IMPERIAL HERITAGE SCHOOL, SECTOR-102, GURUGRAM

SESSION 2024-25
SUBJECT: HISTORY
HANDOUT
TOPIC: CH 1-THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE GRADE: X

Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Rise of Nationalism in Europe has topics such as the French Revolution and its impact, Nationalism in
Europe, Making of Germany and Italy governments, Britain Unification, etc. Check the short notes for
all the topics from the syllabus below:

 In 1848, Frederic Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of 4 prints visualizing his dream of a
world made up of democratic and social republic.
 At the time of French Revolution, artists personified Liberty as a female figure.
 According to Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as distinct nations,
identified through their flags and national costume.
 During the 19th century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping changes
in the political and mental world of Europe.
 The end result of nationalism was the emergence of the nation-state replacing the multi-national
dynastic empires of Europe.
 A modern state, in which a centralized power exercised sovereign control over a clearly defined
territory, had been developing over a long period of time in Europe.
 A nation-state was one in which the majority of its citizens, and not only its rulers, came to
develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent.

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

 The French Revolution in 1789 marked the initial emergence of nationalism as a distinct
ideology.
 Following the French Revolution, political and constitutional transformations resulted in the
transfer o sovereignty from the monarchy to a collective body of French citizens.
 The concepts of "la patrie" (the fatherland) and "le citoyen" (the citizen) emphasized the idea of a
unified community that enjoyed equal rights under a constitution.
 The National Assembly, formerly known as the Estates General, was elected by the active
citizens, reflecting the evolving political landscape.
 The abolition of internal customs duties and dues, along with the adoption of a standardized
system of weights and measures, brought about greater uniformity within the nation.
 The revolutionaries proclaimed that the French nation had a mission and destiny to liberate the
people of Europe from oppressive rule.
 Students and members of the educated middle classes took the initiative to establish Jacobin
clubs.
 The activities and campaigns of these groups paved the way for French armies to enter Holland,
Belgium, Switzerland, and much of Italy in the 1790s.
 The French armies began to spread the concept of nationalism beyond the borders of France.
 Despite Napoleon's restoration of the monarchy, he incorporated revolutionary principles in the
administrative domain, aiming to enhance efficiency and rationality within the system.
  The Napoleonic Code, also known as the Civil Code of 1804, abolished privileges based on birth,
introduced equality before the law, and protected property rights.
 Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system, and emancipated
peasants from serfdom and feudal dues.
 Transportation and communication systems underwent significant improvements during this
period.
 Businessmen and small-scale producers recognized the benefits of uniform laws, standardized
weights and measures, and a common national currency, as these facilitated the movement and
exchange of goods and capital across regions.
 The French armies were welcomed as bearers of liberty in various places, including Holland,
Switzerland, Brussels, Mainz, Milan, and Warsaw.
 However, it became evident that the new administrative arrangements did not necessarily align
with political freedom.
 The advantages of the administrative changes were overshadowed by increased taxation,
censorship, and forced conscription into the French armies, which were necessary for further
conquests in Europe.

The Making of Nationalism in Europe

 Kingdoms, duchies, and cantons divided Germany, Italy, and Switzerland, with each ruler
governing their own autonomous territory.
 These regions did not perceive themselves as having a shared collective identity or a common
culture.
 The Habsburg Empire held dominion over Austria-Hungary.
 In Hungary, approximately half of the population spoke Magyar, while the other half spoke
various dialects.
 In addition to these three prominent groups, there were also other communities residing within
the empire's borders.
 The sole bond uniting these diverse groups was a shared allegiance to the emperor.

The Aristocracy and the new middle class

 Across the continent, a landed aristocracy held significant social and political influence.
 These aristocrats shared a common way of life that transcended regional divisions.
 Marriage alliances often connected their families.
 Although powerful, the aristocracy constituted a small portion of the population. The growth of
towns and the rise of commercial classes, dependent on market-based production, challenged
their dominance.
 While industrialization began in England in the latter half of the 18th century, it occurred in
France and some German states only in the 19th century.
 As a result, new social groups emerged, including a working-class population and middle classes
comprising industrialists, businessmen, and professionals.
 The educated and liberal middle classes were particularly drawn to ideas of national unity
following the abolishment of aristocratic privileges.

What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?

