanical
pesticides that can be prepared by using plants having insect repellant properties:
Neem seed kernel extract (NSKE)
NSKE can be easily prepared by using neem seed kernels and it is very effective for
a variety of insect pests.
Method
• Collect 25 kg of neem seeds and crush them into a coarse powder.
• Tie the crushed seeds in a muslin or cotton cloth and immerse overnight in 50 litres
of water.
• Squeeze the cloth containing the crushed neem seeds and remove the extract
entirely. Dip the cloth containing the crushed neem seeds again in 50 liters of water
and squeeze again.
• Add 400 liters of water to the concentrated solution of 100 liters extract. A 5% solution
can be used as a foliar spray. For every 100 litres of the spray solution add about
50 gm of khadi soap or soap nut which acts as an emulsifier to spread the spray
solution uniformly on the foliage. NSKE should be used within 2–3 days of
preparation.
• This spray is effective for a variety of leaf eating insects and is also undertaken as a
prophylactic or preventive measure for pests.
Precautions
• Spray the solution during evening hours.
• Khadi soap or soap nut are mild emulsifiers. Strong detergents (with enzymes)
should never be used.
Liquid manure for pest management
A variety of plants (weeds) which have pesticidal value are used to make liquid
manure. Plants that have strong disagreeable odour, e.g., Parthenium, Lantana, Vitex,
Calotropis, etc., are ideal for this preparation.
Method
• Collect 30 kg of leaves and tender parts of plants which have pesticide qualities.
• Chop them into small pieces and put them into a 200 liter barrel.
• Add 30 kg of cattle dung to the barrel and fill it up with water.
• Add about 5 kg of local soil to the barrel to facilitate faster degradation.
• One set of biodynamic preparation (502–507) can be added to the barrel and is
optional.
• The barrel is stirred every day for seven days and then stirred once a week for the
next three weeks. The preparation will be ready in 30 days.
• The concentrated solution is diluted ten times in water and used as a foliar spray.
• These sprays are very efficient in managing a variety of pests.
Precautions
• The liquid manure has to be diluted ten times before spraying on the crop otherwise
it scorches the plant.
• The solution has to be sieved through a cloth or gunny bag before spraying to avoid
blockage of nozzles.
• The solution has to be used within one month as its efficacy diminishes after that
period.
2. Microbial pesticides or biopesticides :
 The use of microorganisms as bio control agents is gaining importance in recent
years. Biopesticides are living organisms or their derived parts which are used as
biocontrol agents to protect crops against insect pests.
Entomopathogenic viruses of the baculovirus group, bacterial insecticides, particularly
Bacillus thuringiensis, entomo-fungal pathogens, protozoans and insect parasitic
nematodes have been found to control important pests of crops. These bio pesticides
are commercially available and are quite difficult to formulate in field conditions.
Types of microbial biopesticides :
• Bacterial bio pesticides
• Fungal bio pesticides
• Viral bio pesticides
Table Commercially important microbial bio-pesticides and biorationals used in India

Sr. Category Products Target pest Major crops

No.
1. Bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis Lepidoptera Cotton, maize,
Bacillus sphaericus Mosquitoes, vegetables,
Bacillus subtilis flies soybean,
Pseudomonas Fungal groundnut,
fluorescens pathogens wheat, peas,
oilseeds, rice

2. Fungi Trichoderma viride Fungal Wheat, rice,

Trichoderma pathogens pulses,
harzianum vegetables,
Trichoderma hamatum plantations,
spices and
sugarcane
Beauveria bassiana Insect pests Cotton, pulses,
Verticillium lecanii such as oilseeds,
Metarhizium anisopliae bollworms, plantation crops,
Paecilomyces lilacinus white flies, root spices
Nomuraea rileyi grubs, tea and vegetables
mosquito bugs

3. Viruses Nuclear Polyhedrosis American Boll Cotton,

Virus (NPV) of worm, sunflower,
Helicoverpa armigera, tobacco tobacco and
Spodoptera sp. and caterpillar and sugarcane
Chilo infescatellus shoot borer

4. Biorationals Pheromone traps Bactocera sp. Cotton,

Pheromone lures, Chilo sp. sugarcane,
sticky traps and mating Dacus sp. vegetables, fruit
disruptants Earias vittella crops
Helicoverpa
armigera
Leucinodes
orbonalis
Pectinophora
 gossypiella
Plutella
xylostella

