11.2.

1 PLOUGH

The plough was used for cultivation during this period. Archaeological evidence suggests that ploughs without iron
were used during the Indus Valley Civilization. In the Vedic Age, ploughs drawn by oxen were common. During the Delhi
Sultanate period, the ploughshare (the part that cuts through the soil) was made of iron, which helped in tilling harder
soil more effectively.

11.2.2 SOWING

Two methods of sowing were practiced during this period. The first method was broadcasting, where seeds were
scattered manually by taking them from a cloth bag slung over the shoulders. The second method was using a seed-
drill, which was a device used to sow seeds in rows. Evidence suggests that the seed-drill was used for wet cultivation
of rice along the western coast of India.

11.2.3 HARVESTING, THRESHING, AND WINNOWING

Harvesting was done using a sickle. Threshing was the process of separating the edible grain from the inedible chaff.
This was done by having oxen walk in a circular motion over the harvested crop laid on the threshing floor. Winnowing
was the process of separating the chaff from the grain by using the wind to blow away the lighter chaff.

11.2.4 IRRIGATIONAL DEVICES

During the Delhi Sultanate period, various devices were used to lift water from wells for irrigation purposes. The
following are the main devices employed:

1. Rope and Bucket

This was the simplest technique. Water was drawn from the well using a rope and a small bucket, with no mechanical
aid. This method was likely used for irrigating small fields or vegetable crops that did not require much water.

2. Pulley System

An improvement over the rope and bucket method, this device used pulleys combined with the rope and bucket. The
pulleys reduced the amount of human effort required, allowing larger buckets or bags to be used for drawing water.

3. Charasa (Animal-powered System)

This was a specialized device for irrigation, using a pair of oxen instead of human power. Two long ropes were made
into a circle, with wooden strips fixed between them. Large pitchers or pots were fastened to these wooden strips. This
rope-and-pot contraption was placed over a wheel at the well. Another wheel was connected to the first one through
a gear system. A bullock would turn the second wheel, causing the wheel with the pots to rotate and lift water from
the well. The water would empty into a trough and could then be channeled for irrigation. The charasa was solely used
for irrigation and not for other purposes like drinking water or washing.

4. Dhenkli (Lever System)

This semi-mechanical device worked on the principle of a first-class lever. A long rope was attached to the fork of an
upright beam or tree trunk, creating a swinging motion. A bucket was fastened to one end of the rope, while a
counterweight slightly heavier than the filled bucket was attached to the other end. The fulcrum was at the center of
the pole. This system required minimal effort from the operator, as the counterweight and bucket formed a balanced
lever.

5. Saqiya (Persian Wheel)

The saqiya, also known as the Persian Wheel, was the most advanced water-lifting device of the time. It employed a
gear system and animal power. The first stage involved a simple wheel with pots attached to the rim, known as the
noria or araghatta. This was operated by human power and could only be used over open water sources like streams
or reservoirs, not wells.

The second stage involved replacing the pots on the wheel with a long chain or garland (mala) of pots, which could
reach down into the well. This was also human-powered and known as the ghatiyantra or pot-machine.
The third and final stage saw the addition of two more wheels and a gear mechanism, allowing the use of animal power.
A horizontal lantern wheel with vertical pegs was turned by animals. This motion was transferred through a system of
gears to rotate a vertical wheel over the well, which carried the pot-garland. This gear system converted the horizontal
motion of the animal-powered wheel into a vertical motion for lifting water from the well.

These devices can be categorized into two broad groups:

a) Intermittent or Discontinuous Water Supply Devices: Rope and bucket, pulley system, charasa, and dhenkli fall into
this category, where water was lifted in batches.

b) Continuous Supply System: The saqiya or Persian Wheel provided a continuous flow of water.

Additionally, the devices can be classified based on the power source used – human power (rope and bucket, pulley
system, dhenkli) or animal power (charasa, saqiya).

11.3.1 GINNING, CARDING AND SPINNING

Cotton cultivation was an agricultural activity. After picking cotton balls, there were three main stages before the cotton
could be used for weaving:

1) Ginning or seed extraction: This involved separating the cotton fibers from the seeds. It was done in two ways - using
a roller and board method, or a worm-press/worm-roller called charkhi.

