®

new First Steps in Literacy

CANADIAN EDITION

Resource
Book

Reading

FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book

© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
 First Steps® Reading Resource Book, Canadian Edition
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013

Published in Canada by
Pearson Canada Inc.
26 Prince Andrew Place
Don Mills, ON M3C 2T8

Text by Kevlynn Annandale, Ross Bindon, Kerry Handley, Annette Johnston, Lynn Lockett,
Philippa Lynch
Vice-President, Publishing and Marketing, School Division: Mark Cobham
Vice-President, Marketing and Professional Field Services: Anne-Marie Scullion
Publisher, Pearson Professional Learning: Debbie Davidson
Research and Communications Manager: Chris Allen
Canadian Edition Advisors: Noreene Decker, Norma MacFarlane, Mary Lou Stirling
Project Co-ordinator, Pearson Professional Learning: Joanne Close
Associate Editor: Jacquelyn Busby
Developmental Editor: Katherine Revington
Senior Production Editor: Jennifer Handel
Proofreader: Kelli Howey
Production Coordinator: Zane Kaneps
Composition: Computer Composition of Canada Inc.
Permissions and Photo Research: Terri Rothman
Cover Design: Alex Li
Cover Image: Pick and Mix Images/Alamy

ISBN-13: 978-0-13-221013-3
ISBN-10: 0-13-221013-4

Canadian Edition Reviewers

Marilyn Allen, Coordinator, St. Paul’s Roman Catholic Separate School Division, #20
Andrea Bishop, Curriculum Consultant, Language 1–8, Halton Catholic District School Board
Elizabeth Ford-Makarow, Educational Consultant, Riverside School Board
Don Jones, Literacy Coordinator, Halton District School Board,
Lecturer with Charles Sturt University, Burlington Campus
Deidre McConnell, Assistant Principal, Calgary Board of Education
Rhonda Nixon, Assistant Principal, Doctoral Student, Language and Literacy, Edmonton Catholic
School Board
Carole Stickley, Former Literacy Facilitator, New Westminster Board of Education
Maureen Taylor, Integrated Learning Consultant, Saskatchewan Rivers School Division

For permission to reproduce copyrighted material, the publisher gratefully acknowledges the
copyright holders listed on page 225, which is considered an extension of this copyright page.

FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book

© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
Contents
Introduction 1 Section 1: Developing Phonological Awareness 73
What Is Phonological Awareness? 73
What Students Need to Know 74
Supporting the Development of Phonological
Chapter 1: Use of Texts 3 Awareness 76
Section 1: Instructional Approaches to Reading 5
Section 2: Teaching Graphophonics 81
What Are the Instructional Approaches? 5 What Students Need to Know 81
Criteria for Selecting Instructional Approaches 6 Supporting the Development of Graphophonics 84
Reading Aloud to Students 8
Modelled Reading 11 Section 3: Developing Vocabulary Knowledge 87
Language Experience Approach 14 What Is Vocabulary? 87
Shared Reading 17 What Students Need to Know 88
Guided Reading 20 Supporting the Development of Vocabulary 89
Literature Circles 23
Independent Reading 27 Section 4: Developing Text-Form Knowledge 95
What Students Need to Know 95
Section 2: Developing Fluency 30 Supporting the Development of Text-Form
Modelling to Promote Fluent Reading 30 Knowledge 103
Providing Opportunities for Repeated Reading 31
Chapter 4: Processes and
Section 3: Promoting Reading 37
Ways to Promote Reading 37
Strategies 106
Teaching Notes for All Phases 107
Section 4: Selecting Texts for Students 44
Selecting Texts for the School 44 Section 1: Teaching Comprehension and
Selecting Texts for Use in the Classroom 47 Word Identification Strategies 113
Selecting Texts to Send Home 52 What Are the Strategies? 114
Defining the Strategies 115
How to Teach the Strategies 125
Chapter 2: Contextual Guided Practice Activities 131
Understanding 55 Reading Strategy: Predicting 135
Section 1: Developing Contextual Understanding 56 Reading Strategy: Connecting 139
Contextual Understanding and Critical Literacy 56 Reading Strategy: Comparing 144
Contextual Understanding and Reading 57 Reading Strategy: Inferring 147
Why Teach Contextual Understanding? 59 Reading Strategy: Synthesizing 151
What Students Need to Know 59 Reading Strategy: Creating Images 154
Supporting the Development of Contextual Reading Strategy: Generating Questions 158
Understanding 65 Reading Strategy: Skimming 161
Reading Strategy: Scanning 163
Reading Strategy: Determining Importance 166
Chapter 3: Conventions 69 Reading Strategies: Summarizing and
Effective Teaching of Conventions 70 Paraphrasing 169

FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book

© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
 Reading Strategies: Rereading, Reading On, Supporting Students in Selecting and
Adjusting Reading Rate 171 Recording Appropriate Information 190
Reading Strategies: Sounding Out, Chunking, Step 4—Processing and Organizing
Using Analogy, Consulting a Reference 172 Information 192
Recording Strategies Introduced 173 Supporting Students in Processing and
Organizing Information 194
Section 2: Teaching Students to Access and Step 5—Creating and Sharing a Presentation 198
Use Information 174 Supporting Students in Creating and Sharing
What Is the Information Process? 174 a Presentation 200
Step 1—Identifying and Defining Research Step 6—Evaluating the Research Project 201
Requirements 176 Supporting Students in Evaluating a Research
Supporting Students in Identifying and Project 203
Defining a Research Project 178 Informing Parents About the Information
Step 2—Locating and Gathering Appropriate Process 205
Resources 183
Supporting Students in Locating and Glossary 206
Gathering Appropriate Resources 186 Bibliography 213
Step 3—Selecting and Recording Appropriate
Index 221
Information 187
Credits 225

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FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
Authors’ Acknowledgments

The First Steps® team gives grateful thanks to

• all teachers and students who were involved in piloting the materials and
offering feedback, either as Critical Readers, Test Pilots, or Navigator Schools;

• the authors of the original First Steps®, developed by the Education Department of
Western Australia, and the efforts of the many individuals who contributed to that
resource.

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FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
Introduction
First Steps Reading Resource Book, Canadian Edition, builds on the
original First Steps text (formerly known as Reading Resource Book) by
drawing upon seminal and contemporary research and
developments in the field of literacy learning. This new resource
book has a strong focus on supporting teachers and schools as they
embrace an outcomes-based approach to teaching.

When used in conjunction with First Steps Reading Map of

Development, Canadian Edition, First Steps Reading Resource Book,
Canadian Edition, will provide additional information to enhance
teaching and learning at all phases of reading development. It will
support teachers to expand their understanding of the four
substrand areas — Use of Texts, Contextual Understanding,
Conventions, and Processes and Strategies. The book focuses on the
four substrands and contains practical information on a range of
topics, including instructional approaches to reading, phonological
awareness, and reading strategies. Each chapter provides a fresh
focus for the explicit teaching of reading. All the critical aspects of
what, how, and why to teach are explained comprehensively.
Teachers will find this information extremely relevant for all phases
of reading development and will be able to apply the ideas and
suggestions as they work with all students in their classrooms.

Teachers can move between First Steps Reading Map of Development,

Canadian Edition, and First Steps Reading Resource Book, Canadian
Edition, depending on their particular need and purpose.

CD-ROM icons appear throughout First Steps Reading Resource Book,

Canadian Edition. They indicate that a line master is available on
the First Steps Reading Resource Book CD-ROM. The CD-ROM is an
electronic treasure chest of invaluable line masters for activities,
recording sheets, resource lists, and teaching, learning, and
assessment frameworks.

First Steps Linking Assessment, Teaching and Learning is also

a useful companion to this resource. It features practical support
and ideas to help teachers link assessment, teaching, and learning
of reading.

FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book 1

© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
CHAPTER 1

Use of Texts
Overview
The Use of Texts substrand focuses on the comprehension and
composition of a range of texts. A text is defined as any means of
communication that can use words, graphics, sounds, and images, in
print, oral, visual, or electronic form, to represent information and
ideas to an audience.

Many categories are used to sort the enormous range of texts that
students encounter, for example, fiction and non-fiction, narrative and
informational, literature and mass media. Texts in First Steps Literacy
are classified in three main communication modes: written, oral, and
visual. However, each of these categories may be further separated
into print, live, and electronic, and a text can be multimodal, e.g., a
video is a combination of electronic, spoken, and visual texts.

Students can become both composers and comprehenders of text if

they can identify the primary purpose of a text. The overview in Figure
1.2 categorizes texts according to their purpose.

