A

Synopsis
On

Write the Title of Thesis

Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Mathematics.

Submitted by
Muhammad Naeem
Registration Number: 00000429758

Under the supervision of

Dr. Muhammad Ishaq

Department of Mathematics,
School of Natural Sciences,
National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad-Pakistan

May 11, 2024

Contents

1 3
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Research objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.1 Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

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List of Figures

1.1 Viualization of Caesar cipher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 Viualization of Vigenere’s cipher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Encryption and decryption channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Symmetric key cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Asymmetric key cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

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Chapter 1

1.1 Background
The word “cryptology” is derived from the Greek Kryptos, meaning hidden. In cryptography, the
prefix “crypt-” means “hidden” and the suffix “-graphy” stands for “writing.”
The origin of cryptography is usually dated from about 2000 B.C., with the Egyptian practice
of hieroglyphics. These consisted of complex pictograms, the full meaning of which was only
known to an elite few. The first known use of a modern cipher was by Julius Caesar (100 B.C. to
44 B.C.), who did not trust his messengers when communicating with his governors and officers.
For this reason, he created a system in which each character in his messages was replaced by a
character three positions ahead of it in the Roman alphabet as shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Viualization of Caesar cipher

It is easy to see that such ciphers depend on the secrecy of the system and not on the encryption
key. Once the system is known, these encrypted messages can easily be decrypted. In fact,
substitution ciphers can be broken by using the frequency of letters in the language.
During the 16th century, Vigenere designed a cipher that was supposedly the first cipher
that used an encryption key. In one of his ciphers, the encryption key was repeated multiple
times spanning the entire message, and then the cipher text was produced by adding the message
character with the key character modulo 26 as shown in Figure 1.2. As with the Caesar cipher,
Vigenere’s cipher can also easily be broken; however, Vigenere’s cipher brought the very idea of
introducing encryption keys into the picture, though it was poorly executed. Comparing this to

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Caesar cipher, the secrecy of the message depends on the secrecy of the encryption key, rather than
the secrecy of the system.

Figure 1.2: Viualization of Vigenere’s cipher

At the start of the 19th century when everything became electric, Hebern designed an electro-
mechanical contraption which was called the Hebern rotor machine. It uses a single rotor, in which
the secret key is embedded in a rotating disc. The key encoded a substitution table and each key
press from the keyboard resulted in the output of cipher text. This also rotated the disc by one
notch and a different table would then be used for the next plain text character. This was again
broken by using letter frequencies.
The Engima machine was invented by German engineer Arthur Scherbius at the end of World
War I and was heavily used by the German forces during the Second World War. The Enigma
machine used 3 or 4 or even more rotors. The rotors rotate at different rates as you type on the
keyboard and output appropriate letters of cipher text. In this case, the key was the initial setting
of the rotors.
The Enigma machine’s cipher was eventually broken by Poland and the technology was later
transferred to the British cryptographers who designed a means for obtaining the daily key.
Up to the Second World War, most of the work on cryptography was for military purposes,
usually used to hide secret military information. However, cryptography attracted commercial
attention post-war, with businesses trying to secure their data from competitors.
Many researchers proposed cipher schemes to secure the data/text but unfortunately, they were
broken from time to time. In the early 1970’s, IBM realized that their customers were demanding
some form of encryption, so they formed a “crypto group” headed by Horst-Feistel. They designed
a cipher called Lucifer. In 1973, the Nation Bureau of Standards (now called NIST) in the US put
out a request for proposals for a block cipher that would become a national standard. Lucifer was
eventually accepted and was called DES (Data Encryption Standard). In 1997, DES was broken
by an exhaustive search attack. The main problem with DES was the small size of the encryption
key.
In 1997, NIST again put out a request for a proposal for a new block cipher. It received
50 submissions. In 2002, the cipher AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) became a national
standard. Today AES is a widely accepted standard used for symmetric encryption.