2) Carding or fiber loosening: The separated cotton fibers were "beaten" with sticks or carded (combed) with a bow-
string to separate and loosen the fibers. This process was called naddafi in Persian and dhunna in Hindi.

3) Spinning or making yarn: Traditionally, spinning was done using a spindle called a duk in Persian or takla in Hindi. A
small weighted wheel called a whorl (phirki in Hindi) was attached to the spindle to stabilize it.

The most significant technological advancement in the textile sector was the introduction of the spinning-wheel
(charkha) by the Muslims during the 13th-14th centuries. The charkha did not exist in ancient India. It was a wooden
frame with a spindle attached at one end and a wheel at the other, connected by a belt drive. This allowed the spindle
to rotate faster, producing yarn more quickly than a traditional spindle.

11.3.2 WEAVING

For simple or plain weaving, a horizontal loom with a throw-shuttle was used. The weaver would pass the shuttle
carrying the crosswise yarn through the opening created by raising or lowering the lengthwise threads.

An improvement over this was the pit-loom or treadle loom, which is first clearly evidenced in an illustration from
around 1469 CE. In this loom, the weaver used their feet to lift and lower the lengthwise threads, creating the opening
for the shuttle. This allowed the weaver's hands to focus on passing the shuttle, increasing the pace of weaving.

For weaving patterned cloth with different colors, there is some debate about when the draw-loom was introduced in
India. Some scholars suggest it existed in South India around 1001 CE, while others argue it was brought by Muslims in
the late 17th century. The draw-loom allowed individual control over the lengthwise threads, enabling intricate
patterns.

A 16th-century Mughal painting shows a pit-loom in use. The weaver sat on the ground, using foot pedals connected
to the threads to easily create the opening for the shuttle to pass through.

In addition to weaving, different techniques like immersion and tie-and-dye were used for dyeing cloth with colors
from vegetable and mineral sources. Block-printing, where carved wooden blocks printed patterns on cloth, was
possibly introduced by Muslims, as it was unknown in ancient India.
11.3.3 DYEING AND PRINTING

For dyeing cloth during the Delhi Sultanate period, various colors derived from vegetable and mineral sources were
used. Indigo, madder, and lac were widely employed. Indigo served the dual purpose of bleaching and dyeing. To make
the colors more long-lasting or "fast", substances like alum were added.

Indian dyers, known as rangrez, used techniques like immersion, where the cloth was dipped into the dye solution.
They also practiced tie-and-dye or bandhana, a technique where parts of the cloth were tied or bound before dyeing
to create patterns.

However, the technique of block-printing (chhapa), where carved wooden blocks were used to print patterns directly
onto the cloth, was perhaps unknown in ancient India. Some scholars suggest that block-printing was introduced to
India by Muslims.

11.4.1 LIME MORTAR

In ancient India, the basic construction materials were clay, stones, wood, and occasionally bricks. The simplest
cementing material or mortar used was plain earth mixed with water. A slightly improved version involved adding straw
to a mixture of clay and water, which was also used for plastering.

However, lime mortar was definitely introduced by the immigrant Muslims during the Delhi Sultanate period. The key
ingredients in lime mortar were lime (chuna) and crushed bricks (surkhi). Lime could be extracted from different
sources like gypsum and gravel (kankar). The gravel was first burnt in kilns to produce quicklime, which was then treated
with water to turn it into slaked lime. Crushed bricks (surkhi) were then added to this mixture.

Additionally, various gelatinous, sticky, and resinous cementing agents like gum, pulses, and jaggery were added to
make the mortar more adhesive.

11.4.2 ARCH AND DOME/VAULTED ROOFING

One result of using lime mortar was the extensive use of bricks, as it made brick buildings more durable. Another
important consequence was that lime mortar paved the way for the construction of true arches (mihrab). Arranging
bricks or stones to make a true arch requires a strong cementing material to hold the wedge-shaped pieces (voussoirs)
together, which lime mortar provided.

There is almost a total absence of true arches in Indian buildings before the arrival of Muslims, with the exception of
some arches found over small windows during the Kushana period. This is because the Kushanas came from Central
Asia, where arch-making was known.

