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Drying of Aromatic Plant Material
for Natural Perfumes

Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes provides readers with a
deep understanding of the fascinating world of aromatic plants, drying, extraction
and perfumery. It covers the significance and global demand of essential oils, a
glimpse of plant histology, secretion and storage of secondary metabolites in plant
tissues, drying technologies and selection for dehydration of herbage, extraction,
chemical compositions and applications. The book is organized into four sections:
plant cell structures and their role during dehydration, aromatic plants and their
essential oil contents, composition and contribution towards perfumery, and
dehydration and extraction technologies. The book does the following:

• Summarizes commercially important aromatic plant materials and ex­

tracted essential oil around the world and their socio-commercial impact
• Includes structures of plant tissues, inherent mass transfer pathways, along
with the presence and role of water, the understanding of which can aid
dehydration and extraction
• Describes methods for selecting drying parameters and relates drying
mechanisms with microstructure
• Discusses drying technologies for heat-sensitive materials and extraction
technologies for selective component extractions
• Covers preprocessing, extraction and standardization of essential oils for
blending for different applications

This book serves as a handy tool for R&D, industrial, and academic researchers working
in perfumery, fragrance, and food science, as well as chemical and agricultural
engineering.
Advances in Drying Science and Technology
Series Editor Arun S. Mujumdar
McGill University, Quebec, Canada

Frontiers in Spray Drying

Nan Fu, Jie Xiao, Meng Wai Woo, and Xiao Dong Chen
Drying in the Dairy Industry
Cécile Le Floch-Fouere, Pierre Schuck, Gaëlle Tanguy, Luca Lanotte, and
Romain Jeantet
Spray Drying Encapsulation of Bioactive Materials
Seid Mahdi Jafari and Ali Rashidinejad
Flame Spray Drying: Equipment, Mechanism, and Perspectives
Mariia Sobulska and Ireneusz Zbicinski
Advanced Micro-Level Experimental Techniques for Food Drying and Processing
Applications
Azharul Karim, Sabrina Fawzia, and Mohammad Mahbubur Rahman
Mass Transfer Driven Evaporation of Capillary Porous Media
Rui Wu and Marc Prat
Particulate Drying: Techniques and Industry Applications
Jangam Vinayak, Chung-Lim Law, and Shivanand Shirkole
Drying and Valorisation of Food Processing Waste
Chien Hwa Chong, Rafeah Wahi, Chee Ming Choo, Shee Jia Chew, and
Mackingsley Kushan Dassanayake
Drying of Herbs, Spices, and Medicinal Plants
Ching Lik Hii and Shivanand Shirkole
Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes
Viplav Hari Pise, Ramakant Harlalka, and Bhaskar Narayan Thorat

For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/Advances-

in-Drying-Science-and-Technology/book-series/CRCADVSCITEC
Drying of Aromatic Plant
Material for Natural
Perfumes

Viplav Hari Pise

Ramakant Harlalka
Bhaskar Narayan Thorat
First edition published 2024
by CRC Press
2385 Executive Center Drive, Suite 320, Boca Raton, FL 33431
and by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2024 Viplav Hari Pise, Ramakant Harlalka, and Bhaskar Narayan Thorat

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author
and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the
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ISBN: 978-1-032-32502-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-32504-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-31538-4 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003315384

Typeset in Times New Roman

by MPS Limited, Dehradun
Contents
Advances in Drying Science and Technology ......................................................viii
Authors......................................................................................................................ix

Chapter 1 Aromatic Plants – Significance and Impacts......................................1

1.1 Significance of Aromatic Plants...............................................1
1.2 Unit Operations – Dehydration and Extraction .......................2
1.3 Geography, Key Markets and Current Trends ........................ 3
1.4 Socio-Commercial Impacts ...................................................... 5
1.4.1 Petitgrain Oil – Paraguay.......................................... 5
1.4.2 Rose Oil – Turkey and Bulgaria .............................. 6
1.4.3 Jasmin Oil – India..................................................... 7
1.4.4 Lavender – Bulgaria, Ukraine, France and Spain.... 9
1.4.5 Mint Oil – USA and India...................................... 10
1.4.6 Vetiver Oil – Haiti .................................................. 11
1.4.7 Frankincense and Myrrh – Somalia........................ 11
1.4.8 Patchouli – Indonesia .............................................. 12
1.4.9 Bergamot – Italy...................................................... 13
1.4.10 Vanilla in Madagascar ............................................ 13
1.4.11 Citronella – China and Indonesia ........................... 14
1.4.12 Geranium – China and Egypt ................................. 14
1.5 Conclusion ..............................................................................15

Chapter 2 Cellular Structures of Aromatic Plant Materials..............................19

2.1 Introduction .............................................................................19
2.2 Plant Tissues ........................................................................... 20
2.2.1 Simple and Complex Tissues.................................... 20
2.2.2 Special Tissues .......................................................... 22
2.3 Histo-Architecture of Aromatic Plant Parts...........................23
2.3.1 Structures of Roots.................................................... 23
2.3.2 Structures of Stem and Bark..................................... 23
2.3.3 Structures of Wood ................................................... 24
2.3.4 Structures of Leaves.................................................. 25
2.3.5 Structures of Flowers ................................................ 25
2.3.6 Structures of Seeds and Fruit.................................... 25
2.3.7 Structures of the Rhizome ........................................ 26
2.4 Special Tissues in Aromatic Plants........................................27
2.4.1 Osmophores ............................................................... 27
2.4.2 Glandular Trichomes................................................. 28
2.4.3 Ducts and Cavities .................................................... 29
2.4.4 Epidermal Cells ......................................................... 29

v
vi Contents

2.5 Water in Tissue and Its Functions .........................................30

2.6 Conclusion ..............................................................................31

Chapter 3 Need for Systematic/Controlled Dehydration of Aromatic Plants .... 33

3.1 Introduction .............................................................................33
3.2 Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants.......................................34
3.2.1 Classification of Herbs, Spices and
Medicinal Plants ........................................................ 34
3.2.2 Shelf Life of Aromatic Plants and
Medicinal Herbs ........................................................ 36
3.3 Importance and Need of Controlled Dehydration .................37
3.4 Role of Drying in Extraction .................................................39
3.5 Conclusion...............................................................................39

Chapter 4 Drying Technology and Selection of Dryers ...................................42

4.1 Introduction .............................................................................42
4.2 Fundamentals of Drying .........................................................42
4.2.1 Drying Process and Impacting Parameters............... 42
4.2.2 Drying/Dehydration Fundamentals ........................... 43
4.3 Drying of Agricultural Products ............................................ 44
4.4 History and Development of Dryers......................................45
4.4.1 Development of Technology and Types of Dryers ... 46
4.5 Conclusion ..............................................................................50

Chapter 5 Dehydration at Cellular Structures of Aromatic Plants ...................51

5.1 Introduction .............................................................................51
5.2 Significance of Micro- and Macro-Structures ....................... 52
5.2.1 Water at the Cellular Level in Plants....................... 53
5.3 Water Distribution and Drying of Plant Material .................54
5.4 Role of Cellular Structures/Cell Wall and Quality of
Dried Products ........................................................................ 55
5.5 Conclusion ..............................................................................58

Chapter 6 Fundamental Principles and Technologies for Extraction ...............60

6.1 Introduction .............................................................................60
6.2 Methods in Extraction ............................................................61
6.2.1 Distillation ................................................................. 61
6.2.2 Assisted Extraction.................................................... 63
6.2.3 Solvent Extraction ..................................................... 65
6.2.4 Pressurized/Accelerated Solvent and
Subcritical Fluid Extraction ...................................... 66
6.2.5 Molecular Distillation................................................ 70
6.3 Role of Drying in Extraction .................................................70
6.4 Conclusion ..............................................................................74
Contents vii

Chapter 7 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils.......................................... 77

7.1 Introduction .............................................................................77
7.2 Basics of Odours and Associated Complexity ...................... 77
7.3 Composition of Essential Oils................................................78
7.4 Chemical Compounds of Essential Oils ................................ 81
7.4.1 Hydrocarbons............................................................. 82
7.4.2 Alcohols..................................................................... 83
7.4.3 Esters.......................................................................... 83
7.4.4 Acids .......................................................................... 83
7.4.5 Phenols and Phenol Ethers........................................ 83
7.4.6 Aldehydes and Ketones............................................. 83
7.5 Conclusion ..............................................................................84

Chapter 8 Future Research Opportunities..........................................................86

8.1 Introduction .............................................................................86
8.2 R&D Needs – Understanding the Histology and Drying .....86
8.3 R&D Needs – Understanding of Dehydration
Parameters and Technology for Multimode Dryer................87
8.4 R&D Needs – Understanding of Key Components and
Specific Extraction..................................................................88

Annexure I..............................................................................................................91
Index......................................................................................................................103
Advances in Drying Science
and Technology
Series Editor Dr. Arun S. Mujumdar

It is well known that the unit operation of drying is a highly energy-intensive operation
encountered in diverse industrial sectors, ranging from agricultural processing, to
ceramics, chemicals, minerals processing, pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, coal
polymer, food, forest products industries as well as waste management. Drying also
determines the quality of the final dried products. The need to make drying technologies
sustainable and cost effective via application of modern scientific techniques is the goal
of academic as well as industrial R&D activities around the world.
Drying is a truly multi- and interdisciplinary area. Over the last four decades the
scientific and technical literature on drying has seen exponential growth. The
continuously rising interest in this field is also evident from the success of numerous
international conferences devoted to drying science and technology.
The establishment of this new series of books entitled Advances in Drying
Science and Technology is designed to provide authoritative and critical reviews
and monographs focusing on current developments as well as future needs. It is
expected that books in this series will be valuable to academic researchers as well as
industry personnel involved in any aspect of drying and dewatering.
The series will also encompass themes and topics closely associated with drying
operations, e.g., mechanical dewatering, energy savings in drying, environmental
aspects, life cycle analysis, technoeconomics of drying, electrotechnologies, control
and safety aspects, and so on.

ABOUT THE SERIES EDITOR

Dr. Arun S. Mujumdar is an internationally acclaimed expert in drying science
and technologies. He was the founding chair in 1978 of the International Drying
Symposium (IDS) series and has been editor-in-chief of Drying Technology: An
International Journal since 1988. The fourth enhanced edition of his Handbook of
Industrial Drying, published by CRC Press, has just appeared. He is the recipient of
numerous international awards, including honorary doctorates from Lodz Technical
University, Poland, and University of Lyon, France.

Please visit https://arunmujumdar.com/

viii
Authors
Viplav Hari Pise is Prof M. M. Sharma Research Fellow from the Department of
Chemical Engineering, Institute of Chemical Technology Mumbai, India, where he
also pursued his PhD. He has more than 6 years of industrial experience as Research
& Process engineer at Larsen & Toubro Hydrocarbon Engineering Limited. With
experience in project execution and management he pursues research in value
addition to natural products through extraction and isolation of phytochemicals. His
broad areas of research are identification of indigenous aromatic and medicinal
plants, developing extraction protocols, scale-up for obtaining isolates for market
acceptance and commercialization of the project.

Ramakant Harlalka is the founder and director of Nishant Aromas and has more
than 35 years of experience working with essential oils and their applications, as
well as extensive experience with large-scale aromatic plantation, extraction,
blending and formulation and marketing. He is the founder of multiple business
ventures and is a prestigious member of various research councils and industry
associations.

