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Chapter 2 - Principles of Management

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 School Management and Administration

Chapter 2
Principles of Management

“…the application of theories by practicing administrators [is] a

difficult and problematic undertaking. Indeed, it is clear that theories
are simply not used very much in the realm of practice. This comment
suggests that theory and practice are regarded as separate aspects of
educational leadership and management…” -Willower, 1980.

Introduction
This chapter discusses principles of Management. It shows that such principles are not
absolute. The comment (ibid) alluded to at the beginning of this chapter should indeed be
a cause for worry if theory and practice were to continually be regarded as separate aspects
of educational leadership and management. The ideal situation must be one in which these
two are seen to intertwine so well that they enhance the delivery educational leadership
and management. This chapter, therefore, attempts to do so through discussing the
following: 1. Definitions (Principle, Management, and Principles of Management),
Principles of Management in Discussion and their application is a school setup (Planning,
Organizing, Leading, Controlling, Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, and
Controlling), General Principles of Management (Division of work, Authority and
responsibility, Discipline, Unity of command, Unity of Direction, Subordination of
individual to general interest, Remuneration, Centralization, Scalar Chain, Order, Equity,
Stability of Tenure, Initiative, and Esprit de Corps), and summary. The chapter gives
examples of principles of Management in the following discussions.

2.1. Definitions
To set a background to the discussions in this chapter, the following terminologies are
defined first. The statement ‘Principles of Management’ is broken down into two –
Principle and Management and are defined separately. Later, the statement is defined as
one.

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(1) Principle: A principle is a fundamental truth that is generally specified in the form of
cause and effect inter-relationship (Gupta, n. d.). This is in line with the Dictionary.com
website’s definition:

“…an accepted or professed rule of action or conduct; a fundamental,

primary, or general law or truth from which others are derived.”

(2) Management: From the Management Process School point of view, management is the
art of getting things done through and with the people in formally organized groups
(Koontz, 1961). Baijumon (2011) considers Management as the process of getting things
done through the effort of others - getting from where we are to where we want to be with
the least expenditure of time, money and efforts, or coordinating individual and group
efforts towards super-ordinate goals. For conceptual, theoretical, and analytical purposes,
McFarland (1977) defines Management as that process by which Managers create, direct,
maintain, and operate purposive organization through systematic coordinated co-operative
human effort. In reaching the conclusive definition of Management, Baijumon (2011)
indicates that this is the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which
individuals, working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected aims.

(3) Principles of Management: In the words of Gupta (n. d.), management principles are
the statements of general truth that provide guidance to thought or action. In quoting
Herbert G. Hicks (ibid) indicates: “Principles of management are the guiding rules of laws
for managerial action.” The Saylor.org website (n. d.) describes principles of management
as means by which managers actually get things done through others - individually, in
groups, or in organizations. The same website (ibid) formally defines principles of
management in terms of the activities that “plan, organize, and control the operations of
the basic elements of [people], materials, machines, methods, money and markets,
providing direction and coordination, and giving leadership to human efforts, so as to
achieve the sought objectives of the enterprise.”

2.2 Principles of Management

This section of the chapter discusses principles of management with illustrations on their
applicability in a school setup. Baijumon (2011) observes that Henry Fayol made a
distinction between management principles and management elements:

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While management principle is a fundamental truth and establishes

cause-effect relationship, management element denotes the function
performed by a manager - Henry Fayol.

Further, Baijumon (2011) notes that Fayol has emphasized two things namely (i) the list of
management principles is not exhaustive but suggestive and has discussed only those
principles, which he followed on most occasions, and (ii) Principles of management are not
rigid but flexible. As a buildup on what was briefly discussed under unit 2.6 (in the
previous chapter), a more detailed discussion is carried out on principles of management.

The Saylor.org website (n. d.) observes that Principles of management are often discussed
using a framework called P-O-L-C, which stands for planning, organizing, leading, and
controlling. The website (ibid) further observes that the four functions, summarized in the
P-O-L-C figure, are actually highly integrated when carried out in the day-to-day realities
of running an organization. It (ibid) cautions that these are not absolute in themselves:
…you should not get caught up in trying to analyze and understand a complete, clear
rationale for categorizing skills and practices that compose the whole of the P-O-L-C
framework. The current writer proposes figure 2.1 based on the Saylor.org website to show
the principles of management framework. The following paragraphs treat this framework
in a detailed manner.