 During the early nineteenth century in Europe, liberalism was closely aligned with a dominant
ideology.
 The term 'liberalism' originates from the Latin word "liber," which means freedom.
 Liberalism championed individual freedom and equality for all under the law.
 It emphasized the principle of governance based on the consent of the governed.
 Liberalism advocated for the establishment of a constitution and representative government
through parliament.
  Initially, the right to vote and hold office was restricted to men who owned property.
 Political rights were denied to men without property and all women.
 Women and men without property organized opposition movements demanding equal political
rights.
 Liberalism called for the elimination of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and
capital.
 Prior to 1833, a merchant traveling from Hamburg to Nuremberg to sell goods had to navigate
through 11 customs barriers, paying a customs duty of approximately 5% at each one.
 Such impediments hindered economic exchanges and growth, leading the emerging commercial
classes to advocate for the creation of a unified economic territory enabling unhindered
movement of goods, people, and capital.
 The formation of a union resulted in the abolition of tariff barriers and a reduction in the number
of currencies from over thirty to two.

A New Conservation after 1815

 After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, European governments embraced a conservative mindset.
 However, most conservatives did not advocate for a complete return to the pre-revolutionary
society.
 They believed that modernization could actually strengthen traditional institutions such as the
monarchy.
 Measures like establishing a modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy, and
abolishing feudalism and serfdom were seen as ways to fortify the autocratic monarchies of
Europe.
 In 1815, representatives from the major European powers—Britain, Russia, Prussia, and
Austria—gathered in Vienna to formulate a settlement for Europe, following their collective
victory over Napoleon.
 The Bourbon dynasty, which had been overthrown during the French Revolution, was reinstated,
and France relinquished the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
 The German Confederation, consisting of 39 states established by Napoleon, remained
unchanged.
 Autocratic governments were intolerant of criticism and dissent, and they sought to suppress
activities that challenged the legitimacy of autocratic rule.

The Revolutionaries
In the years following 1815, the fear of repression forced many liberal nationalists to operate
clandestinely.
During this period, being revolutionary entailed a commitment to opposing monarchical forms and
fighting for liberty and freedom.
Giuseppe Mazzini, born in Genoa in 1807, became a member of the secret society known as the
Carbonari.
In 1831, he was exiled for his involvement in a revolutionary attempt in Liguria.
Mazzini believed that nations were the natural units of mankind, according to God's intention.
Secret societies were established in Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland.
Metternich referred to Mazzini as "the most dangerous enemy of our social order."

The Age of Revolution: 1830 - 1848

 As conservative regimes sought to strengthen their authority, liberalism and nationalism became
increasingly associated with revolutionary movements in various parts of Europe, including the
Italian and German states, provinces of the Ottoman Empire, Ireland, and Poland.
 Metternich once remarked, "When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches a cold,"
highlighting the influence of French events on the continent.
  The Greek war of independence served as a catalyst for nationalist sentiments among the
educated elite throughout Europe.
 Greece had been a part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.
 The Greek war of independence garnered support not only from Greeks living in exile but also
from many Western Europeans who sympathized with ancient Greek culture.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

 The emergence of nationalism was not solely driven by wars and territorial expansions.
 Culture played a vital role in shaping the concept of the nation, with art, poetry, stories, and
music serving as means of expressing and molding nationalist sentiments.
 Let us examine Romanticism, a cultural movement that aimed to cultivate a distinct form of
nationalistic feelings.
 Romantic artists and poets often criticized the exaltation of reason and science, instead focusing
on emotions, traditions, and mystical experiences.
 Some Romantics believed that the true essence of a nation could be captured through folk songs,
poetry, and dances.
 Music and language played significant roles in nurturing national sentiments.
 Celebrated composer Karol Kurpinski, for instance, depicted national struggles in his operas and
music, transforming folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into symbols of nationalism.
 Language also played a crucial role in fostering nationalist sentiments.
 The Russian language was forcefully imposed in various regions.
 In Poland, many clergy members began using language as a tool of national resistance.
 Consequently, numerous priests and bishops were imprisoned or exiled to Siberia by the Russian
authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian.

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt

 The 1830s marked a period of severe economic hardship across Europe.
 The first half of the nineteenth century witnessed a significant population increase.
 In most countries, there was a surplus of job seekers compared to available employment
opportunities.
 Rural populations migrated to cities, leading to overcrowded slums.
 Paris experienced food shortages and widespread unemployment, prompting the population to
take to the streets.
 The National Assembly declared a republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21, and
guaranteed the right to work.
 Earlier, in 1845, weavers in Silesia led a rebellion against contractors who provided them with
raw materials and placed orders for finished textiles.
 On June 4th, at 2 p.m., a large crowd of weavers emerged from their homes and marched in pairs
to the residences of their contractors, demanding higher wages.
 The contractors fled with their families to a nearby village but were refused shelter by the locals.
 They returned 24 hours later, having requisitioned the army.
 In the ensuing confrontation, eleven weavers were shot.

