Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

Lasers and Optical fibers

Lasers: Characteristics of LASER, Interaction of radiation with matter, Expression for
Energy Density and its significance. Requisites of a Laser System. Conditions for Laser
action. Principle, Construction and Working of Carbon Dioxide Laser. Application of Lasers
in Defence (Laser range finder) and Laser Printing. Numerical

Optical Fibers: Propagation mechanism, angle of acceptance. Numerical aperture. Modes of

propagation and types of optical fibers. Attenuation and Mention of expression for attenuation
coefficient. Discussion of block diagram of point to point communication. Optical fiber
sensors: Intensity based displacement sensor and Temperature sensor based on phase
modulation, Merits and demerits. Numerical problems.
08 Hours

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 1

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

LASERS
 LASER - is the acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
 A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on
stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation.
 The first laser was built in 1960 by T. H. Maiman at Hughes research laboratory based
on the theoretical work by C H Townes and A L Schawlow.

Characteristics of Laser:
Laser light has some unique characteristics that differentiate it from ordinary light. They are as
follows:
 A laser beam is monochromatic.
 It is highly directional.
 It is highly focussed.
 It has high intensity of light.
 It is coherent beam of light.

Production of a laser light is a particular consequence of interaction of radiation with matter.

There are three possible ways through which interaction of radiation with matter can take place
and they are described as follows by considering an atom as quantum system.

(i) Induced Absorption

Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by an atom. As a result of
which the system is elevated from a lower energy state to higher energy state, where the
difference in energy of the two states is precisely equal to the energy of the photon.
Excited state E2 E2

hν = ΔE = E2 – E1

Ground state
E1 E1
Atom in the ground state Atom in the excited state
Before the absorption of a photon After the absorption of a photon

Let E1 and E2 be two energy levels in energy level scheme of an atom in which E1
corresponds to lower energy state or ground state and E2 represents higher energy state or
excited state. Let a photon of energy ΔE = E2 - E1 incident on atom. The atom absorbs it and
made a transition to the excited state. This process is called as induced absorption and is
represented as
atom + photon → atom*
atom* indicates that atom is in excited state.

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 2

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

(ii) Spontaneous emission

It is the emission of a photon when a system transits from a higher energy state to lower
energy state without the aid of any external agency.
Excited state E2 E2
hν = ΔE = E2 – E1

Ground state
E1 E1
Atom in the excited state Atom emitting a photon spontaneously
before the emission of a photon by de-exciting to ground state

Consider an atom in the excited state. When it is coming back to the lowest energy state
the atom voluntarily emits a photon of energy ΔE = E2 - E1. Since the atom emits photon
voluntarily without the aid of any external agent, it is called as spontaneous emission and this
process is represented as,
atom* → atom + photon
(iii) Stimulated emission
It is the emission of a photon by an excited atom by the influence of another photon,
due to which the system transits from excited state to ground state. The photon thus emitted is
called as stimulated photon and it will have same phase, energy and direction of movement as
that of incident photon.
E2 E2

hν = ΔE = E2 – E1 Stimulating photon
Stimulating
photon Emitted photon
E1 E1
Atom in the excited state and another Atom emitting a photon by the
photon coming near the excited atom influence of another photon.
for stimulating the atom to emit a
photon.

Consider an atom in the excited state. Let a photon having an energy ΔE precisely equal
to E2 - E1, interact with the atom by passing in its vicinity. Under such stimulation, the atom
emits a photon and transits to the lower energy state. The two photons travel in exactly the
same direction and with exactly same energy. The electromagnetic waves associated with the
two photons will have identical phase and thus they are coherent. The process can be
represented as
atom* + photon → atom + photon + photon
Einstein Coefficients
 Einstein explored the basic mechanisms involved in the interaction between radiation
and matter.
 Einstein coefficients are mathematical quantities which are a measure of the probability
of absorption or emission of a light by an atom or molecule.