This chapter provides information about ways to develop students’

knowledge and understandings of texts. The four sections are as follows:

• Section 1 — Instructional Approaches to Reading

• Section 2 — Developing Fluency
• Section 3 — Promoting Reading
• Section 4 — Selecting Texts for Students

Figure 1.1 Students enjoying texts

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FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
 4
An Overview of Texts
Communication COMMUNICATION PURPOSES TEXT
MODES PRODUCT
Entertain Recount Socialize Inquire Describe Persuade Explain Instruct
TYPES
Narrative Biography Invitation Survey Report Exposition Explanation Directions Magazine
Poem Autobiography Apology Questionnaire Label Menu Affidavit Timetable Letter
Song lyric Diary Message Menu Job application Memo Recipe Book
Fairy-tale Journal Note Contents page Editorial Rules Manual Brochure
Fable Retelling Personal Index Headlines Policy Invoice Pamphlet
Myth personal correspondence Glossary Journal List Newspaper

Print
experience Timetable Experiment Chart
Written Complaint Summons Journal

Joke Chat room CD-ROM

conversation Text message
E-mail
Fax
Card

Electronic
Joke Conversation Greeting Interview Oral report Debate Oral explanation Oral directions Performance
Story Apology Discussion Speech
Song lyric Telephone Theatre
Theatre conversation

Live

FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book

Oral
Audio cassette
Talking book Voicemail message Talk radio Radio
Song lyric Song lyric Television
CD-ROM
DVD/Video

Electronic

© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
Play Tableaux
Theatre Gesture

Live
Mime Performance

Button
Painting Picture book Logo Venn diagram Road sign Flyer
Visual Photograph Photograph Advertisement Timeline Poster
Cartoon Timeline Catalogue Graph Magazine

Print
Table Clothing
Flowchart Tattoo

Television Advertisement
sitcom Documentary CD-ROM
Film News report DVD/Video
Web page

Electronic
Figure 1.2 Categorizing texts by purpose
 Reading Resource Book

SECTION 1

Instructional Approaches to
Reading
The ultimate aim of any reading program is to support the
development of confident, competent, and independent readers.
The strategic use of a range of instructional approaches to reading
ensures this as it provides a strong foundation for a comprehensive
reading program. Each instructional approach involves varying
degrees of responsibility for both the teacher and the student. Using
a selective range of approaches ensures that explicit instruction and
guidance, when needed, is balanced with regular opportunities for
the independent application of skills and strategies. Once teachers
are familiar with a range of instructional approaches, they can
determine which will be the most effective to use according to the
students’ needs, the familiarity of content, or the purpose of the
reading session.

What Are the Instructional

Approaches?
The instructional approaches to reading provide meaningful
contexts for focusing on selected parts of the reading process. They
are characterized by a number of widely accepted steps or stages;
they are conducted frequently and are generally applicable to all
phases of development. Seven instructional approaches are critical
to implementing a comprehensive approach to reading. The
approaches, ordered by degree of teacher support required, are as
follows:

• Reading Aloud to Students

• Modelled Reading
• Language Experience Approach
• Shared Reading
• Guided Reading
• Literature Circles
• Independent Reading

The inclusion of each instructional approach has been influenced

by the Gradual Release of Responsibility Model (Pearson and

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FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
 Gallagher 1983). Instructional approaches, such as Reading Aloud
to Students, Modelled Reading, and Language Experience, allow
the teacher to demonstrate how strategies can be used to help the
reader make sense of text. Shared and Guided Reading provide
opportunities for students to practise these strategies with guidance
and support. Literature Circles and Independent Reading sessions
allow students time to apply what they have learned about reading.

Although instructional approaches are often perceived as linear and

specific, in practice they vary. Not every teacher will implement a
particular instructional approach in exactly the same way. It is more
important that teachers are aware of the essential elements of each
approach. They can then share common notions of accepted
practice. Having an understanding of a range of instructional
approaches also allows teachers to identify how different
approaches to teaching reading are related.

Criteria for Selecting Instructional

Approaches
When selecting instructional approaches to reading, the following
questions can help ensure that students gain the maximum benefit
from each learning opportunity.

• What is the purpose of the learning opportunity?

• What approach will allow for the appropriate degree of student
participation, e.g., Do students need explicit teaching or time for
purposeful practice?
• What resources will be required?
• How will students be grouped?
• What will be planned for the other students while I work with a
small group?
• What classroom routines are in place to enable students to work
independently?

An overview of the instructional approaches to reading appears on

the following page (see Figure 1.3), and all approaches are
discussed in detail in this section.

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FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
 Overview of Instructional Approaches to Reading
Reading Aloud to Students Modelled Reading Language Experience Shared Reading

A text is read aloud to The teacher demonstrates A shared experience is used as a This type of reading is a
students with the purpose of reading strategies and basis for jointly creating a text teacher-managed blend of
engaging them. behaviours, and verbalizes the that is then used for further modelling, choral reading,
cognitive processes involved reading. The Shared Writing and echo reading, and focused

Definition
with them. Shared Reading processes discussion.
overlap.

• Primary purpose is to share • The teacher makes clear • The reading is based on a • Text is visible and
enjoyment of reading. Think-Aloud statements. shared experience. accessible to all.
• A good model for reading is • Focus is singular or limited. • Text is created as a result of • Text is read multiple times.
provided—reading is fluent • Demonstrations are multiple. the experience. • Focus is singular or
and expressive. • Students’ language is used limited.
• Sessions last from 5 to 10
• Reading is largely minutes. when creating the text. • Activities are

Key Features
uninterrupted. • A mini-lesson is provided. • The created text is used for differentiated.

FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book

• Sessions span 10 to 15 further reading activities. • Sessions last 10 to 20
minutes daily. minutes.

Guided Reading Literature Circles Independent Reading

The teacher scaffolds and supports a Small groups of students meet to read, Students select texts and read

© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
group of students as they read a common respond to, and discuss texts they have independently, applying previously

Definition
text. selected. learned strategies.
• There is a clearly defined purpose. • Students select texts. • Students select texts.
• A group of students has an identified • Students facilitate discussion. • There is an uninterrupted time span.
common need. • Groups engage in text study. • Students can sustain silent reading
• Most reading is done silently. • Groups have regular meeting time. (30 to 50 minutes).
• Session has a pattern of asking guiding • Groups are temporary.

Key Features
questions, reading, and discussing.

Figure 1.3
Reading Resource Book

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 Reading Aloud to Students
Definition: Reading a text aloud to students with the purpose of
engaging them

Description
The major focus of Reading Aloud to Students is on sharing a text
for pleasure, not on explicitly teaching reading strategies, language
structures, or vocabulary. Reading Aloud to Students allows the
reader to demonstrate effective reading behaviours and a positive
attitude—to read fluently and expressively.

When Reading Aloud to Students, it is important to choose a wide

variety of texts that appeal to the age group and developmental
capacity of the students. Doing so will enable students to make
Reading Aloud to personal connections, expand their world knowledge, challenge
Students becomes
their thinking, and create an emotional response. Encouraging
an interactive
approach when the students to recommend or provide texts they have enjoyed is a
teacher encourages good source of texts for read-alouds.
discussion intended
to build prior
knowledge and to Key Features
address listeners’
ideas and questions. • The primary purpose is to share an enjoyment and love of reading.
Discussion supports • Reading is uninterrupted.
students in their
• Use of reading strategies is incidental and a natural part of the
efforts to arrive at
meaning. interactive read-aloud.
• Sessions are most effective when kept to a 10- to 15-minute time
span daily.

Benefits for Students

Reading Aloud to Students helps students to
• develop a positive attitude towards reading
• become aware of a range of text forms
• extend their vocabulary
• extend their imagination and generate new ideas
• develop a sense of how texts work
• gain access to ideas in texts that they cannot read independently
• comprehend challenging or abstract concepts and issues that
might be too difficult for independent reading
• learn about different authors, illustrators, and their styles
• make personal connections to texts
• listen actively

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FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
 Reading Resource Book

Suggestions for Using Reading Aloud to

Students in the Classroom
Planning for Reading Aloud to Students—Before
• Choose the text with the students actively in mind.
• Pre-read the text to develop familiarity with it and to ensure the
text is appropriate.
• Decide how much of the text will be read in the session, e.g., an
extract, a chapter, or the whole text.
• Consider the students’ familiarity with the content or concepts
covered in the text. Encourage discussions to help build prior
knowledge and foster understanding if content or concepts are
unfamiliar to students. Discussing content
and concepts is
Implementing Reading Aloud to Students—During particularly
important for
• Introduce the text and explain your purpose in choosing it. students learning
• Activate the students’ prior knowledge in ways such as discussing English as another
language.
and predicting from the cover, illustration, and title or predicting
the content, language, and text form.
• Read the text to students. Interact with students by sharing a
sense of enjoyment, suspense, and any other natural reactions to
the text. Avoid interrupting the flow unless the meaning has been
lost.
• Allow time for students to reflect on and respond to the reading.