Figure 2.1: The P-O-L-C framework

Planning

Principles of Management
Framework

Controlling Organisation

Leading

Source: Saylor.org website

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(1) Planning: A plan is a scheme or method of acting, doing, proceeding, making, etc.,
that is developed in advance (Dictionary.com website). Coming up with a plan is the
function of management. It involves setting objectives and determining a course of action
for achieving them (Saylor.org website, n. d.). Planning requires that managers be aware of
the environmental conditions facing their organizations for which they must be in a
position to forecast future conditions for their institutions. As such, it is a requirement that
mangers be good decision makers. For Baijumon (2011), planning is the first management
function, which is created to accomplish the mission and vision of the business entity – in
this case, the mission and vision of a school. Under the mission is considered the reason
for the existence or establishment of the school, while under the vision is reflected the aim
of the school. In conclusion, planning may be broadly defined as a concept of executive
action that embodies the skills of anticipating, influencing, and controlling the nature and
direction of change in an institution (ibid).

Application of planning: Planning is very essential to the school situation. The

Headteacher, Deputy Headteacher, Mid Management teams, and Heads of various
Departments must plan the school’s activities in order to enhance effective running of their
schools. Plans would include holding of staff meetings at opening and closing times of the
school, dates for holding staff briefings and school assemblies, schedules for submission of
records of work, times for administering end of topic, mid-term, and end of term tests.
Other plans would comprise enlisting of major projects the school would undertake in a
specific period time indicating the costs. Each school must endeavor to come up with a
good plan, because without such, the school takes a great risk of running the institution
under impulse attendance to issues. This leads to making mistakes that would lead to
compromise of the educational delivery. With reference to an acronym that is commonly
attributed to Drucker (2001)’s Management by objective, a plan must be SMART: Specific
(simple, sensible, and significant), Measurable (meaningful, and motivating), Attainable
(achievable, and agreed), Realistic (relevant, reasonable, resourceful, and results-based),
and Time bound (time-based, time limited, time/cost limited, timely, and time sensitive).

(2) Organizing: To organize is to form as or into a whole consisting of interdependent or

coordinated parts, especially for united action (Dictionary.com website). Organizing is the
function of management that involves developing an organizational structure and
allocating both material and human resources to ensure the accomplishment of an

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institution’s objectives (Saylor.org website, n. d.). Baijumon (2011), refers to organizing as

basically involving analysis of activities to be performed for achieving organizational
objectives, grouping them into various departments and sections so that these can be
assigned to various individuals and delegating them appropriate authority to enable
stakeholders properly carry them out.

Application of organizing: At school level, the organization of the school is the

background from which group and individual efforts are coordinated. The school
organigram in its graphic representation will guide the school’s chain of command. The
school is divided into Administration, Middle Management, Departments, and sections.
Each of these plays its role to fulfil the unified purpose and issues are dealt with by use of
the ‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-up’ approaches. The Saylor.org website (n. d.) refers to
decisions made about the structure of an organization as organizational design decisions.
Here below is an example proposed by the current author as shown in figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Example of School Organigram

Headteacher

The communication The Deputy Headteacher

command starts from gives feedback to the
the Headteacher… Headteacher…

Deputy Headteacher

School Parents – Teachers’

Management Board Association

Heads of Department

Heads of Departments Teachers give feedbacks to

ensure that teaching and the supervisors…
learning is taking place…

Teachers

Teachers give Learners give a feedback

instruction/teaching to Pupils to their teachers through
learners… assignments/exercises…

Source: Current author, 2020

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(3) Leading: To lead as to guide in direction, course, action, opinion, etc.; bring
(Dictionary.com website). The Saylor.org website (n. d.) depicts Leading as involving the
social and informal sources of influence that a person uses to inspire action taken by
others. If managers are effective leaders, their subordinates will be enthusiastic about
exerting effort to attain organizational objectives. In short, education leaders ought to lead
and their subordinates to follow.

Application of leading: Leading is what school leaders do in mobilizing those they work
with so that as a team they struggle towards meeting the common goal of the school. The
Saylor.org website (n. d.) is of the standpoint that if management is defined as getting
things done through others, then school leadership should be defined as the social and
informal sources of influence that school leaders use to inspire action taken by others in
the line of school operations. Without this component of the Principles of Management, a
school and its members would luck direction.

(4) Controlling: Controlling is the act or power of controlling; regulation; domination or

command (Dictionary.com website). For Baijumon (2011), the control process tries to find
out deviations between planed performance and actual performance and to suggest
corrective actions wherever these are needed. Controlling is a forward-looking function as
one can control the future happenings and not the past. Every manager has to perform the
control function in the organization. The Saylor.org website (n. d.) perceives Controlling as
involving the alignment of performance and standards through the utilization of three
steps: (1) establishing performance standards, (2) comparing actual performance against
standards, and (3) taking corrective action when necessary.

