r emi r

f-B L O C K E L E M E N T S
SYNOPSIS Physical Properties
Density:Lanthanides have densities ranging
Lanthanides: The f'- block consists of the between 6.77 to 9.74g cm-3
two series of inner transition elements

Generally densities increases with increase in
a) Lanthanides( The fourteen elements following
atomic number.
Lanthanum)
b) Actinides (The fourteen elements following
Melting points & Boiling points:
Actinium) Lanthanides have fairly high melting points even

Lanthanides are also called as "rare earth though no definite trend is observed (1000 to
elements" 1200K). Samarium however melts at higher

Lanthanum closely resembles the Lanthanides, temperature (1623 K). Samarium (Sm) is as hard
Actinium closely resembles Actinides, hence as steel.
these are usually included in any discussion of

Electropositive Character: Lanthanide
Lanthanides and Actinides
metals are highly electropositive due to their low

The Lanthanides resemble one another more Ionisation energy.
closely because they exhibit a common stable
oxidation state like transition elements. Ionisation Energy: Lanthanides have fairly
Electronic configuration: The general low Ionisation energies. The IE1 & IE 2 values
electronic configuration of f-block elements is are quite comparable to those of alkaline earth
(n - 2) f 1-14 (n - 1) d0 - 1 ns2 metals particularly calcium. ( IE1 600 KJ/mole,
G.E.C of Lanthanides 4 f 1-14 5 d0-1 6s2
IE 2 1200 KJ/mole).
Elements Symbol At.No Configuration
Lanthanum La 57 [Xe]5d16s2 La, Gd, Lu have low IE3 values due to empty,,
Cerium Ce 58 [Xe]4f1 5d16s2 half filled and completely filled f orbitals
Praseodymium Pr 59 [Xe]4f 36s2 respectively
Neodymium Nd 60 [Xe]4f 46s2
Abnormally low values of the third ionisation
Promethium Pm 61 [Xe]4f 56s2 enthalpies in the case of lanthanum 4 f 0 5 d1
Samarium Sm 62 [Xe]4f 66s2 6s2), gadolinium (4 f 7 5 d1 6s2) and lutetium
Europium Eu 63 [Xe]4f 76s2 (4 f 14 5 d1 6s2).
Gadolinium Gd 64 [Xe]4f7 5d16s2
Magnetic behaviour: Lanthanide
Terbium Tb 65 [Xe]4f 96s2
ions (M3+) generally show paramagnetism due
Dysprosium Dy 66 [Xe]4f 106s2
to the unpaired electrons in f-orbitals.
Holmium Ho 67 [Xe]4f 116s2
Erbium Er 68 [Xe]4f 126s2
Lanthanide ions like La 3 , Ce 4
Thulium Tm 69 [Xe]4f 136s2 ( f 0 configuration) & Yb 2 & Lu 3
Ytterbium Yb 70 [Xe]4f 146s2
(f14 configuration) are diamagnetic
Lutetium Lu 71 [Xe]4f 14 5d16s2

The Lanthanides occur as orthophosphates in
The paramagnetism is maximum in
monazite sand. Neodymium.

The Monazite sand contains 30% Thorium
Magnetic susceptibility of Actinides is relatively
phosphate, 60% La, Ce, Pr, Nb phosphates and higher than those of Lanthanides of same
10% Y and other heavy lanthanide phosphates. electronic configuration.
 f- BLOCK ELEMENTS
r emi r
Colour: Many of the Lanthanide ions are
Reduction potentials and metalic
coloured in solid state as well as in solutions. character: The standared electrode

The colour is attributed to f-f transitions since (reduction) potentials of the lanthanoid ions
they have partly filled f-orbitals. (Absorption become less negative across the series. Thus,
bands are narrow probably because of the their reducing power decreases in going from
excitation within f-level) Ce to Lu. The highly negative E0 values indicate

Ions with f 0,f 14 configuration are colourless. these elements to be highly electropositive
Ex :- La+3(4f 0)Lu+3(4f 14) are colourless metals capable to displace hydrogen from water.