3. Biorationals :
Biorationals comprise of the use of pheromones and sticky traps in pest management.
There are three main ways in which pheromones are used to control pests:
• to trap insects;
• to disrupt mating;
• for survey and monitoring.
Method of application of biopesticides
a) Seed treatment:
• Prepare 5% jaggery solution by boiling 500 gm of jaggery in ten litres of water for
15–20 minutes. Depending on the quantity of seeds to be treated, sufficient solution
has to be prepared.
• Cool the solution.
• Mix the contents of the bio pesticide packet in the above solution. The general
recommendation is 10 gm of bio pesticide/kg of seed.
• Heap the seeds to be treated on a polythene sheet and pour the bio pesticide solution
over the seeds and mixed thoroughly.
• Dry the seeds in the shade and sow immediately.
Nursery bed
• One kilo of biopesticide is mixed with 100 kilograms of good quality soil. Forest soil
can also be used. In areas where forest soil is not available, 30 kg of well-rotted
dung can be mixed with 70 kg of soil to prepare a good soil mixture.
• The soil mixture can be used as a nursery soil or it can be mixed with soil in the
nursery bed.
Soil drenching
• Prepare a solution by adding 10 grams of biopesticide to a litre of water and stir the
solution well.
• Drench the soil with the solution using a water can.
Seedling dip
• Prepare a solution by adding ten grams of biopesticide to a litre of water.
• Dip the seedlings in this solution for 30 minutes.
4. Biocontrol by insects: Beneficial insects are predators of insect pests and
damage the latter during various stages of their development like egg, larva, pupa,
etc. Accordingly these biocontrol agents are categorized as:
Egg parasites
These parasites damage the egg stage of the insect pest. Some of the commonly used
egg parasites are Trichogramma spp. Telenomus spp. and Testrastichus sp. These
parasites control top shoot borer in sugarcane, internode borer in sugarcane, cotton
bollworms, paddy stem borer, sorghum stem borer, fruit borers, etc.
Larval parasites
These parasites destroy the larval stages of the insect pest. Some examples are the
Bracon spp., which is used in controlling the black-headed caterpillar in coconut and
Goppniozus nephantidis which is used against the coconut leaf-eating caterpillar.
Pupal parasites
The pupal stage of the pests is destroyed by the pupal parasites. Testrastichus sp, is
widely used to control pests like American bollworm, paddy leaf rollers, black-headed
caterpillars, etc., in their pupal stages.
Predators
Predators like Chrysopa sp, Menochilus spp. are very useful in controlling a wide
variety of insects like aphids, white flies, cotton bollworms, leaf insects, etc. The eggs
of these parasitoids are commercially available on egg cards. Each egg card (e.g.,
Trichogramma) contains 20,000 live parasitised eggs which have 90–96% hatching
rate within 7– 10 days of parasitisation. These are applied @ 3–5 cards/ha. Each egg
card costs Rs.20 to Rs. 50. Chrysopa sp. is available in vials containing 1,000–5,000
live eggs/larvae. The standard recommendation for crops like cotton, sunflower,
tobacco, groundnut, mustard and vegetables is 5,000–10,000 eggs/larvae per ha.
Each vial costs Rs.150 to Rs.200.
PREPARATION 501 (HORN SILICA) :
This preparation is made from a crystal of quartz (silicon oxide, SiO 2). It is important
to have good quality quartz crystals, well formed and clear, which allow the light to
flow right through them. A good clear crystal will cause refraction of light in the same
way as a prism.
Method
• Collect translucent quartz crystals and grind them into a fine powder, as smooth as
talcum powder.
• Moisten the quartz powder with water and fill the cow horn with it.
• Bury the horn in the soil (similar to BD 500) during spring and summer (April/May).
• Remove the horn from the soil during the ascending moon phase in
September/October.
Usage
Preparation 501 is stirred in a manner similar to preparation 500. It is stirred for one
hour, using one gram in 13.5 litres of water, which is sufficient for one acre of land. It
is sprayed in the morning in a fine mist, using a high pressure spray, allowing the mist
to be suspended briefly in the air so that the sunlight can shine momentarily through
the mist on the plant and the fine mist is allowed to drift over the crop. For smaller
areas a knapsack sprayer may be used turning its fine nozzle skywards to produce
the desired misting effect.
As a general rule, 501 should be sprayed during the early stages of the plant’s
growth and after fruit set. Preparation 501 is generally sprayed in the morning, during
spring and early summer, and sometimes in the autumn if the lushness of growth
demands it. As the season advances during summer, 501 is sprayed progressively
early in the morning.
Because of the stimulation of the light, it is advised not to use 501 in drought
conditions and it should be used only once in the spring on pasture as overuse can
accentuate drought conditions. Due to the enhancement of photosynthesis of the
plant, the starches, sugars and cellulose in the plant improve thereby improving the
overall quality of the produce as well.
Mineral based pesticides for managing diseases:
Sulphur: Sulphur is probably the oldest known pesticide in use. Sulphur can be used
as dust, wettable powder, paste or liquid. It is very effective in controlling powdery
mildews, rusts, leaf blights and fruit rots. Wettable sulphur @ 2–3% foliar spray is very
effective to control a variety of plant diseases.
Lime sulphur : Boiling lime and sulphur together makes lime sulphur. The mixture is
used as a dormant spray on fruit trees to control diseases such as blight, anthracnose,
powdery mildews and some insect pests such as scales, thrips and eriophyid mites.
The general recommendation is 1% lime sulphur as a foliar spray
PRACTICAL 7: COST OF ORGANIC PRODUCTION SYSTEM

