NETA Level 2 Exam

Study Guide
 Table of Contents
1. QUALIFICATIONS (Source: ANSI/NETA ETT-2015) ....................................................... 4
1.1 Education and Training Requirements ......................................................................... 4
1.2 Related Experience ...................................................................................................... 4
2. EXAM INFORMATION (Source: www.netaworld.org) ...................................................... 4
2.1 Exam ............................................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Exam Composition ....................................................................................................... 4
3. LEVEL II CERTIFICATION TOPICS (Source: NETA ETT-2015) ..................................... 4
3.1 Safety ........................................................................................................................... 4
3.2 Mathematics ............................................................................................................... 20
3.3 Tools and Equipment.................................................................................................. 21
3.4 Electrical and Physical Theory ................................................................................... 27
3.5 System Analysis and Operation.................................................................................. 28
3.6 Codes and Standards ................................................................................................. 29
3.7 General....................................................................................................................... 32
3.8 Switchgear, Switchboards, Motor Control Centers ..................................................... 33
3.9 Transformers .............................................................................................................. 34
3.10 Wires, Cables and Buses ........................................................................................ 41
3.11 Circuit Breakers and Circuit Switchers .................................................................... 43
3.12 Electrical Protective Devices ................................................................................... 46
3.13 Metering .................................................................................................................. 54
3.14 Grounding Systems ................................................................................................. 55
3.15 Direct-Current Systems ........................................................................................... 55
3.16 Insulating Liquids .................................................................................................... 58
4. Important Formulas and Equations ................................................................................ 59
4.1 Short Circuit Current on Lowside of 3Ф Xfmr using FLC & %Z................................... 59
4.2 Short Circuit Current on Lowside of 3Ф Xfmr using KVA, KV & %Z ........................... 59
4.3 Full Load Current of a 3Ф Transformer ....................................................................... 59
4.4 Full Load Current of a 3Ф Motor ................................................................................. 59
4.5 Horsepower of a Single-Phase Motor ......................................................................... 59
4.6 Horsepower of a 3Ф Motor ......................................................................................... 60
4.7 Motor Torque .............................................................................................................. 60
4.8 Resistors in Parallel .................................................................................................... 60
4.9 The Imaginary Operator (j) for AC Circuit Analysis ..................................................... 60
4.10 Capacitive Reactance ............................................................................................. 60
4.11 Inductive Reactance ................................................................................................ 61
4.12 Basic Trigonometric Equations ................................................................................ 61
4.13 Pythagorean Theorem............................................................................................. 61
4.14 Application of the Pythagorean Theorem ................................................................ 61
4.15 Conversion between Polar and Rectangular Coordinates ....................................... 62
4.16 The Power Triangle ................................................................................................. 62

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 4.17 Leading and Lagging Power Factor (pf) .................................................................. 62
4.18 Incident Energy Calculations (Simplified) ................................................................ 63
4.19 Incident Energy Calculations (IEEE 1584 Method) ................................................. 64
4.20 Calculation of Accuracy ........................................................................................... 64
4.21 Conversion from °C to °F ........................................................................................ 64
4.22 Conversion from °F to °C ........................................................................................ 64
5. Test Acceptance Criteria from NETA-ATS & NETA-MTS ............................................... 65
5.1 Transformer Turns Ratio (TTR) Test .......................................................................... 65
5.2 Bolted Connection, Contact and Fuse Resistance Tests............................................ 65
5.3 Infra-Red Thermography Test .................................................................................... 65
5.4 Insulation Resistance Test Acceptance Criteria for Transformers .............................. 66
5.5 Insulation Resistance Test Criteria for Rotating Machines ......................................... 66
5.6 Insulation Resistance Test Criteria for Other than Rotating Machines ....................... 67
5.7 Polarization Index (PI) and Dielectric Absorption Ration (DAR) ................................. 67
5.8 Switchgear Testing - AC and DC Withstand ............................................................... 69
5.9 Medium Voltage Cable Testing - DC High Potential ................................................... 69
5.10 Medium Voltage Cable Testing - AC High Potential ................................................ 70
5.11 Medium Voltage Cable Testing (VLF) of New Cable ............................................... 71
5.12 Medium Voltage Cable Testing (VLF) of In-Service Cables .................................... 71
5.13 Medium Voltage Cable Testing – Partial Discharge (PD) ........................................ 71
5.14 Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) ................................................................................ 72
5.15 Molded Case Circuit Breaker Testing - Inverse Time Trip Test ............................... 73
5.16 Molded Case Circuit Breaker Testing - Instantaneous Trip Test ............................. 73
5.17 Power Factor/Dissipation Factor for Liquid Filled Transformers .............................. 74
5.18 Test Limits for New Mineral Oil ............................................................................... 75
5.19 Frequency of Maintenance ...................................................................................... 75
5.20 SF6 Gas Tests ........................................................................................................ 78
6. Solved Problems (Examples) ......................................................................................... 79
7. Solved Problems using Mathematics ........................................................................... 101
7.1 Basic Algebra (Exponents) ....................................................................................... 101
7.2 Basic Algebra (The Order of Operations) ................................................................. 102
7.3 Basic Algebra (Solving for Variables) ....................................................................... 103
7.4 Percentages ............................................................................................................. 105
7.5 Conversion between SI units .................................................................................... 106
7.6 Trigonometry (Right Triangles) ................................................................................. 107
7.7 The Power Triangle .................................................................................................. 109
7.8 Fundamentals of Electricity (Ohm’s Law) ................................................................. 111
7.9 Fundamentals of Electricity (Voltage Divider) ........................................................... 112
7.10 Fundamentals of Electricity (Current Divider) ........................................................ 113
7.11 Analysis of Resistive Circuits ................................................................................ 114
7.12 Analysis of Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive (RLC) Circuits ............................. 116

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1. QUALIFICATIONS (Source: ANSI/NETA ETT-2015)

1.1 Education and Training Requirements

 40 hours of Safety Training
 160 hours of Electrical Testing Training

1.2 Related Experience

 Must meet NETA Level 1 requirements
 2 years of related experience assisting in the testing of electrical power systems
(Completion of two or more years of technical education in an electrical field
shall be equivalent to a maximum of one year of related experience)

2. EXAM INFORMATION (Source: www.netaworld.org)

2.1 Exam
 100-item, multiple-choice, closed-book, onsite proctored examination
 Two hour exam (1 minute 12 seconds for each question)
 Passing score of 410 or higher on a scale of 200 to 500 (70%)

2.2 Exam Composition

 15% - Safety
 25% - Electrical Testing Fundamentals and Theory
 55% - Component Testing
 5% - Systems and Commissioning

3. LEVEL II CERTIFICATION TOPICS (Source: NETA ETT-2015)

3.1 Safety

3.1.1 First aid procedures

Understand the basic rules and procedures of first aid.

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 NFPA 70E Article 110
Employees responsible for responding to medical emergencies shall be trained
in first aid and emergency procedures.

3.1.2 Cardiovascular Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)

Understand basic procedures.

Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) (Source: www.mayoclinic.org)

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a lifesaving technique useful in many
emergencies, including heart attack or near drowning, in which someone's
breathing or heartbeat has stopped. When the heart stops, the lack of
oxygenated blood can cause brain damage in only a few minutes. A person
may die within eight to 10 minutes.
The American Heart Association recommends CAB:

1. Compressions - Circulate Oxygenated Blood to the Brain and vital organs

2. Airway - Open the Airway
3. Breathing - Provide rescue breaths using mouth-to-mouth resuscitation

Procedure for a Trained Individual

1. Direct someone nearby to Call 911
2. Direct someone to bring you the AED (Automated External Defibrillator)
3. Check for Pulse and Breathing. If no pulse or breathing within 10 secs, then
4. Begin CPR with 30 chest Compressions (2 compressions per second with
hands between the nipples and elbows straight)
5. Open the Airway (1 hand on forehead to tilt-the-head; the other to lift-the-
chin)
6. Give 2 Rescue Breaths (pinch nostrils closed and begin mouth-to-mouth.
Make sure the chest rises when you breath in. If not, repeat Step 5)
7. Repeat Steps 3, 4, 5 and 6
8. As soon as an AED is available, follow prompts and apply 1 shock
9. Repeat Steps 3, 4, 5 and 6
10. Apply a 2nd shock from the AED after 2 minutes
11. Repeat Steps 3, 4, 5 and 6 until pulse and breathing are restored or until
Medical Help Arrives (whichever comes first)

Procedure for an Untrained or Rusty Individual

Perform Chest Compressions at a rate of 2 Compressions per second until

medical help arrives.

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 NFPA 70E Article 110

Employees responsible for responding to medical emergencies shall be trained

in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Refresher training shall occur
annually.
Employees responsible for responding to medical emergencies shall be trained
in the use of an automated external defibrillator (AED) if an employer’s
emergency response plan includes the use of this device. Refresher training
shall occur annually.

3.1.3 Fire protection procedures

Know fire extinguishers, classifications, and use. Recognize the four classes of
fires and understand use of portable fire extinguishers.
Your first action after the outbreak of a fire should be to alert or alarm.

Classification of Fire Extinguishers (Source: NFPA 10 - 2013)

Class A Fire Extinguishers - Listed and Labeled for use on Class A Fires
Class B Fire Extinguishers - Listed and Labeled for use on Class B Fires
Class C Fire Extinguishers - Listed and Labeled for use on Class C Fires
Class D Fire Extinguishers - Listed and Labeled for use on Specific Metals
Class K Fire Extinguishers - Listed and Labeled for use on Class K Fires
Classification of Fires (Source: NFPA 10 - 2013)
Class A Fires - Wood, cloth, paper, rubber, and many plastics
Class B Fires - flammable liquids, combustible liquids, petroleum greases,
tars, oils, oil-based paints, solvents, lacquers, alcohols, flammable gases
Class C Fires - Energized electrical equipment
Class D Fires - Combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium,
sodium, lithium, and potassium.
Class K Fires - Cooking appliances and Combustible vegetable oils, animal
oils, fats and other cooking oils or fats

3.1.4 Basic individual safety

Follow standard safety practices in performing job tasks. Recognize and call
attention to improper safety practices at the work site. Understand electrical
hazards, shock, arc-flash, and arc-blast.