Bhaskar Narayan Thorat is the founder and director of ICT–IOC, Bhubaneswar,

and professor of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai,
India. He has over 30 years of experience in developing grassroots and sustainable
technologies for the welfare of society. He has vast experience in research and
development in drying, crystallization and filtration and has conducted research on
dehydration of agri-produce and marine resources through multiple modes of drying
and developed patented technologies suitable for field applications. He initiated the
World Forum for Crystallization, Filtration and Drying (WFCFD) in 2006.

ix
 1 Aromatic Plants –
Significance and Impacts

1.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF AROMATIC PLANTS

Plants are known for their ornamental value and providing oxygen and food in the
food chain. Plants are a significant source of raw materials for the non-food
industrial sector, including primary metabolites (oils, carbohydrates and fibres or
even biomass) in bulk quantities to industries and secondary metabolites, albeit in
small quantities, used for the production of speciality products like essential oils
(EOs), pharmaceuticals, herbal products, natural dyes and colourants, and so on.
Plants mainly synthesize two kinds of oil: fixed oils and EOs. Fixed oils consist
of esters of glycerol (triglycerides or triacylglycerols) and fatty acids. These are
required in the human diet to maintain good physical and mental health. EOs are
complex mixtures of highly concentrated, volatile, and hydrophobic compounds.
They contribute to a plant’s characteristic flavour and fragrance (F&F). The term
essential oil dates back to the sixteenth century, stating it to be merely a pure
scented oil or volatile scented oil of natural biological origin. “Essential” reflects
the plant’s essence or intrinsic nature, and “oil” refers to insolubility in water. Plants
secrete metabolites for functions such as protection (from competitors, pathogens or
insects, and so on), reduction in transpiration losses, communication with other
plants and microbes, and attraction of the pollinating agents. These metabolites
consist of volatile and non-volatile compounds (Firn, 2010).
As per the International Organisation of Standards, ISO 9235:2013, EOs are
defined as “Product obtained from natural raw materials of vegetal origin, by steam
distillation, or dry distillation, after the separation of the aqueous phase – if any – by
physical process. In the specific case of citrus fruits, the oil is obtained by pressing at
room temperature of the epicarp – cold-pressed essential oil (EOs).” Agence
Française de Normalisation (AFNOR) gives the following definition (NF T 75–006):
“The essential oil is the product obtained from a vegetable raw material, either by
steam distillation or by mechanical processes from the epicarp of Citrus, or ’dry’
distillation. The essential oil is then separated from the aqueous phase by physical
means” (Dhifi et al., 2016). EOs, as defined by the European Pharmacopeia, Seventh
Edition, are “Odorant products, which have the complex composition, and obtained
from raw plant extract, either extracted by the steam of water, dry distillation or a
suitable mechanical method without heating. Generally, a physical method is used to
separate the essential oil from the aqueous phase, which has no significant change in
its chemical composition.”
EOs are secondary metabolites contributing to odoriferous constituents or the
essence of aromatic plants. These are known to be secreted directly by protoplasm
or hydrolysis of glycosides and are associated with plant structures of glandular

DOI: 10.1201/9781003315384-1 1
2 Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes

hairs in the Lamiaceae family, oil tubes or vittae in the Apiaceae family, modified
parenchymal cells in the Piperaceae family, Schizogenous or lysigenum passages in
the Rutaceae family. EOs are obtained from different parts of plants like bark,
petioles, leaves, seeds, stems, flowers and flower parts, fruits, roots or rhizomes,
secreting and storing these compound compositions. Single-cell or multicellular
trichomes, both glandular and non-glandular (depending on the morphology and
secretion ability), are seen in most plant species. These trichomes are known for the
key and unique feature of secreting a number of specialized metabolites
(Huchelmann et al., 2017). The pearl glands are observed to store these volatiles
and can be preserved in the natural matrix for further extraction (Boukhris et al.,
2013; Pise et al., 2022; Rehman & Asif Hanif, 2016). These secondary metabolites,
both volatiles and EOs, have a diverse array of properties and can be used for
therapeutic actions and positive effects on health and wellbeing. The size and
complexity of the stereochemistry make it extremely complicated to track and study
the occurrence or separation. However, the significance of these metabolites, of
which EOs are a part, has sought the attention of various researchers and resulted in
reporting several studies on the topic, which are further compiled in this book.

1.2 UNIT OPERATIONS – DEHYDRATION AND EXTRACTION

The extraction of bioproducts means separating the complex mixtures of secondary
metabolites from the natural matrix, as stated earlier (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2017). This
extraction process can be simplified as a series of unit operations on a laboratory or
industrial scale. These include the mass transfer of the plant volatiles from the
biomass to the solvent/carrier fluid, separation of the solvent/carrier fluid and the
biomass, separation of the plant volatiles from the solvent/carrier fluid and purifi­
cation of the essential/volatile oils. Also, removing existing water in the herbage is
crucial to lower the utility consumption (for water/steam distillation) and minimize
water interference with other solvents (for solvent extraction). This mass transfer
operation, specific to water molecules without the impact on the bioproducts, makes
drying a critical function. Though well-reported, these mass transfer operations of
drying, extraction/leaching, and separation hold a special consideration in the case
of NVEO extraction post-harvesting of aromatic plants owing to the low shelf life
and tender structure of plants and localized low concentration of desired secondary
volatiles.
Drying at the molecular level involves activating water molecules, mobilizing
them within the matrix, and transferring them outside the matrix. The product
quality is closely related to the way the dehydration process is carried out. The
dehydration process should retain the product’s characteristics from the applica­
tion point of view (Thamkaew et al., 2021). The most desired purpose of dehy­
dration is to reduce moisture in herbs, spices or other parts of aromatic and
medicinal plants without affecting their key attributes for further use (Bhaskara
Rao & Murugan, 2021). Dehydration takes place by applying heat and mass
transfer at the cellular level. The quantification and ways of removing free-water,
inter-, and intra-cellular water must be understood through experimental and
mathematical analysis (Khan et al., 2017). The detailed analysis regarding the
Aromatic Plants – Significance and Impacts 3

dehydration at the cellular level is not only valuable for determining the param­
eters affecting the drying, including activation energy, driving force/concentration
gradient, internal & external mass transfer rate and effective moisture diffusion
(Majumder et al., 2021), but also it will help in the understanding of the condi­
tions required for the retention of desired phytochemicals and volatiles in herbs,
spices and aromatic plants (Pise et al., 2022; Prothon et al., 2003). It is also highly
desired to obtain the critical parameters for energy conservation vis-à-vis the
desirable thermal conditions (Rahman et al., 2018). These parameters can be
controlled by mode of energy application, temperature, flow/draft & relative
humidity of the drying medium and size of the material being dried. The advances
in drying technology through different dehydrators and solar dryers for agro-
commodities, food applications (Calín-Sánchez et al., 2020; Radoj et al., 2021;
Uthpala et al., 2020), and aromatic plants (Bhaskara Rao & Murugan, 2021; Jin
et al., 2018; Majumder et al., 2021; Orphanides et al., 2016; Qiu et al., 2020;
Thamkaew et al., 2021) have been well reported.
In the case of extraction, the first unit operation of mass transfer can be carried
out by different extraction methodologies using fluids like water/steam, organic
solvents (polar or non-polar), critical fluids (sub- and super-), or fats and oils, or by
mechanical means, with or without temperature, depending on the final applica­
tions. The composition of a complex compound mixture extracted, as plant volatiles
(and non-volatiles in some cases), depends on various conditions at which the
extraction is performed and partially on the extraction method. The extraction
process can also be subjected to specific procedures and parameters for selective
separation (Zhang et al., 2018). Opting for appropriate extraction methods, followed
by necessary separation, isolation, and purification for obtaining volatile oils of
commercial interest, is important. Similarly, for getting EOs, hydro-, steam- or dry-
distillation, or mechanical process without heating (termed “expression,” especially
for citrus oils) as per the definitions is to have opted.
Bioproducts, such as these volatiles, need assurance of constancy and quality to
ensure safe and efficient operations for industrial applications, which is difficult to
achieve. As mentioned above, the constituent of these volatiles varies with various
factors, including extraction parameters (Figueiredo, 2017; Tisserand & Young,
2014). However, by limiting the variables like specific region, fixed maturity of
harvests, same extraction process and uniform conditions, orderly pre-processing
and so on, variation in the composition can be minimized. The combined effects of
the constituents extracted lend to the oil characteristics such as odour and thera­
peutic properties. Hence, a thorough understanding of the extraction process, the
impact on the extract’s composition, and the reason for post-extraction applications
are critical for determining the post-harvest unit operation of the drying and
extraction process and obtaining the desired utilizable volatile oils.

1.3 GEOGRAPHY, KEY MARKETS AND CURRENT TRENDS

It is difficult to obtain the exact data on the EO-bearing plants and their production.
There are about 350,000 estimated known plant species globally, and around
17,500 species (approx. 5%) are aromatic. However, only about 400–500 are
4 Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes

FIGURE 1.1 Top 20 Essential oil exporting countries across the globe.

commercially processed as aromatic raw materials, and hardly 50% are cultivated
(Tisserand & Young, 2014). The main types of EOs are orange oil, lemon oil, lime
oil, peppermint oil, corn mint oil, citronella oil, spearmint oil, geranium oil, clove
leaf oil, and eucalyptus oil. The world production and consumption of EOs and
natural volatiles are increasing exponentially. The produced EOs are amongst the
top 500 most traded products, with a reported total trade of about $6.31 billion in
2019, $5.41 billion in 2020, $8.8 billion in 2021 and $9.62 billion in 2022. The
expected growth of the EOs market globally is expected to be $18.25 billion in 2028
at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 9.57%. The top exporters of
EOs were the United States ($816 M), India ($712 M), France ($480 M), China
($403 M), and Brazil ($274 M) (Figure 1.1). The top importers of EOs were the
United States ($1.05B), France ($414 M), China ($364 M), Germany ($350 M), and
the Netherlands ($295 M) (Simoes & Hidalgo, 2021) (Figure 1.2). The estimated
production of EOs in 2004 was around 45,000 tons of EOs and about 104,000 tons
by 2009 (Lubbe & Verpoorte, 2011).
Across the globe, EOs are selectively used due to their functional and bio­
logical properties but are widely used as fragrance ingredients in perfumes, toi­
letries, detergents, food and beverages, textiles, and cosmetics. The contribution
of EOs is about 55%–60% for flavours in the food industry, 15%–21% for fra­
grances in the perfumery/cosmetic industry, 10%–20% for isolation of compo­
nents, 5%–10% as active substances in pharmaceutical preparations and 2%–5%
for natural products (Joy, 2007). Though considered an industrial raw material,
variability is seen in the type of extract, botanical certification, chemical poly­
morphism and assay conditions through various sources. Factors like genomics,
edaphoclimatic variation, and seasonality influence the raw material quality and
are much more important than processing (Figueiredo, 2017). In the case of stable
and consistent requirements, selecting the right plantation material and processing
Aromatic Plants – Significance and Impacts 5

FIGURE 1.2 Top 20 Essential oil importing countries across the globe.

technology can help meet the market demand and extract the compounds with
improved overall yield and quality.

1.4 SOCIO-COMMERCIAL IMPACTS

It is mostly seen that remote rural areas or forest reserves are rich in natural
resources. These areas suffer from different combinations of problems, including
governance and market & resource endowment failures (Deshingkar & Akter,
2009). Well-planned cultivation of aromatic crops in such regions will not just
provide a significant increase in production but also result in better utilization of the
area and local employment.
Annual production of EOs is around 16,000 to 17,000 tons per year in India. Out
of this, approximately 5,000 tons of oils are supplied as a raw material for per­
fumery with a valuation of about $48.5 million (INR 400 crores), and an export of
around $15.8 million (INR 130 crores) is reported. Domestic demand for EO is
fulfilled with indigenous production (about 90%), and the remaining is imported
(Sanganeria, 2014).
The EO extraction industry across the world is a labour-intensive industry. In
this section, the cultivation and extraction of EOs are reported in different countries,
and the impact is seen on the local social life there.

1.4.1 PETITGRAIN OIL – PARAGUAY

Petitgrain oil, extracted from the leaves and twigs of the bitter orange tree (Citrus
aurantium L.), yields about 0.30%–0.35% of oil with key components of linalyl
acetate and linalool. Plant harvesting begins from the fifth year and lasts 35–40 years.
Petitgrain oil has applications as a fragrance component for all kinds of perfumes,
6 Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes

cosmetics and household chemicals. It is produced by steam-distilling harvested

leaves and twigs (Gade, 1979). The harvest is taken twice a year: between October
and February, around 70%–80% and in April and June, around 20%–30%.
Annual global consumption of this oil is reported to be around 250 tons.
Paraguay is the main exporter, with 80% of global consumption. The main pro­
duction departments in Paraguay are San Pedro (accounting for about 92% of
production), Canindeyu, Cordillera and Caaguazu, accounting for a total production
of 200 tons per year. Studies indicate 80% of the species in this region are culti­
vated, and 20% grow wild.
The extraction process is done manually without mechanization, from cutting the
leaves to distillation. The distillation is carried out at farm level in wooden home
stills with a capacity of 400 kg of leaves per batch. These farm distillation units
are used by several farmers located nearby.
The entire production of 200 tons completely depends upon smallholders with an
average land holding of about 1–2 hectares. There are about 15,000 families with
livelihoods linked with the petitgrain oil business. Petitgrain oil improves with time
if properly stored, can be extracted all year long and generates cash when there is no
income from any other alternative product. Hence, it is considered important oil for
farmers (Raul, 2020).

1.4.2 ROSE OIL – TURKEY AND BULGARIA

Rose oil is obtained from rose flowers as EO, absolute and concrete. The rose oil
content in flowers ranges from 0.045% to 0.055%, with major components of cit­
ronellol, nerol, geraniol and demascone. There are more than 200 species in the Rosa
genus; however, only four main species of Rosa x damascena Mill., Rosa centifolia,
Rosa alba and Rosa sertata/rosa rugosa are commercially cultivated (Chalova et al.,
2017). Rose oil and rose concrete are mainly consumed by big cosmetics and per­
fumery companies. The harvesting of rose flowers continues for less than a month,
starting from the second half of May. Rose oil harvesting and extraction is a tough
and labour-intensive activity carried out by families without high-income expecta­
tions because it is a traditional local product and a part of cultural heritage. In 2017,
rose damascena petal prices were +/- $1.80 (INR 130–135) per kg, with the women
pickers being paid $0.40 (INR 30–35) per kg for their labour.
The global consumption of rose oil accounts for 3,000 to 4,500 kg, 80%–90% of
which is produced in Bulgaria and Turkey. The other key producers of rose oil are
Morocco, Iran, Mexico, France, Italy, Lebanon, India, Russia, China and, to a small
extent Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia and Egypt (Kovacheva et al., 2010).