1848: The Revolution of the Liberals

In the year 1848, a revolution was underway in many European countries, driven by the plight of
impoverished, unemployed, and starving peasants and workers. The educated middle classes led this
movement.
Men and women from the liberal middle classes joined forces, combining their demands for
constitutionalism with the goal of national unity.
They crafted a constitution for a German nation, envisioning a monarchy that would be accountable to a
parliamentary system.
However, King Wilhelm IV of Prussia rejected the proposed constitution and aligned with other
monarchs in opposition to the elected assembly.
As the opposition from the aristocracy and the military grew stronger, the social support base of the
parliament weakened.
The issue of granting political rights to women became a contentious matter within the liberal
movement.
Women formed their own political associations, established newspapers, and actively participated in
political gatherings and demonstrations.
However, women were often only allowed as observers in the visitors' gallery, with limited
participation.
Monarchs were beginning to recognize that the cycle of revolution and repression could potentially be
broken by granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries.

The Making of German and Italy

 Germany – can the Army be the Architect of a National
 Following 1848, nationalism in Europe underwent a shift away from its association with
democracy and revolution.
 This shift is evident in the process of unification for Germany and Italy as nation-states.
 Nationalist sentiments were prevalent among the middle-class population in Germany.
 However, attempts by liberals to build a unified nation were suppressed by a coalition of
monarchy, military, and influential landowners in Prussia.
 Prussia emerged as the leader of the nationalist movement.
 Through a series of wars with Austria, Denmark, and France, Prussia achieved victory and
successfully completed the process of unification.
 The process of nation-building in Germany showcased the dominant power of the Prussian state.
 The newly formed state placed significant emphasis on modernizing currency, banking, legal, and
judicial systems throughout Germany.
Italy Unified
 Similar to Germany, Italy also experienced a long history of political fragmentation.
 Italians were scattered across various dynastic states as well as the multinational Habsburg
Empire.
 Italy was divided into seven distinct states.
 The Italian language had not yet developed a standardized form and still exhibited numerous
regional and local variations.
 Giuseppe Mazzini endeavored to formulate a cohesive program for a united Italian Republic.
 He established Young Italy as a platform for disseminating his objectives.
 Following the unsuccessful revolutionary uprisings of both 1831 and 1848, the task of unifying
the Italian states through warfare fell upon Sardinia-Piedmont, led by King Victor Emmanuel II.
 Italy presented opportunities for economic development and political supremacy to those seeking
them.
 Italy did not espouse a purely revolutionary or democratic ideology.
 The majority of the Italian population, who faced high illiteracy rates, remained largely unaware
of the liberal-nationalist ideology.
The strange case of Britain
 Some scholars argue that the model for the nation or nation-state is Great Britain.
 Its establishment was the outcome of a protracted process.
 Prior to the eighteenth century, there was no distinct British nation.
 The term "United Kingdom of Great Britain" essentially signified England's ability to exert its
influence over Scotland.
 Consequently, the British parliament became predominantly controlled by its English members.
 Ireland was forcefully integrated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
  British symbols such as the flag, national anthem, and English language were actively promoted,
while the older nations existed as subordinate partners within this union.
Visualizing the Nation
 Portraying a ruler through a portrait or statue was a relatively straightforward task.
 In a similar vein, countries were depicted as personified entities.
 Female figures were commonly used to symbolize nations.
 These female figures took on the role of an allegorical representation of the nation.
 One popular name given to these personifications was Marianne, a name that emphasized the
concept of a nation belonging to its people.
Nationalism and Imperialism
 By the mid-nineteenth century, nationalism had undergone a significant transformation from its
earlier liberal-democratic ideals, becoming a narrower ideology with limited objectives.
 The Balkans emerged as the primary source of nationalist tensions in Europe after 1871.
 The Balkans were characterized by diverse geography and ethnic composition.
 Successively, the different nationalities within the region sought independence and broke away
from central control.
 The Balkan area became a hotbed of intense conflicts and disputes.
 Mutual jealousy among the Balkan states fueled their ambitions for territorial expansion at the
expense of one another.
 Nevertheless, the notion of organizing societies into nation-states became widely accepted as a
natural and universal concept.