No-cost inputs are those inputs which cost nothing or cost the bare minimum
but have high benefits. The following are important no-cost inputs useful for organic
farmers:
1. Indicator plants
2. Use of planting calendar
3. Homa therapy or agnihotra
INDICATOR PLANTS
When a nutrient is not present in sufficient quantity in the soil or is not
supplied in sufficient quantity to the plant, the plant will show deficiency symptoms
described below to a greater or lesser degree, depending on the extent of the
deficiency. However, some plants have been found to be especially useful as
indicators of particular deficiencies. These plants are markedly susceptible to a
particular deficiency and deficiency symptoms like poor growth and colour changes
in leaves are shown more prominently by such indicator plants.
A list of such indicator plants suitable to indicate various deficiencies is given below.
Deficient element Indicator plants
1. Nitrogen Cauliflower, cabbage
2. Phosphorus Rapeseed
3. Potassium Potato, cauliflower, broad beans
4. Calcium Cauliflower, cabbage
5. Magnesium Potato, cauliflower
6. Iron Cauliflower, cabbage, oats, potato
7. Zinc Citrus, cereals, linseed
8. Copper Wheat, oats
9. Manganese Oats, sugar, beet, potato
10. Boron Sugarbeet, cauliflower
11. Molybdenum Cauliflower
In addition, sunflower and crotons are indicators of moisture stress in the soil.
Farmers can irrigate the crop looking at the wilting symptoms of these plants.
Use of the planting calendar :
The life patterns of all living organisms are woven into the cosmic rhythm. The
modern science world may not accept the influence of these cosmic rhythms and
constellations on life forms. However, human life, as well as animal and plant life,
is all strongly dependent on the rhythms of the earth. Similarly, plant and animal life
is also influenced by the syndic relationships of the sun, earth, moon and other
planets. On the basis of such influences, the planting calendar is prepared for
agricultural operations, during different timings of the year.
The moon opposite to Saturn
Occurs approximately once in 29.5 days.
Activities to be undertaken:
1. Seed sowing, transplanting, grafting, pruning and layering.
2. Spraying BD 501 (cow horn silica) to manage pests.
3. Spraying liquid manures and foliar sprays.
Full moon
Occurs every 29.5 days
Activities to be undertaken:
1. Sow seeds two days before sowing.
2. Apply liquid manures and CPP (cow pat pit) manure.
3. Spraying bio pesticides to control pests and diseases.
4. Drenching the animals to remove internal parasites (48 hours before).
New moon
Happens once in 27.5 days
Activities to be undertaken:
1. Avoid sowing seeds.
2. Cutting timber.
Ascending periods
The moon moves in an arc from east to west and when this arc gets higher, the
moon is ascending.
Activities to be undertaken:
1. Sowing of seeds.
2. Spray BD 501.
3. Spray liquid manures and CPP.
Descending periods
The moon moves in an arc from east to west and when this arc gets lower, the
moon is said to be in descending phase.
Activities to be undertaken:
1. Transplanting of seedlings.
2. Spraying BD 500 (cow horn manure).
3. Making and spreading compost.
4. Pruning trees.
5. Land preparation activities.
Nodes
These are the days when the moon passes the sun’s path. It creates negative
influences on the growth of plants.
Avoid all agricultural activities during nodes.
Apogee
The moon’s orbit around the earth is elliptical. The point where the moon is furthest
away from the earth is called its apogee.
Activities to be undertaken:
1. Planting potatoes.
2. Irrigating the field.
Perigee
The moon moves around the earth in an elliptical path. The point where the moon
is closest to the earth is called its perigee.