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 3

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

 The Einstein 'A' coefficient is related to the rate of spontaneous emission of light and
'B' coefficients are related to the absorption and stimulated emission of light.
Expression for energy density of radiation under equilibrium condition in terms of
Einstein coefficients
 Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms such that (E2>E1).
 N1 and N2 be the number of atoms with energy E1 and E2 per unit volume of the system
which are called as number density of atoms in the state 1 and 2 respectively.
 Let the radiations with continuous spectrum of frequencies be incident upon the system.
Uν be the energy density of radiations of frequency 'ν'.
 Then Uν dν will be the energy density of radiations whose frequencies lie in the range
ν and ν+dν.
Induced absorption
In this process an atom in the ground state can go to the higher energy state by absorbing
E  E1
a radiation of frequency 'ν' such that   2 ,
h

The number of such absorptions per unit volume is called "rate of absorption". The rate of
absorption depends upon the number density of lower energy state N1 and the energy density
Uν.
∴ Rate of absorption α N1Uν
Rate of absorption = B12N1Uν (1)
Where, B12  Einstein coefficient of induced absorption
Spontaneous emission
In this process an atom in the higher energy state undergoes a transition to the lower
energy state voluntarily by emitting a photon.

Since it is a voluntary transition, it is independent of the energy density of any frequency in the
incident radiation. The number of such spontaneous emissions per unit time per unit volume is

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 4

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

called "rate of spontaneous emission" which is proportional to only the number density in the
higher energy state, i.e. N2.
∴ Rate of spontaneous emission α N2
Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2 (2)
Where, A21  Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission
Stimulated emission
E2  E1
In this process the system requires an external photon of suitable frequency  
h
to stimulate the atom for the corresponding downward transition and thereby cause emission
of stimulated photon.

The number of stimulated emissions per unit time per unit volume is called rate of stimulated
emission.
∴ Rate of stimulated emission α N2Uν
Rate of stimulated emission = B21N2Uν (3)
Where, B21  Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission.
At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission
∴ B12 N1 U  A21 N 2  B21 N 2U
U  B12 N1  B21 N 2   A21 N 2
A21 N 2
U 
 B12 N1  B21 N2 
Divide both numerator denominator of RHS of the above equation by N2,
 
 A21 
U   
 B12 N1  B 
 N 2 21


 
A  1 
U  21   (4)
B21  B12 N1  1 
 B21 N 2 
From Boltzmann's law we have

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 5

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

 ( E 2  E1 )  h
N2
e kT
e kT
N1
h
N1
or  e kT
N2
 
 
A 1
∴ Equation (4) becomes U  21  h
 (5)
B21  B12 kT 
 B e  1
 21 
Also we have from Planck's radiation law Uν is given by,

8 h 3  1 
U  h
(6)
c3  kT 
 e  1
Comparing equations (5) and (6)
A21 8 h 3 B12
 and  1 or B12  B21
B21 c3 B21
Therefore the probability of induced absorption is equal to the probability of stimulated
emission. Thus, neglect the superscripts and equation (5) can be rewritten as
A
U  h
 
B  e kT  1
 
This is the expression for energy density of radiation in terms of Einstein coefficients.

Condition for laser action

Population inversion and metastable state
 Population inversion is the state of a system at which the population of a particular
higher energy state is more than that of the specified lower energy state.
 In real physical system, the population inversion conditions do not exist under normal
conditions. However, it is possible to achieve the population inversion condition in
certain systems which possess a special kind of excited states called "metastable states".
 If an atom is made to excite for a higher energy state, the atom returns into the ground
state within a short time not more than 10-8 second.
 If the excited state is a metastable state then the atom stays for an unusually long time,
which is of the order of 10-3-10-2 second.
 Therefore we can have more number of atoms in the excited state than the ground state.
Thus we can achieve population inversion.

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 6

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

Requisites of a Laser System

Excitation source

Completely Active medium Partially

silvered mirror silvered
mirror
Laser cavity

There are three important requisites of a laser system and they are as follows,
(i) Laser cavity
A laser cavity is a closed cavity which is filled with an active medium along with two
mirrors. It provides the feedback necessary to tap certain amount of laser energy from the active
medium. The feedback action is achieved through the mirrors attached to the cavity. The
photons under goes multiple reflections from the mirrors and during this time the photons
stimulates more and more atoms to emit photons with identical nature.
In order to avoid destructive interference of the photon of the laser beam, the distance
‘L’ between the mirrors should be such that the cavity should support an integral number of
half wave length i.e., L = n (λ/2).
(ii) Active medium
An active medium is one which consists of atoms or molecules which are having
metastable states and there by supports for population inversion, which is necessary for laser
emission. Stimulated emission from the atoms of the active medium gives the laser light.
(iii) Excitation source
The excitation source provides the appropriate amount of energy for pumping the atoms
of an active medium to the higher energy levels. The input energy may be in the form of light
energy. which is known as optical pumping and is made use in the construction of ruby laser.
The pumping may be achieved by electrical energy input in which is electrical pumping. In He-
Ne laser the pumping is achieved by electrical discharge.