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 Arc Flash Hazard
A dangerous condition associated with the possible release of energy caused by
an electric arc. When an electric current passes through air between ungrounded
conductors or between ungrounded conductors and grounded conductors, the
temperatures can reach 35,000°F.
Arc Blast Hazard
The tremendous temperatures of the arc cause the explosive expansion of both
the surrounding air and the metal in the arc path. Some facts to know are:
 Copper expands by 67,000 times when it turns from a solid to a vapor
 Dangers caused by this expansion are high pressure, sound, and shrapnel
 The sounds associated with these pressures can exceed 160 dB
 Material and molten metal are expelled away from the arc at speeds exceeding
700 mph, fast enough for shrapnel to completely penetrate the human body.

3.1.5 Personal protective equipment

Correctly use safety equipment such as eye protection, gloves, hard hats, hearing
protection, and safety shoes.
Classes of Hard Hats
 Class G (General) - rated for 2,200 volts
 Class E (Electrical) - rated for 20,000 volts
 Class C (Conductive) - Zero electrical protection

Safety Glasses
Safety Glasses for Electrical workers shall be non-conductive.
Hazard/Risk Assessment
Good Sources for Hazard/Risk Assessments
1. NFPA 70E
2. AIHA / ASSE Z10 (American Industrial Hygiene Association) (American Society
of Safety Engineers)

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 OSHA 1910.132 - Hazard/Risk Assessment and PPE

OSHA 1910.132(d)(1)
The employer shall assess the workplace to determine if hazards are present,
or are likely to be present, which necessitate the use of personal protective
equipment (PPE). If such hazards are present, or likely to be present, the
employer shall:
1. Select, and have each affected employee use, the types of PPE that will
protect the affected employee from the hazards identified in the hazard
assessment;
2. Communicate selection decisions to each affected employee; and
3. Select PPE that properly fits each affected employee

1910.132(f)(1)
The employer shall provide training to each employee who is required by this
section to use PPE. Each such employee shall be trained to know at least the
following:
1. When PPE is necessary; and
2. What PPE is necessary; and
3. How to properly don, doff, adjust, and wear PPE; and
4. The limitations of the PPE; and
5. The proper care, maintenance, useful life and disposal of the PPE

Factors to consider when evaluating risk in Electrical Systems

1. Equipment condition
2. Equipment age
3. Equipment loading
4. History of failure
5. Environment
6. Maintenance history
7. Potential for backfeed or induced voltages
8. Power system configuration/design
9. Skill level of personnel doing the work

3.1.6 Individual lockout/tagout

Understand basic lockout/tagout procedures.
OSHA 1910.147 - Lockout/tagout - Mechanical
OSHA 1910.333 - Lockout/tagout - Electrical

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Electrical LOTO is different from Mechanical in that equipment is not
considered de-energized until it is tested in Electrical LOTO
Lock Out / Tag Out (LOTO) - Control and Isolation of all energy sources to
equipment for the purpose of worker safety.
Zero energy state - The release of all stored energy i.e. electrical, mechanical,
and chemical.
Ultimately it is up to YOU to ensure that you are working SAFELY. It is YOUR
RESPONSIBILITY to CHECK the lockout/tagout for the work you are doing is
correct and achieves a Zero Energy State for YOU to work SAFELY.
Simple LOTO Procedure
1. Shut down the equipment through normal stop procedures
2. All circuit breakers and switches to the equipment or power feeds upon
which work is to be performed will be opened (switched off).
3. Personnel performing the work will affix their own lock so the service is
fixed in the open position (switched off) to prevent accidental
engagement.
4. An appropriate “Danger” tag will be affixed to each switch. The tag will
include the company name, date, name of employee, phone number
and the description of work.
5. Multiple lockout devices will be used when more than one employee
performs work on a piece of equipment or a system.
6. Each employee will affix a tag and a lock to the physical isolating device
or a group lockout box.
7. When multiple workers, crafts, departments, etc. are authorized to work
in the vicinity of equipment Your Company has applied LOTO, the Your
Company crew leader will review the LOTO process and demonstrate
absence of voltage to the affected workers.
8. For each operational system or piece of equipment on which they are
working, the employee must verify a “zero energy state” by one or more
of the following means:
 Trying to restart equipment
 Testing power feeds with an electrical testing device
 Slowly opening valves on fluid or gas systems
9. Where more than one craft performs work on the system, each individual
trade will affix their tag and their lock on the power source
10. Only the employee placing their lock on the equipment will be the one to
remove the lock
11. Your Company may affix their lock-tag to any piece of equipment or
system that has been deenergized to further ensure a safe work process

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3.1.7 Recognize an electrically safe work condition (ESWC)
Understand the definition of an electrically safe work condition (ESWC) and be
capable of recognizing when/where an ESWC has been established.

NFPA 70E
 Article 100 - Definitions
 Article 110 - General Requirmnts for Electrical Safety-Related Work Practices
 Article 120 - Establishing an Electrically Safety Work Condition (ESWC)
 Article 130 - Work Involving Electrical Hazards
 Chapter 2 - Safety-Related Maintenance Requirements
 Chapter 3 - Safety Requirements for Special Equipment

Electrically Safe Work Condition (Source: NFPA 70E-2015)

A state in which an electrical conductor or circuit part has been:
1. Disconnected from energized parts; and
2. Locked/tagged in accordance with established standards; and
3. Tested to ensure the absence of voltage; and
4. Grounded if determined necessary

NFPA 70E Article 110

A Qualified Person shall be trained and knowledgeable in the following:
1. Construction and operation of electrical equipment
2. Avoiding electrical hazards that might be present with that equipment
3. PPE
4. Insulating and shielding materials
5. Insulated tools and test equipment
6. Skills and techniques necessary to distinguish exposed energized electrical
conductors and circuit parts from other parts of electrical equipment
7. Skills and techniques necessary to determine the nominal voltage of exposed
energized electrical conductors and circuit parts
8. Approach distances specified in Table 130.4(D)(a) and Table 130.4(D)(b)
9. Decision-making process necessary to be able to (1) perform the job safety
planning, (2) Identify electrical hazards, (3) assess the associated risk and
(4) select the appropriate risk control methods from the controls identified in
110.1(G), including personal protective equipment
10. Trained to select an appropriate test instrument and shall demonstrate how to
use it to verify absence of voltage, including interpreting indications provided by
the device. The training shall include information that enables the employee to
understand all limitations of each test instrument that might be used.
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 11. The employer shall determine through regular supervision or through
inspections conducted on at least an annual basis that each employee is
complying with the safety-related work practices required by this standard.

Retraining for Qualified Electrical Workers

Retraining in safety-related work practices and applicable changes to NFPA 70E
shall be performed at intervals not to exceed three (3) years.

NFPA 70E Article 130

Equipment Labeling
Electrical equipment such as switchboards, panelboards, industrial control
panels, meter socket enclosures, and motor control centers that are in other than
dwelling units and that are likely to require examination, adjustment, servicing, or
maintenance while energized shall be field-marked with a label containing all
the following information:

(1) Nominal system voltage

(2) Arc flash boundary
(3) At least one of the following:
a. Available incident energy and the corresponding working distance, or
the Arc flash PPE category in Table 130.7(C)(15)(A)(b) or Table 130.7(C)
(15)(B) for the equipment, but not both, or
b. Minimum arc rating of clothing, or
c. Site-specific level of PPE

3.1.8 Intermediate safety

Follow safe work practices in regard to hazardous materials. Understand material
safety data sheets (MSDS) (Now Safety Data Sheets (SDS)) and the right-to-know
law. Recognize potential sources of fire ignition. Know the use of correct
extinguishing materials and techniques. Recognize the symptoms of substance
abuse. Follow OSHA guidelines in regard to the erection and use of scaffolds.
Identify safe and unsafe working conditions. Understand correct tool usage.

3.1.9 Confined space

Recognize confined space and its hazards. Recognize when a confined space
becomes a permit required confined space along with the associated
requirements. Follow OSHA test procedures. Evaluate conditions and control the
hazards.
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Confined Space
A space that is large enough and so configured that an individual can bodily enter
and perform assigned work; has limited or restricted means for entry or exit (for
example, tanks, vessels, silos, storage bins, hoppers, vaults, and pits are spaces
that may have limited means of entry.); and is not designed for continuous
occupancy.

Permit Required Confined Space

A permit required confined space has one or more of the following characteristics:
1. Contains or has a potential to contain a hazardous atmosphere; or
2. Contains a material that has the potential for engulfing an entrant; or
3. Has an internal configuration such that an entrant could be trapped or
asphyxiated by inwardly converging walls or by a floor which slopes
downward and tapers to a smaller cross- section; or
4. Contains any other recognized serious safety or health hazard

Confined Space Entry Facts

1. Confined Space Entry Permit to be signed by the trained Entry Supervisor
2. Only 1 attendant is required at the entrance/exit of a confined space
3. Confined Space regulations are enforced by OSHA
4. When testing the atmosphere of a confined space, test O2 level first
5. LEL is the Lower Explosive Limit
6. An Oxygen Enriched atmosphere is UNSAFE

Oxygen Deficient Atmosphere

Atmosphere containing less than 19.5% oxygen by volume.

Oxygen Enriched Atmosphere

Atmosphere containing more than 23.5% oxygen by volume.

Life Sustaining Atmosphere

19.5%< Oxygen Level < 23.5%

Respirators
1. An Air Supplying respirator is used in a confined space where there is
not enough oxygen for breathing and the atmosphere is Immediately
Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH).
2. An Air Purifying respirator is used to filter out dangerous and offending
materials.