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1.2 Introduction
Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence
of third parties. It involves encoding messages or data to ensure that only authorized parties can
access and understand them, while unauthorized parties are unable to decipher the information,
even if they intercept it. The primary goal of cryptography is to provide various security services,
including confidentiality, integrity, authenticity and non-repudiation.
Confidentiality ensures that information remains private and only accessible to authorized
individuals by using cryptographic techniques such as encryption to encode plaintext into ciphertext,
rendering it unintelligible to anyone without the decryption key. Integrity guarantees that information
remains unchanged during transmission or storage, employing hash functions and digital signatures
to detect any unauthorized modifications. Authenticity allows parties to verify each other’s identities
and confirm the legitimacy of messages or transactions using digital signatures and cryptographic
certificates. Non-repudiation ensures that parties cannot deny their involvement in communications
or transactions, facilitated by digital signatures that provide irrefutable proof of participation.
Cryptography encompasses a wide range of techniques and algorithms, including symmetric-
key cryptography and asymmetric-key cryptography. Other cryptographic primitives include hash
functions, random number generators and cryptographic protocols.
Cryptography was widely used in military, diplomatic and government applications till 1970.
In 1980, the telecommunications and financial industries installed hardware cryptographic devices.
The mobile phone system was the first cryptographic application in the late 1980s. Nowadays,
everyone uses cryptographic applications in their daily lives. Our daily lives are commonly dependent
on the secure transmission of information and data. Online shopping, cell phone messages, calls,
ATMs, electronic mail, facsimile, wireless media and data transfer over the internet all require a
system to maintain the secrecy and integrity of private information.
As with most technologies, cryptography has become increasingly sophisticated. But that does
not mean that these encryptions cannot be broken. If the keys are compromised, an external
party can crack the coding and read the protected data. Here are few potential issues noticed:
weak keys, using keys incorrectly, not changing keys, insider attacks, forgetting the backup,
and recording keys incorrectly. There are also specific cryptography attacks designed to break
through encryptions by finding the right key. Few common attacks are: brute force attacks, chosen
ciphertext attack, chosen plaintext attack and algorithm attack.
In recent times, cryptography has turned into a battleground for some of the world’s best
mathematicians and computer scientists. The ability to securely store and transfer sensitive information
has proved a critical factor in success in war and business. Because governments do not want
certain entities in and out of their countries to have access to ways to receive and send hidden
information that might be a threat to national interests. Cryptography has been subject to various
restrictions in many countries, ranging from limitations of the usage and export of software to the
public dissemination of mathematical concepts that could be used to develop cryptosystems.

5
 The internet has allowed the spread of powerful programs; however, the underlying techniques
of cryptography have changed. Today, the most advanced cryptosystems and many ideas are now
in the public domain.
Before going into literature, we give some basic definitions related to cryptography that will be
helpful for our future work.

1.2.1 Preliminaries

Definition 1.2.1 Cryptology. The word cryptology originated from two Greek words kryptos (Hidden)
and logos (words). Hence cryptology is a science for the safe and secure communication of data.
It consists of two fields of study named:

1. Cryptanalysis

2. Cryptography

Definition 1.2.2 Cryptanalysis. Cryptanalysis is the study of principles and methods of transforming
the plaintext from the ciphertext (breaking a code) without knowing key.

There are also specific cryptography attacks designed to break through encryptions by finding the
right key. Here are some of the common:

• Brute force attacks: Broad attacks that try to randomly guess private keys using the known
algorithm.

• Chosen ciphertext attack: The opposite of a chosen plaintext attack, here, the attacker
analyses a section of ciphertext against its corresponding plaintext to discover the key.

• Chosen plaintext attack: Here, the third party chooses the plaintext for a corresponding
ciphertext to begin working out the encryption key.

• Algorithm attack: In these attacks, the cybercriminal analyses the algorithm to try and
work out the encryption key.

Definition 1.2.3 Crptography. Cryptography is the practice of hiding information and is used
to protect the information from a third party. It can be used to obscure any form of digital
communication, including text, images, video, or audio.

Our focus is on cryptography. The following terminologies are frequently used in today’s cryptography:

• Plaintext: An original or data in its readable form is called plaintext.