1.4.2.1 Bulgaria
Commercial cultivation is estimated on around 3,500–4,000 hectares of land. The
short season of harvest and manual plucking of flowers makes it labour-intensive,
involving around 40,000 pickers and more than 12,000 people working in the rose
industry year-round. Around 7,000 families in mountainous and semi-mountainous
areas earn their income from oil plant cultivation. Most extraction of oil is by
significant distillers.
Aromatic Plants – Significance and Impacts 7

Hence, the rose industry in Bulgaria influences the livelihood of around

65,000–70,000 people. In 2017, the estimated production based upon a harvest of
11,000/12,000 MT of flowers was around 2,400 kg of oil, 2,000 kg of concrete
and 200 kg of absolute worth around $30.2 million (Bleimann, 2019; Kovacheva
et al., 2010).

1.4.2.2 Turkey
In 2010, rose cultivation was estimated from around 1,600 hectares of land
involving some 10,000 families in oil, concrete and absolute production. Most rose
flower production comes from small family plots of less than 1 hectare, which is
supplied to one of six major distilleries producing about 65% of Turkey’s EO.
In 2013, some 7,000–8,000 MT of roses were harvested and sent to the distilleries
producing about 1,400 kg of EO, 6,000 kg of rose concrete, and subsequently
1,000 kg of absolute. In 2017, annual production was estimated to be around
1,400 kg of EO, 10,000 kg of concrete and 5,000 kg of absolute, with an approx­
imate worth of about $45.14 million(Bleimann, 2019; Giray & Omerci Kart, 2012).

1.4.2.3 Iran
It is reported that some 5,000 hectares are under cultivation in areas of Kashan,
Kerman, Shiraz and Kermanshah. These farms are generally small land holdings
producing low EO of only about 200 kg annually, but the production of rose water
is about 3.85 million kg (90% of global rose water demand) worth $8 million
(IFEAT Rose report, 2019).

1.4.2.4 Morocco
Around 880 hectares of land are cultivated, producing approximately 2,000 MT of
flowers employing 6,000 small farmers majorly utilized for concrete production.

1.4.2.5 India
In India, 2,500–3,000 hectares of Rosa damascena are under cultivation, producing
approximately 200 kg of oil and larger quantities of rose water.

1.4.2.6 Afghanistan
Afghanistan is an upcoming producer of rose products, with almost 3,000 hectares
planted with rootstock and two or three distillation facilities brought from Bulgaria
and Turkey. Rose cultivation is estimated to involve more than 400 farmers from
the dangerous area of eastern Afghanistan (IFEAT Rose report, 2019).

1.4.3 JASMIN OIL – INDIA

More than 80 species of the Jasminum genus are found in India, of which four
species are mainly cultivated for perfumery and fragrances: Jasminum grandiflorum
and Jasminum sambac, Jasminum asteroides and Jasminum auriculatum.
Jasmine does not yield an oil by steam distillation, i.e. jasmine EO, as defined by
ISO 3218. The commonly employed extraction method for almost 98% of jasmine
production worldwide is a two-step process; solvent extraction as concrete followed
8 Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes

by separation of wax and absolute. Jasmine concrete is extracted using hexane and
then converted into a jasmine absolute by washing it with ethanol and separating
wax at low temperatures.
The two main producers of Jasminum grandiflorum concrete are India and
Egypt, accounting for 95% of the global market share. In 2014, the estimated
concrete production in India was about 5.5–6 tons, whereas in Egypt it was about
4.5 tons. In India, the season lasts from June to December, with peak production in
August/September for grandiflorum and from March to October for Sambac. In
Egypt, the production period is typically from June to October but may be extended
from end-May to early December.

1.4.3.1 India
Jasmin grandiflorum is cultivated throughout peninsular India, but in the Coimbatore
district of Tamil Nadu, it is mainly cultivated under contract for extraction. The total
cultivation area of grandiflorum in Tamil Nadu alone is about 2,850 hectares, of
which only 10%–15% is processed for extraction. However, approximately 90% of
grandiflorum flowers cultivated in the Coimbatore district are used for extraction.
Grandiflorum has a productive life from the third to the tenth year, yielding 5–6 tons
of flowers per hectare per year. The concrete yield from flowers ranges from 0.27%
to 0.3%.
Jasminum sambac is also cultivated throughout peninsular India and, to a lesser
extent, in the Gangetic plains. The total cultivation area of Sambac in Tamil Nadu is
almost 6,500 hectares. The districts of Madurai, Virudhunagar, Theni, Dindigul and
Sivaganga have been granted a Geographical Indication Mark for the Jasminum
sambac flowers grown. Sambac has a productive life from the third to the eighth
year with a yield of 4–5 tons of flowers per hectare per year, yielding concrete
between 0.12% and 0.13%.
Considering an area of around 6,500 hectares under Jasmin cultivation in India,
production involves around 20,000 small and marginal farmers. Around
80,000–100,000 people are involved in the picking activity, collecting an average of
3–4 kg of flowers for extraction. Usually, all family members work on this activity.
A hectare of land can produce around 6 metric tons of flowers annually. The cost
of cultivation average could be around $4,000 per year per hectare (including
harvesting costs, which are the biggest ones) (IFEAT Jasmine report, 2015;
Saripalle, 2016).

1.4.3.2 Egypt
Cultivation of Jasmin grandiflorum located in the Nile delta, around the village of
Shoubra Beloula El-Sakhaweya (commune of Kutur, province of Gharbeya)
accounts for 99% of jasmine plantations and the rest in the Fayoum area. An area
varying between 105 and 150 hectares is under cultivation of jasmine, supporting
approximately 5,000 flower pickers and 30,000 people linked through dependent
family members and businesses. The Jasminum grandiflorum is processed mainly at
the farm/district level. The plants’ productive life is over 25 years, but they gen­
erally replace every 12–15 years of drop in acreage productivity. A single hectare of
land can produce around 9.5–14.2 tons of blossoms per year, with a concrete yield
Aromatic Plants – Significance and Impacts 9

of 0.26%–0.31%. This concrete yields about 55% and 61% of jasmine absolute and
the rest as jasmine wax for cosmetics, candles and wood furnishing polish treatment
applications.
Jasmine produce is almost completely exported, giving the country the highest
consistent return worth $6.5 million in value (IFEAT Jasmine report, 2015).

1.4.4 LAVENDER – BULGARIA, UKRAINE, FRANCE AND SPAIN

Lavender oil, similar to rose, is extracted as EO through steam distillation as well
as concrete and absolute through solvent extraction. Lavender originates in
the Mediterranean basin, in rocky, calcareous areas of north Africa,
Mediterranean countries, Europe and Western India. The flowers and leaves in
smaller quantities are used for oil extraction. Out of 48 known species, only
three are cultivated commercially to extract EOs – L. angustifolia, L. latifolia,
L. angustifolia x L. latifolia (lavandin) (DAFF, 2009). The oil content in the dried
lavender harvest is 2.1%–4%, with major components of Linalool, Linalyl acetate
and lavandulyl acetate. With a global production of 1,300 tons of EO, major
production is from Bulgaria and France, followed by Ukraine, Australia, Spain,
England and Italy.

1.4.4.1 Bulgaria
Almost 4,500 hectares of land are under lavender cultivation. Presently, with an
average yield of 40 kg/ha of oil, about 150–180 tons are being produced from over
30 distilleries, with a capacity starting from 1–2 tons and extending to higher
capacities. In 2013, around 1,200–1,300 farmers and 300–350 people were engaged in
cultivation and oil production, respectively. In Bulgaria, around 8,000–10,000 people
have their livelihood depending on the lavender oil business, including farming,
processing, pickers, dependent families, agronomists, suppliers of fertilizers and
seeding, agro-machinery and other inputs.

1.4.4.2 France
France was once a major lavender oil producer, but with lavandin brought under
cultivation; it now is the major producer of lavandin oil of around 1,200 tons per
year (IFEAT Lavender report, 2016). The lavender fields of Provence, France, are
the most spectacular natural sights, with beautiful purple flowers stretching for
miles into the horizon. In 2016, the estimated land cover of about 22,213 hectares of
land under 1,496 farm holdings was reported to produce 109 tons of lavender oil
and 1,439 tons of lavandin oil (Schmidt & Wanner, 2020).

1.4.4.3 Ukraine, Spain and Japan

In Ukraine, more than 320,000 lavender bushes of various varieties are located on
the territory of the Lavender Mountain farm in Perechyn. Brihuega, Spain, is known
to have about 30 + dedicated lavender cultivation fields covering an area of over
10,000 hectares. Similarly, even in Japan, about 480 hectares of land is being
cultivated under lavender cultivation for the extraction of EO and promoting
tourism.
10 Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes

1.4.4.4 India
Lavender cultivation is being promoted and practised in more than 20 districts of
Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. Under the purple revo­
lution, about 200 hectares of land under the land holding of 1,200 farmers is cul­
tivated, employing about 5,000 associated villagers.

1.4.5 MINT OIL – USA AND INDIA

Mint oil is extracted from the whole plant by steam distillation at the flowering
stage. Out of 25–30 known mentha species, three main species of Mentha arvensis,
Mentha piperita and Mentha spicata, are being commercially cultivated for EO
production. The EO content is in the range of 0.38%–2% (Jezler & Mangabeira,
2005). Several farms within the United States, India and China are dedicatedly
utilized for peppermint production.
The United States dominates the production and export of peppermint oil, with
the mint industry as the largest commercial herb industry. In 2015, 26,500 hectares
of land under cultivation were reported to produce about 2,700 tons; in 2017,
24,500 hectares were reported to yield approximately 2,600 tons of peppermint oil.
The drop in cultivation land coverage was mainly because of less available pro­
duction land for peppermint as corn production takes over land and large raw
material handling required to produce substantial amounts of EO (about 80 kg oil/
hectare of land) (Gilman et al., 2019).
Similarly, India is the most competitive global supplier of corn-mint EO,
accounting for 90% of global crude oil production. In India, in 2009, around
160,000 hectares of land were under corn-mint cultivation, producing around
16,000 tons of mentha oil, with an increase in 2012 to about 34,500 tons and in
2013 to about 50,000 tons (IFEAT Mint Report, 2019). This entire production is
mainly cultivated in the states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab by small and
marginal farmers with small land holdings of 0.2–2 hectares of land. Being a
short-term crop, mint is mainly cultivated as a third crop or Zaid season between
rice and wheat cropping (Kumar et al., 2011). It is harvested twice a year, in April
and in August.
An estimated 24,000 tons of oil was produced with the involvement of around
12,750,000 people in 2010. On extrapolating the same in 2012–13, considering the
production of 45,000 tons, the number of people estimated to be involved is around
15,000,000. Though it cannot be said that this number of people only depends on
mint farming as it is one of the three crops harvested yearly (IFEAT Mint Report,
2019; Kumar et al., 2011).
Though mint cultivation is a short-duration business, it is extremely labour-
intensive. Cultivators are looking for other cultivation options, resulting in
decreasing available land and less raw material, causing fluctuation in oil prices as
high as 150%. This is thus causing a spike in the price of natural mentha oil for
consumers who, as a result, are opting for a synthetic menthol replacement
(Gilman et al., 2019).
Aromatic Plants – Significance and Impacts 11

1.4.6 VETIVER OIL – HAITI

The EO of vetiver is obtained by distillation of the roots growing as deep as
2–4 metres with a very strong scent. There is also a variety with shallow rooting of
about 6–12 inches, which is easier for harvesting. The oil yield may vary from
0.15% to 1% with major constituents such as benzoic acid, vetiverol, furfurol,
vetivone and vetivene (Smitha et al., 2014). With a global demand of around
408 tons though indigenous to India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Malaysia,
the main producers are Tropical Asia, Africa, Australia, Haiti and Indonesia.
Haiti still retains its status as the site of the world’s highest quality vetiver, with
being “more balanced and multi-faceted” variety than seen in Indonesia or India. In
2009, when the global demand was about 250 tons, 16 operational refineries were
reported to produce 100 tons of oil, approximately 400 drums (249 kg capacity
each) with a cultivation land coverage of about 10,000 hectares. It was estimated
that 15,000–60,000 farmers rely on vetiver root cultivation as their primary source
of income. In Haiti, vetiver is cultivated in small plots by small-scale farmers.
Harvesting the root is a critical process; the planter cannot harvest the cultivation
plots, creating employment opportunities for more people.
The extracted oil is exported through agents and exporters. Each barrel is valued
at $40,000 to $43,000 in the US Market, costing $190 to $200 per kg of oil. The
markup of exporters in this price is about $5–$10 (Freeman, 2011). The overall
worth of oil exported from Haiti is about $ 16 million to $17 million.
In India, vetiver is mainly cultivated in the states of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh and is wildly gathered in
the states of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Assam. The estimated production of vetiver
oil in India is about 20–25 tons, most of which is being consumed locally, con­
sidering the annual demand of approximately 100 tons (Smitha et al., 2014).