Nd 3 , Er 3  Pink : Sm3 , Dy 3  Yellow 2M  6 H 2O  2M
OH 3  3H 2

The Lanthanide ion with 4 f n configuration and Chemical Reactivity of Lanthanides:

In their chemical behaviour, in general, the
4f

14  n 
configuration have same colour.. earlier members of the series are quite reactive
similar to calcium but, with increasing atomic
Ex (1):- Nd 3
4 f 3  and Er 3
4 f 11  have number, they behave more like aluminium.
same colour (pink) Values for E for the half-reaction:
Ex (2):- Sm3
4 f 5  and Dy 3
4 f 9  have
Ln 3 ( aq )  3e   Ln( s ) are in the range of
2.2 to 2.4V except for Eu for which the value is
same colour (yellow)
2.0V .

Radioactivity: All Lanthanides except
The carbides, Ln3C , Ln2C3 and LnC3 are formed
promethium and samarium are non-radioactive when the metals are heated with carbon.
Oxidation States: The common oxidation
They liberate hydrogen from dilute acids and
state exhibited by Lanthanides is + 3. burn in halogens to form halides.

Lanthanides can also exhibit occasionally +2
They form oxides M 2 O3 and hydroxides M (OH )3 .
and +4 ions in solution or in their solid
The lanthanides have very close similarity. The
compounds. separation of lanthanides from one another is

Irregularities arise mainly from the extra stability very difficult.
of empty, half filled or fully filled f-subshell.
Lanthanides can be separated by ion exchange
method

+3 oxidation state in Lanthanum, Gadolinium

Monazite is the starting material for the prepa-
and Lutetium are especially stable because +3
ration of lanthanides.
ions of these elements have an empty (f 0), a

The lanthanides are separated from monazite
halffilled [f 7] and completely filled (f 14)] and are converted into chlorides (or) oxides.
configurations.
The lanthanides are obtained by the electrolysis

Cerium, Terbium also exhibit oxidation state of their molten chlorides.
of +4 because Ce+4 has configuration (4f 0), Tb+4
The lanthanides are obtained by the reduction
has the configuration (4f 7) of their anhydrous halides with electro positive

Pr, Nd, Dy also exhibit +4 state in their oxides metals like Na, Mg.
with formula MO2.
The lanthanides slowly react with cold water

Europium, Ytterbium can show +2 oxidation and quickly react with hot water.
state due to 4f 7 , 4f 14 configuration respectively.. 2M  6 H 2O  2M
OH 3  3H 2

Although the formation of Eu2+ is favoured by
As the size of M+3 ion decreases the covalent
the extra stability of its f7 configurations, but character in M-OH bond and their basic strength
Eu2+ is a strong reducing agent and changes to in their hydroxides decreases gradually from
Eu3+ in its reactions. Samarium (Sm) also shows La
OH 3 to Lu
OH 3 . This is due to
+2 and +3 oxidatoin states.
Lanthanide contraction
 r emi r

Lanthanides form oxides of the type M 2O3 (or)
Pyrophosphoric alloy is used in ignition devices
such as tracer bullets, shells and flints for
MO2 . These oxdies are ionic in nature. lighters.

Lanthanide ions cannot easily form co-ordinate
Mixed oxides of lanthanides are used as catalyst
compounds because of their large size. in petroleum cracking.

Lanthanide ions can form complexes with Actinoids: General outer electronic
chelating ligands. configuration is 5 f 1-14 6 d0-1 7s2
Ln2O3 Elements Symbol At. No Configuration
H2
Actinium Ac 89 [Rn]6d1 7s2
bu

ids

Thorium Th 90 [Rn]6d2 7s2

rns

ac
in

Protactinium Pa 91 [Rn]5f 26d1 7s2

th
wi
O2

Uranium U 92 [Rn]5f 36d1 7s2

with halogens Neptunium Np 93 [Rn]5f 46d1 7s2
heated with S Ln LnX3
Ln2S3 Plutonium Pu 94 [Rn]5f 6 7s2
N
th Americium Am 95 [Rn]5f 7 7s2
wi