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 3.1.10 Electrical personal protective equipment
Have knowledge of the correct use of personal grounds and safety equipment
such as sleeves, rubber gloves, flash suits, blankets, insulated tools and sticks
and testing of same.

OSHA 1910.269 - Electric Power Generation, Transmission, Distribution

Insulated Tools and Hotsticks (OSHA 1910.269(j)(2))

1. Live line tools (i.e. hotsticks, switchsticks, shotgun sticks) must be wiped
clean and inspected for defects before each day's use.
2. OSHA 1910.269(j)(2) requires that if any potential defect is found, the
live line tool must be removed from service for examination and testing.
3. When live line tools are used as primary protection, they must be
removed from service at least every 2 years for examination,
cleaning, and required testing.
4. Repaired tools must be retested.

Classes and Ratings of Rubber Insulating Gloves

Proof Test
Glove Class Max. Use Voltage Conventional Work Position for
Voltage
Electrical Worker or Lineman
Class Color AC/DC AC/DC
00 Beige 2,500/10,000 500/750 Ground, Structure or Basket
0 Red 5,000/20,000 1,000/1,500 Ground, Structure or Basket
1 White 10,000/40,000 7,500/11,250 Structure or Basket
2 Yellow 20,000/50,000 17,000/25,500 Electrically Isolated Basket or Platform
3 Green 30,000/60,000 26,500/39,750 Electrically Isolated Basket or Platform
4 Orange 40,000/70,000 36,000/54,000 Electrically Isolated Basket or Platform

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Test Intervals for Rubber Insulating PPE

Memory Aid: Blankets – 12, Gloves – 6, Sleeves - 12

3.1.11 Switching and grounding
Understand correct OSHA lockout/tagout requirements. Know types of voltage
detection equipment and the safe use of same. When temporary grounds are
required, apply correct rating.

ASTM F855-09 - Use Table 1 or Table 2 in this standard to determine Correct

Size of Personal Protective Grounds.

Personal Protective Grounds shall be Inspected Annually

OSHA 1910.147 - Lockout/tagout - Mechanical

OSHA 1910.333 - Lockout/tagout – Electrical

Electrical LOTO is different from Mechanical in that equipment is not

considered de-energized until it is tested in Electrical LOTO

See Section 3.1.6 for simple OSHA lockout/tagout requirements

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 An energized electrical work permit is not required for (1) voltage testing,
(2) troubleshooting, or (3) like activities

Voltage Detectors must be rated for the Type and Voltage being tested

Types of Voltage Detectors

1. Non-Contact Voltage Detectors (aka proximity testers) (LV, MV, HV, EHV)
2. Solenoid Voltage Testers (indicates approximate voltage) (LV only)
3. Digital Multimeters (LV only)

TEST-BEFORE-TOUCH and LIVE-DEAD-LIVE checks shall always be done

Selection of the Correct Size Personal Protective Grounds

1. Calculate the Available Short Circuit Current using one of the two
equations in Section 4 and the protective device trip time at that current.
2. Select the Correct Size Ground Cables using Table 1 or Table 2 from
ASTM Standard F855-09. The correct table to use is based upon the
Reactance to Resistance (X/R) ratio at the equipment being grounded.
3. As a minimum, Personal Protective Grounds shall be applied at the
work area to create an equipotential zone in the work area.

Manually Operated Switches

Manually operated switches that are “energized” must be operated as quickly
as possible (both when opening and closing) to (1) prevent damage to the
switch from excessive arcing and (2) to minimize the possibility of an Arc Flash
event.

3.1.12 NFPA 70E Requirements

Recognize the location and application of shock and arc-flash protection
boundaries.

The absolute safest way to perform work on electrical equipment (always) is to

de-energize the equipment if possible.

The Safe Work Zone should be marked at the longest distance of the
Restricted Approach Boundary, Limited Approach Boundary or Arc Flash
Boundary.

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Arc Flash Boundary
When an arc flash hazard exists, an approach limit at a distance from a
prospective arc source within which a person could receive a second degree
burn if an electrical arc flash were to occur. Also may be called the Flash
Protection Boundary.

Shock Protection Boundaries

Limited Approach Boundary

An approach limit at a distance from an exposed energized electrical conductor
or circuit part within which a shock hazard exists.

Restricted Approach Boundary

An approach limit at a distance from an exposed energized electrical conductor
or circuit part within which there is an increased likelihood of electric shock, due
to electrical arc-over combined with inadvertent movement, for personnel working
in close proximity to the energized electrical conductor or circuit part.

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 Memory Aid: Limited and Restricted Approach Boundaries
Source Voltage ≤ LAB Movable LAB Fixed RAB
AC 50V ns ns ns
AC 150V 10ft 42” Avoid Contact
AC 750V 10ft 42” 12”
AC 15KV 10ft 60” 26”
DC 100V ns ns ns
DC 300V 10ft 42” Avoid Contact

3.1.13 Electrical Hazard PPE Selection

Understand the Arc-Flash Hazard/Risk Categories, Shock Protection Boundaries,
and PPE Matrix.
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Arc Flash PPE

Category 1 (HRC 1) (ATPV = 4 cal/cm2)

Arc-rated Clothing, Minimum Arc Rating of 4 cal/cm^2 (Note 1)
 Arc-rated long-sleeve shirt and pants or arc-rated coverall.
 Arc-rated face shield (Note 2) or arc flash suit hood.
 Arc-rated jacket, parka, rainwear or hard hat liner (AN).

Protective Equipment
 Hard hat
 Safety glasses or Safety goggles (SR)
 Hearing protection (ear canal inserts)
 Heavy duty leather gloves (Note 3)
 Leather footwear (AN)

Category 2 (HRC 2) (ATPV = 8 cal/cm2)

Arc-rated Clothing, Minimum Arc Rating of 8 cal/cm^2 (Note 1)
 Arc-rated long-sleeve shirt and pants or arc-rated coverall.
 Arc-rated flash hood or arc-rated face shield (Note 2) and arc-rated
balaclava.
 Arc-rated jacket, parka, rainwear or hard hat liner (AN).

Protective Equipment
 Hard hat
 Safety glasses or Safety goggles (SR)
 Hearing protection (ear canal inserts)
 Heavy duty Leather gloves (Note 3)
 Leather footwear

PPE Category 3 (HRC 3) (ATPV = 25 cal/cm2)

Arc-rated Clothing, Minimum Arc Rating of 25 cal/cm^2 (Note 1)
 Arc-rated long-sleeve shirt (AR)
 Arc-rated pants (AR)
 Arc-rated coverall (AR)
 Arc-rated arc flash suit jacket (AR)
 Arc-rated arc flash suit pants (AR)
 Arc-rated arc flash suit hood
 Arc-rated gloves (Note 3)
 Arc-rated jacket, parka, rainwear or hard hat liner (AN).

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Protective Equipment
 Hard hat
 Safety glasses or Safety goggles (SR)
 Hearing protection (ear canal inserts)
 Leather footwear

PPE Category 4 (HRC 4) (ATPV = 40 cal/cm2)

Arc-rated Clothing, Minimum Arc Rating of 40 cal/cm^2 (Note 1)
 Arc-rated long-sleeve shirt (AR)
 Arc-rated pants (AR)
 Arc-rated coverall (AR)
 Arc-rated arc flash suit jacket (AR)
 Arc-rated arc flash suit pants (AR)
 Arc-rated arc flash suit hood
 Arc-rated gloves (Note 3)
 Arc-rated jacket, parka, rainwear or hard hat liner (AN).

Protective Equipment
 Hard hat
 Safety glasses or Safety goggles (SR)
 Hearing protection (ear canal inserts)
 Leather footwear

Notes:

AN = As Needed (Optional). AR = As Required. SR = Selection Required.

1. Arc rating is defined in article 100 of NFPA 70E.

2. Face shields are to have wrap- around guarding to protect not only the face
but also the forehead, ears and neck, or, alternatively, an arc-rated arc flash
suit hood is required to be worn.
3. If rubber insulating gloves with leather protectors are used, additional leather
or arc-rated gloves are not required. The combination of rubber insulating
gloves with leather protectors satisfies the arc flash protection requirement.

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3.2 Mathematics

3.2.1 Basic mathematics

Solve mathematical problems requiring simple addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and raising numbers to exponential powers. Round to the appropriate
number of significant digits, calculate percentages, read graphs, and use simple
geometric definitions and formulas.

Please see Section 7 for examples of Solved Problems for these topics.

3.2.2 Basic metric units and conversions

Perform conversions to and from basic metric (SI) units.

SI Prefixes (Source: Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers)

SI - International System of Units

Symbol Prefix Factor Decimal

p pico 10-12 0.000000000001
n nano 10-9 0.000000001
µ micro 10-6 0.000001
m milli 10-3 0.001
c centi 10-2 0.01
d deci 10-1 0.1
da deka 101 10
h hecto 102 100
k kilo 103 1,000
M Mega 106 1,000,000
G Giga 109 1,000,000,000
T Tera 1012 1,000,000,000,000

Page 20 of 117
 Examples
1 pF = 1 x 10-12 Farads (F) = 0.000000000001 Farads (F)
3 ns = 3 x 10-9 seconds (s) = 0.000000003 seconds (s)
1 µΩ = 1 x 10-6 Ohms (Ω) = 0.000001 Ohms (Ω)
4 mA = 4 x 10-3 Amps (A) = 0.004 Amps (A)
1 cm = 1 x 10-2 meters (m) = 0.01 meters (m)
5 kV = 5 x 103 Volts (V) = 5,000 Volts (V)
1 MΩ = 1 x 106 Ohms (Ω) = 1,000,000 Ohms (Ω)
1 GB = 1 x 109 Bytes (B) = 1,000,000,000 Bytes (B)
1 TB = 1 x 1012 Bytes (B) = 1,000,000,000,000 Bytes (B)

Conversion of Units
See examples of SI unit conversions in Section 6 and Section 7.