1.4.7 FRANKINCENSE AND MYRRH – SOMALIA

Frankincense and myrrh are both obtained in the form of resins from small trees and
shrubs of the Boswellia genus (Boswellia carterii [Somalia] and Boswellia
papyrifera [Ethiopia] giving frankincense) and Commiphora genus (Commiphora
myrrhae giving myrrh) of the Burseraceae family. Numerous species and varieties
of the Burseraceae family produce different types of resin. Geographic diversity in
soil and climate also has a major impact on the quality of the resin, even within the
same species. Frankincense and myrrh are tree resins produced in Ethiopia,
Somalia, Somaliland and Puntland countries from East Africa, Yemen and Oman of
the southern Arabian Peninsula, and the Sahelian region of Africa.
The resins are used in an unprocessed form for both fragrance and flavour purposes,
distilled to yield volatile oils with characteristic and balsamic odours used in perfumery
and solvent extracted to get resinoids and absolutes used as fixatives in perfumes.
Boswellia serrata yields 10% or more, Boswellia sacra yield around 9%–10%, and
Boswellia carterii and Boswellia frereana typically yield 5%–6% and 2%, respectively.
The global demand or consumption of the oil or resin is difficult to estimate,
considering geographic isolation, and the nomadic nature of much of the collection
12 Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes

area, however, is estimated to be around 2,500 tons per year. The reported imports
from France, the United Kingdom and the United States alone were at least 400 MT
per annum of B. carterii or B. sacra for application in the fragrance industry.
Considering the lack of clarity on the production and export data, the social
impact on the locals is also difficult to be known. Frankincense and Gums
Development and Sales Agency estimated that around 10,000 families in northern
Somalia primarily depend on gum gathering.
Gathering the gums involves tapping wild-growing trees, after which resin is left
to exude from the tree and harden for a few days, then collected every 10–15 days.
It is a wildcraft method. The gum collected by the villagers or farmers is stored in
an excavation, cave or some kind of camp for stabilization and gathering sufficient
quantities to be sold per the classification, gradation and trade. After 12 weeks of
hardening, cleaning, sieving, and sorting are carried out at collection centres. This
entire manual process involves most of the local populations from the villages and
towns. The traders and exporters are associated after this for exporting the product
in this form or selling it in local markets for chewing (IFEAT Report Frankincense
& Myrrh, 2017).

1.4.8 PATCHOULI – INDONESIA

Patchouli is one of the most important EOs used as a base note in perfumery and
fine fragrances owing to its unique and complex properties. The leaves are covered
with trichomes all over the epidermis, which contains the EO that can be collected
by steam distillation of shade-dried leaves. The herb is grown extensively in the
tropical climate of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, China and Brazil, preferably
under partial shade. The leaves are harvested throughout the year but with peak
production in June to July and November to December. The oil content of the
shade-dried leaves is around 2.5%–3%, with contents of patchoulol and car­
yophyllene as major constituents. Indonesia alone accounts for the production of
90% of global patchouli oil demand. Other producing countries include China and
India, but with a minor role in global production (Tripathi et al., 2005).
The producing regions in Indonesia are Sulawesi, accounting for 70%; Sumatra,
25%; and Java, 5% of total production. The cultivation is carried out by around
12,000 small-scale farmers with farm holdings of 0.25–1 hectares. The produce of
dry leaves is about 4–5 tons per hectare, which helps produce about 25–100 kg of
patchouli oil for farmers as per their land under cultivation. The distillation is
carried out with the help of around 250 field distillation units in Sulawesi and
Java and around 175 in Sumatra. Patchouli oil business provides a livelihood for
50,000 people for cultivation considering 4 people per family, 2,000 people
for extraction, considering 5 people per extraction unit and around 300 people for
trading. Production reached a level of 1,200–1,400 tons, and the patchouli oil
business valuation is about $70–$100 million (IFEAT Report Patchouli, 2015).
Patchouli is a modest proportion of farmers’ annual revenue (less than 25% on
average). High fluctuations in oil prices and a lack of knowledge of good agri­
cultural processing have demotivated farmers to grow patchouli and encouraged
them to undertake other economic activities.
Aromatic Plants – Significance and Impacts 13

1.4.9 BERGAMOT – ITALY

Bergamot oil is a citrus oil extracted from the peels of the bergamot fruit. Bergamot
is a hybrid between bitter orange and lemon. There are three varieties of bergamot
fruits grown, namely Feminello, Fantastico and Castagnaro. Bergamot is a key
ingredient and game changer in more than 50% of all fine fragrances worldwide,
and it constitutes the base of cologne water (eau de cologne), making it commer­
cially very important. This fruit is commercially grown primarily for the rind oil,
which can be extracted by steam distillation or cold press, yielding about 2.5%–4%
oil, mainly constituting limonene, linalyl acetate, linalool, γ-terpinene and β-pinene
(Giwa et al., 2018). It is mainly grown in Italy, the Ivory Coast and Brazil.
Calabria in southern Italy accounts for almost 90% of total global production.
The cultivation areas initially were just over 3,000 hectares, spreading across a
140 km stretch of land, beginning in Reggio di Calabria, heading south and fol­
lowing the Ionian Coast. Now a further 450 hectares are being planted. Of the total,
1,400 hectares are planted and managed through several cooperatives and growers’
associations – the rest by individuals. Around 20% of the total cultivated area is
represented by family fields < 2 hectares, 25% have 2–5 hectares, 25% have 5–10
hectares, and 25% of the cultivated land is > 10 hectares. More than 4,500 families
are involved in the production cycle of the oil. Approximately 25,000 metric tons of
fresh fruit is produced annually for mechanical extraction (Pelatrice extractors). An
approximate yield of 1 kg of oil from 200 kg of fruit leads to the current production
of 125 metric tons per year, which accounts for more than 3% of Italy’s export.
It is also seen that there has been an 11% increase in recent years, and 83% of the
growers are ready to expand their production by planting more trees, owing to the
ambitious policies helping the entire supply chain, including all stakeholders, from
farm to university, processors and users (IFEAT Bergamot oil, 2015).

1.4.10 VANILLA IN MADAGASCAR

Vanilla, native to Mexico, was brought to Madagascar during colonization by the
Spanish and Portuguese. The absence of pollinating bees makes cultivating vanilla
orchids time-consuming as they must be hand pollinated. Once planted, it takes the
plant 3 years to bear fruit the first time. Out of 110 variants of vanilla, Vanilla
Planifolia A is the one that is being cultivated in Madagascar. Being the main
exporter, Madagascar’s export of vanilla is worth $531 million, which is 62% of the
total market in 2018 (Hänke et al., 2019).
The SAVA region in northeastern Madagascar is estimated to produce almost
70%–80% of all global bourbon vanilla on approximately 25,000 hectares of land,
with the involvement of 70,000 farmers. This cultivation is by small and marginal
farmers practising farming by traditional methods without mechanization. Vanilla is
a cash crop that can be immediately sold for large profits. Farmers manually clear
plots, plant trees and vanilla vines, weed, and hand pollinate each flower. Besides
this, little is known about the farming population, their livelihoods, and the impact
of vanilla cultivation on biodiversity (Raxworthy, 2019).
14 Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes

1.4.11 CITRONELLA – CHINA AND INDONESIA

Java citronella is an important aromatic grass extensively used in the perfumery,

cosmetic and flavouring industries. The key characteristic of the oil is the insect-
repellent feature. Citronella oil is classified in trade into Ceylon citronella oil from
Cymbopogon Nardus and Java citronella oil from Cymbopogon winterianus, which
is produced and traded in greater volume. The overall oil yield of citronella EO is
about 0.8%–1%, consisting of citronellal, geraniol, citronellol, geranyl acetate,
neral, geranial, elemol and limonene (Singh & Kumar, 2017). Java citronella oil
is mainly produced in China, about 800 and 1,500 metric tons, and in Indonesia,
about 250 and 500 metric tons, to meet the annual global requirement of around
1,800 metric tons.
In China, cultivation of citronella is carried out in remote and underdeveloped
regions of southern and far western regions of Yunnan Province, particularly in
Luchun County, Honghe Prefecture, Mojiang, Simao Prefecture and Yingjiang
County, Dehong Prefecture. Farmers undertake cultivation followed by field distil­
lation as an important cash income source. The production of 800–1,500 MT of oil is
produced by a total cultivation area of about 6,600 hectares, with 20–30 thousand
people engaged in the citronella business.
It is mainly grown in Java and West and North Sumatra in Indonesia. In
Indonesia, the average annual production of 400 metric tons is produced from 2,000
hectares of land, generating a livelihood for 5,000 people (1,000 farming families,
extractors and agents). These farmers are small-scale farmers with an average
landholding of 2 hectares. The average harvest yields 10 metric tons of citronella
grass per hectare per annum, which is distilled to get about 100 kg of oil (IFEAT
Citronella Report, 2014).

1.4.12 GERANIUM – CHINA AND EGYPT

Geranium oil is extracted from the fresh leaves and stalks of the plant by using steam
distillation. Out of 270 known species of Pelargonium, Rose geranium (Pelargonium
rosé) is a hybrid species developed from crossing P. capitatum with P. radens for
commercial oil extraction. Fresh leaves yield about 0.15%–2% of greenish olive
bourbon oil, which can be blended with lavender, patchouli, clove, rose, orange
blossom, sandalwood, jasmine, juniper, bergamot and other citrus oils owing to its
rosy sweet minty smell. It mainly consists of citronella, geraniol, linalool, iso-
menthone, menthone, phellandrene, sabinene and limonene as major constituents
(Department of agriculture, 2012). With a global demand of 350–400 tons, China
with 80–100 tons and Egypt with 200–230 tons meet the maximum production. Other
countries that produce smaller quantities to meet the remaining 20% or less are India,
about 25–35 tons/year; Madagascar < 10 tons/year; South Africa, about 5–10 tons/
year; Reunion Island, about 2–6 tons/year; Kenya, about < 1 ton/year; Morocco,
about < 0.5 tons/year; and Congo, about < 0.5 tons/year.
The geranium oil industry provides a livelihood for about 25,000–30,000 people –
including intermediaries, transport workers, factory workers, exporting companies
and 5,000–7,000 farming families in China. Similarly, about 30,000–35,000 people,
Aromatic Plants – Significance and Impacts 15

including 8,000 farming families and the whole supply chain, benefitted in Egypt. On
extrapolating, one can assume that the economic benefits of the geranium oil industry
are being shared by about 100,000–150,000 people globally (IFEAT Geranium
Report, 2015).
Though in the previous section it is mentioned that lack of marketing network
and price fluctuation is not encouraging farmers to pursue the cultivation of aro­
matic plants, in this section, it can be seen that across the globe, countries have
developed identities for the export of particular EOs. It can also be seen that aro­
matic crop cultivation can be taken up in a good-enough land spread, influencing
the lives of thousands of farming families. Aromatic cultivation is largely taken up
by small and marginal farmers (poor and underprivileged), representing a key
income generator for those farmers. It could thus help reduce poverty and increase
investment in health and education services that are vital for overall economic
development and social climbing. The only requirement seen now is to have an
organized network for providing quality plantation material, educating the culti­
vators, ensuring localized extraction units, having centralized processing and testing
facilities and having fair trade practices ensuring sustainable income for the farmers
and consistent supply for the industry.

1.5 CONCLUSION
The complexity of the plant-based aroma and EOs, considering the chemical
composition, is well recognized. Since a selective compound in the oil plays a
critical role in the respective application, extraction of the same in primitive form is
crucial. The secondary metabolite content of plant biomass is very small; hence,
significant attention is required towards cultivation, harvesting and post-harvesting
practices like drying and extraction methodology. Considering the trade data and
the industrial demand for these natural volatiles and EOs, huge cultivation grounds
are required with well-researched processing protocols.
Having said so, aromatic plant cultivation is a labour-intensive industry and is
seen to provide significant employment. It is seen that a proper network and col­
lective cultivation of the aromatic crop in countries like Paraguay, Turkey, Bulgaria,
Iran, Ukraine, France, India, the United States, Haiti, Italy, Madagascar, Egypt and
China have managed to impact a significant population and development of a
sustainable global market for the produce.