After that, there is no evidence of true arches in India until the Muslims arrived. Another form was the corbelled arch,
which was a variant of the trabeate (beam-and-pillar) construction technique common in pre-Muslim Indian
architecture.

From the true arch, the development of domes or vaulted roofing (gumbad) was a natural progression, as a dome is
essentially a true arch turned 360 degrees. In other words, domes were constructed using the principle of intersecting
true arches.

It's important to note that domes should not be confused with the older Buddhist stupas.

11.5 PAPERMAKING AND BOOKBINDING

In ancient India, various materials were used for writing, such as stones, copper plates, silk and cotton cloths, as well
as specially prepared palm leaves (talpatra) and birch bark (burjapatra). The latter two were commonly used for writing
books.

However, paper as a writing material was introduced in India by the immigrant Muslims during the Delhi Sultanate
period. Paper was first manufactured in China around the 1st century CE from bamboo pulp. The Muslim Arabs learned
papermaking from some Chinese prisoners they took in a battle in 751 CE. The Arabs then developed this craft by
making paper from rags and old linen.

Although Indians may have known about paper in the 7th century CE, they did not use it as a writing material. This is
evident from the account of the Chinese traveler I-Ching (Yi Jing), who visited India and could not find paper to copy
Sanskrit manuscripts, forcing him to request paper from China.

During the Delhi Sultanate, paper was used for various purposes, such as books, official orders (farmans), and
numerous commercial and administrative documents. Paper was available on a large scale, so much so that even
sweetmeat sellers in Delhi delivered sweets to buyers in paper packets called purya, a practice still followed in India.

However, it seems that papermaking centers were few and far between in India. According to the 14th-century Chinese
navigator Ma Huan, Bengal produced paper. But the bulk of the paper needed was imported from Islamic countries,
especially Samarqand and Syria.

The practice of writing books on paper was accompanied by the craft of bookbinding, which was an innovation in India.
The bookbinding technique was different from the methods used for binding palm leaves and birch bark in ancient
India.

11.6.1 STIRRUP

The stirrup was an important new equipment that was brought to India by the Muslim rulers during the Delhi Sultanate
period. In ancient India, stirrups were not known or used. In the past, horse riders would sit on the horse's back and
grip with their knees and legs to stay seated. However, this made their position very shaky and unstable on the horse.

The stirrup solved this problem by providing a firm footrest for the rider's feet. A stirrup is a metal or leather ring that
holds the foot, hanging from the saddle by a strap. One stirrup is attached to each side of the saddle. By placing their
feet in the stirrups, the rider could sit much more securely and balanced on the horse's back. This helped them in
fighting from horseback.

Without stirrups, a warrior on a horse could mainly fight with bows and javelins. But with stirrups, they could use
swords and lances much more effectively while mounted. The rider could rest a heavy lance against their body, and
charge at the enemy by combining the weight of the horse and rider together. This made the attack very powerful.

Stirrups also allowed riders to wear heavier armor without falling off the horse easily. So, stirrups helped in offensive
capabilities as well as defensive protection. There is no word for "stirrup" in Sanskrit, showing it was a new technology.
A Persian source from the time of Sultan Iltutmish specifically mentions the Arabic word "rikab" meaning stirrup.

11.6.2 HORSESHOE

Horseshoes were another important equipment related to horses that was brought to India by the Muslim rulers during
the Delhi Sultanate period. In ancient India, the concept of shoeing horses was unknown.

A horseshoe is a U-shaped metal piece that is nailed to the hooves or feet of a horse. It provides protection and grip
to the horse's feet.

In their natural habitat, the hooves of horses would get naturally worn down and trimmed. But once horses were
domesticated and used for riding, their hooves needed protection on rough ground.

An unshod horse with sore or damaged feet would start limping, making it unsuitable for riding. This is why the saying
"No foot, no horse" became popular among horsemen.