Following Up on Reading Aloud to Students—After

• Make texts available so students can explore them during
other times.
• Be prepared to reread texts that the students have enjoyed.

Figure 1.4 Students listen to a read-aloud.

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FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
 Ideas for Assessment
During a read-aloud, make informal observations about the
students’ behaviours, e.g., Do they sit and listen to the text? Are they
easily distracted? Do they actively take part in discussions?

Reflecting on the Effective Use of Instructional Approaches:

Reading Aloud to Students

• Do I read to my students daily?

• Do I read a variety of text forms?
• Do I focus on enjoyment?
• Do I choose texts within the conceptual capacity of the
students? If not, do I prepare students for the concepts they
will encounter?
• Do I model positive reading behaviours?
• Do I use a consistent language for reading strategies, such as
predicting?

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FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
 Reading Resource Book

Modelled Reading
Definition: Demonstrating reading strategies and behaviours and
verbalizing the cognitive processes involved with them

Description Think-Alouds permit

The focus of Modelled Reading is on the planning and teachers to model
what is going on in
demonstration of selected reading strategies and behaviours. their minds as they
Demonstration of comprehension and word identification strategies, read. They are
demonstrations of
where students participate by actively listening and watching rather
what effective
than by contributing, suggesting, and pursuing discussion, is readers do.
common practice.

Modelled Reading is most effective when used immediately before

students are asked to try using a new reading strategy. The shared
use and practice of new learning by students may not happen
immediately and will require many demonstrations.

When using Modelled Reading, choose a text that is most suited to

demonstrate the selected reading strategy. It is also critical to locate
a variety of literary and informational texts that can be used to
demonstrate the same strategy over a series of Modelled Reading
sessions. Enlarged texts allow the students to see the text as the
teacher reads and thinks aloud.

Key Features
• Clear Think-Aloud descriptions are used.
• The focus is singular or limited in a session.
• The same strategy or behaviour is modelled many times.
Strategies for
• Sessions are most effective when kept brief (5 to 10 minutes). Think-Alouds
• Predicting
Benefits for Students • Confirming
• Visualizing
Modelled Reading helps students to • Inferring/Making
connections
• understand how effective readers read and process text • Paraphrasing/
• gain a deeper understanding of when, how, and why particular Summarizing
reading strategies are used by effective readers • Monitoring
comprehension
• see how a particular text form can be read
• build their understanding of the English language
• understand how reading and writing are related

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FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
 Suggestions for Using Modelled Reading
in the Classroom
Planning for Modelled Reading—Before
• Determine the focus of the session and choose a text that allows
multiple demonstrations of a particular reading strategy.
• Pre-read the text to determine the places where Think-Alouds
will be used to demonstrate a specific reading strategy.
• Consider the language that will be used at each selected place
in the text.

Implementing Modelled Reading—During

• Explain to students the reading strategy that will be demonstrated
and why the text was chosen.
• Introduce the text. Pause at a pre-determined place in the text to
think aloud and to demonstrate the strategy.
• Continue explicit demonstrations of the selected strategy,
including thinking aloud. Students may ask questions to clarify
their understanding of the text; however, the focal point of the
session should be the thinking aloud by the teacher.
• After modelling with the text, review the selected focus.
• If appropriate, involve the students in creating a record of the
reading strategies. As only one or two are usually modelled at a
time, this anchor chart would be cumulative and could be posted
prominently.

Following Up on Modelled Reading—After

• After many Modelled Reading sessions with the same focus,
it is important for students to take part in Shared, Guided, or
Independent Reading sessions. These sessions will provide
opportunities to practise and apply the new strategies.

Figure 1.5 Here, the teacher and students create a record of

effective reading behaviour.
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FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
 Reading Resource Book

Ideas for Assessment

Within the Modelled Reading session, there is little opportunity to
gather information about the students. During Shared, Guided, and
Independent Reading sessions, though, teachers will be able to Assessment for
Learning
observe students applying previously modelled strategies or After several
behaviours. teaching–learning
opportunities with a
particular strategy,
Reflecting on the Effective Use of Instructional Approaches: have students write
Modelled Reading reflections where
they assess how use
of the strategy
• Did I keep the session short and sharp? (5 to 10 minutes) helped them as
• Did I focus on the selected strategy or behaviour? readers.
• Did I use Think-Aloud effectively as part of my demonstration?
• Did the students stay focused and attend to the
demonstration?

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FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
 Language Experience Approach
Definition: To use a shared experience as a basis for jointly creating
a text that is then used for further reading; commonly seen as part
of a Shared Writing process

Description
The focus of Language Experience is on involving students in
a shared experience. As a result of the experience, oral language is
generated and a written text is created. This jointly created text,
scribed by the teacher, becomes the text for further reading.

Language Experience opportunities can be generated in a range

of ways:
• planned activities inside the classroom, e.g., bringing in an animal
or object to observe and discuss, inviting a guest to class, cooking
• planned activities outside the classroom, e.g., taking a trip to the
fire station, the zoo, a conservation area
• unplanned events, e.g., the builders arriving at the school,
a stormy day

Key Features
• The students’ oral language forms the basis for creating the
written text.
• The text can be created through the instructional approach
Shared Writing (see Writing Resource Book, Canadian Edition).
• The whole class participates.
• The created text can be used for further reading activities.

Benefits for Students

The Language Experience Approach helps students to
• talk and read about events in which they have taken part
• feel ownership of a text
• develop their vocabulary
• build concept and topic knowledge
• build self-confidence in reading
• understand the relationship between speaking, writing, and reading

Suggestions for Using the Language

Experience Approach in the Classroom
Planning for Language Experience—Before
• Decide on a purposeful experience that will interest students.

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FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
 Reading Resource Book

• Where possible, involve students in the planning, preparation,

and organization of the experience, e.g., preparing questions for a
guest speaker, sending invitations, making bookings.
• Practise welcome remarks or greetings when appropriate.

Implementing Language Experience—During

• Share the experience. (If desired, take photographs to record In a Shared Writing
the event.) session, the teacher
serves as the scribe,
• Encourage students to be as involved as possible in the taking suggestions
experience, ensuring that there is lots of experience-centred talk. on what to write
• When the experience is completed, discuss the event as a and talking about
the writing process.
whole class.
• Conduct a Shared Writing session to record the experience.
• Revise and edit the text with students until it is ready to
be published.
• Publish the text, e.g., create a big book, a bulletin board display, or
an illustrated chart.
• Involve the students in purposeful reading and rereading of
the text.

Following Up on Language Experience—After

• Use the text as a springboard for other reading activities, e.g.,
word searches, word sorting, cloze, sequencing, sentence matching.
• Use the class-made text in Modelled, Shared, or Guided Reading
sessions.
• Make a copy of the text available for independent use.
• Produce small copies of the text so each student can take it home
to share.
• Engage students in further purposeful writing activities related
to the experience, e.g., thank-you letters, newspaper reports,
assembly reports.

Debbie Diller
explores the
potential of literacy
work stations in her
2003 Stenhouse
title, Literacy Work
Stations: Making
Centres Work.

Figure 1.6 In this Language Experience, students read at a literacy work station.
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FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.
 Ideas for Assessment
Language Experience Approach sessions enable the teacher to
observe individual students as they work as part of the whole class.
Valuable information can be gathered about students by observing
their individual contributions to the Shared Writing, directing
particular questions to them, or asking them to read sections of the
text independently.
Assessment for
Learning Reflecting on the Effective Use of Instructional Approaches:
• Are students able
to use key vocabu-
Language Experience Approach
lary in their own
text creations? • Did I stimulate enough discussion to generate sufficient
• Are students able oral language?
to make, break,
and complete • Did I ask open-ended questions?
cloze exercises • Did I value the students’ oral language in the creation
using key
of the written text?
vocabulary?
• Did I take the opportunity to extend the students’ vocabulary?
• Did I use the text for other reading purposes?