3.2.3 Intermediate mathematics

Perform mathematical calculations utilizing basic algebra (fundamental laws,
algebraic expressions), geometry, and the trigonometric functions of right triangles.

Please see Section 7 for discussion and examples of solved problems for these
topics.

3.3 Tools and Equipment

3.3.1 Basic tools and equipment
Recognize and name basic electrical power-related equipment. Select the correct
tools for each job. Follow safe operating procedures for basic hand and power
tools and equipment. Locate information in manufacturers’ published data.

Ladder Safety
 Extension ladders must extend 3 feet beyond the upper landing surface
 It is unsafe to climb higher than the 3rd rung from the top of any ladder
 The top step of a tied-off ladder shall not be used as a step

3.3.2 Basic test equipment

Understand the operation, application, and care of commonly used test equipment
such as insulation resistance test set, contact resistance test set, and high
potential test set.

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Insulation Resistance Tester (Megger)

Digital Low Resistance Ohmmeter (DLRO)(Ductor)

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 Figure 1 - DLRO C1 and P1 Figure 2 - DLRO C2 and P2 Figure 3 - DLRO Connections

AC High Potential Test Set (AC Hi-Pot)

Page 23 of 117
Page 24 of 117
 Transformer Turns Ratio (TTR) Test Set – Hand Crank Type

Exciting Voltage Null Detector

TTR Connections (Single Phase Transformers)

 Connect H1 and H2 leads of the TTR to the H1 and H2 terminals of the HV Winding
 Connect X1 and X2 leads of the TTR to the X1 and X2 terminals of the LV Winding

TTR Nulling Procedure

1. Set the four Dial Switches to read 00.00.
2. Turn Hand-Crank a 1/2 Turn. The Null Detector (ND) Needle should swing LEFT. If
it swings RIGHT, TTR connections or transformer polarity are reversed. Fix leads.
3. While turning Crank slowly, increase number (ratio) on the LEFT (1st) Dial until the
ND Needle swings RIGHT. Turn back LEFT (1st) Dial to the highest ratio where the
ND Needle swung LEFT.
4. Repeat Step 3 for the 2nd and 3rd Dials (immediately to the right of the 1st Dial).
5. Increase ratio on 4th Dial until the ND Needle is exactly in the CENTER of the ND
meter while cranking fast enough to achieve an excitation voltage of 8V.
6. The Turns Ratio is read directly from the Dial numbers from left to right.

TTR Connections (3-Phase Transformers)

The 1Ф TTR can be used to determine the Turns Ratio of a 3-Phase transformer by performing
three (3) individual tests: one (1) on A-Phase, one (1) on B-phase and one (1) on C-phase.
The transformer primary and secondary connections (shown on the transformer nameplate)
determine where the H1, H2, X1 and X2 leads on the TTR are connected for each test.

Page 25 of 117
3.3.3 Multimeter use
Select correct multimeter scales and ranges. Recognize the limitations of ohm,
voltage, and current scales. Recognize basic problems such as weak batteries or
defective leads.

Figure 4 - Fluke 87 V Multimeter

Multimeter Limitations

Maximum Voltage (V)

 Category III 600V (dc or ac rms to ground) Peak Impulse 6,000V, 2Ω
 Category III 1,000V (dc or ac rms to ground) Peak Impulse 8,000V, 2Ω
 Category IV 600V (dc or ac rms to ground) Peak Impulse 8,000V, 2Ω

Maximum Amperage (A)

 10 Amps

Maximum milliamps (mA) and microamps (µA)

 400 mA
 400,000 µA

Page 26 of 117
3.4 Electrical and Physical Theory

3.4.1 Basic electrical terms and definitions

Understand the concepts of voltage, current, and impedance.

Please see Section 7 for discussion and solved problems for these topics.

3.4.2 Basic physical science

Apply terms, definitions, and concepts from mechanics, electricity, heat, and
chemistry. (Solutions may involve simple formulas found in basic physics texts but
will not involve algebraic manipulation or trigonometry.)

As the temperature (T) of a conductor increases, the resistance (R) of that

conductor increases.

3.4.3 Fundamentals of electricity

Recognize and define the standard units used to describe electrical circuits,
energy, and power. Apply Ohm's law to simple circuits.

Please see Section 7 for discussion and solved problems for these topics.

Diode Operation
Forward Bias
A diode (with symbol shown below) is “forward biased” and conducts current
when there is a positive (+) voltage on the Anode and a negative (-) voltage on
the Cathode. When a diode is “forward biased” it acts like a “closed switch”
with a voltage drop of approximately 0.70 volts (for a silicon diode) and 0.30 volts
(for a germanium diode).

Reverse Bias
A diode (with symbol shown below) is “reverse biased” and does not conduct
current when there is a negative (-) voltage on the Anode and a positive (+)
voltage on the Cathode. When a diode is “reverse biased” it acts like an “open
switch” and does not conduct current.

Page 27 of 117
 3.4.4 AC circuit
Identify series and parallel circuits and apply Ohm's law to simple single-loop ac
circuits with linear components. Calculate equivalent capacitance and inductance.
Measure and/or calculate impedance and power.
Please see Section 4 and Section 7 for formulas, discussion and solved problems
for these topics.

3.4.5 DC circuits
Identify series and parallel circuits and apply Ohm's law to simple series dc circuits
with linear nonreactive components. Calculate equivalent resistance of and power
consumed by resistive devices.
Please see Section 4 and Section 7 for formulas, discussion and solved problems
for these topics.

3.5 System Analysis and Operation

3.5.1 Basic drawings and diagrams

Read and interpret basic electrical drawings and one-line diagrams.
1. One-Line Diagram - Primarily shows the flow of electrical power through
power system components
2. Schematic Diagram - Primarily shows Device and Circuit operation
3. Wiring Diagram - Primarily shows Control Device Wiring & Connections
4. Elementary Diagram - Old school wording for a Schematic Diagram

As-Built Drawings typically include changes made during Installation.

Schematic Diagrams show all Device Contacts in the De-Energized position.

Common Electrical Symbols

Drawout AC Circuit Load Break Switch Resistor Resistor
Breaker

“a” contact “b” contact Inductor Capacitor

Page 28 of 117
 Common Electrical Symbols (continued)
Medium Voltage Pothead AC Generator

Picture of a Medium Voltage Pothead

A “pothead” is a specialized connection where a transition takes place from one
type of cable to another type of cable. The picture below shows 2 potheads that
are being used to transition from overhead cables to underground cables.
Potheads can be used to transition from underground to above ground cables in
switchgear, pad mounted transformers or other types of cable transitions.

3.6 Codes and Standards

3.6.1 Standards-making organizations

Recognize the standards and regulatory organizations in the country of residency.
In the United States, these would include organizations such as OSHA, ANSI,
ASTM, IEEE, NETA, NFPA, EPA, and related areas of authority. Indicate familiarity
with NFPA 70B Electrical Equipment Maintenance, and NFPA70 National Electrical
Code, and NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace.

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OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
An agency of the U.S. Department of Labor. OSHA's mission is to "assure safe
and healthful working conditions for working men and women by setting and
enforcing safety standards.” OSHA provides regulations regarding worker
safety and has enforcement authority. Some common OSHA Regulations are:
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
29CFR Labor
29CFR1910 AKA OSHA 1910 Occupational Safety and Health Standards
29CFR1926 AKA OSHA 1926 Safety and Health Regulations for Construction
10CFR Another Example Energy - Not on the NETA Level 2 Exam

ANSI - American National Standards Institute

ANSI provides standards for Apparatus Design and Ratings. Recognized U.S.
Standards such as IEEE, ASME, ASTM, NETA and NFPA are ANSI Standards.
There are some 9,500 ANSI Standards in existence. That’s why sometimes you
will see standards referred to as ANSI/IEEE or ANSI/NETA because they are
American National Standards.

ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials

ASTM provides standards for specific test methods. ASTM standards use good
science, good engineering and good judgment to create testing standards that
ensure commonly used materials and products are tested consistently to meet the
highest standards of quality. ASTM standards cover areas such as metals, paints,
plastics, textiles, petroleum, construction, energy, environment, consumer
products, medical services, devices, electronics and advanced materials.

IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IEEE standards cover just about anything electrical or electronic. These standards
ensure that there is consistently high quality in the design, installation and testing
of electrical and electronic systems, equipment and components.
 IEEE 1584-2002 Arc Flash Hazard Calculations
 IEEE 1584a-2004 Arc Flash Hazard Calculations - Amendment 1
 IEEE 1584b -2011 Arc Flash Hazard Calculations - Amendment 2
 IEEE C37.2-2008 Power System Device Function Numbers
 IEEE 43-2013 Insulation Resistance of Electric Machinery

Page 30 of 117
NETA - InterNational Electrical Testing Association
The mission of NETA is to serve the electrical testing industry by establishing
standards, publishing specifications, accrediting independent, third-party testing
companies, certifying test technicians, and promoting the professional services of
its members.

 NETA-ATS-2017 Acceptance Testing Specifications

 NETA-MTS-2017 Maintenance Testing Specifications

NFPA - National Fire Protection Association

The NFPA creates standards for the safe design and installation of equipment
which has the potential to be an ignition source or fuel source for a fire. NFPA
Standards address the prevention, detection and mitigation of fires that could
cause harm to people and property, in addition to standards for the safe egress
and evacuation of people in the event of a fire. Some commonly used NFPA
Standards are:

 NFPA 70-2017 National Electrical Code (NEC)

 NFPA 70B Electrical Equipment Maintenance
 NFPA 70E-2015 Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace
 NFPA 72 National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code
 NFPA 101 Life Safety Code

The National Electrical Code (NEC) is published by the NFPA and provides
recommended safety provisions for Electrical Installations.