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 2 Cellular Structures of
Aromatic Plant Materials

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Internal structures of a plant can be defined based on levels of organization in the plant
anatomy. Cells are the basic units organized in tissues and, in turn, organized into
organs. Cells may appear round, elongated, rectangular, polyhedral, kidney‐shaped,
globular, star‐shaped or drum‐shaped. Based on the functionality of each tissue or
organ, differences in internal structure and the organ’s adaptation to the diverse
environment are prominently seen. Any resulting change in a chemical composition,
shape and structure, organization, and final form is a new challenge for processing –
drying and extraction. The histology of the plants and the functioning of the cells and
tissues play a significant role, and an understanding of the structure could support the
establishment of drying and extraction protocols.
The internal structures can be simplified and described as vacuoles, cytoplasm,
cell walls and inter-cellular spaces. Vacuoles are an aqueous solution of sugar,
organic acids and salts. Cytoplasms are gel matrices or complex fluids containing
reserve starch, lipids, proteins and cell organelles. Tonoplast and plasmalemma are
the protein-lipid membranes that bind and regulate environmental contact. Cell
walls are the non-static organelles crucial for adjusting to cell growth, metabolism,
attachment, shape and stress. These are mainly composed of hemicellulosic inter­
locking components with micro-cellulosic fibrils (about 50%–65% weight on a dry
basis) embedded in pectin substance (about 30%) and extensin cross-linking to give
the fixed shape. These cells are glued together with a thin layer of the middle
lamella, pectinous in nature and resulting in the texture of the tissue.
Similarly, the plasmodesmata and cytoplasmic connection link are the linking
agents creating the intercellular continuum. This acts as the transport channel for
water, small molecules and ions (Prothon et al., 2003). These biomolecules in
complex biostructures are difficult to quantify or describe completely. However,
they play a critical role in optimizing the dehydration process and retaining
structural integrity. The structures, functions and properties of tissues highly affect
the mass transfer phenomenon during their life functions (Le Maguer et al., 2003)
and are significant for us for post-harvest processing. A basic understanding and
anatomical description of these tissues’ internal structures, functioning and chem­
ical compositions is crucial for an effective processing method and dehydration
while retaining the structural integrity of the matrix and extraction and separating
the secondary metabolites. This chapter briefly explains different cells and their
functions in aromatic plants.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003315384-2 19
20 Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes

2.2 PLANT TISSUES

The plants’ organs are organized considering three tissue layers: the epidermis, the
ground tissue and the vascular system. A group of cells from a common origin and
having common functions are termed tissues and can be categorized as meristematic
and permanent tissues. Meristem is the specialized region of active cell division
occurring at the tips of roots and shoots and is largely maintained as different tissues
throughout plant development. Primary meristems (apical and intercalary) are
early-appearing tissues contributing to body formation. Secondary meristems
are lateral meristems in the mature region producing secondary tissues. After the
required divisions, the newly formed cells become structurally and functionally
specialized and are termed permanent or matured cells constituting permanent
tissues.
These permanent tissues, having all similar cells and the same function in struc­
ture, are simple tissues – parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma. Similarly,
permanent tissues with structures with more than one cell type and working together
as a unit are called complex tissues, xylem and phloem. The three layers formed for
any plant organs through these tissues include the epidermis layer, which is
responsible for plant protection and gas exchange; subepidermal tissues, generating
most photosynthetically active tissues; and the vascular system, required for long-
distance transport of water and metabolites (Hülskamp & Schnittger, 2012).
The dermal tissue is the outermost cell layer that mediates the interactions of a
plant with its environment. In most plants, the dermal tissue consists of a single-cell
layer. Several specialized cell types execute the various functions of the epidermis.
In the aerial parts of a plant, the majority of the epidermal cells are small and
compact, with a cuticle consisting of cutin and wax. This cuticle effectively protects
the plant from water loss and functions as a barrier against pathogens. The exchange
of water vapours and gases is regulated by stomata, small-gated pores formed by the
guard cells and their subsidiary cells. Turgor changes in guard cells control stomatal
opening and closing and thereby regulate the optimal uptake of carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis and the overall water economy of the plant.
The ground tissue has a variety of functions, including photosynthesis, storage,
reproduction and mechanical support. Three specific tissue types are classified
according to their cell wall structure and thickness and their role in mechanical
support within the ground tissue: parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells.
The vascular tissue is a water- and food-conducting tissue that forms a contin­
uous system throughout the entire plant body. It is also important for distributing
plant hormones (e.g., auxin) and other signalling molecules. The vascular system
consists of two different tissues: the xylem and the phloem.

2.2.1 SIMPLE AND COMPLEX TISSUES

Parenchyma contains the most primitive, fundamental and ground tissues performing
all major functions. These are the most abundantly found tissues in the plant, with
thin cell walls made of cellulose and hemicellulose, intercellular space and vacuolated
active protoplast with various shapes. These cells and cell walls consist of primary pit
Cellular Structures of Aromatic Plant Materials 21

fields interconnected by plasmodesma interconnections. Chlorenchyma is a sub-class

of parenchyma in higher plants, found in the mesophyll of leaves, pericarp of unripe
fruits, and cortex of young stems and branches. Similarly, Arenchyma is abundantly
found in hydrophytes, having large intercellular spaces giving buoyancy and aiding
respiration and gas exchange. Storage parenchyma is abundant in storage organs
like fruits, seeds, tubers, and so on. Idioblastic parenchyma stores tannins, oil,
and inorganic crystals in succulent xerophytes using cells secreting hydrophilic
mucilaginous substances that hold large amounts of water. As epidermal cells,
parenchyma gives protection. Turgid parenchyma gives mechanical support to herbs
and hydrophytes.
Collenchyma are the living mechanical tissues in stems and leaves, aiding the
function of protection. Compared to parenchyma, these are arranged irregularly
without intercellular spaces owing to unevenly thickened cell walls with excessive
deposition of cellulose and pectin. They are also characterized by a high pectin
content, about 60% water in cell walls, and vacuolated protoplast. The characteristic
collenchyma position is hypodermal, as a continuous or discontinuous ring, and as
angular, lacunar or lamellar type, providing mechanical strength, elasticity and
flexibility.
Sclerenchyma is a widely distributed, important mechanical tissue consisting of
dead and empty cells with reduced lumen with highly thickened and lignified walls.
Sclerenchyma is of mainly two types, fibres, elongated cells with tapered ends and
sclerides, short cells. However, both these types are characterized by thickened,
lignified and hard cell walls (Figure 2.1).
Xylem are the complex tissues that conduct water and minerals. Xylems are
mostly dead tissues except for the parenchyma. The water and dissolved salts
conducting elements are tracheid and vessels. The tracheids are elongated cells with
tapered ends, lignified walls, and narrow lumen. They have imperforated end walls
and bordered pits on lateral walls. Vessel members are elongated but cylindrical

FIGURE 2.1 Plant tissue classification.

22 Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes

cells with lignified cell walls and wide lumen. In the case of vessel members, end
walls are oblique and perforated. These tracheids and vessels both show several
types of wall thickening, such as annular, spiral, scalariform, reticulate and pitted,
increasing the complexity of the structure’s composition. Xylem fibres have similar
composition of tracheid and vessels but are elongated spindle-shaped dead cells
with sharp and tapered ends. Xylem parenchyma are living cells with thin walls
filled with vacuolated and nucleated cytoplasm. These are flexible cells with non-
lignified cell walls in rectangular shapes. These are further classified as primary
xylem (consisting of only axial system) and secondary xylem (consisting of axial
and ray systems). These parenchyma cells sometimes outgrow into tyloses, which
tend to block water movement. This is typically seen when sapwood is converted to
heartwood or under the stress of pathogenic fungi to check the spread.
Phloem are living cells that conduct food materials. These tissues consist of sieve
elements (cells & tubes), companion cells and phloem parenchyma, which are living
cells, and phloem fibres, which are non-living cells. Sieve elements are vacuolated
protoplast, highly specialized chief conducting cells. The presence of a sieve area in
the cell walls is the main characteristic feature consisting of numerous minute pores.
Companion cells are elongated rectangular parenchyma cells associated with sieve
elements. Phloem fibres are the only dead cells in the phloem tissues that give
mechanical strength to the vascular bundle. Phloem parenchyma is rectangular-
shaped walled cells with vacuolated protoplasm consisting of cytoplasm with
starch, fats, tannins, and resins.

2.2.2 SPECIAL TISSUES

Special tissues, also called secretory or glandular tissues, are located at different
parts and are widely distributed in different plant genres. They are very specific to
the occurrence type of secretion and place of storage. A few special tissues can be
listed as digestive glands (in the case of insectivorous plants), nectary glands (in the
case of floral and extrafloral nectaries), osmophores (in the case of aromatic plants),
secretory cavities (for storage and release of secretions – lysigenous cavities and
schizogenous cavities), hydathodes (water secreting structures), and laticiferous
tissues (latex secreting tissues). In aromatic plants, the main tissues that need to be
understood are osmophores and secretory cavities and, to some extent, laticiferous
tissues.
As seen in Chapter 1, essential oils are important organic molecules with natural
essence and are biosynthesized by plants. The function of secretion of these sec­
ondary metabolites by aromatic plants is seen in specialized cells such as osmo­
phores, glandular trichomes and ducts & cavities. These organic compounds are
synthesized, transported for storage and transported for release into the atmosphere.
Aromatic plant cells are very diverse in morphology and range from highly spe­
cialized trichomes, ducts, cavities, secreting trichomes, conical-papillate cells, and
other essential oil secretory tissues like osmophores and secretory cells (Rehman &
Asif Hanif, 2016). To preserve/selectively extract the secreted metabolites in/from
the natural matrix during processing, it is vital to understand the cell and tissue
structures and functioning in aromatic plants.
Cellular Structures of Aromatic Plant Materials 23

2.3 HISTO-ARCHITECTURE OF AROMATIC PLANT PARTS

The chemical structures of the primary cell walls of the different parts of aromatic
plants and their progenitors differ for different plant species. They vary in the
complex glycans that interlace and cross-link the cellulose microfibrils to form a
robust framework, in the nature of the gel matrix surrounding this framework, and
in the types of aromatic substances and structural proteins that covalently cross-link
the primary and secondary walls and lock cells into shape (Carpita, 1996). The
chemistry of structural elements like polysaccharides, aromatic substances, and
proteins of different plant parts is unique and results in synthesizing and assembling
dynamic and functional cell walls (Megías et al., 2022).

2.3.1 STRUCTURES OF ROOTS

The primary function of the rooting system is meant for anchoring and absorbing.
Root growth is seen by cell proliferation and elongation produced by the apical root
meristem. Water and organic molecules transfer through the roots through the
vascular system several millimetres from the meristem tissues. Roots grow under
the primary growth mechanism, increasing the length and under the secondary
growth mechanism growing in diameter. This structure is more or less quite similar
structure along the root extension. Primary roots are relatively less complex
structures forming a layer of epidermal and hypodermis cells under the epidermis,
followed by the parenchyma cells. The vascular bundles are seen in the inner bundle
of the roots in the form of di-, tri-, tetra- or poly arch organization of separate and
alternate rows of xylem and phloem. The secondary roots grow with the pro­
cambium meristem between the xylem and phloem, becoming the continuous
vascular cambium along the axis. These are followed by the formation of secondary
xylems and phloem, pushing the vascular cambium towards the surface of the roots
and increasing the thickness of the roots.

2.3.2 STRUCTURES OF STEM AND BARK

Stems are the aerial part of plants, mainly functioning for supporting the organs and
transporting or conducting substances, photosynthesis and storage. Similar to the
roots, stem growth begins through caulinar meristem. Stems are more complex
structures with tidily arranged nodes, internodes and axillary buds. Similar to roots
again but more complex, the growth is seen as the primary mechanism, leading to
all stem tissues, leaf primordia and axillary buds, and the secondary mechanism is
an increase in diameter. The shoot apical meristem, intercalary meristem, secondary
meristems; vascular cambium and cork cambium; and lateral meristem are mainly
responsible for the primary and secondary growth.
The primary growth of stems usually involves the epidermis and cortex. The
epidermis is a single cell thick, covering the stem and showing cutin and suberin
macro-molecules in the free cell wall. The cortex is a thicker layer of parenchyma
cells that can perform photosynthesis or storage. The cortex has hypodermis as the
closest cell layer to the epidermis, followed by the vascular cambium activity and the
24 Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes

elongation of the vascular cell. It contains the sclerenchyma and collenchyma as the
support tissues and occasionally sclereids, glandular cells, and laticifers. The vascular
bundle are collateral bundles with primary phloem at the inner core, and primary
xylem localized externally. These are again scattered in parenchyma tissues.
The organizations of stem and root vascular bundles are different but are con­
nected at the transition region. The xylem and phloem alternate in the root, and the
meta-phloem is inner to the proto-phloem. In the shoot, the phloem is outer to the
xylem, and the proto-xylem is inner to the meta-xylem. The phloem and xylem
change positions, and the xylem shows a twist.