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FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
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 Reading Resource Book

Shared Reading
Definition: A teacher-managed blend of modelling, choral reading,
echo reading, and focused discussion

Description
The text can be
Shared Reading is a supportive, interactive reading experience. presented on an
Students observe a good model (usually the teacher) reading the overhead or chart or
as a big book.
text and are invited to join in. All of them can see the text being Students need to be
shared. able to see it so
that they can chime
Shared Reading provides a common starting point and context for in or read specific
bits aloud.
a variety of whole-class literacy activities. Whole-class Shared
Reading sessions also provide a springboard for working with
smaller groups to extend or consolidate reading behaviours or
knowledge at different levels.

Texts selected for Shared Reading sessions need to enable the

teacher to demonstrate the chosen reading strategies or behaviours.
Enlarged texts allow the students to see the text and possibly
contribute to the oral reading. Texts can be reused several times;
however, it is important to sustain the students’ interest and
attention when revisiting the same text.

Key Features
• Sessions are most effective when kept to 10 to 20 minutes.
• All students in the class actively participate.
• The focus is singular or limited in one session.
• The text is visible and accessible to all.
• Differentiated activities follow the shared reading.
• There are multiple readings of the text.

Benefits for Students

Shared Reading helps students to
• be actively involved in reading in a supported way
• understand how texts are read and hear effective reading
• experience success and satisfaction as they become familiar
with texts
• gain access to and enjoy texts that may be beyond their
independent reading levels
• interact with texts at their own reading levels
• develop knowledge of texts and text conventions
• be exposed to a range of text forms

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 Suggestions for Using Shared Reading in the
Classroom
Planning for Shared Reading—Before
• Determine the focus of the session and choose a text that allows
multiple demonstrations of the focus.
• Pre-read the text.
• Determine the points in the text where the particular focus can
be demonstrated.
• Determine the places in the text where the students can participate
in choral or echo reading.
• Plan follow-up activities for the whole class, small groups, or
individual students.

Implementing Shared Reading—During

• Explain the focus of the session.
• Activate prior knowledge, perhaps by inviting students to make
predictions about content, discussing the form of the text, looking
at illustrations, and identifying possible vocabulary.
• Read the whole text focusing on meaning and enjoyment.
• Reread the text, inviting students to participate either in directed
parts or as they feel comfortable, e.g., read a repetitive pattern, join
in the reading, complete a rhyming section.
• After rereading, return to the text to emphasize a selected focus,
e.g., “Can you find any rhyming words on this page?”

Following Up on Shared Reading—After

• Involve students in whole-class, small-group, or individual
practice activities that relate to the selected focus.
• Consider providing small copies of the text for guided,
independent, or home reading.
• You could provide an audio version of the text for students to
listen to or read along with.

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Ideas for Assessment

Shared Reading allows the teacher to observe individual students
working as part of a whole class. Valuable information can be
gathered about students by observing their participation, directing
particular questions to them, or asking them to read a section of the
text independently. Assessment for
Learning
Reflecting on the Effective Use of Instructional Approaches: • Did students
successfully apply
Shared Reading the reading
strategy when
• Did the students actively participate in the reading? working on...?
• Could all students clearly see the text?
• Did I keep the session focused and about 10 to 20 minutes
long?
• Did I select a text that was appropriate for the chosen
teaching focus?
• Did I involve the students in follow-up activities related to the
text?

Figure 1.7 All students see the text in Shared Reading.

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 Guided Reading
Definition: Providing scaffold and support to a small group of
students with a similar identified need as they read a common text

Description
Guided Reading is an instructional approach that enables teachers
to support small groups of students who use similar reading
strategies and read texts at a similar level.

Guided Reading enables students to practise using strategies that

have already been introduced. The teacher guides or directs the
readers to sections of the text using the following pattern: set a
focus question, predict, read, and discuss. Most of the reading is
performed silently. Reading aloud is part of discussions.

It is essential that the texts used in Guided Reading sessions be

selected to match the readers’ interests and instructional level.
Guided Reading texts need to provide a challenge without being
so difficult that readers become discouraged. Selected texts need
Instructional-level
text is text that the
to be appropriate so they allow students to practise the chosen
reader can read with reading strategies.
90 to 95 percent
accuracy.
Key Features
• Teacher-selected texts match students’ instructional level.
• Small groups of students work with individual copies of the
same text.
• Students are grouped to focus on an identified need.
• Most reading is performed silently.
• The teacher guides the reading.

Benefits for Students

Guided Reading helps students to
• practise and monitor their use of strategies in a supportive setting
• develop confidence in their use of strategies
• deepen their understandings about the text as they read
• explore questions, feelings, and ideas about the text
• compare their interpretations of the text with those of other
students

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Suggestions for Using Guided Reading in the

Classroom
Planning for Guided Reading—Before
• Identify a small group of students who have a similar
instructional need. The identified need will become the focus of
the session.
• Organize other students to work independently.
• Choose a text at the students’ instructional level so the focus can
be practised.
• Pre-read the text and identify a task that matches the focus or
purpose of the Guided Reading experience.
• Formulate guiding questions.

Implementing Guided Reading—During

• Outline the focus of the lesson, explaining why it is important for
successful reading. The focus might be expressed as a statement Taking a walk
and a task. through the text is
• Activate the students’ prior knowledge and supply additional a good idea that
involves asking
information that will help them relate to the text. students to consider
• Pose an initial guiding question related to the focus of the lesson information such as
the cover and title.
and assign a section of the text to be read silently.
• Encourage students to share and discuss their responses, ensuring
that they back up their opinions by returning to the text.
Responses may also include discussing the strategies used to find
the required information.
• Pose the next guiding question and assign the next section of text.
Continue this process until the text has been completed.
• Reflect on the focus of the session and review the initial reason
for the reading.

Figure 1.8 Students read a section of the text silently.

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 Following Up on Guided Reading—After
• Make the text available for independent or home reading.
• Provide practice activities that relate to the selected focus.

Ideas for Assessment

Guided Reading allows the teacher to observe individual students
as they work in small groups. Information can be gathered about
students’ reading strategies, comprehension, metacognitive
approaches to reading, and personal responses to the text.

Assessment for Reflecting on the Effective Use of Instructional Approaches:

Learning Guided Reading
• Students can write
self-reflections
based on the • Did I select a text appropriate to the students’ instructional
purpose or focus level and selected focus?
of the experience.
• Students can
• Did I select a small group of students with a similar need?
assess how they • Did my guiding questions help students practise the
did on the task by identified focus?
completing
rubrics. • Did I allow the students to read the text silently?
• Did I allow time for students to reflect on their use of
reading strategies?

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 Reading Resource Book

Literature Circles
Definition: Groups of students who meet to discuss, respond to,
and reflect on a common text they have chosen to read

Unlike the more loosely organized book clubs, Literature Circles are
structured to promote student independence, responsibility, and
ownership. They provide a context in which students can practise
Literature Circle
and develop the skills of effective readers. Students determine what Roles
to discuss, and within a group, may play different roles. • Discussion director
• Literary luminary
• Illustrator
Description • Connector
• Summarizer
The focus of Literature Circles is on a small group of students • Vocabulary
selecting a text, reading it independently, and meeting regularly to enricher
discuss and respond to it. With certain adaptations, Literature • Travel tracer
• Investigator
Circles are applicable across all grade levels and can work equally
well with literary and informational texts.

It may be necessary for the teacher to facilitate discussions with

younger students or with students inexperienced or unfamiliar with
the instructional approach. Once students are confident about how
to operate in a Literature Circle, several groups within the class
may meet simultaneously.

By providing a range of texts to choose from, teachers are able to

guide students to select appropriate texts. It is critical that students
in each group have their own copies of the selected text.

Key Features
• Students select their texts.
• Temporary groups are formed based on text choice.
• Groups meet regularly for a pre-determined time span.
• Different groups read different texts.
• Students are responsible for being prepared for each meeting and
may fulfill different roles.
• Assessment is embedded in the approach.