The NEC may be enforced by the Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ).

The NEC is not a Design Standard and does not establish Electrical Design
Criteria.

EPA - Environmental Protection Agency

The EPA develops and enforces regulations which protect the Environment.

Page 31 of 117
 3.6.2 NETA Standards
Have basic knowledge of the technical requirements of ANSI/NETA Standard for
Acceptance Testing Specifications for Electrical Power Equipment and Systems
(ANSI/NETA ATS) & ANSI/NETA Standard for Maintenance Testing Specifications
for Electrical Power Distribution Equipment & Systems (ANSI/NETA MTS).

Please see Section 5 for NETA standard test acceptance criteria for the most
commonly performed electrical tests.

3.7 General
3.7.1 Simple ac and dc equipment
Identify the functions and components of common types of electrical motors,
generators, transformers, solenoids and contactors. Be familiar with their uses in
single phase, three-phase or dc systems.

Motors
The Locked Rotor Current (LRC) of large induction motors is typically between 6
and 8 times the Full Load Current (FLC).

3.7.2 Basic testing procedures

Recognize and understand basic requirements for the evaluation and assessment
of electrical apparatus.

AC Motor Testing recommended by NETA-MTS-2017

1. Insulation Resistance
2. Polarization Index (for motors > 2300V)
3. DC Withstand (for motors > 2300V)
4. Stator Winding Resistance (for motors > 2300V)
5. Insulation Power Factor
6. Insulation Power Factor Tip-Up
7. Surge Comparison

Testing for Lead-Acid Batteries (Source: NETA-ATS)

1. Measure electrolyte level
2. Measure electrolyte specific gravity
3. Measure electrolyte temperature

Page 32 of 117
 4. Measure resistance of bolted connections with Low Resistance Ohmmeter
5. Tighten all bolted connections using a calibrated torque wrench
6. Perform a Thermographic Survey
7. Measure Battery Charger Float Voltage
8. Measure Battery Charger Equalize Voltage
9. Measure each Battery Cell voltage with Battery Charger in Float mode
10. Measure Total Battery System voltage with Battery Charger in Float mode
11. Measure Intercell Connection resistances
12. Measure Internal resistance of each cell
13. Measure positive-ground and negative-ground battery system voltages
14. Perform a Load Test
15. Verify all Battery Charger Alarms are functional

Cell internal ohmic values (resistance, impedance, or conductance) shall not

vary by more than 25 percent between identical cells in a fully charged state

The positive-to-ground voltage shall be equal to negative-to-ground voltage.

3.8 Switchgear, Switchboards, Motor Control Centers

3.8.1 General maintenance
Use correct techniques to clean, visually inspect, torque, and lubricate assembly
and components. This includes racking, handling, and insertion of breakers and
contactors.

Medium Voltage Contactor Inspection and Adjustment

1. Verify mechanical operation.
2. Inspect and adjust contact gap, wipe, alignment, and pressure in
accordance with manufacturer’s published data.

Bolted Connection Inspections and Tightness Checks

1. Low Resistance Ohmmeter
2. Calibrated Torque Wrench Method
3. Thermographic Survey

Page 33 of 117
 Bolt Grades

Memory Aid:
Number of marks on SAE Grade Hex Head Bolt = Grade Number - 2
Bolt Grade # of Markings
1-2 0=2-2
5 3=5-2
7 5=7-2
8 6=8-2

3.9 Transformers

3.9.1 Types and Uses

Identify the types, classification, and application of transformers and electrical
circuits. Understand the differences between dry-type, cast-coil, and liquid-filled
transformers. Understand the application of power substation, distribution,
instrument, and control transformers. Recognize that power circuit breakers and
transformers are generally equipped with instrument transformers.

Types
Dry Type Transformer - uses air as a cooling medium (up to 7,500 kVA)

Liquid-Filled Transformer - uses liquid as a cooling medium (up to 1,100 MVA)

Oil-Filled Transformer - aka Liquid-Filled Transformer (up to 1,100 MVA).

OIL-FILLED transformers installed INDOORS shall be installed in a VAULT.

Instrument Transformer - Current Transformers (CTs) and Potential

Transformers (PTs), sometimes called Voltage Transformers (VTs), are known as
instrument transformers.

Page 34 of 117
CTs are step-down transformers which convert a larger current on the primary to a
smaller current on the secondary for use by protective relays, meters and
transducers. IEEE Standard CT ratios range from 50/5 Amps to 35,000/5 Amps.

PTs are step-down transformers which convert a larger voltage on the primary to a
smaller voltage on the secondary for use by protective relays, meters and
transducers. IEEE Standard PT ratios range from 2400/120V to 765,000/120V.

Transformer Windings
Primary Winding - The winding that is energized by connecting it to a SOURCE.
Secondary Winding - The winding that is connected to the LOAD.
Tertiary Winding - A third winding in a transformer. Sometimes connected to
Bushings (Y1, Y2, Y3, Y0) and sometimes it is just a delta connected transformer
which is wired internally with no external bushings.

Transformer Bushings
Bushings are used to connect (and insulate) the windings internal to a transformer
to Cables or Bus (Iso-phase Bus Duct or Non-segregated Bus Duct) on the outside
of the Transformer.

 High-Side Bushings - designated H1, H2, H3 and H0 (if a neutral exists)

 Low-Side Bushings - designated X1, X2, X3 and X0 (if a neutral exists)
 Tertiary Bushings - designated Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y0 (if a neutral exists)

Sudden Pressure Relay (63) / Buchholz Relay (63)

The Sudden Pressure Relay (63) is designed to quickly detect Internal
transformer faults by detecting a rapid rise in pressure inside the transformer
main tank. The Qualitrol 63 relay is mounted on the side of the transformer main
tank while the ABB 63 relay is mounted on the top of the transformer main tank.
The Buchholz Relay (63) is a type of Sudden Pressure Relay (63) which is also
designed to detect Internal transformer faults by detecting a rapid rise in
pressure inside the transformer. It is generally mounted in the oil-space between
the conservator tank and the transformer main tank.

No-Load Tap Changer Operation

A transformer must be completely de-energized before a No-Load Tap Changer
can be operated.

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Hot-Spot Temperature
Fiber Optic Cables are used to measure the Hot-Spot Temperature in a
Transformer Winding.

Oil Level Gauge

An oil level gauge is required so that the correct oil level can be maintained.
There is usually a mark on the gauge that indicates the 25°C level, which is the
proper oil level at that temperature.

Oil Sampling
There is an SOP for this. The SOP says the following ”The valve through which
the sample is to be taken should be flushed by allowing about half a gallon (or
two quarts) of oil to flow to a waste container.

Gas Blanketing
Many liquid-filled transformers use Nitrogen (N2) at a positive pressure (aka a
Nitrogen Blanket) to fill the space between the top of the transformer oil and the
transformer tank because it is an inexpensive, inert gas. An inert gas has
extremely low reactivity with other substances. This keeps the transformer tank at
a positive pressure to prevent external contaminants from entering the transformer.

Rating of an Open-Delta Connected Transformer

The rating of an Open-Delta Transformer connection is 100%/1.732 = 58% of the
3-Phase Full Load Transformer rating.

Page 36 of 117
Transformer Nameplate Data (One Example)

Transformer Cooling Nomenclature (Quick Reference)

New Convention
Cooling Description
(Old Convention)

ONAN
Oil Natural Air Natural Circulation
(OA)

ONAN/ONAF Oil Natural Air Natural Circulation / Oil Natural Air

(OA/FA) Forced Circulation - Stage 1 Cooling Fans On

Oil Natural Air Natural Circulation / Oil Natural Air

ONAN/ONAF/ONAF
Forced Circulation / Oil Natural Air Forced Circulation
(OA/FA/FA) - Stage 1 and 2 Cooling Fans On

Oil Natural Air Natural Circulation / Oil Natural Air

ONAN/ONAF/OFAF Forced Circulation - Stage 1 and 2 Cooling Fans On /
(OA/FA/FOA) Oil Forced Air Forced Circulation - Stage 1 and 2
Cooling Fans On plus Stage 1 and 2 Oil Pumps On

Page 37 of 117
Transformer Cooling - Old Nomenclature

Old Cooling Class Designations (Prior to 2000)

A Air

FA Forced Air (fans)

O Oil

FO Forced oil (pumps)

G Gas

W Water/oil heat exchanger

Transformer Cooling - More Detailed Description

New Convention
Cooling Description
(Old Convention)

Liquid-immersed, self-cooled. Transformer windings

and core are immersed in some type of oil and are self-
ONAN
cooled by natural circulation of air around the outside
(OA)
enclosure. Fins or radiators may be attached to the
enclosure to aid in cooling.

Liquid-immersed, self-cooled/forced air-

cooled. Same as OA, with the addition of fans. Fans
ONAN/ONAF are usually mounted on radiators. The transformer
(OA/FA) typically has two load ratings, one with the fans off (OA)
and a larger rating with fans operating (FA). Fans may
be wired to start automatically at a pre-set temperature.

Page 38 of 117
New Convention
Cooling Description
(Old Convention)

Liquid-immersed, self-cooled/forced air-

cooled/forced air-cooled. Same as OA/FA with an
additional set of fans. There typically will be three load
ratings corresponding to each increment of cooling.
Increased ratings are obtained by increasing cooling air
ONAN/ONAF/ONAF
over portions of the cooling surfaces. Typically, there
(OA/FA/FA)
are radiators attached to the tank to aid in cooling. The
two groups of fans may be wired to start automatically
at pre-set levels as temperature increases. There are no
oil pumps. Oil flow through the transformer windings is
by natural convection.