• Encryption: The process of converting confidential data into secret codes or an unreadable
form by using cryptographic techniques is called encryption.

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 • Ciphertext: An unreadable or encrypted form of confidential data is called a ciphertext.

• Crptosystem: A cryptosystem is a five-tuple (P, Q, R, S, T ), where the following conditions

are satisfied:

I. P is a finite set of possible plaintexts.

II. Q is a finite set of possible ciphertexts.
III. R, the keyspace, is a finite set of possible keys
IV. For each k ∈ K, there is an encryption rule ek ∈ S and corresponding decryption rule
dk ∈ T . Each ek : P → Q and dk : Q → P are functions such that dk (ek (x)) = x for every
plaintext element x ∈ P.

Figure 1.3 shows a general description of the encryption and decryption process.

Figure 1.3: Encryption and decryption channel

Shannon developed two principles, confusion and diffusion, to improve the security of the
cryptosystem.

• Confusion: Confusion is the process of making the relationship between the ciphertext and
the key as difficult as possible so that no one, even if they know the cipher, cannot figure out
the key.

• Diffusion: Diffusion is the technique of spreading out the influence of one plaintext bit on
many ciphertext bits such that statistical redundancy in the plaintext cannot be recognized.

Mainly cryptography has two categories:

• Symmetric key cryptography

• Asymmetric key cryptography

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Definition 1.2.4 Symmetric key cryptography. A private key is a cryptographic key used in an
encryption algorithm to both encrypt and decrypt data. There are two main disadvantages of the
private key: Key Sharing and authentication. Figure 1.4 shows the pattern of the symmetric key.

Figure 1.4: Symmetric key cryptography

Definition 1.2.5 Asymmetric key cryptography. Asymmetric key cryptography is a method of

encrypting and decrypting data using two separate keys, the first one is a public key and the second
is a private (secret) key. Figure 1.5 shows the pattern of the asymmetric key.

Figure 1.5: Asymmetric key cryptography

Definition 1.2.6 Modulus. Suppose a and b are integers, and m is a positive integer. Then we
write a ≡ b(modm) if m divides b − a. The integer m is called modulus.

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Here are some ciphers/schemes that were used to initial for encrypting and decrypting using the
symmetric key and asymmetric key.

Definition 1.2.7 Shift Cipher. Let P = Q = R = Z26 . For 0 ≤ k ≤ 26, define

ek (x) = (x + k)mod26

and
dk (y) = (y − k)mod26
where x, y ∈ Z2 6.

Example

Suppose the key for Shift Cipher is k = 11, and plaintext is

wewillmeetatmidnight

We would use the Shift Cipher (with a modulus of 26) to encrypt ordinary English text by setting
up a corresponding between alphabetic characters and residues modulus as follows: a ↔ 0, b ↔ 1,
↔ 2,... z ↔ 25.
We first convert the plaintext to a sequence of integers using the above correspondence, and we
obtain the following:

22 4 22 8 11 11 12 4 4 199
0 19 12 8 3 13 8 6 7 19

Next, we add 11 to each value, reducing each sum modulo 26:

7 15 7 19 22 22 23 15 15 4
11 4 23 19 14 24 19 17 18 4

Finally, we convert the sequence of integers to alphabetic characters, obtaining the ciphertext:

hphtwwxppelextoytrse

To decrypt the ciphertext, the receiver will first convert the ciphertext to a sequence of integers,
then subtract from each value (reducing modulo 26 and finally convert the sequence of integers of
alphabetic characters.

Definition 1.2.8 Substitution Cipher. Let P = Q = Z26 . R consists of all possible permutations
of the 26 symbols 0, 1, 2,..., 25. For each permutation π ∈ R, define

eπ (x) = π(x)

and define
dπ (y) = π −1 (y)
where π −1 is the inverse permutation of π.

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Definition 1.2.9 Affine Cipher. Let P = Q = Z26 . and let

R = {(a, b) ∈ Z26 × Z26 : gcd(a, 26) = 1

For k = (a, b) ∈ R, define

ek (x) = (ax + b)mod26

and
dk (y) = a−1 (y − b)mod26

where x, y ∈ Z26 .