Benefits for Students

Literature Circles help students to
• choose their own reading materials
• read independently
• think critically
• make personal connections
• respond to texts in meaningful ways

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 • solve problems
• develop questioning skills
• actively participate in student-led group discussions
• collaborate, set goals, and pursue their own questions
• appreciate other viewpoints

An alternative, but
Suggestions for Using Literature Circles in the
similar approach is
to introduce book
Classroom
clubs, where even Planning for Literature Circles—Before
primary students can
discuss books • How to participate in a Literature Circle will need to be modelled
previously read several times with the whole class. The whole class could read the
aloud and reread
before a meeting of same text or a Fishbowl l technique could be used. It is important
about five students to model elements such as generating questions, determining
during Independent
Reading time. Book
amounts of text to be read, using roles to promote group
clubs, which might discussion, and preparing for a Literature Circle meeting.
meet about once • A range of anchor charts can be jointly created and prepared to
every five weeks,
are less formally provide scaffolds for students. Figure 1.9, on the following page,
structured than outlines a few roles students may play.
Literature Circles.
• Determine how long and how often students will meet in their
groups, e.g., an hour once a week, 30 minutes twice a week, daily.
• Set a completion date. Estimate how long it will take students to
read and discuss the entire text.
• Decide when reading and preparing for discussions will happen,
e.g., regular classtime, at home, or a combination of the two.
• Decide how many students will be in each group. Groups of four
or five students are recommended as this gives all students an
opportunity to be involved. Note that up to eight roles are
identified.
• Choose six to eight diverse texts from which the students can
select. Where possible, pre-read part or all of the texts.
• Decide how students will identify the texts they wish to read,
e.g., ballot with top three choices.

Implementing Literature Circles—During

• Display texts and briefly talk about each text referring to the title,
author, illustrator, cover, and blurb.
• Allow students to identify the text they wish to read and form
into small groups. Group members’ first task is to ascertain roles
and decide how many pages are to be read before they meet for
their first discussion.
1 A Fishbowl technique involves students seated around the perimeter of the room

observing a group rehearsing the process. The teacher directs observations and
facilitates discussion about the process being used.

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• Have students read the designated pages independently and

prepare for the meeting. Provide students with sticky notes to
make recordings during their reading.
• Organize a time for Literature Circles to meet to discuss their text.
Move around the room offering advice or observing student
behaviours. Be sure not to become actively involved
in the discussions.
• At the conclusion of the meetings, direct students to ascertain
new roles and decide how many pages they will read before they
next meet.
• Gather the whole class together to reflect on the issues and
successes of their group meeting.

Following Up on Literature Circles—After

• Provide time for the students to write in their response journals
or reading logs.
• Once the entire text is completed, allow students to respond to
the text, individually or as a group demonstrating their
understanding or appreciation of the text.
• Consider forming online Literature Circles, perhaps with students
at another school.

Vocabulary Enricher
Discussion Director Locates interesting words within the
Selects or generates questions that text before the meeting, recording
will lead the group discussion page number and definition
Asks the questions of the group Researches information about each
Keeps the group on task word
Shares findings with the group

A Sampling of Literature Circle Roles

Connector
Summarizer
Locates significant passages and
Summarizes the section of text that
connects these to real life and to
has been read by the group
other books

Figure 1.9

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 Ideas for Assessment
During a Literature Circle session, there are opportunities to
observe group discussions, noting individual students’ reading or
social behaviours as well as group interactions. Periodically
collecting students’ response journals or reading logs will provide
information about their understanding of the text. Student self-
assessments or reflection sessions may provide insights into the way
groups are working and the goals they are setting.
Assessment for
Learning Reflecting on the Effective Use of Instructional Approaches:
Students could
engage in self- Literature Circles
reflection on how
they took part in • Did I act as a facilitator and observer, not as the director of the
group discussion.
discussion, during student meetings?
For example, a
student might • Did I introduce the essential processes required for students to
determine “I fully participate?
participated by
sharing on-topic • Did I allow students to select the text from the range provided?
ideas, extending • Did I provide time for students to reflect on their participation?
ideas, and providing
• Did I allocate sufficient time for students to complete the
examples or proof
for my own ideas.” texts?

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Independent Reading
Definition: The independent application of previously learned
reading strategies to a text selected by the reader; part of the
continuum of diminishing support seen in the Gradual Release of
Responsibility Model (Pearson and Gallagher 1983)

Description
The focus of Independent Reading is students taking charge of their As an instructional
own reading : they choose their own texts, read silently, and take approach, Indepen-
dent Reading differs
responsibility to work through any challenges presented by the text. from other types of
independent read-
Independent Reading for readers who are unable to accurately read ing, such as USSR—
the print is still possible. It could take the form of looking at the Uninterrupted Sus-
tained Silent Read-
pictures and telling the story or sitting with a partner and sharing a ing—and DIRT—
text. During such sessions, the noise level may rise, but as long as it Daily Independent
is kept at an acceptable level students are fostering a love and Reading Time. It
promotes use of and
enjoyment of reading. reflection on strate-
gies and the making
In Independent Reading, the responsibility for choosing the text is of connections,
in the hands of each student. Texts should be at an easy or while the other
types promote read-
instructional level. While students are free to choose the texts they ing for recreation
prefer, they can be encouraged to select from a wide variety of without accountabi-
lity for doing more
literary and informational texts. than that.

Key Features
• Students select their own texts.
• Students practise reading skills and strategies independently. Through focused
• Everyone reads. mini-lessons,
teachers can offer
• The session is uninterrupted. guidance on how to
• Time increases as students are able to sustain silent reading. choose texts—or
when to abandon
Benefits for Students one.

Independent Reading helps students to

• read texts for enjoyment
• apply reading strategies
• pursue their favourite authors or text forms
• select texts that match their interests
• respond to texts

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 Suggestions for Using Independent Reading
in the Classroom
Planning for Independent Reading—Before
Using the time for • Ensure that a range of reading material is available.
Independent
Reading effectively • Establish routines for Independent Reading, e.g., borrowing system,
is important. That seating arrangement, noise level.
means students
• Teach students how to select texts (see pp. 48–50). Jointly
need to be taught
how to read construct a class anchor chart and have students refer to it when
independently—to necessary.
look at pictures, to
read text, and to • Ensure that the text organization system is clearly understood.
reread as necessary. • Allocate time each day for Independent Reading.
One common
practice is to have Implementing Independent Reading—During
most students
engage in • Reiterate the routines for Independent Reading.
Independent • Invite students to select their own texts.
Reading while the
teacher meets with • Have everyone read for the allocated time.
a small group for a
Guided Reading Following Up on Independent Reading—After
session.
• Provide time for students to reflect on their reading.
• Provide opportunities for students to respond to their texts,
e.g., write in reading journal, discuss with a partner.

Figure 1.10

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Ideas for Assessment

Independent Reading allows teachers to observe individual students
Assessment for
as they read. Information can be collected about students’ self- Learning
selection of reading material, reading behaviours, and attitudes. Self-assessment by
an individual
student might look
Reflecting on the Effective Use of Instructional Approaches: like this:
Independent Reading I can
• choose an easy or
“just right” book
• Did I set aside an uninterrupted time each day for • read expressively
Independent Reading? • retell the main
• Did I encourage all students to read independently? ideas
• share my
• Did I allow students to choose their own reading materials? connections
• Did I use the time to observe and gather information about • write a personal
response
the students?
• Did I introduce the essential processes needed for
Independent Reading?

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 SECTION 2

Developing Fluency
Reading fluency is the ability to read aloud with expression to
demonstrate an understanding of the author’s message. Fluency
includes the elements of intonation, phrasing, reading rate, syntax,
and accuracy. A fluent reader pays attention to the graphophonic,
syntactic, and semantic elements of the text. Fluency is much more
than the accurate recognition of individual words on the page.
Developing fluency increases the likelihood that readers will
understand what they read.

Research has indicated that fluent reading and good comprehension

go together (Armbruster et al. 2001). Although no evidence
suggests a causal relationship between comprehension and fluency,
those students who score higher on measures of fluency also score
higher on measures of comprehension, especially in the early years.
One theory about the correlation between the two is that when
fluent readers read text, they are able to concentrate on the
meaning—they do not need to spend time and effort decoding the
words on the page.

Modelling to Promote Fluent

Reading
In order to read fluently, students must first hear and understand
what fluent reading sounds like. Teachers can demonstrate this by
reading aloud often and from a great variety of texts. Modelling of
fluent oral reading is both a demonstration and a discussion of what,
how, when, and why. According to Worthy and Broaddus (2001),

Students who feel in control of their own learning, who know

why fluency is important and what can be done to improve it,
are more likely to engage in the kinds of repeated practice that
leads to fluency.

When modelling oral reading and thinking aloud, teachers can

discuss a variety of aspects.
• Phrasing — “Did you hear how I grouped these words together
when reading? That’s because they all go together as a phrase.”