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 7

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

Vibrational energy levels of a carbon dioxide molecule

A carbon dioxide molecule has two oxygen atoms between which there is a carbon
atom. It has three different modes of vibration and the energies associated with each of these
vibrations are quantized in different sets.
(i) Symmetric stretching mode

In this mode the oxygen atom oscillate along the molecular axis either approaching towards or
moving away from the carbon atom simultaneously along the molecular axis. The carbon atom
remains stationary. In this state the CO2 molecule will have an intermediate energy compared
to that in the other two modes of vibration and this state in spectroscopy is referred as 100 state.
(ii) Asymmetric stretching mode

In this mode, all the three atoms oscillate along the molecular axis. The two oxygen atoms
move in one direction while the carbon atom moves in the opposite direction and vice-versa.
This is 001 state and the molecule possesses highest energy in this state of vibration.
(iii) Bending mode

In bending mode all the three atoms oscillate normal to the molecular axis. While vibrating,
the two oxygen atoms pull together in one direction whereas the carbon atom is displaced in
the opposite direction. It is referred to as 010 state and the energy of the molecule in this state
is the least among the three states of vibrations.

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 8

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

Carbon dioxide (CO2) laser

Construction

 It consists of a discharge tube of 2.5 cm diameter and a length of 5 meters.

 The tube is water cooled and is filled with a mixture of CO2, N2 and He gases in the
ratio 1:2:3 with traces of Hydrogen or water vapour which helps to reoxidize the
oxidized CO to CO2.
 The terminals of the discharge tube are connected to the power supply that acts as
exciting system.
 The ends of the tube are fitted with Brewster windows so that the generated laser light
will be polarized.
 Two optically plane mirrors are fixed on either side of the tube that form the optical
cavity; one mirror being fully reflecting and the other is partially reflecting.
Working
 When suitable voltage is applied across the two terminals of the discharge tube a glow
discharge of the gases takes place in the tube.
 Thus, the outermost electrons from the gas atoms becomes free and these electrons are
accelerated towards the positive terminal.
 At this stage the electrons collide with N2 and O2 molecules. Thus, N2 molecules rises
to their first vibrational level named as ν = 1 or (001) state, which is a metastable state.
 This collision is referred to as a collision of first kind and is represented as,
e1  N 2 e2  N 2*
Where e1 and e2 are the energy values of the electrons before and after collision
respectively. N 2 and N2* represents N2 molecules in the ground state and first
vibrational state (ν = 1) state respectively.
 The molecules of nitrogen in the excited state ( N2* ) collide with CO2 molecules
because of their close resemblance in their energy values thus, there is a resonant
transfer of energy takes place from N2 molecule to CO2 molecule.
 Therefore, CO2 molecules will be elevated to (001) state and the N2 molecule returns
to the ground state.
 This type of collision is referred to as collision of second kind and is represented as,
N2*  CO2 N2  CO2*

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 9

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

Where, CO2* and CO2 represents CO2 molecules in its vibrational state (001) and
ground state respectively.
 Thus, the population of the (001) level of CO2 increases rapidly which leads to the
population inversion.