2.3.3 STRUCTURES OF WOOD

The secondary growth of stems is due to the vascular cambium meristem and cork
meristem, known to increase the thickness of the stem. The vascular cambium
meristem is differentiated from both procambium (or fascicular cambium) and
interfascicular parenchyma during the transition from primary to secondary. The
vascular cambium develops into a cylinder that, by proliferation and differentiation,
gives secondary phloem outward and a secondary xylem inward. Hence, the previous
primary vascular tissues, primary xylem and primary phloem are pushed away from
each other and remain as small groups of cells at the surfaces of the secondary vas­
cular tissues. The vascular cambium activity imprints signs of a growing ring every
year, which are inner as the meristem moves away from the central axis of the stem.
This mechanism produces growth in the thickness of the stem. The older differentiated
cells from the vascular cambium are the innermost cells of the stem, whereas the more
recent differentiated cells are those closer to the meristem. These are typically
heartwood and sapwood. In woody stems, another meristem known as phellogen or
cork cambium produces the periderm or bark, which replaces the epidermis.
The stem represents the structures as periderm, bark, and vascular tissues –
secondary phloem, vascular cambium, secondary xylem and pith or medulla.
Periderm is the outer part of the stem and functions as a protective structure. The
other component of the periderm is the phelloderm, a layer of tissue inner to the
cork cambium. Mostly the cork cambium appears after the vascular cambium, also
called a cork or phellem.
Bark, accounting for 9%–15% of the stem volume, is the protective layer of the
stem, inclusive of the phloem, ritidome (successive periderms) and periderm. It
results from two activities of the vascular cambium and cork cambium.
Vascular tissues include the secondary phloem produced by the vascular cambium
towards the outer surface. The older secondary phloem degenerated and became a part
of the bark. In contrast, the new phloems consisting of parenchyma cells, sieve tubes
and companion cells are close to the vascular cambium. The vascular cambium is the
lateral meristem parallel to the surface of the shoot. It is responsible for the formation
of secondary phloems on the outside and xylems on the inside. Secondary xylems are
the wood-forming tissue composed of tracheae, tracheids, sclerenchyma fibres and
parenchyma cells. The inner layers of these secondary xylems are dead and non-
functional as the parenchyma cells die and the chemical composition of the cell wall
changes. The storage space of these cells is infiltrated with oils, tannins and resins.
Cellular Structures of Aromatic Plant Materials 25

2.3.4 STRUCTURES OF LEAVES

Leaves are mainly divided into blades and petioles. The majority of stomata and
photosynthetic parenchyma are found in the blade. These blades are a complex
network of veins – primary veins and secondary veins. They combine with
intramarginal veins and are divided into tertiary and quaternary veins (areole). This
complex system of veins is known as reticulate venation and feature dicot leaves
forming the transport network for water and gases. The transport occurs through
these vein networks finally to a free veinlet within an areole that represents the final
level of foliar venation and may be composed of a few tracheids or enlarged cells
with thick walls of plant tissue. There are two surfaces in the blade: adaxial (upper),
having the vascular bundles arranged with xylems, and abaxial (lower), having
vascular bundles arranged with phloem. These are covered under the layer of
epidermal cells. The margin of the leaf or leaf contour may show a wide variety of
forms. Petiole is more or less long and cylindrical. It connects the blade through the
mid-rib with the stem protecting mainly the transport network. Axillary buds, found
in the angle between the petiole and the stem, will develop into lateral branches.

2.3.5 STRUCTURES OF FLOWERS

The structure of flowers is very abundant and diverse; however, on a more straight­
forward plan, it can be understood considering the flower structure of angiosperm
flowers. The development begins with the meristem activity of a flower meristem or
inflorescence meristem. A typical flower develops on four components of petals,
sepals, stamens, and carpels (pistil). The histological organization of petals and sepals
is similar to a leaf. Petals show a wide morphological and chromatic variety. Sepals
are the main protective structures of the flower. A typical stamen consists of a filament
with the anther at the free end. Carpels are highly modified leaf structures combining
to form pistils.
Flowers are the reproductive organ of most plants. Seed plants, gymnosperms
(inflorescences producing) and angiosperms (flowers after fertilization from seeds
enclosed in a fruit). The tissue structure of the flower can be generalized to be whorls
of modified leaves in the forms of calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium.

2.3.6 STRUCTURES OF SEEDS AND FRUIT

The seed develops from the ovule of the flower ovary. The development begins
after fertilization of the egg cell by the microspore of the grain pollen. A typical
seed consists of an embryo, endosperms (nurturing tissues wrapping the embryo)
and coats. Endosperm cells are storage cells meant for starch or proteins. Seed coats
are developed for the tissues surrounding the egg cells. It mainly consists of tegmen
and testa firmly attached.
Like the seeds, the ovary walls of the flower are later transformed into fruits. The
histological organization of the ovary was similar to a leaf with an inner and an
outer epidermal layer and parenchyma with vascular bundles in between. The
development of these layers becomes the pericarp, which is actually the fruit
26 Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes

without the seed. The pericarp consists of the exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp. The
exocarp is the outer layer of the fruit, and the endocarp covers the seed. The tissue
between these two layers is the mesocarp, made up of storing parenchyma or
sclerenchyma. There are plant species where other parts of the flower, besides the
ovary, contribute to form the fruit.

2.3.7 STRUCTURES OF THE RHIZOME

The rhizome consists of the epidermis, cortex, and stele. The epidermis has leaf
scars, and the outer walls of the epidermis are suberized later in development. The
cortical cells divide periclinal toward the periphery, forming a multi-layered
hypodermis consisting of rectangular thin-walled cells. The cortex and stele are
separated by a single layer of compactly arranged cells, the endodermis, which does
not exhibit meristematic activity. The pericycle comprises small and compactly
arranged cells situated internally to and contiguous with the endodermis. The
pericycle appears to induce growth via tangential and radial division. Vascular
bundles are also seen from the pericycle and appear collaterally, forming a ring in
the pericycle. The newly generated cells and vascular bundles enlarge and push
toward the centre, resulting in continuous primary thickening of the stele while the
cortex width remains consistent. Later, many scattered vascular bundles are dis­
tributed in the cortex and pith, with a higher density in the pith than in the cortex.
Vascular bundles are surrounded by sclerenchymatous cells forming the bundle
sheath. Xylem vessels are highly lignified with scalariform perforation plates, and
they degrade with the development of the surrounding parenchyma cells containing
organelles, including the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria (H. Liu &
Specht, n.d.) (Figure 2.2 and 2.3).

FIGURE 2.2 Plant tissues for essential oil occurrence in the different plant families.
Cellular Structures of Aromatic Plant Materials 27

FIGURE 2.3 Essential oil-rich plant parts for some aromatic plants.

2.4 SPECIAL TISSUES IN AROMATIC PLANTS

The production of essential oils is usually associated with specialized cell struc­
tures. The formation of these organic molecules in the cells, transfer to the storage
tissues, and then release to the atmosphere through the ducts is typically associated
with osmophores, conical papillate cells, glandular trichomes, ducts, cavities and
occasionally non-organized cells. Various species and plants of commercial interest
have been investigated by research groups of biological and pharmacological
departments on secretory structures and factors influencing their development.
Secretion involves the discharge of substances to the exterior (exotropic secretion)
or into special intercellular cavities (endotropic secretion). The secreted material
may contain various salts, latex, waxes, fats, flavonoids, sugars, gums, mucilages,
essential oils and resins. The aroma-contributing compounds of essential oils (with
or without resins and gums) are most commonly found in unique secretory struc­
tures either transferred from trichomes through the ducts and cavities. These
secretory structures vary with the family or species. State-of-the-art instruments like
light microscopy (LM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission
electron microscopy (TEM) have already been used to report the structures and
characteristics of these cells.

2.4.1 OSMOPHORES
Osmophores were defined in 1962 for floral tissues emitting scents. The term
osmophore means odour-bearing and is also termed a floral fragrance gland. These
are specialized clusters of cells in flowers that are spread on sepals and petals to
attract insect pollinators (Antoń et al., 2012; Curry et al., 1991). These consist of
multi-layered glandular epithelium with homogeneous layers of cells.
Morphological characteristics of the Mirabilis Jalapa flower surface (Effmert et al.,
2005), of Stanhopea and Sievekingia (Antoń et al., 2012), and Galanthus nivalis L
(Weryszko-Chmielewska & Chwil, 2012) have been studied and well reported.
28 Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes

These cells contain dense cytoplasm, enormous deposits of starch, or other storage
compounds within the mesophyll. These deposits are usually missing in epidermis
cells. This generates a distinction between the production and the emission layer.
This conical-papillate shape is known to offer a vast surface area for evaporation
and participate in the reflection of light. Osmophores and conical-papillate cells are
typically responsible for releasing secondary metabolites into the atmosphere.

2.4.2 GLANDULAR TRICHOMES

Trichomes are hair-like structures on the surface of most plants, serving a number of
functions ranging from protection against insect pests to heat and moisture con­
servation. Trichomes occur in plants in various forms and are sometimes very
structurally complex (Peter & Shanower, 1998). Plant glandular trichomes (GTs)
are adaptive structures that are well known as “phytochemical factories” due to their
impressive capacity to biosynthesize and store large quantities of specialized natural
products (Huchelmann et al., 2017; Y. Liu et al., 2019). Glandular trichomes (GTs)
are anatomical structures specialized for the synthesis of secreted natural products.
GTs are hairs on the epidermis and have cells specific to the biosynthesis and
emission of abundant quantities of specific secretory products, such as nectar,
mucilage, acyl lipids, digestive enzymes, or essential oils. These secreting tri­
chomes are numerous and have very different morphologies in the plant kingdom.
From our secondary metabolites’ or essential oils’ point of view, GTs are the
sources that contain or secrete a mixture of organic compounds. GTs of plants are
observed in detail using light, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy,
reporting significant stages in the development of secretory cells, including their
membrane system and nuclei, the overall size of the gland, and the amount of
material released into the subcuticular cavity.
GTs are present in numerous monocotyledon plants of the Tradescantia,
Dioscorea, and Sisyrinchium genera. GTs are more prevalent and are unique veg­
etative epidermal features of many families and genera, including the members of
the Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Sphaerosepalaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Cucurbitaceae,
Fabaceae, Rosaceae, Sapindaceae, Saxifragaceae, and Cannabaceae. In the book
Anatomy of Dicotyledons by Metcalfe and Chalk, the GT distribution list and
morphological types in dicotyledons are provided. The diversity of secretory tri­
chomes among the Lamiaceae, Solanaceae and Rosaceaeisisis are also captured and
well-reported (Markus Lange & Turner, 2013; Metcalfe & Chalk, 1980).
Lange et al. have summarised studies on trichomes’ current status and ongoing
research. The isolation techniques for these trichomes for further studies are
developed and reported for species like Mentha x piperita, Mentha x Spicata,
Helianthus annuus, Artemisia annua, Salvia officinalis, Thymus vulgaris, Rosa
rugos and so on. If the morphology is to be considered, peppermint showcases
peltate GTs appearing evenly spaced and separated from each other by a similar
number of epidermal cells, having predictable densities within different leaf regions
(Markus Lange & Turner, 2013). GTs are in the form of modified epidermal hairs
and are found covering leaves, stems, and parts of flowers in plants like lavender
(Lavandula spp.), marjoram and oregano (Origanum spp.), and mint (Mentha spp.).
Cellular Structures of Aromatic Plant Materials 29

The structure of GTs indicates the secretory cell attachment by a single stem or
basal cell in the epidermis. The outer surface is heavily cutinized, and a toughened
cuticle usually completely covers the trichome. The metabolites are stored in
subcuticular spaces and are released through the cuticle. The cells of GT have dense
protoplasm that lacks a large central vacuole. There are numerous plasmodesmata
(i.e., cytoplasmic threads running through cell walls, connecting the cytoplasm of
adjacent cells) across the walls of the gland cells, especially between the stalk cell
and the collecting cell.

2.4.3 DUCTS AND CAVITIES

Secreting cells such as ducts and cavities carry out the function of excreting gum,
resin, paste or glue. Ducts and cavities are present in different plant families, such
as Apiaceae, Compositae, Rutaceae, Heliantheae, and Rubiaceae.
Secretory cavities are more or less spherical structures. These are formed either
from parenchymas or an actual cell disintegrating and leaving a cavity in the tissue.
These spaces are lined with secretory cells, or an epithelium, that produces the
essential oils. In high oil-yielding plants, several layers of these secretory cells
are formed. The cavities continually enlarge, and some become filled with cells with
thin, convoluted walls that store the oil produced from within their plastids (a class
of cytoplasmic organelles). The simplest secretory structure is a single secretion-
containing cell that can easily be distinguished from the adjacent non-secretory
cells. Sometimes it is larger than the other cells or has a thick cuticularised lining.
These cells can be found in different plant tissues like the rhizome pith and cortex
of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae) and the perisperm and
embryo of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt., Myristicaceae).
Secretory ducts are elongated cavities. They can often branch to create a network
extending from the roots through the stem to the leaves, flowers and fruits. They are
composed of an epithelium that surrounds a central cavity; this may result from
parenchyma undergoing asynchronous divisions resulting in the expansion and
formation of a cavity. Some cells forming the cavity wall will change into secretory
epithelial cells. The oils are biosynthesized within their leucoplasts and move via
the endoplasmic reticulum into the cavity. These cavities then become joined to
form ducts. They can be found in all of the families Apiaceae (Umbelliferae),
Asteraceae (Compositae), Clusiaceae (Hypericaceae) and Pinaceae. Numerous
plants emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by non-specialized cells. Volatile
monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids are emitted from the green leaves of such
plants directly or after injury (Rehman & Asif Hanif, 2016).