wi
with C 2773 K

th

d Curium Cm 96 [Rn]5f 76d1 7s2

ate
H2

e
O

h Berkelium Bk 97 [Rn]5f 9 7s2

LnN Californium Cf 98 [Rn]5f 10 7s2
Ln(OH)3 +H2
Einstenium Es 99 [Rn]5f 11 7s2
LnC2
Fermium Fm 100 [Rn]5f 12 7s2
Lanthanide Contraction: The decrease in Mendelevium Md 101 [Rn]5f 13 7s2
atomic radii (derived from the structures of Nobelium No 102 [Rn]5f 14 7s2
metals) is not quite regular but it is regular in Lawrencium Lr 103 [Rn]5f 14 6d17s2
their M+3 ions.
The elements in which the last electron enters

As atomic number increases in Lanthanides into 5f-orbital are called Actinides.
series, for every proton added to the nucleus,
The actinoids are radioactive elements and the
the extra electron goes to fill 4f - orbitals. The earlier members have relatively long half-lives,
4f- electrons constitute inner shells and are rather the latter ones have half-life values ranging from
ineffective in screening the nuclear charge. a day to 3 minutes for lawrencium (Z=103).
Gradual increase in the effective nuclear charge
The configurations of Am and Cm are [ Rn]5 f 7 s 2
is responsible for decrease in size of and [ Rn]5 f 7 6d 1 7 s 2 . Although the 5f orbitals
Lanthanides. This phenomenon is called
Lanthanide contraction. resemble the 4 f orbitals in their angular part of
Consequences: The similarities between 4d & the wave-function, they are not as buried as 4 f
5d series elements are more closer than 3d & orbitals and hence 5 f electrons can participate
4d elements. in bonding to a far greater extent.

The atomic sizes of Zr & Hf, Nb & Ta, Mo &
There is a gradual decrease in the size of atoms
W are almost same. or M 3 ions across the series. This may be

The separation of lanthanides is very difficult referred to as the actinoid contraction. The
due to closer atomic radii. contraction is, however, greater from element

Inert pair effect. to element in this series resulting from poor
Uses of Lanthanides shielding by 5 f electrons.

Lanthanides form alloys easily with Iron.
There is a greater range of oxidation states,

Misch-metal is an alloy (pyrophoric alloy) which is in part attributed to the fact that the
containing Lanthanide metals, Ce-50%, 5 f , 6d and 7s levels are of comparable
La - 40%, Fe 7% and traces of S, C, Ca, Al.
energies.
 f- BLOCK ELEMENTS
r emi r
Oxidation States: The actinoids show in
Actinides have high m.p’s and b.p’s
general +3 oxidation state. The elements, in the
Actinides have low I.P. values.
first half of the series frequently exhibit higher
All the actinides are highly electropositive.
oxidation states. For example, the maximum Uses of Actinoids:
oxidation state increases from +4 in Th to +5,
Uranium is used as nuclear fuel.
+6 and +7 respectively in Pa, U and Np but
Uranium salts are used in glass industry, textile
decreases in succeeding elements. industry, in medicines etc...

Np & Pu also exhibit +7 oxidation states in their
Plutonium is used in atomic reactors.
compounds.

U & Am also exhibit +6 oxidation states in their C.U.Q
compounds.
PROPERTIES

Actinide series includes 15 elements. i.e. 89 Ac 1. Which sub shell is filled up progressively in
to 103 Lr . actinoids
1.4f 2. 5f 3. 6d 4. 7s

All these elements are radioactive.
2. The electronic configuration of f-block

Except 89 Ac , 90 Th , 91 Pa , 92 U the remaining elements is represented by
elements are synthetic. 1. (n  2) f 114 (n  1)d 01ns 2

Elements after Uranium are called transuranic 114 0 5 0 2
elements. 2. (n  2) f (n  1)d ns

The common oxidation number is +3 and they 3. (n  2) f 114 (n  1)d 010 ns1 2
also exhibit +4, +5, +6, oxidation numbers.