Liquid-immersed, self-cooled/forced air-

cooled/forced liquid, and forced air-cooled. Windings
and core are immersed in some type of oil. This
transformer typically has radiators attached to the
enclosure. The transformer has self-cooling (OA)
ONAN/ONAF/OFAF
natural ventilation, forced air-cooling FA (fans), and
(OA/FA/FOA)
forced oil-cooling (pumps) with additional forced air-
cooling (FOA) (more fans). The transformer has three
load ratings corresponding to each cooling step. Fans
and pumps may be wired to start automatically at pre-
set levels as temperature increases.

Page 39 of 117
 Transformer coil and core are immersed in oil.
Typically a oil/water heat exchanger (radiator) is
attached to the outside of the tank. Cooling water is
ONWF pumped through the heat exchanger, but the oil flows
(OW) only by natural circulation. As oil is heated by the
windings, it rises to the top and exits through piping to
the radiator. As it is cooled, the oil descends through the
radiator and re-enters the transformer tank at the
bottom.

Transformer coil and core are immersed in oil. This

transformer has two ratings. Cooling for one rating
ONWF/ONAN
(OW) is obtained as previously described. The self
(OW/A)
cooled rating (A) is obtained by Natural Circulation of air
over the tank and cooling surfaces.

Liquid-immersed, forced liquid-cooled with forced

air-cooled. This transformer normally has only one
OFAF rating. The transformer is cooled by pumping oil (forced
(FOA) oil) through a radiator normally attached to the outside
of the tank. Also, air is forced by fans over the cooling
surface.

Liquid-immersed, forced liquid-cooled, water

cooled. This transformer is cooled by an oil/water heat
OFWF exchanger normally mounted separately from the tank.
(FOW) Both the transformer oil and the cooling water are
pumped (forced) through heat exchanger to accomplish
cooling.

Page 40 of 117
3.10 Wires, Cables and Buses

3.10.1 Properties and types

Understand the basic construction, properties and application of low-, medium-,
and high-voltage conductors.

Low Voltage ≤ 1 kV
Medium Voltage > 1 kV to ≤ 100kV (69kV is a Standard Voltage Level)
High Voltage > 100kV

Low Voltage Cable

Medium Voltage Cable

Page 41 of 117
PE (Polyethylene) and XLPE (Cross-Linked Polyethylene)

Water Treeing and DC High Potential Testing

PE (Polyethylene) and XLPE (Cross-Linked Polyethylene) Insulated Cables are
Susceptible to Water Treeing. It is not recommended to DC Hi-Pot* cables that
have been in-service for 5 years or more. To be on the safe side, I would not
recommend DC Hi-Pot Testing of any in-service PE or XLPE Cable unless you
are absolutely certain you know the age of the cable.

* Performing a DC Hi-Pot Test on an In-Service PE or XLPE cable will increase

the growth of existing water-trees and may lead to the pre-mature failure of the
cable during testing or after being placed into service, which are both highly
undesirable for the customer.

Test Methods for Medium Voltage Cables

1. Insulation Resistance (Megger) - Uses DC Voltage
2. Very Low Frequency (VLF) Dielectric Withstand - Uses AC Voltage
3. AC High Potential AKA Power Frequency (60Hz) Dielectric Withstand
4. DC High Potential AKA DC Dielectric Withstand - Uses DC Voltage
5. Partial Discharge (PD) Tests - Uses AC Voltage
6. VLF Tan Delta - Insulation Power Factor - Uses AC Voltage
7. Damped Alternating Current (DAC) Voltage

High Voltage (HV) and Extra High Voltage (EHV) Cable

Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR) Cables

Steel
Aluminum

Page 42 of 117
 Partial Discharge (PD)
Partial discharges are created by ionization of air pockets within the insulation

Fault Locating Methods for Cables

1. Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) - A low-energy signal is transmitted
through the cable and the signal reflections are monitored. A theoretically
perfect cable returns that signal in a known time and in a known profile.
Impedance variations in a "real-world" cable alter both the time and profile,
which the TDR screen or printout graphically represents. This graph (called
a "trace") gives the user approximate distances to "landmarks" such as
opens, splices, Y-taps, faults, transformers, and water ingression.

 One Weakness of TDR: Accuracy is +/- 1% of Testing Range. May

need to use a thumper after TDR to find the exact fault location.

 Another weakness of TDR is that reflectometers cannot see faults-to-

ground with resistances much greater than 200 ohms. So, in the case
of a "bleeding fault" rather than a short or near-short, TDR is blind.

2. Thumping - A high voltage is supplied to a faulted cable, the resulting high-

current arc makes a noise loud enough to be detected above ground.
Thumping requires a current on the order of tens of thousands of amps at
voltages as high as 25kV to make an underground noise loud enough to be
detected above ground.

3.11 Circuit Breakers and Circuit Switchers

3.11.1 Types and ratings
Identify the types, classification, and applications. Be able to understand the
differences between air, oil, vacuum, and gas insulated construction. Be able to
define voltage class, interruption, basic impulse level, fault close, and other
ratings.

Voltage Classes

Low Voltage ≤ 1 kV 120V, 240V, 480V, 600V

Medium Voltage > 1 kV - ≤ 100kV 4.16kV, 6.9kV, 13.8kV, 34.6kV, 69kV
High Voltage > 100kV - ≤ 300kV 138kV, 161kV, 230kV
Extra High Voltage > 300kV 345kV, 500kV, 765kV

Page 43 of 117
Interrupt Rating - The Maximum Fault Current a Circuit Breaker can safely
interrupt without damage. Generally provided in rms symmetrical Amps.
Sometimes provided in Amps Interrupting Current (AIC).

Basic Insulation Level (BIL) - The Maximum momentary (microseconds)

overvoltage transient (spike) an insulation system has been designed and
tested to withstand (tested at 40 microseconds). Insulation systems must be
able to withstand momentary transients such as lightning strikes and/or
switching transients without failing. Lightning Arrestors and Surge Suppressors
must be designed to operate at voltage levels below the equipment BIL rating to
protect the insulation system.

Circuit Breakers and their Arc Interrupting Mediums

Type Arc Quenching Medium

Air Circuit Breaker (ACB) AIR is the arc quenching medium
Air Blast Circuit Breaker (ACB) An AIR BLAST is the arc quenching medium
OIL is the arc quenching medium. Oil also
Oil Circuit Breaker (OCB) insulates the energized components from
the tank i.e. “Dead Tank” Construction.
Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB) VACUUM is the arc quenching medium
Gas (SF6) Circuit Breaker (GCB) GAS (SF6) is the arc quenching medium
Gas Insulated Switchgear (GIS) All HV components are in a GAS i.e. SF6

SF6 Gas Circuit Breakers

1. The primary advantage of sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) gas as an insulator
is that its insulating strength increases with pressure.
2. For Cold Climates, Nitrogen (N2) and Freon-14 (CF4), are added to SF6
Gas.
3. Metal Fluorides are one hazardous byproduct of arcing in SF6 Gas.
4. A “dead tank” circuit breaker has its external metal “tank” grounded and
thus is “de-energized” or “dead.”
5. A “live tank” circuit breaker has its external metal housing “energized” or
“live” at the same voltage as its line-side and load-side terminals. Many
SF6 Circuit Breakers at the 345kV and 765kV voltage levels are “live-
tank” construction.

Page 44 of 117
Drawout Circuit Breaker Positions
1. Connect - Fully Racked In, Primary & Secondary Disconnects made
2. Test - Partially Racked In, Only Secondary Disconnects made
3. Disconnect - Fully Racked out, Primary & Secondary Disconnects parted
4. Withdrawn - Fully Withdrawn from the Compartment

Air Circuit Breaker Components

Arcing Contacts prevent damage to the Main Contacts on a circuit breaker

The Arcing Contacts “make” before the Main Contacts on Closing and
“break” after the Main Contacts on Opening.

Anti-Pump Relay
The Anti-Pump relay (designated by the letter ‘Y’ in the trip & close schematic)
has a 52b contact in series with the Close Coil (designated by the letter ‘X’ in
the trip & close schematic) which prevents the close coil from being energized
more than once, or continuously, which ensures that the Circuit Breaker ONLY
CLOSES ONCE when the Control Switch is taken to the CLOSE position.

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 Continuous Current Rating of a Circuit Breaker
The Frame Size and Rating Plug determine the Continuous Current Rating of a
Circuit Breaker. Sensor (CT) Taps are usually set to match the rating plug.
The Long Time Pick Up (LTPU or LDPU) of the Circuit Breaker Trip Unit
determines exactly how much current the breaker will carry continuously without
tripping.

Interrupt Rating of a Circuit Breaker

The interrupt rating is generally listed on the Circuit Breaker Nameplate. It is
the Maximum Fault Current the Circuit Breaker has been designed and tested
to Safely Interrupt without causing damage to the circuit breaker.

Vacuum Bottle Integrity Test for Vacuum Circuit Breakers

X-rays could be released if a vacuum bottle fails during the vacuum bottle
Integrity test. The amount of radiation is small and can be blocked by locating
the circuit breaker between yourself and the bottle being tested.

Power Factor Testing of Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers

When performing insulation power factor tests on medium-voltage circuit
breakers, Watts Loss is normally measured because the device is mostly
resistive.

Circuit Breaker Travel and Timing Tests

A circuit breaker motion analyzer measures Velocity (how fast the contacts
move) and Displacement (the distance the contacts travel).

3.12 Electrical Protective Devices

3.12.1 Basic devices

Have the ability to recognize and define fuses, protective relays, breaker trip
devices, and surge suppressors and to understand their differences and uses.