2.4.4 EPIDERMAL CELLS

Glandular hairs do not usually secrete essential oils obtained from flowers but
merely diffuse through the cytoplasm, the cell walls and the cuticle to the outside.
The yield of essential oils from these species is generally very low. Examples
include rose (Rosa spp., Rosaceae), 0.075% (w/v), acacia (Acacia spp., Fabaceae)
0.084% (w/v) and jasmine (Jasminum spp., Oleaceae) 0.04% (w/v). Buds of
30 Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes

numerous plant genera, such as Aesculus (Hippocastanaceae), Alnus (Betulaceae),

Betula (Betulaceae), Populus (Salicaceae), Prunus (Rosaceae), and Rhamnus
(Rhamnaceae), also secrete lipophilic substances, mainly flavonoid aglycones
mixed with essential oils. Secretion here occurs from epidermal cells that are
covered by a cuticle. The secreted material is first eliminated into a space between
the cells’ outer walls and the cuticle covering them, forming a blister that subse­
quently bursts.

2.5 WATER IN TISSUE AND ITS FUNCTIONS

Having a brief insight into the structure of aromatic plant tissues, it is now important
to understand the role, fundamentals, localization, and chemical state of water before
undergoing the dehydration process. The water in the plant cells can be seen at four
levels: cellular level, sub-cellular level, molecular level, and plasticizers.
In every cell, a plasma layer (cell membrane) separates the internal of the cell
from the outside environment. Outside this membrane layer, the cell walls are
present. Both these layers function differently. The membrane allows water to pass
more quickly than the solute molecules. Cell walls readily pass both the solute and
water molecules. Due to the presence of this membrane, osmosis is possible. With
the help of osmotically active vacuolar solutes, pressure is exerted from the inside
of the cell walls, keeping continuous elastic stress. This is called turgor pressure,
which is responsible for the firmness and crispness of the tissues.
The role of water at the molecular level is to meet the integrity of membranes.
Membranes are bilayers of lipids in the form of a liquid-crystalline state, having
hydrated phospholipids by hydrogen bonding. This lipid bilayer structure is only
possible in a hydrated medium. Water molecules positioned at the polar head of the
membrane lipid form the hydrogen bond and strengthen the membrane structure. In
the presence of sugars, water concentration lowers. This replaces sugar molecules
with water molecules, protecting the membrane and avoiding structural collapse.
Plasticizers are lower molecular weight compounds, which lubricate the higher
molecular weight polymeric compounds providing local mobility. Owing to these,
glassy polymers turn rubbery. The water molecules play the role of plasticizer in the
biopolymer. They act as mobility enhancers by increasing the free volume and
lowering the viscosity. Water molecules can dramatically decrease the glass tran­
sition temperatures (Tg of hemicellulose is lowered from 200°C to -10°C with a
moisture content of about 30%) or act as an anti-plasticizer and lead to increased
hardness (water activity aw = 0.1).
Water also acts as a transport fluid in all cells. This transfer of water molecules
occurs in three modes. The movement within the extracellular spaces, external to
the cell membrane, is termed apoplastic transport. The transfer between neigh­
bouring cells through cytoplasmic strands is internal to the cell membrane and is
termed symplastic transport. And the mass flow across the membrane is termed
transmembrane flux. Hence, during drying, the plant tissues undergo intercellular
flux (indicating water through cell walls), wall-to-wall flux (indicating capillary flux
through cell walls) and cell-to-cell flux (indicating liquid water through vacuoles,
cytoplasm and cell membranes) (Le Maguer et al., 2003; Prothon et al., 2003).
Cellular Structures of Aromatic Plant Materials 31

2.6 CONCLUSION
Plants comprise roots, rhizomes, stems, leaves, wood, flowers, seeds and fruits.
These are built with cells and tissues in different arrangements with different
functions. The complexity of the structures increases with the roles and functions
being performed by the parts. In the case of aromatic plants, the secondary
metabolites are secreted through the special tissues consisting of osmophores,
glandular tissues, ducts and cavities. Depending on the genera of plants and the
function of the secondary metabolites, the occurrence is seen in different parts;
hence, the surrounding of this tissue is by a different type of cells.
Considering our interests, mass transfer pathways must be defined in the plant
histology to preserve the secondary metabolites (in removal of water) or separate
the secondary metabolites from the natural matrix (extraction of secondary
metabolites). The plant structures are naturally defined pathways for transferring
fluids, nutrients, gases, and so on, which can assist in the desired operations of
drying and extraction if well studied. Before taking into account any protocol for
dehydration or extraction, it is crucial to understand the cells and tissues, their
chemical compositions, arrangements and functions before being subjected to the
operation. This will help optimize the protocol and lead to the higher efficiency of
the overall process.

REFERENCES
Antoń, S., Kamińska, M., & Stpiczyńska, M. (2012). Comparative structure of the osmo­
phores in the flowers of Stanhopea graveolens Lindley and Cycnoches chlorochilon
Klotzsch (Orchidaceae). Acta Agrobotanica, 65(2), 11–22. 10.5586/aa.2012.054
Carpita, N. C. (1996). Structure and biogenesis of the cell walls of grasses. Annual Review of
Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology, 47(1), 445–476. 10.1146/annurev.arplant.
47.1.445
Curry, K. J., McDowell, L. M., Judd, W. S., & Stern, W. L. (1991). Osmophores, floral
features, and systematics of Stanhopea (Orchidaceae). American Journal of Botany,
78(5), 610–623. 10.2307/2445082
Effmert, U., Große, J., Rose, U. S. R., Ehrig, F., Kagi, R., & Piechulla, B. (2005). Volatile
composition, emission pattern, and localization of floral scent emission in MIRABILIS
JALAPA (NYCTAGINACEAE). American Journal of Botany, 92(1), 2–12.
Huchelmann, A., Boutry, M., & Hachez, C. (2017). Plant glandular trichomes: Natural cell
factories of high biotechnological interest. Plant Physiology, 175(1), 6–22. 10.1104/
pp.17.00727
Hülskamp, M., & Schnittger, A. (2012). Plant tissues. ELS, 1–5. 10.1002/9780470015902.
a0002070.pub2
Le Maguer, M., Shi, J., & Fernandez, C. (2003). Mass transfer behavior of plant tissues
during osmotic dehydration. Food Science and Technology International, 9(3),
187–192. 10.1177/1082013203035392
Liu, H., & Specht, C. D. (n.d.). Morphological Anatomy of Leaf and Rhizome in Zingiber offi­
cinale Roscoe, with Emphasis on Secretory Structures. 1–4. 10.21273/HORTSCI14555-19
Liu, Y., Jing, S. X., Luo, S. H., & Li, S. H. (2019). Non-volatile natural products in plant
glandular trichomes: Chemistry, biological activities and biosynthesis. Natural Product
Reports, 36(4), 626–665. 10.1039/c8np00077h
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Markus Lange, B., & Turner, G. W. (2013). Terpenoid biosynthesis in trichomes-current status
and future opportunities. Plant Biotechnology Journal, 11(1), 2–22. 10.1111/j.1467-
7652.2012.00737.x
Megías, M., Molist, P., & Pombal, M. (2022). Atlas of Plant and Animal Histology. https://
doi.org/http://mmegias.webs.uvigo.es/index.html
Metcalfe, C. R., & Chalk, L. (1980). Anatomy of Dicotyledons - Volume I: Systematic
Anatomy of Leaf and Stem, with a Brief History of the Subject (Second). Oxford
University Press.
Peter, A. J., & Shanower, T. G. (1998). Plant glandular Trichomes - Chemical Factories with
Many Potential Uses. Plant Glandular Trichomes, March, 41–45. https://link.springer.com/
content/pdf/10.1007%2FBF02837613.pdf
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collapse during dehdration - A Critical review. Critical Reviews in Food Sci, 43(4),
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 3 Need for Systematic/
Controlled Dehydration
of Aromatic Plants

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Drying is a unique process for preserving agricultural produces, fruits, vegetables,
medicinal herbs, and aromatic plants. Dehydration can also be considered an indis­
pensable technique for large-scale agricultural production preservation. Dehydration
is the removal of the majority of water contained in food items. From a unit operation
point of view, drying includes transporting water molecules from the product matrix
to the surroundings by altering the ambient conditions. The advantages of drying are
as the moisture content is lowered, the microbial and enzymatic activities are reduced,
increasing the shelf life. Along with improved shelf life, it reduces density and
decreases transport costs.
Drying is the oldest food preservation technique known to human beings and
includes sun drying or artificial dehydration of fruits, vegetables and oilseeds. The
main purpose of drying products is to achieve longer periods of storage, lower the
cost of packing and transportation, inhibit the microbial growth that causes decay
spoilage and facilitate the formulation of product mixing for retailing (Murthy &
Joshi, 2007). The goal of dehydration is to reduce the moisture content in the product
by removal of the water by careful application of heat. A variety of processes can
obtain dried or dehydrated agricultural products. These processes differ primarily by
the drying method used, which depends on the type of food and the expected char­
acteristics of the final product. The dehydration process needs to be suitably selected
from amongst the existing technologies so that the water activity is adjusted to a level
where microbial activity is least from a preservation point of view (Khaing Hnin
et al., 2019). The demand for high-quality dried agricultural products is increasing
worldwide (Chou et al., 2000). The quality of the dehydrated products can be mainly
linked to the rehydration characteristics of the products (Savitha et al., 2022).
Herbs and spices have been known to be used for over 2,000 years (reported
citations ~800–1000 BC). These were considered valuable products and were reported
to be traded as commodities for their significance. The reported traditional applications
of such herbs and spices were for their known medicinal properties, as preservatives –
considering their powerful anti-oxidant properties, and for contributing flavour, aroma,
and colour to culinary applications.
The dehydration process, specific to aromatic plant materials, should be able to
retain the characteristics of the product from the application point of view (Thamkaew
et al., 2021). Low-moisture products typically have a moisture content of < 25% and

DOI: 10.1201/9781003315384-3 33
34 Drying of Aromatic Plant Material for Natural Perfumes

water activity between 0.0 and 0.60; intermittent-moisture products have a moisture
content between 15% and 50%; and water activity between 0.60 and 0.85 (Taoukis &
Richardson, 2007). The most desired purpose of dehydration is to reduce moisture
content in herbs, spices or other parts of aromatic and medicinal plants without
affecting their key attributes for further use (Bhaskara Rao & Murugan, 2021).

3.2 HERBS, SPICES AND MEDICINAL PLANTS

3.2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF HERBS, SPICES AND MEDICINAL PLANTS
An herb, in botanical terms, is “any plant with soft succulent tissue,” and as seen in
the previous chapter, aromatic and medicinal plants contain secreted secondary
metabolites in these soft and succulent tissues. Herbs can be classified as leafy
products, and spices come as any part of the plant, like bud, bark, flower, fruit/berry,
root/rhizomes, or seed (Pearson & Gillett, 1996). Based on the occurrence, these are
sometimes also classified as “temperate zone origin” and “tropical aromatic,”
respectively. Though this classification is not clearly defined, key characteristics of
these medicinal or aromatic herbs and spices are due to the presence of volatile oils
and oleoresins in their parts.
Essential oils are extracted from several genera and are characterized in a small
number of families – Lauraceae, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Myrtaceae, Rutaceae,
Cuppressaceae, Poaceae, and Piperaceae – from different parts like peels, barks,
leaves, flowers, buds, seeds, and others.
Herbs can be classified in three main ways – according to their usage, active
ingredients, and period of life.

3.2.1.1 Usage of the Herbs

1. Medicinal herbs – having curative powers and hence are used in making
medicines for healing power.
2. Culinary herbs – having strong flavours and hence being used in cooking.
3. Ornamental herbs – having bright colours, looks, and unique textures and
hence used for decoration.