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• Punctuation and its effects — “Did you hear how my voice

went up slightly at the end? That’s because the author has put a
question mark here.” Web Sites Where
Reading Can Be
• Typographical aids, such as bold type or italics — “Did you hear Heard
how I said this word loudly? The author has put it in bold type, TeachingBooks.net
so she wants to emphasize this word.” http://www.teaching
books.net
Fluent oral reading behaviours can be brainstormed after modelling Reading Rockets
sessions. These can be referred to before and during further oral http://www.reading
reading sessions. rockets.org

A Fluent Oral Reader

• reads and rereads the text
• uses different facial expressions to show mood
• looks up from the text to make eye contact with the audience
• reads groups of words together
• changes voices for different characters
• shows different moods by letting voice rise and fall

Figure 1.11 What a fluent oral reader does

Teachers can also provide opportunities for students to hear other

models of fluent oral reading. These could include other adults such
as parents and teacher assistants. Other students, such as buddies or
more able readers in the class, can also be models. Other sources
are CD-ROMs or book and tape sets that provide students with a
variety of effective reading models.

Providing Opportunities for

Repeated Reading
Apart from teachers providing good models of oral reading to help
develop fluency, students benefit from reading aloud. Teachers
often provide students with some form of supported oral reading
that enables them to reread texts. Oral reading opportunities in the
classroom can go well beyond the round robin approach.

When a reader is unprepared for oral reading, he or she may feel

anxious or embarrassed. Listening to unprepared oral reading can
also cause the listener to become frustrated and inattentive. Effective
oral reading needs to be purposeful and accompanied by constructive
feedback. A variety of opportunities for repeated readings will help
students develop fluency in a non-threatening and supportive
environment.
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 The following provide opportunities for repeated readings.
1 Echo Reading
2 Shadow Reading
3 Assisted Reading
4 Shared Reading
5 Choral Reading
6 Tape-assisted Reading
7 Readers Theatre
8 Radio Reading
9 Poetry Club
10 Buddy Reading

1 Echo Reading
The teacher works with small groups reading a text, sentence by
sentence. After the teacher reads each sentence, the students are
encouraged to read the same sentence. This activity can be performed
frequently, but it is important to keep the sessions relatively short.
• Read the first sentence of a text or short paragraph, demonstrating
fluency and expression. Invite students to follow along. The
sentence may need to be reread depending on the experience of
the students or the text.
• With the students, reread the sentence using the same fluency
and expression.
• Have students reread the sentence fluently by themselves. It is
important to give feedback at this point. Continue reading each
succeeding sentence in this way.

2 Shadow Reading
Shadow Reading is a variation of Echo Reading. The teacher demon-
strates how to read an entire passage fluently and then offers
support and feedback to the students as they read the same passage.
• Gather together a small group and give each member the same
text at their independent reading level.
• Read the entire text expressively and fluently and have the
students follow along.
• Reread the text fluently together.
• Have the students reread as needed. Students can reread to
partners or in small groups.
• Have the students offer each other constructive feedback about
the fluency of the oral reading.

3 Assisted Reading
Assisted Reading is a time for solo reading as the teacher, or a
person acting as a mentor, works one on one with a student. Before
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beginning any Assisted Reading, it is important that mentors,

possibly teacher assistants, parents at home, parent volunteers in
the classroom, older students, and classmates, be trained in the
processes. This training might include how to assist readers when
they select a text, and how to encourage and support them when
reading.
• The mentor and the student sit side by side. The mentor reads the
text at a reasonable pace and demonstrates appropriate fluency
and expression.
• The student then begins reading the text alone. If he or she has
difficulty with a word or phrase, the mentor can help by saying it.
It is important to emphasize to the mentor that the decoding of
individual words should not take place during this activity as this
will impede fluency. Decoding of words is important and should
be practised, but at another time.
• Repeat the reading as necessary. Prompt the mentor to offer
encouragement and constructive feedback to the reader.

4 Shared Reading
Shared Reading is an instructional approach that allows students to
participate in oral reading in a supported way. The teacher reads
aloud from an enlarged text and invites the students to participate
in a way that makes them feel comfortable (see Chapter 1: Section
1—Instructional Approaches to Reading, pp. 17–19).

5 Choral Reading
Choral Reading involves students reading a text orally together with
the intention of making a meaningful and enjoyable performance.
Choral Reading is often an enjoyable part of the Shared Reading
instructional approach. Although Choral Reading is usually
associated with reading poetry, repeated dialogue, or repetitive
refrains, the focus is on reading the text rather than reciting it from
memory.
• Select a text to read. The text should be easily accessible to all, so
it may be an enlarged text, an overhead transparency, or a chart.
• Model the reading of the text, demonstrating how to use the
voice to express meaning.
• Assign parts of the text to various groups of students.
• Read aloud together several times, helping groups to read their
sections.
• Add any props, sound effects, or movement that will enhance the
presentation of the text. Arrange for the students to perform the
reading for an audience, e.g., other students at a school assembly,
visitors to the class, parents at an open house.
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 6 Tape-assisted Reading
Tape-assisted Reading involves the students reading along with a
fluent reader on an audiotape. Good quality, commercially produced
tape and text sets are available. Teachers may also wish to record
their own tapes as an additional support for texts used in the class.
A text at indepen- Parent volunteers, older students, or teacher assistants can also
dent reading level is
one that can be read provide models of fluent reading for these tapes. Asking students to
with high accuracy produce text and tape sets, including personally written texts, is an
and comprehension.
excellent way to motivate students to develop fluency.
The reader would
consider it easy. • Choose a text and a tape at an appropriate reading level (at or
just above an independent level). Students listen to the tape and
follow along.
• Direct students to listen to the tape again, joining in where
they are able.
• Have the students reread the text while listening to the tape.
Continue in this way until students can read the text fluently
without the tape.

Other forms of technology, such as e-books and CD-ROMs, can also

be used for this purpose.

7 Readers Theatre
Readers Theatre is an oral performance of a script. The focus is on
Marking Key interpreting the script and reading it expressively rather than on
P — Pause memorizing the text or dramatizing it through body movement.
E — Emphasize There is usually a narrator. Readers Theatre is the perfect forum for
F — Show readers to practise fluency because it calls for rehearsal, and
Feelings performance provides an incentive for students to improve their
DV — Deep Voice reading. It is inclusive because readers of all stages of development
WV —Woman’s can take part and support one another. It is an authentic
Voice cooperative activity which participants often find rewarding. (See
// — Longer Reading Map of Development, Canadian Edition, p. 154, for more.)
Pause 8 Radio Reading
LV — Loud Voice Radio Reading (Opitz 1998) is another supported oral reading
W — Whisper activity where students have the opportunity to present rehearsed
Figure 1.12 Marking material to other students. While one group performs the reading,
key for Radio the rest of the class “listens to the radio.”
Reading • Select or have students select a text to be read. Review the text.
• Divide students into small groups. If necessary, help them select
sections from the text so each member has a part to read.
• Show how to prepare their sections for oral reading. Introduce
a marking key if appropriate.

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• Provide students with the opportunity to prepare their scripts for

reading. Students can choose to prepare their scripts either at
home or school or both.
• Ask students to rehearse their sections of the text. Students work
together at this point to support one another and offer
suggestions. Each student also prepares open-ended questions to
stimulate a short discussion about their section of the text.
• Ask one member of the Radio Reading group to introduce the
text and the readers. Invite the group to do the reading.
• At the conclusion of the reading, prompt readers to lead a brief
discussion about their sections of the text.
• Provide opportunities for the audience to give feedback. A simple
framework can be used, for example: “It was good when
____________. It was even better when ____________. It was
fantastic when ___________________.”

9 Poetry Club
A Poetry Club (Opitz 1998) provides a forum for performing poetry
to an audience. Students can reread for authentic purposes. They
can perform poems and possibly include information about the poet
or their reasons for choosing a particular poem.

Before beginning a club, it is important to familiarize students with

poetry. Reading poetry, displaying poems on pin-up boards in the
classroom, encouraging students to borrow poetry texts from the
school library, or encouraging them to bring their favourite poems
from home will achieve this. Students will also benefit from
involvement in many Modelled, Shared, and Guided Reading
sessions that use poems as the text.
• Ask students to identify their favourite poems and give them an
opportunity to rehearse them. Students can choose to work in
groups, pairs, or individually.
• Encourage students to try different ways of phrasing, different
intonations or pace, or different voices for effect.
• Provide students with time to rehearse their poems, encouraging
other students to provide constructive feedback.
• Invite students to participate by reciting their chosen poems. The
invitation should be as non-threatening as possible to avoid
students feeling pressured to perform.