Application of controlling: This is discussed under (i) Standards, and (ii) Performance.
Performance standards are often expressed in monetary terms such as revenue, costs, or
profits (school finance committee coming up with a school budget and ensuring that it
guides the financial discipline of the institution). Other means through which standards in
a school are created is in form of enrolment figures; that is, how many pupils enter the
school at grade 8 and how many graduate and leave the school at grade 12. This would
ensure controlled enrolments that are able to produce a certain amount of income through
fees and assist equitable service delivery of education. The measurement of performance
is in form of regular financial reports/statements, examination results analyses, pupils,
teachers, and parents’ feedbacks on satisfaction. Regular evaluations of school programs

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and activities are then utilized to make amendments to plans in order to enhance
education delivery and performance of the school. Education leaders at all levels of school
management must endeavor to use controlling to a greater extent in order to attain
effective school management.

2.3 Core functions of Management

In addition to the P-O-L-C framework that was discussed earlier, Baijumon (2011)
proposes five core functions that constitute the Scope of Management. These are (1)
Planning, (2) Organizing, (3) Staffing, (4) Directing, and (5) Controlling (P-O-S-D-C). Note
the absence of Leading and the inclusion of Staffing and Directing.

Figure 2.3: The P-O-S-D-C framework

Planning Organisation

Scope of Management

Controlling Staffing
Directing

Source: Baijumon, 2011

(1) Planning: This is the first management function performed by managers. The plan
must include the time framework in which necessary resources to fulfill it will be met.
Accordingly, the plan of an organization is developed together with required personnel;
method of leading people is defined and controlling instruments for monitoring the
realization of plans are put in place. The guiding idea in the making of mentioned items is
the realization of the objectives and fulfilling the mission and vision of the business entity
(compare with figure 2.1).

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(2) Organizing: This is the second function for managers. In part, it determines the ranges
of management, type of organizational structure, authority in the organization, types, and
ways of delegating and developing lines of communication. The organization and its
subsystems are placed under the plan, which was created as part of functions at the level of
planning (see figure 2.1).

(3) Staffing: Consists of a selection of appropriate members for the organization to reach a
set goal or goals easily and more efficiently. Staff is a form of human resource. It is one of
the more valuable, if not the most valuable resource in any successful organization. For
this reason, good planning of personnel policies, as a function of management, and
corresponding execution of that selection of high quality people is becoming increasingly
important. Staffing involves matching jobs and individuals.

Application of staffing: This is tackled here because this function is not part of the P-O-
L-C discussed earlier. The school must have set rules (code of conduct) related to
employment and personnel policies. The school should also come up with programs along
the line of work force planning, selection, training (through school based continuous
professional development), performance appraisal, staff evaluation, monitoring,
promotions, and transfers to facilitate the effective performance of manpower.

(4) Directing: This is an important managerial function through which management

initiates actions in the organization. It is a function of management, which is related with
instructing, guiding, and inspiring human factor in the organization to achieve
organization objectives. It is a function to be performed at every level of management. In
keeping with Baijumon (2011), Direction is a continuous process and it continues
throughout the life of the organization.

Application of directing: This is another function of management that is not part of the
earlier discussed P-O-L-C framework. On the one hand, it aims at getting things done by
subordinates and, on the other, provides superiors opportunities for some more important
work, which their subordinates cannot do. The Headteacher and his/her Deputy use
directing to ensure that school programs are adhered to in the school. They will do this
through the Mid Management team, which in turn will exert its directing authority on the
Heads of Department. Likewise, the Heads of Depart will ensure that those under them

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carry out their duties accordingly. This gives the leaders more time to attend to other
responsibilities that no one else will carry out apart from them.

(5) Controlling: This is any process that guides activity towards some pre-determined
goals. It is applicable to any field such as price control, distribution control, pollution
control etc. Baijumon (2011) defines controlling as the process of analyzing whether
actions are being taken as planned and if not, taking corrective actions to make these to
conform to planning. It is not a one off activity but a continuous process and control
system is a co-ordinate integrated system. Performance of various managerial functions in
an integrated way ensures fair degree of co-ordination among individuals and
departments.

Co-ordination is related with the synchronization of efforts, which have amount, time, and
direction attributes. Co-ordination is thus treated as the essence of management. There
would be no control without coordination.