Actinide contraction is due to poor shielding of 4. (n  2) f 114 (n  1)d 0 2 (n  1) s 2
5f electrons. 3. The inner transition elements are the
elements in which the added electrons go to
Properties: Actionoids are all silvery metals. 1. (n-1)d-orbitals 2. (n-2)f-orbitals

The actionoids are highly reactive metals, 3. (n-1) d-orbitals and (n-1) f-orbitals
especially when finely divided. The action of 4. (n-1)d-orbitals and ns orbitals
boiling water on them, for example, gives a 4. The electronic configuration of cerium is
mixture of oxide and hydride. 1. [ Xe]4 f 0 5d 1 6 s 2 2. [ Xe]4 f 1 5d 1 6 s 2

Hydrochloric acid attacks all metals but most
are slightly affected by nitric acid owing to the 3. [ Xe]4 f 2 5d 0 6 s 2 4. Both 2 and 3
formation of protective oxide layers; alkalies 5. Which of the following is not the
have no action. configuration of lanthanoid

The lanthanoid and actinoid contractions, have 1. [ Xe]4 f 10 .6 s 2 2. [ Xe]4 f 1 5d 1.6 s 2
extended effects on the sizes, and therefore, the
3. [ Xe]4 f 14 5d 10 6s1 4. [ Xe]4 f 7 5d 1 6 s 2
properties of the elements succeeding them in
their respective periods. 6. The element with the electronic configuration

Except Thorium, Americium (Am) all the [ Xe]4 f 14 5d 1 6 s 2 is a
actinides have high densities. 1. Representative element 2. Transition element

Most of the ions of actinides are coloured. 3. Actinide element 4. Lanthanide element

Their compounds are basic in nature. 7. Lanthanoids are :

Actinides have weak tendency of complex 1) 14 elements in the seventh period (At. no.
formation. 90 to 103) that are filling 5f sublevel.
2) 14 elements in the sixth period (At.No. 58 to

Actinoides form oxocations. Ex: UO22 , PuO2 71) that are filling 4f sublevel.
etc., 3) 14 elements in the seventh period (At.No.58