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 10 Buddy Reading
Reading to younger buddies provides an opportunity for older
students to model fluent reading. Older readers, especially those
who are struggling, need opportunities to read lots of easy texts.
These students often see reading easy texts, deemed “baby books,”
as unacceptable and undesirable. If these students read to younger
buddies, they will feel that the texts are acceptable.

One teacher shares her experience using Buddy Reading.

Buddy Reading in Grade 6

In my Grade 6 class I had students with a wide range of reading abilities. Some students
were reading adult-level novels while some struggled with even basic texts. Our class
already had a buddy class relationship with a Grade 1 class as the students were
involved in cross-age tutoring in mathematics.
The Grade 1 teacher and I decided to increase the contact between the two classes to
– promote enthusiasm for reading
– provide good models of fluent oral reading
– provide authentic audiences for oral reading and writing
The first thing we did in our reading project was to interview the Grade 1 students to
find out their interests. With this information, the Grade 6 students went to the school
library to find a text they thought would appeal to their buddy.
Once back in the classroom, I had to think of a way to get the students to become fluent
readers of the selected text. I decided to have the students come up with an activity for
their buddy to do before, during, and after reading. This way the Grade 6 students had
to read the text several times to find appropriate discussion questions and activities.
Once the students had decided on their activities and rehearsed the reading of the text
several times, they were required to choose a peer and demonstrate their “lesson.” Peers
were required to give feedback on positive aspects or suggest possible changes.
Once we were satisfied with our reading, the class, armed with their text, headed off to
the buddy class. The buddy reading was successfully completed and all students were
absorbed in the activity.
On returning to our classroom, we debriefed about the experience and made suggestions
for future buddy reading sessions.
On subsequent visits, the Grade 6 students often chose texts suggested by their
classmates as these texts had been a great success with other young buddies. The Grade 6
students rehearsed for their buddies without complaint and gained a great deal from
their experiences. The oral reading was fluent and expressive as the students deliberated
over how different parts would be read. The success experienced in this activity by
struggling readers helped them to see reading as an enjoyable activity and not a chore.
The reading of easy texts was legitimized and gave all students the practice they needed
to improve their fluency.

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SECTION 3

Promoting Reading
Reading is a complex process that people approach with different
Conditions of
degrees of enthusiasm. Some readers are less enthusiastic about Learning
choosing to read than others. Brian Cambourne
identified these
In any classroom, a teacher may identify the following types of seven conditions of
learning:
students: • immersion
• those that read well, but have little interest in doing so • demonstration
• expectations
• those that are interested in reading, but don’t read well
• responsibility
• those that have no interest in reading regularly and are at risk • approximations
of not coping with literacy tasks • practice
• feedback/support/
• those that have specific learning problems that impede their celebrations
ability and willingness to read The conditions are
interconnected and
• those that are learning English as a second or other language interwoven, not
linear or sequential.
The following factors may be influencing the reading abilities of the
students described above:
• prior experiences that have created a negative image of reading
• no appealing text form or author yet discovered
• a lack of purpose for reading
• a misunderstanding of the reading process, e.g., thinks that reading
is saying words rather than making meaning
• no time or encouragement to read, e.g., sport commitments,
emotional trauma
• use of ineffective strategies, making reading a laborious task
• insufficient prior knowledge to make meaning

When teaching reading, one of the challenges is to encourage all

students to develop a lifelong love of reading. It’s important to
encourage all students to see reading as a means of satisfying a
range of purposes, such as enjoyment, relaxation, and information
gathering.

Ways to Promote Reading

This section offers suggestions about ways to promote reading.
However, ideas that work well for a particular student or for a
particular grade level may have little impact the following year or
with another student. Teachers need to continue to try a variety of
ways to promote reading and to work closely with parents to

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 inform them of the efforts being made. Teachers can select from the
following ideas and suggestions.

Environment
Create an environment conducive to reading, perhaps the school or
classroom library area where students can sit and read without
distraction. A carpet square, beanbags, big cushions, and an old
armchair or sofa would make this area a comfortable special place.
Displays and posters advertising reading material would also
heighten the atmosphere.

Text Selection
Ensure that the classroom library has a wide variety of texts
representing different authors and text forms. Include literary and
informational texts, texts related to the students’ interests, texts on
a variety of reading levels as well as class-created texts, paperbacks,
taped stories, comics, magazines, newspapers, brochures, catalogues,
interactive CD-ROMs, and e-books. Enhance the students’ reading
development and interests by changing the texts regularly.

Displays
Ensure that texts in the classroom library are displayed, advertised,
sampled, and easily accessible. Select a few titles and display them
attractively by topic, form, or author. Bright posters with catchy
phrases, as well as puppets or models related to a text, will help to
create interest. Change the displayed titles frequently.

Reading Time
Establish a time for independent reading. Allow students to choose
their own reading texts. Be a role model for students and share
your enthusiasm for reading.

Talk About Texts

After Independent Reading sessions, students can talk about what
they have been reading with the whole class, a small group, or a
partner. Make use of reading logs and reading contracts, as some
readers need tangible proof of their success. (See reading log
options on the First Steps Reading Resource Book CD-ROM.)

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I’VE READ THESE TEXTS!

Title Date Finished What I Thought of It

Figure 1.13 Sample reading log

Reading Aloud to Students

Help students experience a wide selection of texts by reading many
different text forms, authors, and genres. Often, reading a text that
is part of a series encourages students to read other titles in the
series. Invite community members to visit and read to students.

Fads
Make links to any fads at the time. Try to have available copies of
texts that link to the fad.

Movies and Television

Make links between reading material and movie versions or
television programs. Allow students to watch the movie versions or
be exposed to material written about cartoons, movies, series, or
television characters. Students can compare the written and visual
versions.

Electronic Versions
Consider obtaining the electronic versions of texts as some readers
may be encouraged to read the accompanying text.

Poetry
Ensure that a variety of poetry texts are available. Poems can often
be read relatively quickly as there is less print on the page. This
feature is appealing for some readers.
See page 48 for
more on interest
Inventories and Surveys surveys. The First
Distribute an interest inventory or survey at the beginning of the Steps Reading
Resource Book
school year. This information can be used to select motivating CD-ROM has a few
reading material based on students’ interests for both the classroom line master options.
and school libraries. The survey could be conducted again during
the year as interests may have changed.

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 Author Studies
Implement author studies. Have the class or a group of students
read several texts by a favourite author. Learn about the author,
have the class write thoughtful letters as if to the author, and visit
the author’s Web site. Make other texts written by that author
available.

Invitations
Invite an author, illustrator, publisher, or librarian to the classroom
to share their work. (If funding is needed, approach the school
council or home and school association.)

Literature Circles
Use Literature Circles or book clubs to provide students with
opportunities to discuss a common text that has been read (see
Chapter 1: Section 1 — Instructional Approaches to Reading). For
young students, the text chosen can be one that has been read
aloud and discussed as a whole class on some prior occasion. If a
text has already been read aloud to the students, the discussion can
be more focused.

Class-created Book of Favourites

Make a class book with sections devoted to favourite jokes, riddles,
poems, songs, and tongue twisters. Encourage students to read and
find things they can add to the favourites book. Make this book
available when students are reading independently.

Text Swaps or Exchanges

Develop a system that enables students to bring in reading material
they would like to swap or exchange. Provide a coupon for each
text brought in and students can use the coupons to select
another text.

Pen Pals
Organize pen pals or e-mail pals for students. Maintaining this
relationship encourages students to read and write.

Different Audiences
Students can find reading with and to different audiences a
motivating experience. Pair students with a reading partner in
another grade level. Students can share what they have read with
their reading buddies or an older student can read to a younger
student. Students may be able to read to audiences outside the
school, such as residents at nursing homes.

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Student Recommendations
Students can promote and recommend texts for other students to
read through any of the following activities:
• creating a poster, review, or PowerPoint presentation to describe
a text they have read and enjoyed
• writing reviews that are bound into a collection and available for
others to read
• giving an oral presentation to a group or class at a designated
time of the day or week about a text they have read and enjoyed
• creating a jacket cover for a text they have read and adding their
comments to the cover
• being photographed holding their favourite texts (Have the
students attach a summary explaining why this text was so
special. Displaying these photographs will be a way to advertise
the texts to other students.)
• completing a colour-coded card about the text they have read
(The cards correspond to the colours of traffic lights: a green card
tells others to go for this text, yellow means the text was okay,
and red means stop, or not recommended. The title, author, and
student’s name can be written on the front of the card; on the
back, students can write an explanation of why the text was
given that colour coding.)
• writing a review on a small card and attaching the card to the
classroom library shelf where the text is located (Other students
can quickly read the review.)