Shoeing a horse offers two main advantages - it gives better grip on soft muddy ground, and it protects the hooves
from damage on rough rocky ground. No evidence of horseshoes has been found at any archaeological sites excavated
in India from ancient times. This proves that horseshoes were a new imported technology. There is no mention of the
concept of shoeing horses in ancient Sanskrit literature related to horses and equine care.
The Arabic/Persian word for horseshoe is 'na'l'. The lack of any Sanskrit equivalent word again indicates this was an
imported practice brought by the Turkic Muslim invaders and rulers. Shoeing horses was largely a profession
monopolized by Muslim artisans in medieval India, using the cold-shoeing method rather than hot-shoeing practiced
in Europe.

11.6.3 GUNPOWDER AND FIRE-ARMS

Gunpowder was first invented in China. It consists of saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal. From China, the knowledge of
gunpowder spread to the Islamic societies. The Turkic Muslim rulers who came to India brought gunpowder with them,
probably in the late 13th or early 14th century. However, during the reign of Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq in the 14th
century, gunpowder was only used for fireworks and not for any firearms or cannons.

Fire-arms or guns using gunpowder were first used in some parts of India like Gujarat, Malwa and the Deccan in the
second half of the 15th century. But the regular large-scale use of gunpowder and firearms in India started only after
the Portuguese arrived in Calicut in 1498 and later when Babur came to North India in the early 16th century.

So, while gunpowder came to India through the Muslim rulers earlier, its use as an explosive for weapons and artillery
became widespread only after the Europeans made inroads into the subcontinent.

11.7 TINCOATING

Tincoating was a new technique brought to India by the Turkish rulers during the Delhi Sultanate period. It was not
known in ancient India. Copper and brass utensils can get affected by acidic foods kept in them. To prevent this, a
coating of tin metal is applied on the inner and outer sides of such utensils.

Tin is a very soft metal. When coated on copper vessels, it protects them from getting spoiled by acidic foods. The
craftsman who does tincoating is called a qala'igar. First, the utensils are cleaned well and heated mildly over a charcoal
fire. Then, a mixture of pure tin and a substance called salammoniac is applied on the hot utensil with a cotton pad.
The salammoniac vaporizes, leaving the tin to melt and get coated evenly on the vessel by rubbing.

Evidence of a tincoated copper vessel was found belonging to the Bahmani Sultanate period (1347-1538 CE). The Ain-
i-Akbari mentions that in Akbar's royal kitchen, the copper utensils were tinned twice a month.

11.8 GLASS MANUFACTURE

Glass was present in ancient India, but its use was limited to small objects like beads and bangles. The knowledge of
advanced glass manufacturing was lacking. After the Muslim rulers came to India, glass vessels like jars and bottles
started coming from Islamic countries.

However, there is no evidence that complex glass items like lenses for spectacles or mirrors were manufactured in India
during the Delhi Sultanate period. While simple glassware was available, the glass technology of that era was quite
basic and limited compared to other crafts like metalwork or textiles.

11.9 SHIPBUILDING

The entire frame of boats and ships was made of wood. The wooden planks were joined together using the tongue-
and-groove method or by sewing them with ropes made from coconut husk. Wooden nails were also used sometimes.
Iron nails and clamps to join planks came later, after European influence. Anchors were initially made of stones, and
later iron anchors were introduced by Europeans. The magnetic compass was an important maritime technology
brought by Muslim rulers.
11.10 DISTILLATION

In ancient times, intoxicating drinks were made by fermenting substances like rice, sugarcane juice, mahua flowers etc.
Distillation was a different technique to produce alcoholic beverages that came later. Some scholars believe distillation
was first discovered in Italy in the 12th century. For India, there is a view that distillation technology was brought by
the Turkish rulers.

However, this view is not correct. Archaeological excavations at ancient sites like Taxila and Shaikhan Dheri (now in
Pakistan) have found distillation apparatus like condensers and stills. These artifacts date back to 2nd century BCE to
2nd century CE, much before the Turkish rulers arrived. So, while the basic knowledge of distillation existed in ancient
India, credit goes to the Turkish rulers for the eastward transmission and spread of this technology across the
subcontinent during medieval times.

Distillation allowed producing stronger, more potent alcoholic beverages compared to regular fermented drinks of that
era. But it was essentially an improvement over the already existing fermentation process for making alcoholic drinks
in ancient India.