 As the population inversion is achieved, the CO2 will start two types of laser transition
from E5 level to E3 and E4 levels.
 Transition from E5 state to E4 state which gives raise to radiation of wavelength
10.6 μm and
 Transition from E5 state to E3 state which gives raise to radiation of wavelength
9.6 μm, both lying in the far IR region.
 Since the energy differences between both E4 and E3 state to E2 state and E2 state to E1
state of CO2 are in resonance (also called as thermal radiations).
 The CO2 molecules will start to rise from the ground state (E1 state) to E2 state by
absorbing the emitted energy due to transition from both E3 and E4 state to E2 state.
 This create depopulation of ground state of CO2, However the CO2 molecules in the E2
level undergo collisions with He and water vapour molecules and come down to the
ground state.
 Hence E2 state will be depopulated which in turn helping the population inversion
condition at E5 state, thus boosting the laser emission.
 Since He gas because of its excellent thermal conductivity, transfers the heat of the
discharge to the tube wall, thus bringing down the thermal excitations of CO2 from
ground state to E2 state which helps reducing its population.

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 10

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

Application of lasers
Laser range finder

 The range finder is used in the military to measure the distance of a specific target by
measuring how long it takes for a beam of light to reach the target.
 A high power pulsed laser beam is directed towards the target from transmitter (as
shown in above figure).
 Since the pulses are narrow with high peak power, the beam after striking the target
bounces back as a reflection. A part of the reflected beam called echo is received as a
signal by the receiver.
 The signal gets amplified by means of a photomultiplier, while a clock measures the
exact time from the instant the pulses left the unit until they returned.
 By considering the laser pulse to be travelling at the speed of light, the unit makes use
of the time measurement to calculate the distance of the pulse travelled and in turn
displays the distance to the user.

Laser printer:
 Laser printers were invented at XEROX in 1969 by researcher Gary Starkweather.
Laser Printers are digital printing devices that are used to create high quality text and
graphics on plain printer. A diode laser is used in the process of printing in LASER
Printer.

Construction:

Fig. Schematic diagram of Laser Printer

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 11

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

 A laser printer consists of three main blocks, namely the scanning unit, toner cartridge
unit, and fuser assembly unit. The scanning unit of a laser printer typically consists of
a laser diode, a scanning motor, and a polygon mirror. The mirror is connected to a
scanning motor and is positioned right above the scanning motor and in front of the
laser diode. The scanning unit further consists of two-beam alignment lenses. The toner
cartridge unit of the laser printer consists of three drums, namely PCR or primary
charging roller, OPC drum or organic photoconductive drum, and an ITR or image
transfer roller. Another roller is present in close contact with the printer’s toner
cartridge and is known as a transfer roller. The third unit of the laser printer is known
as the fuser assembly unit. It consists of a pressure roller and a fuser roller. The fuser
roller of the fuser assembly unit contains a heating element.
Working:
 A laser beam projects an image of the page to be printed onto an electrically charged
rotating photosensitive drum coated with selenium.
 Photo conductivity allows charge to leak away from the areas which are exposed to
light and the area gets positively charged.
 Toner particles are then electrostatically picked up by the drum’s charged areas, which
have been exposed to light.
 The drum then prints the image onto paper by direct contact and heat, which fuses the
link to the paper.

Advantages
1. Laser printers are generally quiet and fast.
2. Laser printers can produce high quality output on ordinary papers.
3. The cost per page toner cartridges is lower than other printers.

Disadvantages
1. The initial cost of laser printers can be high.
2. Laser printers are more expensive than dot-matrix printers and ink-jet printers.

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 12

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

Optical Fibers
An optical fibre is a cylindrical wave guide made of transparent dielectric material
(glass or plastic) which guides light waves along its length by total internal reflection.
Principle
The propagation of light in an optical fibre from one end to the other end is based on
the principle of Total internal reflection (TIR). They are used in optical communication.
When a light enters one end of the fibre, it undergoes successive total internal
reflections from side walls and travels down the length of the fiber along zigzag path.
Construction
 A practical optical fibre is cylindrical in shape and has three regions.
 The innermost cylindrical region is the light guiding region called as core which is
usually made up of glass or plastic.
 The outer part which is a concentric cylinder surrounding the core is called as cladding
and is also made up of similar material but of lesser refractive index.
 The outermost region is called a Sheath or Protective buffer coating, nothing but the
plastic coating providing a physical and environmental protection for the fibre. Number
of such fibers is grouped to form a cable.