Definition 1.2.10 Vigenere Cipher. Let m be a positive integer. Define P = Q = R = (Z26 )m . For
a key k = (k1 , k2 , k3 , ..., km ), we define

ek (x1 , x2 , x3 , ..., xm ) = (x1 + k1 , x2 + k2 , x3 + k3 , ..., xm + km )

and
dk (y1 , y2 , y3 , ..., ym ) = (y1 − k1 , y2 − k2 , y3 − k3 , ..., ym − km )

where all operations are performed in Z26 .

Definition 1.2.11 Hill Cipher. Let m ≥ 2 be an unteger. Let P = Q = (Z26 )2 and let

R = {m × m invertible matrices over Z26 }

For a key k, we define

ek (x) = xk

and
dk (y) = yk−1

where all operations are performed in Z26 .

Definition 1.2.12 Galois Field. The elements of Galois Field G(pn ) is defined as

G(pn ) = (0, 1, 2, ..., p − 1)

∪ (p, p + 1, p + 2, ..., p + p − 1)

∪ (p2 , p2 + 1, p2 + 2, ..., p2 + p − 1) ∪ ...

∪ (pn−1 , pn−1 + 1, pn−1 + 2, ..., pn−1 + p − 1)

where p ∈ P and n ∈ Z + . The order of the field is given by pn while p is called the characteristic
of the field. The degree of polynomial of each element is at most n − 1.

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Example

G(23 ) = (0, 1, 2, 2 + 1, 22 , 22 + 1, 22 + 2, 22 + 2 + 1)

= (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)

which consists of 23 = 8 elements where each of them is a polynomial of degree at most 2 evaluated
at 2. The binary representation of the elements of G(23 ) is

G(23 ) = (001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111)

Similarly many encryption algorithms were proposed. Recently, Advance Encryption Standard
(AES) has been used to produce confusion in plaintext. It follows the scheme of the asymmetric
key cryptosystem.

1.3 Literature review

Cryptography provides a way for everyone to communicate securely and plays a major role in
the security of data. Encryption of a message ensures that the meaning is concealed in it so
that someone who reads the message cannot understand anything about it unless people crack
the message [1].
In cryptography, the substitution box (S-box) plays a major role in maintaining safe communic-
ation. In 1949, Shannon proposed the concept of an S-box. In creating confusion in data, S-boxes
play a key role. According to Shannon, hiding the relationship between the key and cipher text is
known as confusion, while hiding the statistical relationship between plain text and cipher text is
known as diffusion [2].
In literature, for creating confusion very well-known S-boxes are available in data and information,
such as data encryption standard (DES), advanced encryption standard (AES), affine power affine,
Gray, and Residue Prime Substitution boxes. In 1974, the National Bureau of Standards requested
to create a strong cryptosystem that could be used in unclassified U.S. applications. So, DES was
developed by IBM and was adopted by NIST (then called the National Bureau of Standards) on
January 15, 1977. It soon became the most widely used cryptosystem in the world. However,
from the very beginning, DES attracted criticism for not having a sufficiently large key space to
make it secure. The size of the key space in DES is 256. From early on, attempts were made
to build a special-purpose machine devoted exclusively to the task of breaking the DES code.
In 1998 a massively parallel network computer, called “DES Cracker,” was built by Electronic
Frontier Foundation EFF that could search 88 billion DES keys per second. It succeeded in finding
a DES secret key in 56 h. In 1999, working in conjunction with a worldwide network of 100,000
computers, the DES Cracker could search 245 billion keys per second and succeed in finding a
secret DES key in a little more than 22 hours. It was thus clear that DES was no longer a secure