Spray biopesticides to manage pests and diseases.

Seed and fruit days
These days influence the growth of seed and fruit crops and are good for sowing
and harvesting of the same, e.g., paddy, wheat, brinjal, bhendi and tomato.
Root days
These days influence the growth and development of root crops and are good for
sowing and harvesting of them: potato, carrot, beet root, etc.
Flower day
These days influence the growth and development of flowers and are good for
sowing and harvesting of them: cut flowers, cauliflower, rose, jasmine, etc.
Leaf days
These days help in the growth and development of leafy vegetables and are good
for sowing and for harvesting them: green leafy vegetables, cabbage.
PRACTICAL 8: POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT: QUALITY ASPECT,
GRADING, PACKAGING AND HANDLING
Processing
Processing of organic food products and handling should be optimized to
maintain the development of pest and diseases. Processing and handling of organic
products should be done separately in time or place from handling and processing of
non-organic products.
Processing of organic fresh produce requires cleaning, grading followed by
peeling, stoning or slicing. At this stage fruits and some vegetable such as onion and
peppers are ready for freezing, but most vegetables need to be blanched with hot
water or steam at 80OC to 100 oC to inactivate enzymes that could otherwise lead to
a loss in vitamin C and flavour. Fruit can be coated in sugar or in syrup that contains
an antioxidant like ascorbic acid. Coating retards browning, avoids the cooked tests
after defrosting and increases product quality. The products may be packaged before
or after freezing.
The following techniques are adopted for processing.
1. Freezing :
Freezing is quite often applied to vegetables but rarely used for fruits, as they
do not handle it well. Nutritional quality is maintained when the product is sold from
colour, odour and taste are retained well by freezing. The degree of freezing
depends on the duration of storage eg.
Practical storage life of frozen products
Products Practical storage life (Month)
-18oC -25oC -30oC
Fruits in sugar 12 18 24
Cauli flower 15 24 <24
Carrots 18 24 <24
Potatoes 24 <24 <24
2. Drying :
Drying facilitates for easy transportation and storage of fruits. Dried vegetables
are produced in low quantities for the local market but can be useful for soup mixes.
The major risks with dried products are microbiological attack and physiological
deterioration which leads to browing, loss of vitamins and the development of off-
flavours.
3. Water content :
Dry fruit products have a water content of 8 to 12 % and dry vegetable around
7%. Under these conditions, there are no microbiological problems during storage of
the products.
4. Additives and processing aids:
Permitted processing aids helps to retain quality of dry produce, such as
ascorbic acid, citric acid, tartaric acid, which resulting in low pH, it limits the
development of micro organisms and browing. The product is treated by dipping in or
spraying with acids or lemon juice. Salt can be used for drying.
5. Blanching :
A brief period at high temperature destroys most of micro organisms and
inactivates eazymes which promote browning and degradation i.e.
Fruits /Vegetables Process
Banana Boiling water for 5 min
Mango, Papaya Hot water (56oC) for 1 min
 Cabbage Boiling water 3 min
Carrot Boiling water 4-6 min
6. Rapid Drying :
Sun drying is mostly used for organic fruits such as figs, bananas etc, but there
is risk to quality and the difficulty of maintaining a high degree of sanitation. Hence, a
rapid drying is followed.
Drying condition, moisture content and storage life of food products.
Fruits/ Drying temp (oC) Moisture content Storage life
vegetable (%) (Month)
Mango 55 14 6
Banana 55 12 6
Tomato 55 6 6
Onion 50-55 5 3-12
Labeling :-
The label should convey clear and accurate information on the organic status
of the product. The labels for organic products should be distinquishable by different
coloured labels. The details like name of the product, quality of the product, name and
address of the producer name of the certification agency, certification, lot number etc.
are to be given in the label. for example;
nformation required on the label
Crop OG (Organic Ginger)
Country I (India)
Field No. 05
Date of harvest 32 (1st Feb.)
Year 2009
Lot No. OG I 05 32 2009