Total Internal Reflection

 When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium it bends away from the normal.
 As the angle of incidence increases in the denser medium, the angle of refraction also
increases. For a particular angle of incidence called the “critical angle” (θc), the
refracted ray grazes the surface separating the media or the angle of refraction is equal
to 90°.
 If the angle of incidence is further increased beyond the critical angle, the light ray is
reflected back to the same medium. This is called “Total Internal Reflection”.
 In total internal reflection, there is no loss of energy. The entire incident ray is reflected
back.
Let XXl is the surface separating medium of refractive index n1 and medium of
l
refractive index n2, n1 > n2. AO and OA are incident and refracted rays. θ1 and θ2 are angle of
l
incidence and angle of refraction, θ2 > θ1. For the ray BO, θc is the critical angle. OB is the
refracted ray which grazes the interface. The ray CO incident with an angle greater than θc is
l
totally reflected back along OC .

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 13

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

From Snell's law,

n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2
For total internal reflection, θ1=θc and θ2=90°

n1sinθc = n2 (because sin90°=1)

In total internal reflection there is no loss or absorption of light energy. The entire energy is
returned along the reflected light. Thus is called Total internal reflection.

Propagation mechanism

 The cladding in an optical fibre always has a lower refractive index than that of the
core.
 The light signal which enters into the core and strikes the interface of the core and
cladding with an angle greater than the critical angle will undergo total internal
reflection.
 Thus the light signal undergoes multiple reflections within the core and propagates
through the fibre.
 Since each reflection is a total internal reflection, there is no absorption of light energy
at the reflecting surface.
 Therefore the signal sustains its strength and also confines itself completely within the

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 14

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

core during the propagation.

 After series of such total internal reflection, it emerges out of the core. Thus the optical
fiber works as a waveguide. Care must be taken to avoid very sharp bends in the fiber
because at sharp bends, the light ray fails to undergo total internal reflection.

Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture

90-θ1
B
θ1
θ0 A
n1
n2
n0
Consider a light ray entering into the core of an optical fiber with an angle of incidence
(θ0), such that after entering, the ray incidents on the core-cladding interface with an angle of
incidence equal to the critical angle.

 From figure it is clear that any ray which enters into the core with an angle more than
θ0, will have to be incident at an angle less than the critical angle at the core-cladding
interface.
 Therefore the ray does not undergo total internal reflection and the ray will be lost. Thus
for any ray to propagate through the fiber it must enter with an angle less than θ0. This
maximum angle is called as ‘Acceptance angle’ and the conical surface described by
the ray when rotated about the axis of the fiber is called ‘Acceptance cone’.
 Thus acceptance angle is defined as “The maximum angle that a light ray can take
relative to the axis of the fiber to propagate through the fiber”.
 The light gathering capability of an optical fibre is called Numerical aperture
OR
 Sine of the acceptance angle of an optical fiber is called as “Numerical aperture”.

Expression for Numerical aperture and condition for propagation

90-θ1
B
θ1
θ0 A
n1
n2
n0
Consider a light ray entering into the core of an optical fiber with an angle of incidence
(θ0), such that after entering, the ray incidents on the core-cladding interface with an angle of
incidence equal to the critical angle. Let n0, n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the
surrounding medium, core and cladding respectively. Now, applying Snell’s law at the point
of entry of the ray i.e., at A,

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 15

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

sin  0 n1

sin 1 n0

n1
sin  0  sin 1 ..................(1)
n0

Applying Snell’s law at B,

sin  90  1  n2

sin 90 n1
n2
 cos1  ..........................(2)
n1

n1
From expression (1) sin  0  1  cos 2 1
n0

Substituting for cos θ1 from (2)

n1 n2
sin  0  1  22
n0 n1
n1 n12  n22
sin  0 
n0 n12
n12  n22
sin  0 
n0

If n0 =1 i.e., surrounding medium if it is air

sin  0  n12  n22

i.e., N . A.  n12  n22

Condition for propagation:

If θi is the angle of incidence of the incident ray, then the ray will be able to
propagate,

if  i  0

 if sin  i  sin  0
or sin  i  n12  n22
i.e., sin  i  N . A.