The ions of actinides are paramagnetic due to to 71) that are filling 4f sublevel.
unpaired electrons. 4) 14 elements in the sixth period (At.No.90 to 103)
 r emi r
8. Which of the following Lanthanoid is 4. Lanthanoid contraction occurs because
radioactive 1) the 4f electrons, which are gradually added,
1) Cerium 2) Promethium create a strong shielding effect
3) Thulium 4) Lutetium 2) the 4f orbitals are greater in size than the 3d
9. Which of the following are all radioactive and 3f orbitals
elements. 3) the 5f orbitals strongly penetrate into the 4f
1) Transition elements. 2) P block elements orbitals
3) Lathanides. 4) Actinides. 4) the poor shielding effect of 4f electrons is
10. The most common Lanthanoid is coupled with increased attraction between the
1) Lanthanum 2) Cerium nucleus and the added electrons.
3) Samarium4) Plutonium 5. The Lanthanoids contraction is responsible
11. Non-Lanthanoid atom is for the fact that
1) La 2) Lu 3) Pr 4) Pm 1) Zr and Y have about the same radius
12. Which of the following is a Lanthanoid 2) Zr and Nb have similar oxidation state
1) Ta 2) Rh 3) Th 4) Lu 3) Zr and Hf have about the same radius
4) Zr and Zn have the same oxidation state
13. Lanthanides are characterized by the filling
6. Which element among the Lanthanides has
of the
the smallest atomic radius ?
1) penultimate 4f energy level
1) Cerium 2) Lutetium 3) Europium 4) Gadolinium.
2) antepenultimate 4f energy level
7.
Lanthanides are separated best by
3) penultimate 5f energy level
1. Fractional crystallisation
4) antepenultimate 5f energy level 2. Solvent extraction
14. The most common oxidation state of 3. Complex formation using EDTA
Lanthanoids is 4. Ion exchange resins
1) +4 2) +3 3) +6 4) +28. The separation of lanthanides by the ion
C.U.Q - KEY exchange method is based on
1. The solubilty of the nitrates
1) 2 2)1 3) 2 4) 2 5) 3 6) 4 7) 2 2. Size of the hydrated M3+ ions
8) 2 9) 4 10) 2 11) 1 12) 4 13) 2 14) 2 3. Size of the unhydrated M3+ions
4. Basicity of the hydroxides
9. Which of the following is the strongest base
LEVEL-I (C.W) 1. Sc(OH)3 2.La(OH)3 3. Lu(OH)3 4. Yb(OH)
10. KMnO 4 ,and K 2 Cr 2 O 7 are replaced in
PROPERTIES volumetric analysis by
1. The most common oxidation states of cerium 1. La(III) salts 2. Ce (III) salts
are 3. Ce (IV) salts 4. Gd (III) salts
1) +2 and +4 2) +3 and +4 STATEMENT TYPE QUESTIONS
3) +3 and +5 4) +2 and +3 1) Statement I is true, Statement II is true,
2. Which of the following ion is paramagnetic Statement II is a correct explanation of
3+
1. La (Z=57) 3+
2. Lu (Z=71) Statement I.
2+
3. Yb (Z=70) 3+
4. Sm (Z=62) 2) Statement I is true, Statement II is true,
Statement II is not the correct explanation of
3. The atomic and ionic radii (M 3+ ions) of
statement I
Lanthanide elements decrease with increase
3) Statement I is true, Statement II is false.
in atomic number. This effect is called
4) Statement I is false, Statement II is true.
1) Lanthanoid contraction 11. Statement - I:-Ce+4 is used as an oxidising
2)Lanthanoid expansion agent in volumetric analysis
3) Actinoid contraction Statement- II :- Ce +4 has the tendency to
4) Actinoid expansion attain +3 oxidation state
 r emi r
12. Statement - I :- Sm3+, Dy3+ have same colour
(yellow)
Statement - II:-Both ions are having same
number of unpaired electrons
13. Statement - I :-La3+,Lu3+ ions are colourless
Statement - II:-They do not contain unpaired
electrons
LEVEL-I - KEY
1) 2 2) 4 3) 1 4) 4 5) 3 6) 2 7) 4
8) 2 9) 2 10) 3 11) 1 12) 1 13) 1
 f- BLOCK ELEMENTS

-BLOCK ELEMENTS
4. Which lanthanoide compounds is used as a
LEVEL-II (C.W) most powerful liquid lasers after dissolving
it in selenium oxychloride
PROPERTIES 1. Cerium oxide 2. Neodymium oxide
3. Promethium sulphate 4. Ceric sulphate
1. The stable +2 ions of lanthanides in aqueous
5. Which one of the following pairs of elements
solution are
is called chemical twins beacause of their very
1. Eu2+ 2.Ce2+ 3. Lu3+ 4. Fe2+ similar chemical properties
2. SRP values of lanthanides lies between 1. Mn and W 2. Mo and Tc
1. -2.2 to -2.4 V 2. 4 to 2 V 3. Fe and Re 4. Hf and Zr
3. 1 to 5 V 4. 0.1 to -0.2 V
3. Ion with maximum number of unpaired LEVEL-II (H.W) - KEY
electrons 1) 4 2) 4 3) 1 4) 2 5) 4
1. Lu 3+
2. Yb 3+
3. Tm 3+
4. Gd 3+