Lot No. is helpful in tracking back the product particularly field number in which
it is grown in case of contamination. Lot number should include the crop, country, field
number, date of harvest and production year.
Packing :
For packing, recycling and reusable materials like clean jute bags should be
used. Use of biodegradable materials can also be used. Un necessary packaging
material should be avoided. Various types of packaging materials are used for packing
such as bamboo baskets, gunny bags, card board, paper, glass, metal, wooden box,
plastic crates and ventilated corrugated fibre board (CFB) box for safe handling.
PRACTICAL- 9: CERTIFICATION FOR ORGANIC FARMING
Organic certification -standards and procedures (as per OHGA STANDARDS)
Converting a farm as organic:
Converting a farm to organic requires the development of a viable and sustainable
farm-ecosystem over a period of time. The certification process aims to convert the
growing area to comply with requirements of this standard within a period of 3 years.
Procedures:
1. Initially, a farm is inspected and a report is lodged with the certification review
committee (CRC). If CRC recommends the farm enter the certification system, it will
be placed "Under Supervision" for the first 12 months. During this time, produce or
products cannot be sold as 'Certified Organic" or as 'IN CONVERSION TO Organic".
2. After 12 months, the farm may be upgraded to "In Conversion" if the second
inspection is satisfactory. The farm must then complete two years "In Conversion"
before it is considered for certifying as "Organic"(otherwise known as "A GRADE
Organic")
3. The "In conversion" period may be reduced - but only where it can be demonstrated
a farm had, during the years immediately preceding conversion,used techniques
closely allied to those of organic agriculture and which meet all testing and inspection
requirements .Whatever the length of the conversion period,product may not be sold
as "In conversion to Organic" until a farm has been under an inspection system for 12
months.
It is similar to an insurance company converting life insurance quotes into a
complete life insurance contract. First there must be an examination, then once the
person's suitability is confirmed the contract is then finalized. In this case, the farm
must tick all the boxes and prove itself to be fully organic for a set time. Once satisfied,
the committee will then recognize the farm as
organic.
In this case, the farm must tick all the boxes and prove itself to be fully organic
for a set time. Once satisfied, the committee will then recognize the farm as organic
4. In the case of other farm activities not being certified, those activities must be clearly
separated and the products must be of a different nature from the certified produces
or products. There can not be organic and non-organic growing (parallel production)of
the same species on the same property-or on any other property under the same
grower's management or control.
5. When a defined area is certified, the remainder of the farm must be converted to
organic within 10 years.
Organizations inspecting and certifying :
1. TNAU-Coimbatore.Tamilnadu
2. APOF-Association for promotion of organic farming,Bangalore-560046.
3. INDOCERT- (refer also-'useful links' page
4. ECOCERT-Chennai.
5. Low-cost internal certification schemes like PGS-www.ofai.or
FROM- 1A
APPLICATION FOR REGISTRATION OF ORGANIC UNIT
REGISTRATION NO: O(F)_______________
1. Name & Address of the organic producer
Phone No./ Fax. (e-mail)
2. Total area of (operation) Farm Survey No.
Map attached
3. Total no. of plots/segments
 4. Cropping system followed
(i) Name of the crops
(ii) Extend of each crop grown
(iii) Rotation followed
5. Inputs applied to previous crops
6. Buffer zone details
7. Boundary of the farm
8. Plant protection measures Followed
9. Source of manure
10. Source of seed
11. Soil type
12. Specify, if soil problems any
13. Weed management practices Followed
14. Source of irrigation ( Well/Canal/Tank/Rain fed)
15. Contaminants risk, if any
16. Equipment details Hired Own
Ploughing
Weeding
Harvesting
Thrashing
17. Drying yard facility
18. Storage facility
19. Animal husbandry details
20. Other details
DECLERATION
I declare that I shall abide by the rules and regulations of TNOCD and carry
out the organic production according to the norms prescribed by TNOCD.
Signature of farmer
Enclosures:
1. Farm general details
2. Field map
3. Copy of soil test analysis
4. Copy of water test analysis
5. Annual plan FOR OFFICE USE ONLY
Date of receipt :
Registration No. Allotted: O(F) :
Allotted to OCI :
Tentative Inspection Date :
Fees remitted details :
Verified by: Signature of Quality Manager