2.4 General Principles of Management

Baijumon (2011) outlines the 14 Fayol General Principles of Management, which,
according to the author (ibid), are important in management. They include (1) Division of
work, (2) Authority and responsibility, (3) Discipline , (4) Unity of command, (5) Unity of
Direction, (6) Subordination of individual to general interest, (7) Remuneration, (8)
Centralization, (9) Scalar Chain, (10) Order, (11) Equity, (12) Stability of Tenure, (13)
Initiative, and (14) Esprit de Corps. They are discussed the consequent paragraphs.

(1) Division of work: This principle suggests that work should be assigned to a person for
which he or she is best suited. Work should be divided up to that stage where it is optimum
and just. This division of work can be applied at all levels of the organization. Fayol has
advocated division of work to take the advantages of specialization.

Application of division of work: This is evidently applicable to the school setup when
dealing with teaching subjects and specialization for teachers in a school in Zambia. Not
everyone teaches all subjects at secondary school level, for instance! Teachers are
specialized to teach specific subjects and they are assigned to schools depending on the
needs for various subjects. The subject areas and also subdivided into departments and
sections. This maximizes the education delivery. Where topics are similar; there is

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collaboration between departments to bring about incorporated output to lesson delivery

achieved through school based continuous professional development (SBCPD).

(2) Authority and responsibility: Authority is the power to determine, adjudicate, or

otherwise settle issues or disputes; jurisdiction; the right to control, command, or
determine (Dictionary.com website). Authority, according to Baijumon (2011), includes
official authority (derived from the manager‘s position) and personal authority (derived
from the personal qualities). In order to discharge the responsibility properly, there should
be parity of authority and responsibility. The Dictionary.com website sees responsibility as
the state or fact of being answerable, or accountable for something within one's power,
control, or management. For Baijumon (2011), Responsibility means the work assigned to
any person, and authority means rights that are given to that person to perform the work.

Application of Authority and responsibility: Starting from the Managing Agency,

Management Board, the Head teacher, the Deputy Head teacher, Senior Teachers, Mid
Management, Heads of Department up to the class teacher, there exists authority and
responsibilities. This is according to one’s power, control, or management and it is a
requirement that there be adequate authority to discharge the responsibility at hand.

(3) Discipline: This principle emphasizes that subordinates should respect their superiors
and obey their orders. On the other hand, the behaviour of superiors should be in such a
way that they make subordinates obedient. If such discipline is observed, there will be no
problem of industrial disputes. Discipline is obedience, application, energy, behavior, and
outward mark of respect shown by employees.

Application of discipline: While the school setup is not necessarily like in an industry,
Discipline is an essential component that must be observed by all starting with
administrators, teachers and pupils are no exception. This is why there must be the code of
conduct for staff and school rules and regulations for pupils. Baijumon (2011) proposes
two types disciplines: self-imposed (which springs from within the individual and is in the
nature of spontaneous response to a skillful leader) and command (which stems from a
recognized authority). Pupils, for instance, learn from this principle that society requires
rules to regulate behaviour and any punishment inflicted is by way of correction and
training for both the present and the future.

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(4) Unity of command: Subordinates should receive orders from one superior only. If they
receive orders from more than one person, they can satisfy none. The more completely an
individual has a reporting relationship to a single superior, the less is the problem of
conflict in instructions and the greatest is the feeling of personal responsibility for results.

Application of unity of command: While Fayol (in Baijumon, 2011) has considered
unity of command as an important aspect in managing an organization, there should be
some form of modification with regard to the school environment. Though the
Headteacher would be the superior from whom orders in the school would flow from,
he/she has to find a workable way to do it. Such orders must flow through those under
his/her supervision so that when they command, it is as if the Headteacher has
commanded. Of course, he/she has to ensure that the command is well understood to
avoid disorder and conflict in instruction.

(5) Unity of Direction: Each group of activities having the same objective must have one
head and one plan. In the absence of this principle, there may be wastage, over expenditure
and useless rivalry in the same organisation. Baijumon (2011) observes a distinction that
lies between unity of direction (concerned with functioning of the organization in respect
of its grouping its activities or planning) and unity of command (concerned with personnel
at all levels in the organization in terms of reporting relationship).

Application of unity of direction: School departments are based on the subject

groupings (for instance, social sciences having staff that teach civic education, geography,
history, religious education). These subject areas will have common schemes aimed at
meeting the departmental goals.