4. What factor make the separation of LEVEL-III

Lanthanides a formidable task
1.Similarity in ionic size PROPERTIES
1. Pair of ions which are having same number
2. Constant charge of +3
of unpaired electrons
3. Small charge radius ratio 4. All of these
1. Eu3+,Tb3+ 2. Eu3+,Ce3+
3. Eu3+,Sm3+ 4. Eu3+,Pr3+
LEVEL-II (C.W) - KEY 2. Pair of ions which are having only one unpair
1)1 2)1 3)4 4)4 electron
1. Ce3+,Yb3+ 2. Eu3+,Tb3+
3. Pm3+,Sm3+ 4. Dy3+,Tb3+
LEVEL-II (H.W)
3. Cerium (Z = 58) is an important member of
the Lanthanides. Which of the following
PROPERTIES statements about cerium is incorrect
1. In the coinage metals (IB) group, the I.E 1) The +3 oxidation state of cerium is more
decreases from Cu to Ag and the increases stable than the +4 oxidation state.
from Ag to Au this is attributed to 2) The common oxidation states of cerium are
1. Increased atomic size +3 and +4
2. Increased ionic radius 3) Cerium (IV) acts as an oxidizing agent
3. Increased nuclear density 4) The +4 oxidation state of cerium is not known
in solutions.
4. Lanthanide contraction
4. In which of the following Lanthanoids
2. Ionic radii of zirconium and hafnium become
oxidation state +2 is most stable ?
almost identical because
1) Ce 2) Eu 3) Tb 4) Dy
1. They are ‘d’ block elements
2. They belongs to the same group
3. Of increased nuclear charge
4. Of Lanthanide contraction
3. Lanthanoids used in galss blowers’s goggles
are
1. Pr and Nd 2. Eu and Gd
3. Tb and Dy 4. Em and Sm
 f- BLOCK ELEMENTS JEE-MAIN-SR-CHEM-VOL-II
Jr Chemistry E/M
5. Lanthanoid contraction occurs because 2) All the member exhibit +3 oxidation state
1) the 4f electrons, which are gradually added, 3) because of similar properties the separation
create a strong shielding effect of lanthanoids is not easy
2) the 4f orbitals are greater in size than the 3d 4) Availability of 4 f electrons results in the
and 3f orbitals formation of compounds in +4 state for all the
3) the 5f orbitals strongly penetrate into the 4f members of the series.
orbitals 12. The outer electron configuration of Gd
4) the poor shielding effect of 4f electrons is (Atomic no:64) is:
coupled with increased attraction between the
1) 4 f 3 5d 3 6 s 2 2) 4 f 8 5d 0 6s 2
nucleus and the added electrons.
6. The Lanthanoid contraction is responsible 3) 4 f 4 5d 4 6 s 2 4) 4 f 7 5d 1 6 s 2
for the fact that 13. Actinoids exhibit more number of oxidation
1) Zr and Y have about the same radius states in general than lanthanoids. This is
2) Zr and Nb have similar oxidation state because (AIEEE 2007)
3) Zr and Hf have about the same radius 1) the 5f orbitals are more buried than the 4f
4) Zr and Zn have the same oxidation state orbitals
7. The correct order of ionic radii of 2) there is a similarity between 4f and 5f orbitals
Y , La ,Eu and Lu is
3+ 3+ 3+ 3+
in their angular part of the wave function
1) Y3+ < La3+ < Eu3+ < Lu3+ 3) actinoids are more reactive than lanthanoids
2) Y < Lu < Eu < La
3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 4) the 5f orbitals extend farther from the nucleus
3) Lu3+ < Eu3+ < La3+ < Y3+ than the 4f orbitals
4) La < Eu < Lu < Y
3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 14. A larger number of oxidation states are
8. Arrange Ce 3+ , La 3+ , Pm 3+ and Yb 3+ in exhibited by actinoids than by lanthanoids.
increasing order of their ionic radii. The main reason being (AIEEE 2008)
1) Yb3+ < Pm3+ < Ce3+ < La3+ 1) the 4f orbitals are more diffused than the 5f