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 16

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

Fractional index change (Δ)

The ratio of the difference in refractive index of core and cladding to the refractive
n n
index of core of an optical fiber. i.e.,   1 2
n1

Relation between N.A. and Δ

N . A.  n1 2

Increase in the value of Δ enhances the light gathering capacity of the fiber. Δ value cannot
be increased very much because it leads to intermodal dispersion intern signal distortion.
V- Number
The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a
parameter called V-number.
If the surrounding medium is air, then V-number is given by,
d 2
V n1  n22

Where, d is the core diameter,
n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and cladding respectively,
λ is the wavelength of light propagating in the fiber.
or V=
If the fiber is surrounded by a medium of refractive index n0, then,

V=

𝑉2
For V ≫1, the number of modes supported by the fiber is given by, number of modes ≅ 2

Types of optical fibers

Based on the refractive index profile and mode of propagation, There are three types of
optical fibers,

1. Single mode fiber

2. Step index multimode fiber
3. Graded index multimode fiber

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 17

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

(i) Single mode fiber

 Single mode fibers have a core material of uniform refractive index value.
 Cladding material also has a uniform refractive index but of lesser value than that of
core.
 Thus its refractive index profile takes a shape of a step. The diameter of the core is
about 8-10 µm and the diameter of the cladding is about 60-70 µm.
 Because of its narrow core, it can guide just a single mode as shown in above figure.
 Single mode fibers are the extensively used ones ant they are less expensive. They need
LASERs as the source of light.

(ii) Step index multimode fiber

 A step index multimode fiber is very much similar to the single mode fiber except that
its core is of large diameter. A typical fiber has a core diameter 50 to 200 µm and a
cladding about 100 to 250µm outer diameter.
 Its refractive index profile is also similar to that of a single mode fiber but with a larger

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 18

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

plane region for the core.

 Due to the large core diameter it can transmit a number of modes of wave propagation.
 The step index multimode fiber can accept either a LASER or an LED as source of
light.
 It is the least expensive of all and its typical application is in data links which has lower
bandwidth requirements.

(iii) Graded index multimode fiber

 It is also called GRIN.

 The refractive index of core decreases in the radially outward direction from the axis of
the fibre and becomes equal to that of cladding at the interface but the refractive index
of the cladding remains uniform.
 Laser or LED is used as a source of light.
 It is the expensive of all. It is used in telephone trunk between central offices.
Signal attenuation in optical fibers
 Attenuation is the loss of optical power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates
through a fiber also called as the fibre loss.
 There are three mechanisms through which attenuation takes place.
Attenuation can be caused by three mechanisms.
(i) Absorption losses

 Absorption of photons by impurities like metal ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt
and copper in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of.
 During signal propagation photons interact with electrons of impurity atoms and the
electrons are excited to higher energy levels.
 Then the electrons give up their absorbed energy either in the form of heat or light
energy.

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 19

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

 The re-emission of light energy will usually be in a different wavelength, hence it is

referred as loss of energy.
 The other impurity such as hydroxyl (OH) ions which enters into the fiber at the
time of fabrication causes significant absorption loss.
 The absorption of photons by fiber itself assuming that there are no impurities and
in-homogeneities in it is called as intrinsic absorption.
(ii) Scattering losses
 Scattering of light waves occurs whenever a light wave travels through a medium
having a scattering objects whose dimensions are smaller than the wavelength of
light.
 Similarly when a light signal travels in the fibre, the photons may be scattered due
to the sharp changes in refractive index values inside the core over distances and also
due to the structural impurities present in the fibre material.
 This type of scattering is called as Rayleigh scattering. Scattering of photons also
takes place due to trapped gas bubbles which are not dissolved at the time of
manufacturing.
 A scattered photon moves in random direction and leaves the fibre.
(iii) Radiation losses
Radiation losses occur due to macroscopic bends and microscopic bends.
 Macroscopic bending: All optical fibers are having critical radius of curvature
provided by the manufacturer. If the fiber is bent below that specification of radius
of curvature, the light ray incident on the core cladding interface will not satisfy the
condition of total internal reflection. This causes loss of optical power.
 Microscopic bending: Microscopic bends are repetitive small scale fluctuations in
the linearity of the fibre axis. They occur due to non-uniformities in the
manufacturing and also lateral pressure built up on the fiber. They cause irregular
reflections and some of them leak through the fibre. The defect due to non-
uniformity (micro-bending) can be overcome by introducing optical fiber inside a
good strengthen polyurethane jacket.
Attenuation co-efficient
 The attenuation of a fiber optic cable is expressed in decibels.
10 P 
i.e.,    log  out  dB
L  Pin  km

 The main reasons for the loss in light intensity over the length of the cable is due to
light absorption, scattering and due to bending losses.