IEEE Standard Protective Function Numbers

The protective device function numbers shown in the table on the next page are
the most commonly used device numbers from IEEE Standard C37.2-2008:

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Device IEEE Protective Device Function Common Application
2 time delay relay transmission lines
11 multifunction relay generators, transformers, transmission
21 distance (impedance) relay lines
transmission lines
24 volts per hertz relay generators, gsu transformers
25 synchronizing or synchronism-check low, medium, high voltage breakers
27 relay
undervoltage relay medium voltage buses load shedding
32 directional (reverse) power relay generators
37 undercurrent or underpower relay generators
40 loss-of-field relay generators
41 field circuit breaker generators
43 manual transfer or selector switch circuit breaker control circuits
46 reverse-phase or phase-balance generators, motors
47 current relay
phase-sequence or phase-balance generators, motors, mv busses
49 voltage relay
machine or transformer thermal relay generators, motors, transformers
50 instantaneous overcurrent relay mv, lv switchgear breakers
51 ac inverse time overcurrent relay mv, lv switchgear breakers
52 ac circuit breaker lv, mv, hv switchgear, switchyards
55 power factor relay synchronous motors
59 overvoltage relay mv, lv busses
60 voltage or current balance relay generators
62 time delay relay transmission lines, breaker failure
63 sudden pressure switch large transformers (≥ 10MVA)
64 ground detector relay generator field winding, neutral resistor
67 ac directional overcurrent relay parallel radial transmission lines
72 dc circuit breaker dc batteries and distribution systems
74 alarm relay circuit breakers, motor control circuits
76 dc overcurrent relay dc batteries and distribution systems
79 ac reclosing relay transmission lines, distribution lines
81 frequency relay generators
86 lockout relay generators, transformers, breaker failure
87 differential protective relay generators, transformers, buses
94 Tripping or trip-free relay transmission lines, distribution lines

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Current Differential Relay (87) Operation
A current differential relay (87) will close its trip contacts if the following

𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼𝑜𝑝) 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

≥
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑠(𝑠𝑚)) 100 %

Pilot Wire relay schemes are a form of differential relay (87) scheme.

Zone Selective Interlocking Scheme

Figure 5 below shows a Zone Selective Interlocking scheme.

1. Zone selective interlocking requires the circuit breakers in a downstream

zone to communicate with breakers in the next upstream zone
2. If the downstream breaker (Breaker 3) sees fault current, it sends a
restraint signal to all breakers in the next upstream zone (Breaker 1) to
restrain instantaneous tripping while allowing time delayed tripping of
that breaker in its set time
3. A breaker seeing fault current (Breaker 3), but not receiving a restraint
signal from a downstream circuit breaker (Breaker 6 or 7), will trip
instantaneously, regardless of its time delay setting
4. If the downstream breaker (Breaker 3) fails to clear the fault, the
upstream breaker (Breaker 1) will trip in 0.4 seconds to clear the fault

Figure 5 - Zone Selective Interlocking Scheme

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Overcurrent Trip functions on Solid State or Digital Trip Device
1. Long Time trip
2. Short Time trip
3. Instantaneous trip
4. Ground Fault trip

Standard Timing Tests and Multiples

1. Long Time trip delay: Timed at 300% of LTPU
2. Short Time trip delay: Timed at 150% of STPU
3. Ground Fault trip delay: Timed at 150% of GFPU
4. Instantaneous trip delay: Pickup Only. No timing done.

First-Out Timing Tests are performed to ensure the circuit breaker will open
within specifications after being closed for an extended period of time.

Electronic Trip Units for Low Voltage Circuit Breakers

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Example Electronic Trip Unit (Utility Relay Company AC-PRO)

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Example Electronic Trip Unit (AC-Pro) - Phase O/C Curves

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Example Electronic Trip Unit (AC-Pro) - Ground O/C Curves

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Fuse Classes

Current Limiting Fuses

Study Aid: Current Limiting – Class CC, J, L, RK1, RK5, T

Non-Current Limiting Fuses

Class H –600VAC or less: 1 – 600A
–250VAC or less: 1 – 600A

Class K –600VAC or less: 1 – 600A

–250VAC or less: 1 – 600A

Other Fuse Types

Class E Fuses - Medium Voltage Applications

R-Rated Fuses - Motor Protection

Expulsion Fuses - Utilize boric acid for the interrupting medium. When a
fuse element melts, the heat of the arc decomposes the boric acid which then
produces water vapor and an inert boric anhydride which will extinguish the arc
by blasting through it and exiting through the bottom of the fuse.

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3.13 Metering

3.13.1 Basic devices

Have the ability to check correct connections of volt, ampere, watt and watt-
hour meters and meter switches. Check current and voltage circuits and
connections.

3 Phase, 4 Wire Wye Watt-hour Meter Connection

Two-Element Watt-hour Meter Connection

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3.14 Grounding Systems

3.14.1 Basic Systems

Understand basic theory of grounding electrical systems and elementary
ground-grid and ground rod installations.

The Maximum Ground Resistance for Commercial and Industrial facilities is 5Ω

The Maximum Ground Resistance for Generation and Transmission facilities is 1Ω

IEEE Std 81 is used as a reference for Fall-of-Potential Testing

For the Fall-of-Potential test, the Potential Electrode should be driven 62% of the
distance between the Tested Electrode and Current Electrode

3.15 Direct-Current Systems

3.15.1 Basic devices and sources

Recognize and understand the use and application of batteries, generators and
rectifiers.

Standard DC Source Voltages

1. 24VDC
2. 48VDC
3. 125VDC
4. 250VDC

Battery Facts
Lead-Acid Batteries - Most common type of Battery used in Substations

Each Cell in a Lead Acid Battery System produces 2.00V to 2.25V.

Vented Lead-Acid Batteries - An internal impedance which increases by 20%

from its as-installed value indicates the battery is starting to deteriorate and
needs to be monitored more closely.

Sulfates appear as white granular salt deposits on the battery plates

Batteries need to be replaced when a Load Test reveals that Battery

Capacity has decreased to 80% of its initial rating

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Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) Batteries
1. Gel Cell is one common type of VRLA
2. Absorbed Glass Mat is another common type of VRLA
3. Often referred to as Maintenance-Free Batteries (actually low
maintenance)

Battery Hazards
 Arc Flash
 Eye Contamination from Acid
 Skin Burns from Acid
 Hydrogen (H2) gas is a hazard created by Battery Charging
 Hydrogen (H2) gas is highly flammable and explosive
 A mixture of 4% H2 in Air can produce an explosion
 Battery rooms must be ventilated to remove this Hydrogen (H2) gas
 Battery room ventilation reduces H2 gas to less than 1% H2 in Air

Each vented cell battery is required to have a flame arrester to prevent

destruction due to an external spark or flame igniting gases that may be
discharged from the cell under normal operating conditions.

Sealed cell batteries are required to have a pressure-relief vent to prevent

excess gas pressure from accumulating, or the cells must be designed to
prevent cell parts from scattering in case of an explosion.

Battery Charging
Charging Lead-Acid Batteries
Lead acid batteries should be charged in three stages, which are:
[1] Constant-current charge
[2] Topping charge
[3] Float charge
Constant-current Charge - Applies the bulk of the charge and takes up
roughly half of the required charge time. During the constant-current charge,
the battery charges to about 70% of full charge in approximately 5-8 hours.
Topping Charge - Continues at a lower charge current and provides saturation
The topping charge brings the batteries from 70% to 100% charge (fully
charged) in approximately another 7-10 hours. The topping charge is essential
for the well-being of the battery and can be compared to a little rest after a good
meal. If continually deprived, the battery will eventually lose the ability to accept
a full charge and the performance will decrease due to sulfation.

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Float Charge - compensates for the loss caused by self-discharge. The float
charge in the third stage maintains the battery at full charge. Figure 1 illustrates
these three stages.

Equalize Charge - An equalizing charge is a deliberate overcharge applied

periodically (once or twice per year) which brings all cells to similar levels by
increasing the voltage to 2.50V/cell, or 10 percent higher than the
recommended charge voltage. An equalizing charge does the following:
1. removes sulfate crystals that build up on the plates over time. Sulfation
can reduce the overall capacity of the batteries and in some cases render
the battery unserviceable.
2. reverses acid stratification, a condition where acid concentration is
greater at the bottom of the battery than at the top.

An Equalize Charge should be applied to a Lead-Acid Battery Bank when:

1. There is a significant difference in the individual cell voltages
2. The electrolyte stratifies with a higher concentration of acid at the
bottom of the cell
3. After about 10 deep charge/discharge cycles
4. When sulfation of the plates occurs
5. The cell voltage deviation from the battery bank average is ≥ 0.05V.

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3.16 Insulating Liquids

3.16.1 Properties, types, and sampling procedures

Recognize the different insulating and cooling mediums and uses. Have the
ability to perform correct sampling procedures.

Specific Gravity (S.G.) determines the Best Sampling Location

Specific Gravity of Oil (S.G. > 1.00) Take Oil Sample from the TOP

Specific Gravity of Oil (S.G. < 1.00) Take Oil Sample from the BOTTOM

Oil Sampling for Common Insulating Fluids

Silicone oils have a higher fire point than mineral oils and, therefore, are
used where fire concerns are more critical.

It is almost impossible to diagnose what is going on inside a silicone filled

transformer based solely on DGA.

A Color Test does not have to be completed for Silicone Oil while it is a
required test for Mineral Oil.

A Fire Point Test does not need to be completed for Mineral Oil while it is a
required test for Silicone Oil.