(6) Subordination of individual to general interest: While taking any decision, the general
interest (the interest of the organization as a whole) should be preferred to individual
interests. Individual interest must be subordinate to general interest when there is a
conflict between the two. Superiors should set an example in fairness and goodness.

Application of Subordination of individual to general interests: Rather than

consider individual interests to be inferior to those of the school, it is better to meet in the
middle. However, Individuals must realise that the general interest of the school comes
first. Thus individual serve the interests of the school and expect to be handsomely paid for

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their services to the school. In this regard, their interests are taken care of as they will be
able to take care of their own families.

(7) Remuneration: Management should try to give fair wages to the employees and
employees should have the satisfaction of being rightly paid. Remuneration must give
satisfaction to both the employers and employees.

Application of remuneration: This is applicable to private schools in Zambia since

such schools pay staff their wages and salaries. The situation is completely different for
Grant Aided and Public/Government schools whose staff are paid by the government.
Teacher unions outside the school environment do negotiations for improvement on
conditions of service and increase of remunerations.

(8) Centralization: Everything which goes to increase the importance of subordinate‘s role
is decentralization and everything which goes to reduce it is centralization. An organisation
only becomes centralized when a single person controls its affairs. In small concerns, a
single manager can supervise the work of the subordinates easily, while in a big
organization, control is divided among a number of persons. Thus, centralization is more
in small concerns and it is less in big concerns. It must be noted then that the less the
centralization, the greater is the importance of the subordinates.

Application of Centralization: Fayol‘s opinion [in Baijumon, 2011) was that the degree
of centralization should be fixed on the basis of capabilities of the persons. Since persons
and their capabilities differ one from another, the degree to which a school could either be
centralized or decentralized will also vary. This principle of management would not work
well for education, as schools would run differently depending on the capabilities. The
notion of control being divided, however, is what is in place in schools in as far as control is
designated to departments and sections of an individual school.

(9) Scalar Chain: This is the chain of superiors from the highest to the lowest ranks. The
order of this chain should be maintained when some instructions are to be passed on or
enquiries are to be made. The principle suggests that each communication going up or
coming down must flow through each position in the line of authority. It can be short
circuited only in special circumstances when its rigid following would be detrimental to the
organization. For this purpose, Fayol has suggested gang Plank that is used to prevent the
scalar chain from bogging down action.

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Application of Scalar Chain: Strict adherence to the Scalar Chain has the potential to
build up into red tape (excessive formality and routine required before official action can
be taken). This is likely to hinder school progress. The best way to counter this is to utilize
Fayol’s ‘gang plank’, which would come in form of school organisation system. When a
matter must be discussed to reach consensus, the Headteacher and his Deputy should call
for a meeting with Mid Management for consultation. Once this has been done, the views
so far collected should then be tabled with the individual members of the departments.
Heads of Departments will communicate to their members. Lastly, there should be a staff
meeting in which resolutions would be arrived at, followed by a school assembly at which
the Headteacher will address the entire school and communicate the resolution.

(10) Order: This is a principle relating to the arrangement of things and people. In material
order, there should be a place for everything and everything should be in its place. In the
social order dispensation, there must be the right person for the right concept or position.
Placement of men and materials should be properly made. Proper space should be made
available where materials can be kept safely. Each man should be provided the work for
which he is best suited.

Application of Order: The Order Principle in the school must be applied at both
material and social levels. At the former level, school materials must be in a condition in
which each item is properly disposed with reference to other things and to its purpose. This
should start from the school’s stores section, departmental rooms, staffroom, and the
administrators’ offices. At the later level, for effective implementation of the school
curriculum and syllabi, qualified personnel must be in place to meet the school goals.

(11) Equity: Equity is the quality of being fair or impartial (Dictionary.com website). This
principle requires managers to be kind and just so that loyalty can be won from the
subordinates. Equity is a combination of justice and kindness. The application of equity
requires good sense, experience, and good nature for soliciting loyalty and devotion from
subordinates.

Application of Equity: It is so vital at both classroom and institutional level in a school

setup. When teachers and educational leaders give feedbacks to their respective groups,
they must ensure there is no biasness or unfairness. Teachers, for instance, have to award

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grades based on effort put in and not just because they like one pupil over others. Equally,
administrators must treat their subordinates with fairness and not create camps.

(12) Stability of Tenure: This principle boarders on employees being selected for the
purpose of stability of employment. They must be given necessary training so that they
become productive. There must not be frequent termination of employment. Stability of
tenure is essential to get an employee accustomed to new work and succeeding in doing it
well.