11
cryptosystem [3]. Therefore it was necessary to phase out the DES and adopt a more secure
encryption standard.
A brief description of the latest cryptosystem is approved for general use by the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). It is called the Advanced Encryption Standard
(AES) and was adopted, effective May 26, 2002, as the official Federal Information Processing
Standard (FIPS) to be used by all U.S. government organizations to protect sensitive information.
It is also expected to be used by other organizations, institutions, and individuals all over the world.
The enciphering algorithm in AES was designed by two Belgian cryptographers, Dr. Joan Daeman
and Dr. Vincent Rijmen. It was given the name Rijndael (pronounced “rhine dahl”). The basic
structure of the Rijndael algorithm is that of an iterated block cipher but with some additional
features [4].
An S-box generator is appropriate for cryptographic purposes if it can efficiently make highly
dynamic S-boxes with good cryptographic properties or tests like nonlinearity, bit independence
criterion, strict avalanche criterion, linear approximation probability, and differential approximation
probability.
For designing S-boxes, numerous techniques are presented in the literature such as algebraic
[9], chaos-based [10] and pseudorandom [11]. Because of their exceptional cryptographic properties,
S-boxes designed based on algebraic structures such as inversion mapping became very famous
[12].
Zaı̈bi et al. developed an active S-box based on a one-dimensional chaotic map i.e. logistic
and piecewise linear chaotic map [13]. This research results in very low linear and differential
probabilities. Moreover, Zaı̈bi et al. developed a dynamic S-box using the combination of two
chaotic maps i.e. one-dimensional and three-dimensional piece-wise linear maps. The dynamic
S-box was tested using The NIST test package and the result was that the dynamic S-box had the
lowest linear approximation probability [14].
Das et al. developed a new S-box, which was dynamically constructed using automatically
generated irreducible polynomials [15]. Each generated polynomial will generate different encryption
–decryption performance. Consequently, the security will also increase. Wang and Sun conducted
research on the possibility of irreducible polynomial p(x) = x8 + x6 + x5 + x + 1, which was used in
building an S-box [16]. This irreducible polynomial was found to be optimal. Meanwhile, research
by Gangadaril and Ahamed also produced an irreducible polynomial q(x) = x8 + x6 + x5 + x + 1
that is better than AES’ irreducible polynomial [17].
Sajjad et al. proposed the encryption scheme using a quaternion integer ring. The subsequent
procedures are useful for constructing S-boxes over the residue class of QI, as follows: First,
construct a cyclic group of the residue class of QI. Secondly, apply permutation through affine
mapping. Third, separate the real parts and coefficients of the vector parts. Fourthly, apply modulo
over the separated real parts and coefficients of the vector parts. Fifth, select the first non-repeated
element from the elements generated in step four. The elements acquired in step five are the
elements of S-box [18].

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 To create confusion on data, for the construction of S-boxes, many researchers used different
schemes with algebraic and statistical structures. The authors proposed S-boxes over the permutation
of the symmetric group in [5]. The construction of S-boxes over the action of the quotient of a
modular group by using a secure scheme is given in [6]. The construction of the S-box based on
the subgroup of the Galois field is given in [[7]. The author proposed a strong encryption scheme
by using a modified Chebyshev map, AES S-boxes, and a symmetric group of permutations [8].
Two methods for constructing S-boxes with high nonlinearity are presented. The first method
uses two vector Boolean functions from the Maiorana–McFarland, and the second method employs
a slightly suitable modification of bent functions. In [22], the author proposed S-box over the
Mobius group and finite field. The author proposed an S-box on a nonlinear chaotic map in [23].
Adnan et al. designed the construction of a non-linear component of block cipher employing a
chaotic dynamical system and symmetric group [25]. All these structures can be helpful for the
construction of significant S-boxes. Our plan is to propose the S-box using some finite field.

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1.4 Research objectives
There are many open problems in cryptography. There will be several topics of interest in this
research. Some of the main objectives are mentioned here. In this regard, we will strive to achieve
the following goals, if at all possible.

1. We will propose an encryption scheme for the S-box using a finite field.

2. We will propose a scheme to encrypt the specific part image.

3.

4.

1.4.1 Timeline
The tentative timeline for the research is given below in the table:

Estimated Timeline Research Activities

Fall 2024 Literature review and first research problem
Spring 2025 Second research problem
Fall 2025 General seminar
Spring 2026 Third research problem
Fall 2026 Research seminar and thesis write-up
Spring 2027 Thesis submission

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