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4. Important Formulas and Equations

4.1 Short Circuit Current on Lowside of 3Ф Xfmr using FLC & %Z

4.2 Short Circuit Current on Lowside of 3Ф Xfmr using KVA, KV & %Z

4.3 Full Load Current of a 3Ф Transformer

4.4 Full Load Current of a 3Ф Motor

1HP = 746Watts

4.5 Horsepower of a Single-Phase Motor

𝑽 𝒙 𝑰 𝒙 𝒑𝒇 𝒙 𝒆𝒇𝒇
𝑯𝑷 =
𝟕𝟒𝟔
where

V is the rated motor voltage

I is the rated motor full load current
pf is the rated motor power factor
eff is the rated motor efficiency

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4.6 Horsepower of a 3Ф Motor
𝑽 𝒙 𝑰 𝒙 𝒑𝒇 𝒙 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒙 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐
𝑯𝑷 =
𝟕𝟒𝟔
where

V is the rated motor voltage

I is the rated motor full load current
pf is the rated motor power factor
eff is the rated motor efficiency

4.7 Motor Torque

Motor Torque is directly proportional to V2

Torque (T1) @ V1 = K x V12

Torque (T2) @ V2 = K x V22
T2/T1 = K x V22 / K x V12

4.8 Resistors in Parallel

4.9 The Imaginary Operator (j) for AC Circuit Analysis

+j = 1 @ angle 90°
-j = 1 @ angle -90°

4.10 Capacitive Reactance

The Sign of XC is –j = -90°

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4.11 Inductive Reactance

The Sign of XL is +j = +90°

4.12 Basic Trigonometric Equations

4.13 Pythagorean Theorem

4.14 Application of the Pythagorean Theorem

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4.15 Conversion between Polar and Rectangular Coordinates

4.16 The Power Triangle

4.17 Leading and Lagging Power Factor (pf)

Lagging PF (Inductive): I lags V
Leading PF (Capacitive): I leads V
Memorize
ELI the ICE man - In an Inductive (L) circuit, I comes after (Lags) voltage (E)
- In a Capacitive (C) circuit, I comes before (Leads) voltage (E)

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4.18 Incident Energy Calculations (Simplified)
Simplified Form of the Equation (Remember this for the Exam)
𝑡
𝐸=𝑘∙
𝐷2
where
E is incident energy (cal/cm2)
6102
k is a constant equal to 𝐶𝑓 𝐸𝑛 ∙ 0.2
t is arcing time (seconds)
D is distance from the possible arc point to the person (mm)

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4.19 Incident Energy Calculations (IEEE 1584 Method)

IEEE 1584 Equation (Used for Voltages < 15 000V, three-phase)

4.20 Calculation of Accuracy

4.21 Conversion from °C to °F

T(°F) = T(°C) × 9/5 + 32

4.22 Conversion from °F to °C

T(°C) = (T(°F) - 32) × 5/9

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5. Test Acceptance Criteria from NETA-ATS & NETA-MTS
5.1 Transformer Turns Ratio (TTR) Test
Turns-ratio test results shall not deviate by more than one-half percent from either
the adjacent coils or the calculated ratio.

5.2 Bolted Connection, Contact and Fuse Resistance Tests

Bolted Connection Resistance
Compare bolted connection resistance values to values of similar connections.
Investigate values which deviate from those of similar bolted connections by more
than 50 percent of the lowest value.

Contact Resistance
Microhm or dc millivolt drop values shall not exceed the high levels of the normal range
as indicated in the manufacturer’s published data. If manufacturer’s published data is
not available, investigate values that deviate from adjacent poles or similar breakers
by more than 50 percent of the lowest value.

Fuse Resistance
Investigate fuse resistance values that deviate from each other by more than 15
percent.

5.3 Infra-Red Thermography Test

Memory Aid: Thermography Temperature Action Levels

Action ΔT (T1 - T2,3) ΔT (T - TAmbient)
1. Warrants Investigation 1°C - 3°C 1°C - 10°C
2. Repair as Time Permits 4°C - 15°C 11°C - 20°C
3. Monitor until Repaired 4°C - 15°C 21°C - 40°C
4. Repair Immediately > 15°C > 40°C

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5.4 Insulation Resistance Test Acceptance Criteria for Transformers

Memory Aid: Transformer Insulation Resistance

Memorize Dry Type IRs. Liquid Filled IRs are 1/5 Dry Type IRs

Transformer Insulation Vrating 1 Vrating 2 Vrating 3

Type Resistance
≤ 600V ≤ 5,000V > 5,000V
Dry I.R. ≥ 500MΩ ≥ 5,000MΩ ≥ 25,000 MΩ
Liquid I.R. ≥ 100MΩ ≥ 1,000MΩ ≥ 5,000 MΩ

5.5 Insulation Resistance Test Criteria for Rotating Machines

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5.6 Insulation Resistance Test Criteria for Other than Rotating
Machines

5.7 Polarization Index (PI) and Dielectric Absorption Ration (DAR)

Polarization index (PI):

Ratio of the 10 minute insulation resistance reading to the 1 minute insulation
resistance reading at constant voltage.

10 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐼𝑅 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑃𝐼 =
1 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐼𝑅 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
Dielectric Absorption Ratio (DAR)
Ratio of the 60 second insulation resistance reading to the 30 second insulation
resistance reading at constant voltage.

60 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑅 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐷𝐴𝑅 =
30 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑅 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

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General Meanings of PI and DAR Readings

NETA Standard Acceptance Criteria for PI and DAR

# Equipment Type PI DAR

1. Transformers, Dry-Type, Air-Cooled, Low-Voltage, Small ≥ 1.0 n/a
2. Transformers, Dry-Type, Air-Cooled, Large ≥ 1.0 n/a
3. Transformers, Liquid-Filled ≥ 1.0 n/a
4. Regulating Apparatus, Voltage, Step Voltage Regulators ≥ 1.0 n/a
5. Capacitors and Reactors (Shunt, Current-Limiting) Liquid-Filled ≥ 1.0 n/a
6. Rotating Machinery, AC Induction Motors, Generators > 200HP ≥ 2.0 n/a
7. Rotating Machinery, AC Induction Motors, Generators ≤ 200HP n/a ≥ 1.4
8. Rotating Machinery, Synchronous Motors and Generators > 200HP ≥ 2.0 n/a
9. Rotating Machinery, Synchronous Motors and Generators ≤ 200HP n/a ≥ 1.4
10. Rotating Machinery, DC Motors and Generators > 200HP ≥ 2.0 n/a
11. Rotating Machinery, DC Motors and Generators ≤ 200HP n/a ≥ 1.4
12. Emergency Systems, Engine Generator > 200HP ≥ 2.0 n/a
12. Emergency Systems, Engine Generator ≤ 200HP n/a ≥ 1.4

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 5.8 Switchgear Testing - AC and DC Withstand

Memory Aid - Switchgear Withstand Tests

V rated max (kV) AC (kV) DC (kV)
Low Voltage Switchgear 0.635 1.6 2.3
Low Voltage Switchgear 1.058 2.2 3.1
Metal-Clad Switchgear 4.76 14 20
Metal-Clad Switchgear 8.25 27 37.5
Metal-Clad Switchgear 15.0 27 37.5

5.9 Medium Voltage Cable Testing - DC High Potential

Memory Aid: Medium-Voltage Cable DC Withstand Test Voltages

V nominal rated (Kv) Max DC (kV) 100% Insulation Max DC (kV) 133% Insulation
5 28 36
8 36 44
15 56 64

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5.10 Medium Voltage Cable Testing - AC High Potential

Memory Aid: Medium-Voltage Cable AC Withstand Test Voltages

V nominal rated (Kv) Max AC (kV) 100% Insulation Max AC (kV) 133% Insulation
5 18 23
8 23 28
15 35 44

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5.11 Medium Voltage Cable Testing (VLF) of New Cable

5.12 Medium Voltage Cable Testing (VLF) of In-Service Cables

5.13 Medium Voltage Cable Testing – Partial Discharge (PD)

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5.14 Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

Memory Aid: Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

Diagnosis Gas(ses) created

Arcing Acetylene and/or Hydrogen

Corona Hydrogen

Sparking Methane

Local Overheating Ethane

Severe Overheating Ethylene and/or CO and/or CO2

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5.15 Molded Case Circuit Breaker Testing - Inverse Time Trip Test

5.16 Molded Case Circuit Breaker Testing - Instantaneous Trip Test

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5.17 Power Factor/Dissipation Factor for Liquid Filled Transformers

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5.18 Test Limits for New Mineral Oil

5.19 Frequency of Maintenance

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5.20 SF6 Gas Tests

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6. Solved Problems (Examples)

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A Low Resistance Ohmmeter outputs a current through the resistance to be measured and
measures the voltage. It then uses ohms law to display the resistance in Ohms on the meter.

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One worker is standing 3ft away from an exposed live part and another is
standing 6ft away. How much incident energy is the 6ft worker exposed to in
comparison to the 3 ft worker?
A) 1/2
B) 1/16
C) 1/4
D) 1/9

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Given a 3-phase circuit with 250kvar and 480v, what is the current?

A) 0.5 Amps
B) 521 Amps
C) 902 Amps
D) 301 Amps

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Open Delta versus Broken Delta

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Positive and Negative Phase Rotation

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Triangle NAB is as shown Then, the length of BD is

A. 80

B. 86.7

C. 100

D. 120

Solution:

𝐵𝐷
𝑆𝑖𝑛 60° =
𝐵𝑁

𝐵𝐷
∴ 𝐵𝑁 × 𝑆𝑖𝑛 60° = × 𝐵𝑁
𝐵𝑁

∴ 𝐵𝐷 = 𝐵𝑁 × 𝑆𝑖𝑛 60°

𝐵𝐷 = 100 × 𝑆𝑖𝑛 60°

𝐵𝐷 ≅ 86.7

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7. Solved Problems using Mathematics

7.1 Basic Algebra (Exponents)

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7.2 Basic Algebra (The Order of Operations)

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7.3 Basic Algebra (Solving for Variables)

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7.4 Percentages

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7.5 Conversion between SI units

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7.6 Trigonometry (Right Triangles)

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7.7 The Power Triangle

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7.8 Fundamentals of Electricity (Ohm’s Law)

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7.9 Fundamentals of Electricity (Voltage Divider)

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7.10 Fundamentals of Electricity (Current Divider)

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7.11 Analysis of Resistive Circuits

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7.12 Analysis of Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive (RLC) Circuits

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