2) Ce < Yb < Pm < La
3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ orbitals
3) Yb3+ < Pm3+ < La3+ < Ce3+ 2) lesser energy difference between 5f and 6d
4) Pm < La < Ce < Yb
3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ than between 4f and 5d orbitals
9. Which of the two have almost similar size 3) more energy diference between 5f and 6d
than between 4f and 5d orbitals
1) 22 Ti and 40 Zr 2) 41 Nb and 73Ta 4) more reactive nature of actinoids than that of
3) 39 Y and 57 La 4) 20 Ca and 31Ir lanthanoids
10. Identify the incorrect statement among the 15. Knowing that the chemistry of lanthanoids
following: [AIEEE-2007] (Ln) is dominated by +3 oxidation state,
which of the following statement is incorrect?
1) d-block element show irregular and erratic
(AIEEE 2009)
chemical properties among themselves
1) because of the large size of Ln (III) ions, the
2) La and Lu have partially filled d-orbitals and
bonding in their compounds is predominantly
no ther partially filled orbitals
ionic in character.
3) The chemistry of various lanthanoids is very
2) the ionic size of Ln (III) decreases in general
similar
with increasing atomic number
4) 4 f − and 5 f − orbitals are equally shielded 3) Ln (III) compounds are generally colourless
11. In context of the lanthanoids, which of the 4) Ln (III) hydroxides are mainly basic in
following statement is not correct? character.
[AIEEE-2011]
LEVEL-III - KEY
1) There is a gradual decrease in the radii of the
1) 1 2) 1 3) 4 4) 2 5) 4 6) 3 7) 3 8) 1
members with increasing atomic number in the
9) 2 10) 4 11) 4 12) 4 13) 4 14) 2 15) 3
series
 G E N E R A L PRIN C IP L E S A N D P R O C E S S
O F IS O L ATI O N O F E L E M E N T S
SYNOPSIS Zinc (Zn)
Zinc blende or Sphalerite : ZnS
OCCURRENCE OF METALS: Zincite or Red zinc
 Minerals: The naturally occurring chemical (philosopher’s wool) : ZnO
substances in which metals occur either in native
state or in combined state are called minerals. Calamine or Zinc spar : ZnCO3
 Ores: The minerals from which metal can be Franklinite : ZnO.Fe2O3
conveniently and economically extracted are
Willemite : Zn2 SiO4
called ores.
 All ores are minerals but all minerals are not Aluminium (Al)
ores. Bauxite : Al2O3 .2 H 2O
 For example aluminium occurs in the earth’s Kaolinite ( a form of clay) :  Al2
OH 4 Si2O5 
crust in the form of minerals like bauxite and
Cryolite : Na3 AlF6
clay ( Al2O3 .2SiO2 .2 H 2O )
 Out of these two aluminium can be conveniently Feldspar : KAlSi3O8
and economically extracted from bauxite,while Corundum : Al2O3
it has not been possible to extract aluminium
from clay by some easy and cheap Diaspore : Al2O3 .H 2O
method.Therefore the ore of aluminium is Mica : K 2O.3 Al2O3 .6SiO2 .2 H 2O
bauxite. Manganese (Mn)
SOME COMMON ELEMENTS WITH Pyrolusite : MnO2
THEIR NATURE OF OCCURRENCE: Calcium ( Ca )
Iron (Fe) Limestone (calcite) : CaCO3
Haematite : Fe2 O3 Gypsum : CaSO4 .2 H 2O
Magnetite : Fe3O4 Fluorspar : CaF2
Limonite : Fe2 O3 .3 H 2 O Dolomite : CaCO3 .MgCO3
Iron pyrites or Fool’s gold : FeS2 Magnesium (Mg)
Magnesite : MgCO3
Spathic iron or Siderite : FeCO3
Copper (Cu) Carnallite : KCl.MgCl2 .6 H 2O

Cuprite (Ruby copper) : Cu2O Epsom salt : MgSO4 .7 H 2O

Lead (Pb)
Copper glance (Chalcocite) : Cu2 S
Galena : PbS
Malachite : CuCO3 .Cu
OH 2 Anglesite : PbSO4
Azurite : 2CuCO3.Cu
OH 2 Cerrusite : PbCO3
Mercury (Hg)
Copper pyrites (Chalco pyrites) : CuFeS 2
Cinnabar : HgS