Annual Cropping Programme

Name and Address of the operator

Year
Total area Acre

Crop and Plot No. Season wise cropped area (acre)

Variety
 Kharif Rabi Summer

FROM- 1D
ORGANIC CERTIFICATION DEPARTMENT (OCD)
APPLICATION FOR REGISTRATION OF ORGANIC UNIT
REGISTRATION NO: O(F)_______________
1. Name & Address of Group/unit/Society/Farm :
2. Name of contact Person, Phone & Fax No. :
3. Brief information about the Group :

Name Number Total Total area Source Farm Remarks

of of area of the members of animal
the members of the of the group water Nos.
location Group having > 10.00
(ac) acres

4. Rout map of organic production area with distance:

5. Field map of organic area with surrounding information/activities:
6. Information about Agriculture Crop season:
Farmer Name Name Total Details of area & Animals
code/ of of area Name of the crops Animal Husbandry
Sl.No. Farm Father (in grown and area (in ac) (in No.)
er / ac) Organic In Orga In
Husba (ac) conversion nic conversion
nd (ac) (ac) (ac)

Note: List may be enclosed

7. Contamination risk noticed:
DECLERATION

I declare that I shall abide by the rules and regulations of OCD and carry out
the organic production according to the norms prescribed by OCD. All the above
information is correct.
Date: Signature of the responsible
person of the Organic Group
Enclosures:
1. Farm general details
2. Field map
3. Copy of soil test analysis
4. Copy of water test analysis
5. Annual plan
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FOR OFFICE USE ONLY
Date of receipt :
Registration No. Allotted: O(F) :
Allotted to OCI :
Tentative Inspection Date :
Fees remitted details :
Verified by :
Signature of Quality Manager

ORGANIC CERTIFICATION DEPARTMENT (OCD)