Application of Stability of Tenure: This principle of management does not fit very
well in the education setting. Take for instance, a hardworking teacher. If identified to be
exceptional in his/her classroom input, the teacher will be promoted as Head of
Department. This will imply the teacher would have to leave their area of competence (by
teaching less) and concentrating on learning how to administer a department and lead
others. If one succeeds in this new post, he or she is likely to be promoted to the post of
Deputy Headteacher. Again, the cycle of deskilling (to cause skilled persons to work at a
job that does not utilize their skills) will repeat itself.

(13) Initiative: Within the limits of authority and discipline, managers are expected to
encourage their employees towards taking initiative. The Dictionary.com website refers to
initiative as readiness and ability in initiating action or an enterprise. Initiative is
concerned with thinking out and execution of a plan. Initiative increases zeal and energy
on the part of human beings.

Application in the School setup: Initiatives must be checked first before implementing
them in line with authority and discipline. This is likely to assist in averting breeding of
confusion. Proper guidance from school leadership is of paramount importance in this
regard. Imagine a learner coming from a well to do family where all laundry and cleaning is
done for him. When he enters a village boarding set up, he is expected to attend to most of
the laundry. The boy may come up with an initiative for the school to purchase washing
machines to be put at the service of the learners at a fee. Quite a bright idea, but behind
this is hidden the intention of the learner – to run away from doing his chores. After all, he
would easily afford to pay for the washing machine services. How about the poor learners?
Initiative must be vetoed with extra caution to avoid disorder and biasness.

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(14) Esprit de Corps: This is the principle of “Union is strength” and extension of unity
of command for establishing team work. Managers must infuse the spirit of teamwork in
their subordinates.

Application of Esprit de Corps: In a school setup, activities like formulation of school

committees alongside the utilization of Mid Management and Departmental teams in
dealing with the running of school affairs is one way of putting this principle of
management into practice and good use. If issues are to do with school finances, the school
finance committee will give direction to the entire school. If the matter concerns the
maintenance of school infrastructure, the school’s Preventive Maintenance System (PMS)
will come up with a program to attend to such needs while endeavoring to keep the school
clean, green and healthy. Should there be an urgent concern for the school’s academics, the
academics committee will sit down and deal with the concern.

In the mind of Baijumon (2011), Fayol made it clear that these principles can be applied to
most organizations, but these are not absolute principles. Organizations such as schools
are at liberty to adopt those, which suit them, or to do away with a few according to their
needs.

2.3 Summary
As part of the conclusion to the current discussion, the current writer takes advantage of
the comparison of the 14 principles of management between then and now (Rodrigues,
2001) as show in Table 2.1. As it were, these are drawn from a number of academic fields,
principally, the fields of leadership, entrepreneurship, and strategy (Saylor.org
website). These are synchronizes these three fields in the following points:

(i) In terms of principles of management, you can think of leadership, entrepreneurship,

and strategic management as answering questions about “who,” “what,” and “how.”

(ii) Leadership helps you understand who helps lead the organization forward and what
the critical characteristics of good leadership might be.

(iii) Entrepreneurial firms and entrepreneurs in general are fanatical about identifying
opportunities and solving problems - for any organization, entrepreneurship answers big
questions about “what” an organization’s purpose might be.

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(iv) Finally, strategic management aims to make sure that the right choices are made -
specifically, that a good strategy is in place—to exploit those big opportunities.

This paper has discussed in detail the principles of Management, which are not absolute
and several examples given along the issues raised.

Table 2.1: The 14 principles of management: then and now

Principle Then Now
1 Specialization in worker’ job design Generalization in workers’ job design
2 Managers are empowered Employees are empowered
3 Formalized controls Informal, peer-pressure controls
4 Subordinates report to only one boss Subordinates report to multiple bosses
5 Functions have only one plan and one Functions have multiple plans and
boss bosses
6 Employees are committed to the Organisation is committed to employees
organisation and vice versa
7 Reasonable pay reward system Performance based reward system
8 “Trickle-down” decision making Task relevant, ad hoc decision making
9 Hierarchical, formalized communication Less-formalized, flatter communication
structure structure
10 Internal information system for control Internal information system for
purpose coordination purpose
11 Commitment obtained through Commitment obtained through a ‘sense
kindness of ownership’
12 Train employees and encourage them to On-going employee training and
remain development
13 Managers conceive and implement new Workers conceive and implement new
ideas ideas
14 Maintaining high moral among workers Maintaining high morale among workers
is imperative is not imperative

Source: Rodrigues (2001).

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 School Management and Administration

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