3.2.1.2 Chemical Compositions of the Herbs

1. Aromatic (containing volatile oils) – These have pleasant odours and are
extensively used in therapeutic, flavouring and perfumery applications.
These are further classified as stimulant herbs, which increase energy and
activities of the body, or its parts or organs, and most often affect the
respiratory, digestive, and circulatory systems.
2. Nervine Herbs – These are often used to heal and soothe the nervous system
and often affect the respiratory, digestive, and circulatory systems as well.
3. Astringents (containing tannins) – These have the ability to precipitate the
proteins, resulting in tightening, contraction or toning of living tissues and
helping halt discharge. These often affect the digestive, urinary and cir­
culating systems and act as analgesic, antiseptic, antiabortive, astringent,
emmenagogue, homostatic, and styptic.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Rio Negro, (Arg.), 283, 299, 304, 309;
(Urug.), 356, 361;
(Brazil), 393, 410
Rivera, 356, 362, 366, 370;
General, 355
Rockstone, 104
Rocha, 356, 363, 366, 367
Roosevelt R., 383
Ropeway Line, 35
Roraima Mt., 61, 101, 380
Rosario, 285, 289, 297, 301, 304, 307, 308, 310, 312, 316, 322,
326, 331;
(Urug.), 366, 367
Rubber, 43, 89, 106, 143, 192, 242, 419, 420
Rurenabaque, 224, 227

Sabana Ry., 34, 37

Sacramento, Pampa del, 160, 183
Saenz Peña, Dr. Roque, 282
Safety Isls., 112
St. George Gulf, 304, 313
St. Laurent, 113
St. Roque Cape, 381
Salado del Norte R., 289, 295
Salaverry, 164, 165, 175, 186
Salt, 64, 69, 94, 201, 275, 325
Salta, 269, 283, 292, 306, 307, 312, 313, 321, 322, 326
Salto, 356, 357, 362, 365, 367, 370
Salto Grande Falls, 331
Sama R., 255
Samanco, 167, 186, 188
San Andrés, 10, 12
San Antonio, (Col.), 10, 72;
(Ven.), 72;
(Ec.), 137, 145;
(Chile), 258, 265;
(Arg.), 283, 293, 299, 304, 313;
(Par.), 345, 350;
Cape, 289
San Bernadino, 343
San Carlos, (Ven.), 55, 71, 84;
(Urug.), 367
San Carlos de Bariloche, 313
San Cristóbal, 55, 71, 84;
Isl., 133
Sandia, 199
San Eugenio, 356, 367
San Felipe, (Ven.), 55, 66, 81, 83;
(Chile), 247
San Felix, 73, 81, 84
San Fernando, 247
San Fernando de Apure, 55, 71, 84
San Fernando de Atabapo, 55, 75
San Francisco, 310
San Francisco de Yare, 80
San Fructuoso, 356
Sangay Mt., 123
San Ignacio, 335
San Jorge R., 34
San José, 356, 361, 366
San Juan, 283, 295, 303, 322, 323, 325
San Juan R., (Col.), 15, 17, 18, 24, 26, 43, 49
San Juan R., (Ven.), 69, 97
San Julian, 304, 313
San Lorenzo, (Ven.), 82, 95;
(Ec.), 137;
Cape, 121, 131
San Luis, 283, 287, 288, 297, 303, 310, 317, 319, 325
San Luis do Maranhão, 401
San Martín, 48, 152, 173, 188
San Martín, General, 150, 246, 257, 281
San Matias Gulf, 313
San Nicolas, 301
San Pedro, (Chile), 268;
(Par.), 335, 342
San Rafael, (Ven.), 83;
(Arg.), 297
San Ramón, 366
San Roque, Dique, 296
San Salvador, 343, 345, 350
Santa, 167;
R., 158, 165, 166, 167, 184, 186
Santa Ana, 83;
Lake, 170
Sant’ Anna do Livramento, 366, 410, 425
Santa Barbara, 81, 85
Santa Catharina, 375, 385, 388, 392, 418, 420, 422, 426, 431, 432
Santa Cruz, (Bol.), 207, 209, 210, 217, 218, 223, 225, 227, 230,
231, 236, 237, 238, 241, 242, 243, 342, 383;
(Arg.), 283, 300, 304, 317, 318; R., 300;
(Brazil), 411, 430
Santa Elena, 120, 131, 136, 138, 144;
Cape, 121, 122, 131
Santa Fé, 283, 285, 288, 289, 290, 297, 301, 305, 307, 308, 310,
311, 312, 316, 318, 319, 322, 326, 329, 330
Santa Isabel, 406
Santa Lucía, 370
Santa Maria Isl., 133;
Cape, 289
Santa Marta, 10, 12, 19, 21, 30, 31, 32, 36, 41, 45
Santa Marta, Nevada de, 15, 21, 40, 46
Santander, 9, 10, 28, 46, 51
Santander del Norte, 9, 10, 28, 30, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 81
Santarem, 406
Santa Rosa, 144
Santa Rosa de Toay, 283
Santa Teresa, 68
Santiago, 246, 247, 248, 249, 251, 254, 257, 264, 265, 272, 276;
R., 124, 126
Santiago de Chuco, 198
Santiago del Estero, 281, 283, 290, 295, 308, 312, 314, 321, 325,
331
Santo Amaro, 412
Santo Antonio, 383, 406
Santos, 4, 374, 387, 388, 394, 408, 414
São Borja, 411
São Felix, 412
São Francisco, 342, 393, 410;
R., 377, 381, 386, 398, 399, 406, 412, 429
São Lourenço R., 386
São Luis de Caceres, 407
São Luis do Maranhão, 401
São Paulo, 218, 254, 366, 375, 377, 385, 388, 394, 395, 408, 409,
410, 411, 414, 415, 416, 418, 422, 424, 425, 426, 427, 429,
430, 431, 432
São Salvador, 375, 398
São Vicente, 374
Sapodilla, 90, 106
Sapotal R., 127
Saramacca R., 109
Sarmiento Mt., 251
Sechura Bay, 163
Segovia Highlands, 60, 65, 66
Senilossa, 309
Senna Madureira, 405
Serena, See La Serena
Sergipe, 375, 398, 412, 432
Serpent’s Mouth, 69
Serrapia, Tree, 90
Sete Quedas Falls, 333, 339, 385
Sevilla de Oro, 119, 145
Sheep, 92, 143, 193, 240, 260, 277, 278, 317, 368, 426
Sibate, 37
Silla de Caracas, 60
Silver, 195, 231
Sincerín, 31
Sinú R., 16, 22, 36;
V., 44
Siquisique, 81
Sogamoso, 27, 38;
R., 35, 44
Solis, Juan de, 364
Sorata, 215, 225, 236, 455;
Mt., 212, 214
Soriano, 356, 361
Sorocabana, 409
Soroche, 129, 161, 178, 180, 191
Stock, See Live Stock
Sucre, (Ven.), 54, 55, 68, 78, 79, 82, 93, 94;
(Bol.), 206, 207, 209, 217, 224, 225
Sucre, Gen. Antonio José de, 68, 150, 206
Sugar, 41, 87, 105, 110, 142, 185, 241, 321, 349, 416
Sulphur, 94, 275
Sumbay, 200
Supe, 167, 187
Suriname, 109;
R., 109, 110, 111
Tabatinga, 406
Tacna, 148, 151, 152, 247, 255, 266, 274
Tacora, 236, 275
Tacuará R., 359
Tacuarembó, 356, 363, 370
Táchira, 55, 71, 81, 84, 93
Tagua, 21, 43, 142, 143, 191, 418
Taitao, 260
Takutu R., 108
Talara, 202
Talca, 247, 258, 264
Talcahuano, 261, 263, 264, 269, 274
Taltal, 256, 266
Tamalameque, 36, 37
Tamaya, 273
Tambo R., 170, 178, 183
Tannin, 89, 90, 277, 323, 345
Tapajós R., 339, 383, 386, 402, 406
Taquia, 200, 237
Tarapacá, 151, 247, 255, 270
Taratá, 266
Tarija, 207, 209, 217, 223, 237
Tarma, 178
Tebicuary R., 339
Temuco, 247, 269, 277
Therezina, 375, 401
Ticlio, 177, 196
Tierra del Fuego, 251, 274, 283, 290, 300, 318, 325
Tiété R., 385
Tigre, 299;
R., 124, 125
Tin, 232
Tipuani R., 230, 231
Tirapata, 183, 199
Titicaca Lake, 159, 172, 179, 180, 181, 201, 208, 215, 221, 233,
235, 238, 239, 243
Tobacco, 42, 87, 142, 191, 241, 322, 348, 416
Tocantins R., 381, 382, 402, 406, 412
Toco, 266
Tocopilla, 256, 266, 267, 272
Tocujo R., 62, 65, 81
Todos os Santos Lake, 252
Tofo, 273, 274
Tola, 237
Toledo, 366
Tolima, 9, 10, 29, 33, 35, 37, 40, 50
Tongoy, 273
Tonka Bean, 90, 107
Toquilla, 146
Tortoise, 134
Totora, 225
Treinta y Tres, 355, 356, 363, 366
Trelew, 304, 311
Tres Barros, 420
Trinidad, (Bol.), 207, 210, 218;
(Urug.), 367
Trinidad Isl., 69, 87, 93, 97, 106;
Lake, 94, 95
Trombetes R., 384
Trujillo, (Ven.), 55, 72, 81, 84, 85, 93;
(Peru), 149, 152, 154, 164
Tucacas, 65, 79, 81, 98
Tucumán, 281, 283, 285, 294, 308, 310, 312, 321, 322, 331
Tucupita, 55, 76
Tucurutu Mts., 108
Tulcán, 117, 133, 145
Tumaco, 26, 30, 31, 36, 38, 43
Tumbes, 132, 139, 149, 152, 163, 191, 198, 201
Tumbes R., 122, 163
Tumeremo, 74, 84
Tumuc Humac Mts., 109, 112
Tungsten, 200, 325
Tungurahua, 116, 117, 133, 139
Tunja, 10, 27, 35
Tupiza, 217, 223, 230
Tupungato, 251
Turiamo, 79, 92
Tutoya, 401
Tuy R., 63, 68, 80
Ucayali R., 124, 125, 159, 160, 169, 170, 173, 178, 182, 183, 192
Unare R., 60
Uncia, 224, 233, 234
Unduavi, 224
União da Victoria, 342, 393
United Fruit Co., 21, 22
Upata, 73
Urabá Gulf, 16, 23, 35, 41, 46
Uribe, Señor, 11;
President, 355
Uracá, 72, 84
Urcos, 183
Urquiza, General, 304
Urubamba R., 170, 172, 183, 192
Urubupungá Falls, 385
Urucum, 428
Uruguay, 114, 289, 331, 334, 348, 349, 354-371, 416, 427, 431,
452
Uruguay R., 288, 289, 294, 306, 307, 313, 331, 354, 359, 362,
365, 371, 385, 391, 411
Uruguayana, 392, 411
Ushuaiá, 283, 300, 304
Uspallata Pass, 267, 296
Uyuni, 217, 223, 224, 268

Valdivia, (Col.), 34;

(Chile), 246, 247, 248, 259, 264, 277
Valdivia, Pedro de, 246
Valencia, 55, 67, 80, 83, 84, 90;
Lake, 62, 67, 87
Valera, 72
Valle de Upar, 36
Vallenar, 265
Vanadium, 200
Vanilla, 88
Vaupés, 10, 26, 43;
R., 17
Vegetables, 190
Venezuela, 15, 30, 37, 53-99, 101, 423
Venezuela, Gulf of, 64, 65, 78
Ventuari R., 61, 76
Verrugas V., 177
Vespucci, Amerigo, 373
Viacha, 210, 223
Victoria, 375, 397, 411, 430
Vicuñas, 193, 239
Vichada, 10, 27;
R., 17, 27, 75, 91
Viedma, 283, 304
Vilcamayu R., 159
Vilcanota, 159, 211
Villa Bella, 210, 219, 227, 243, 413
Villa Church, 225, 227, 413
Villa Concepción, 342
Villa de Cura, 67, 83
Villa Encarnación, 342
Villa Hayes, 342, 349
Villamizar, 30, 31, 85
Villa Montes, 207, 220
Villa Murtinho, 219, 227, 413
Villavicencio, 10
Villeta, 335
Vinces R., 127
Viña del Mar, 263
Viscacha, 193, 239
Visser, 304
Viticulture, 189, 241, 276, 322, 370
Vitor, 180
Vreeden Hook, 104

Waini R., 108

Water power, 52, 83, 98, 101, 124, 202, 225, 279, 331, 371, 385,
394, 405, 426, 433
West Coast, 114-279
Wheat, 43, 88, 276, 320, 418
Wheelwright, William, 264, 307
Wismar, 104
Wool, 193, 239, 278, 317, 369

Xarquedas, 431
Xingú R., 383, 402
Yacuiba, 210, 220, 223, 243, 312
Yaguachi R., 127
Yaguarón R., 359
Yapurá R., 17, 406
Yaracuy, 54, 55, 66, 77, 81, 93
Yareta, 237
Yaritagua, 66
Yauli, 197, 200
Yauricocha, 197, 198
Yerba Mate, 324, 347, 393, 422
Yhú, 335
Ypoa Lake, 338, 340
Yucca, 142
Yungas, 213, 215, 224, 226, 234, 242, 243
Yungay, 166
Yurimaguas, 173
Yuruán, 108
Yuruary R., 89, 92, 93

Zamora, (Ven.), 55, 71, 88;

(Ec.), 145
Zaragosa, 49
Zarate, 289, 301, 312, 318
Zaruma, 132, 145
Zarzal, 37
Zavala, General, 354
Zinc, 45, 200, 236, 274
Zipiquirá, 37, 45
Zorritos, 144, 201
Zulia, 54, 55, 64;
Lake, 62;
R., 16, 28, 30, 31, 36, 64, 86
Zumba, 139
 Transcriber’s Notes
Page 22: “Madgalena River” changed to “Magdalena River”
Page 92: “Cuidad Bolívar” changed to “Ciudad Bolívar”
Page 199, Page 308 and Page 395: “on acount” changed to “on account”
Page 361: “west of Montevido” changed to “west of Montevideo”
Page 471: “Buenventura and Tumaco” changed to “Buenaventura and Tumaco”
Page 483: “Direccion Gencral” changed to “Direccion General”
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