FROM- 11
OCD Agreement with operator
I (we) affirm that I (we) will:
1. Provide complete and accurate information on all questionnaires
and other application materials representing my/our organic or
transitional organic operation;
2. Comply with the applicable India organic NSOP organic
production and handling regulations;
3. Establish, implement and update annually an organic production
or handling
system plan;
4. Permit on-site inspections with complete access to the production
or handling operation, including non certified production and
handling areas, structures and offices;
5. Additional inspections may be announced or unannounced at the
discretion of OCD or as required by APEDA.
6. Have an authorized representative knowledgeable about the
operation present during the inspection;
7. Maintain all records applicable to the organic operation for not less
than 5 years beyond their creation;
8. Allow authorized representatives OF OCD the Secretary of
Agriculture, APEDA or other substances for testing to be in the
assessment of compliance to certification standards;
9. Allow authorized representatives of OCD to take samples of
plants, soil, crops or other substances for testing to be used in the
assessment of compliance to certification standards;
10. Consent to the use of subcontractors working under the direction
and authority of OCD;
11. Submit the applicable fees charged by the certifying agent;
12. Comply with all requirements and/or conditions levied by OCD as
a result of its review of our application file and associated
documents including inspection information;
13. Immediately notify the certifying agent concerning any;
a. Application, including drift of a prohibited substances to any
field, production unit, site, facility, livestock or product that is part
of an operation and;
 b. Change in a certified operation or any portion of a certified
operation that may affects its compliance with the regulations;
14. Represent products as being “Certified by OCD” only when those
products are listed on a current certification certificate from OCD
a. Any use of the OCD name, without current certification by OCD
or written permission from OCD, is strictly prohibited and
constitutes an infringement of the OCD trademark.
15. Upon surrender, suspension or revocation of certification,
discontinue use of any lables or advertising materials that contain
any reference to certification by OCD and return or destroy all
certificates and packaging material containing references to OCD
I (we) affirm that I (we) are owner(s) of or authorized to sign on behalf of
_________________________________________________________.
I (we) agree to the above requirements and understand that any willful
misrepresentation may because for denial, suspension or revocation of
certification.
Name________________________________ Signature date
________________
Name________________________________ Signature date
_________________
PRACTICAL 10: VISIT OF ORGANIC FARMS TO STUDY THE
VARIOUS COMPONENTS AND THEIR
UTILIZATION
Major components of organic farming are crop rotation, maintenance and
enhancement of soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation, addition of organic
manure and use of soil microorganisms, crop residues, bio-pesticide, biogas slurry,
waste etc. Vermiculture has become a major component in biological farming, which
is found to be effective in enhancing the soil fertility and producing large numbers of
horticultural crops in a sustainable manner. The various components of organic
farming have been discussed in details below:
1. Crop rotation:
Crop rotation is a systematic planning for the growing of different crops in a
regular sequence on the same piece of land covering a period of two years or more.
Crop rotation is important for soil fertility management, weed, insect and disease
control. Legume crops are essential in any rotation, because legumes are able to
fix atmospheric nitrogen through symbiotic relationship with N-fixing bacteria enables
organic farming systems to be self sufficient in nitrogen.
2. Crop Residue
There is a great potential for utilization of crop residues of the major cereals
and pulses. Incorporation/composting of crop residues in conjunction with organics
have been shown to improve availability of plant nutrients, soil organic matter,
aggregate stability, infiltration rate, microbial population etc.
3. Organic manure
The organic manure is derived from biological sources like plant, animal and
human residues. Aggregate stability, decrease in pH, resistance to compaction and
water holding capacity increase by addition of organic manure in the soil. Moreover, it
showed the beneficial effect on soil microorganisms and their activities and thus
increases the availability of major and minor plant nutrients.
4. Industrial and other waste
By products like molasses and pressmud from sugar industry possess good
manurial value. Addition of pressmud improves the soil fertility and enhances the
microbial activity. While municipal and sewage waste also forms an important
component of organic farming. Sewage sludge particularly from industrialized cities is
contaminated with heavy metals and these pose hazards to plants, animals and
human beings. Separation of the toxic waste at the source will minimize the
concentration of such elements in the sludge.
5. Biofertilizers
Bio-fertilizer is microorganism's culture capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen
when suitable crops are inoculated with them. Bio-fertilizer offers an economically
attractive and ecologically sound means of reducing external inputs and improving the
quality and quantity of products. Microorganisms are capable of mobilizing nutritive
elements from non-usable form to usable form through biological process. These are
less expensive, eco-friendly and sustainable. The Biofertilizers containing biological
nitrogen fixing organism are of utmost important in agriculture in view of the following
advantages:
1. They help in establishment and growth of crop plants and trees.
2. They enhance biomass production and grain yields by 10-20%.
3. They are useful in sustainable agriculture.
4. They are suitable organic farming.
5. They play an important role in Agroforestry / silvipastoral systems.
Types of Biofertilizers: There are two types of bio-fertilizers.
1. Symbiotic N-fixation: These are Rhizobium culture of various strains which
multiply in roots of suitable legumes and fix nitrogen symbiotically.
Rhizobium: It is the most widely used bio-fertilizers, which colonizes the roots of
specific legumes to form tumours like growth called root nodules and these nodules
act as factories of ammonia production.
2. Asymbiotic N-fixation: This includes Azotobacter, Azospirillium, BGA, Azolla and
Mycorrhizae, which also fixes atmospheric N in suitable soil medium.
Mycorrhizae: Mycorrhizae are the symbiotic association of fungi with roots of Vascular
plants. The main advantage of Mycorrhizae to the host plants is facilitating an
increased phosphorous uptake. In many cases the Mycorrhizae have been shown to
markedly improve the growth of plants. In India, the beneficial effects of Vascular-
Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (VAM) have been observed in fruit crops like citrus, papaya
and litchi.
6. Bio-pesticide
Bio-pesticides are natural plant products that belong to the so-called secondary
metabolites. Botanical insecticides are ecologically and environmentally safer
generally affect the behaviour and physiology of insects rather than killing them. Neem
(Azadirachta indica) has justifiably received the maximum attention. All parts of the
Neem tree possess insecticidal property but seed kernel is most active.
7. Vermicompost
It is organic manure produced by the activity of earthworms. It is a method of
making compost with the use of earthworms that generally live in soil, eat biomass
and excrete it in digested form. It is generally estimated that 1800 worms which is an
ideal population for one sq. meter can feed on 80 tones of humus per year. These are
rich in macro and micronutrients, vitamins, growth hormones and immobilized
microflora. The average nutrient content of vermicompost is much higher than that of
FYM. Application of vermicompost facilitates easy availability of essential plant
nutrients to crop.