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 20

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

Point to point optical fibre communication System

Information Electrical Analog Coder Binary Optical Light

Transmitter
Transmitter
(voice, picture E-signals
Optical fiber

Information Electrical Analog Decoder Binary Optical

Receiver Receiver or

E-signals E-signals
 The system involves three major steps both at the transmitter end and at the receiving
end.
 At the transmitting end the information such as voice, picture or any digital data is fed
to an electrical transmitter which converts the data into analog electrical signals.
 These analog signals are supplied to a coder unit which converts the signals into binary
electrical signals or digital signals.
 An optical transmitter converts this digital data into optical signals (light signals) and
supplies to an optical fiber.
 The optical fiber carries the signal and transmits to the receiving end. At the receiving
end the light signals are converted back into binary electrical signals by an optical
receiver or photo detector.
 This binary information is fed to a decoder to convert back into analog signals and form
analog signals we can receive the information with the help of an electrical receiver.
Displacement sensor (Extrinsic sensor)
Principle:
Light is sent through a transmitting fiber and is made to fall on a moving target. The reflected
light from the target is sensed by a detector. With respect to intensity of light reflected from its
displacement of the target is measured.
Construction:
It consists of a bundle of transmitting fibers coupled to the laser source and a bundle of
receiving fibers coupled to the detector as shown in the below figure. The axis of the
transmitting fiber and the receiving fiber with respect to the moving target can be adjusted to
increase the sensitivity of the sensor.

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 21

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

Working:
Light from the source is transmitted through the transmitting fiber and is made to fall on the
moving target. The light reflected from the target is made to pass through the receiving fiber
and the same is detected by the detector. Based on the intensity of the light received, the
displacement of the target can be measured, (i.e.) if the received intensity is more than we can
say that the target is moving towards the sensor and if the intensity is less, we can say that the
target is moving away from the sensor.

Temperature sensor based on phase modulation

Fibre optic phase modulated sensors are used to change emitter light on information
signal wherein the signal is observed by the phase based fiber optic sensor. When a light beam
is passed through the interferometer, then the light separates into two beams. Wherein one
beam is exposed to the sensing environment and the other beam is isolated from the sensing
environment, which is used as a reference. Once the two separated beams are recombined, then
they get in the way with each other. The most commonly used interferometers are Michelson,
Mach Zehnder, Sagnac, grating and polarimetric interferometers. Here, the Mach Zehnder and
Michelson interferometers are shown below.

Phase based Fiber Optic Sensor

 The Semiconductor laser acts as a light source.

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 22

Physics for EEE stream Module-3 BPHYE202

 A 3 db splitter acts as the beam splitter which sense the light through the sensing and
reference fiber.
 Another 3 dB coupler acts as a combiner of these two beams.
 A series of light and dark fringes are formed when light form two fiber interface on
the display screen.
 A phase changes of 2φ radians causes a displacement of 1 fringe.
 By counting the fringe displacement, the magnitude of temperature is determined.

Advantages of optical fibers

 Optical fibers are cheaper, small in size, light weight, mechanically strong and signal
carrying capacity is high.
 They are immune to electromagnetic and RF interferences.
 The optical fibers have wider bandwidth so capable of carry more channels of
information than electrical cables.
 It is compatible with electronic systems and tapping of signal is not possible.
 They have low loss per unit length (~2 dB/Km).
 It does not get affected by nuclear radiations, corrosion and moisture.
 No sparks are generated because the signal is optical signal.
Limitations

 Optical fiber undergo expansion and contraction with temperature which upset little
alignments that lead to loss in signal power.
 Because of some accidents or when fiber bent to circles of smaller radius, signal loss
takes place or the fiber may break.
 Joining of two strands of a fiber (i.e. splicing) needs skill full work.
 High end maintenance is required.

Department of Physics, Atria IT, Bengaluru 23