Publicity Campaigns
Have students create a publicity campaign for a text or an author.
They could consider posters, videos, book reviews, Web sites, and
oral and written advertisements to promote their chosen text or
author.

Computers
If a student has a particular interest in a computer game, encourage
the reading of the manuals and magazines that help the user
through these types of games. E-books and interactive CD-ROMs
Recommendations by
are also available for reading on the computer. peers may be enough
to encourage
Class Chart students to read
texts they would not
Create a class chart on which students write the titles of texts they otherwise have
have read and enjoyed. From this list a Text of the Month can be considered.
chosen and displayed. The class might establish an award, using
pre-established criteria for real book awards.

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 Reading Timeline
Have students produce a timeline of their lives, naming their
favourite texts throughout the years. Personal pictures, texts, and
text covers and illustrations can be included. The displayed timelines
make great advertisements, create impromptu book discussions, and
show students how their reading has changed over time.

Lonely Texts
Display several texts with the banner “The Loneliest Texts in the
Class Library.” Encourage students to read and review these texts.
An incentive could be offered for reading these texts. This strategy
encourages some students to read and write about texts that seldom
leave the shelves.

Read with a Friend

Have multiple copies of a text available so a group of friends can
read it simultaneously. This way they can discuss the text and enjoy
the shared experience.

This Is Your Life

When several students have read the same text, they can create a
“This Is Your Life” program for a selected character or person from
the text. The introduced guests could be other characters or people
from the text.

Reviews
Publish student or teacher reviews of texts in the school newsletter
for everyone to read. Doing this may encourage others to seek out
the texts and read them.

Valuing Opinions
Increase students’ self-confidence by treating them as reading
experts. Show students their opinion is valued by providing
opportunities for them to share what they think.
Check the First Steps Parents
Reading Map of
Development CD-ROM Encourage parents to promote reading in the home. Assist parents
for Parent Cards by providing information about how to help students learn to read,
about supporting
readers in the how to choose reading material, why reading is important, and
various phases. how to make reading fun.

Incentive Schemes
There are numerous schemes that provide incentives for students
as individuals, in small groups, or as a whole class. These incentive
schemes reward students for the number of texts they have read.
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Karate
Explain how in karate different colours of belts represent different
levels of attainment. This notion is then carried over into reading.
Create belts of various colours, such as white, yellow, orange,
green, blue, red, brown, and black. Assign belt levels to the number
of texts read, e.g., three texts earns a yellow belt; six earns an orange
belt.

Where in the World?

Give each student a copy of a world map. Each time students read a
text that relates to a country in some way, have them colour in that
country. The relationship could be based on the birthplace of the
author, the setting, the country that was visited in the story, or the
country that was the topic of the text. An incentive can be provided
after a given time or when a specific goal is reached.

Keeping a Television–Reading Chart

Begin a television–reading chart for each student or for the whole
class. Keep a weekly record of time spent reading and time spent
watching television at home. Discuss which figure is higher and
what that might mean. Encourage reading.

Read-a-thon
Conduct a class or whole-school read-a-thon over a given time or
to achieve a set target. Keep a record of the number of pages read or
the total number of texts read. Update the results regularly.

Adding Details
Have students add the names of any texts they have read to a class
collection of titles. Link the recording of titles to current class
themes, such as adding a new car to a train, fruit on a tree, or ship
in the harbour.

Read Around a Country

Give each student a copy of a map of a country. Each time they First Steps Reading
read a page, it equates to 1 km travelled. Have students record Map of Development,
distances travelled by mapping a route around the country. Canadian Edition,
provides further
Students can be challenged to travel the greatest distance in a given suggestions for
time. promoting reading
at each phase of
Alternatively, the class could count every page read as a kilometre development.

and keep track of the total.

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 SECTION 4

Selecting Texts for Students

Today, readers are exposed to a vast range of texts, many consisting
of both print and visual features, and conveyed through a range of
media. Teachers can provide opportunities for students to access a
wide range of texts by incorporating these into planned learning
experiences. There will be times when newspapers, advertisements,
magazines, or the Internet will be the most appropriate sources of
reading material and other times when a reading series or a
textbook is more appropriate. Using a variety of texts will provide
students with the opportunity to navigate texts using different
organizational features as well as encountering a range of language
features and text structures.

The focus for this section is organized under the following headings:
• Selecting Texts for the School
• Selecting Texts for Use in the Classroom
• Selecting Texts to Send Home

Selecting Texts for the School

At the school level, decisions are made about the reading material
most suitable for students. This includes material that can be used in
each classroom and material that is accessible from the school library.

In addition to a school library, many schools have a separately

housed collection of texts that is used as the main source of material
for reading instruction in each classroom. It is important to make
school-wide decisions regarding purchasing, housing, organizing,
maintaining, borrowing, and categorizing texts from this collection.
Where there are large numbers of teachers, a committee can make
decisions and purchases on behalf of the whole school. Students
can also be surveyed to identify their preferences.

When planning the development of a school-wide reading

collection, it is beneficial to approach the task strategically and
acquire texts over time. Certain factors will influence decisions:
• the number of classrooms and students in the school
• the number of teachers who will be sharing the collection
• material already available

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 Reading Resource Book

• financial resources available A school or teacher

• the different purposes that the material will be used for might devise a class
inventory of texts
First, it is helpful to take an inventory of the reading material in the much like that
shown in Figure
whole school. Each teacher can contribute to this inventory. 1.14.

Class Inventory and Recommendations for Purchase Teacher: ____________________

Texts Titles Copies Text Forms Themes Pubn Suggested Recommendation Priority
Date Grade level

Linking 4 3–8 Various Space 2002 Grade 4 Supplementary titles 2

Literacy Sport that have fewer than
Animals 8 copies so they can
be used for Guided
Reading

Read 92 1 70 percent Various 2005 Grade 4/5 Desperately need 1

Along fiction high-interest, low
30 percent difficulty recreational
non-fiction reading material for
less able readers

Figure 1.14

Once this information has been collated at a whole-school level,

decisions can be made about the priorities for purchasing additional
material. It is important to consider the instructional purpose for
the material. If possible, examine and review materials before a
commitment is made to purchase. To help make informed decisions
about purchases, invite sales representatives into the school, visit
bookstores, peruse exhibits at conferences, or network with other
schools. If texts are available on approval from a publisher, the
students could give their opinions about material.

The points identified in Figure 1.15 may be considered when

evaluating new material.

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 Evaluating Texts for Purchase

Target Student Group __________________________________________

• The use of these texts is

❑ instructional reading ❑ group reading (Guided Reading, Literature
❑ recreational reading Circles, book club)
❑ functional reading ❑ independent reading

• The content of these texts

❑ provides opportunities to teach ______________________
❑ appeals to the target student group
❑ is a good example of a particular form
❑ supports a cross-curricular focus
❑ provides a variety of authentic social and cultural contexts

• The text form of these materials

❑ makes up a sufficiently wide range
❑ is part of an area of need

• The difficulty of these texts

❑ is appropriate for the target student group

• The features of these texts that will assist the target student group
include
❑ rhyme
❑ rhythm
❑ repetition
❑ contents, index, glossary
❑ illustrations (diagrams, photos, drawings)
❑ natural language
❑ predictability
❑ a range of authors
❑ authentic information
❑ up-to-date information

• The texts include the following support materials:

❑ teacher’s notes
❑ CD-ROM
❑ audiotapes
❑ videotapes/DVDs
❑ big books
❑ small book versions

• These texts are relatively

❑ expensive
❑ well priced
❑ inexpensive

Figure 1.15

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 Reading Resource Book

Storing Texts
Once texts have been purchased, deciding where and how to store
the reading material collection can be an ongoing concern. Issues
that frequently arise include access, co-ordination between teachers,
and how to limit the loss of material. It is important to house the
material in a central location and in a way that can be easily
accessed. The reading material collection could be organized by
– reading series
– levels within the reading series
– text forms
– suggested grade levels

It is valuable if someone can monitor the reading collection and

keep it in order. These tasks could be achieved in a variety of ways.
• Give one teacher responsibility for the collection, releasing that
person from another duty.
• Rotate responsibility for overseeing the collection, such as one
teacher per month.
• House the reading collection in the library.
• Make use of volunteer help.

It is also important to use a consistent, easy-to-use sign-out system

so teachers are encouraged to make use of all the material available.

Guidelines for Using the School Reading Collection

• When you check out texts, please record the details on the form
provided.
• Please return the texts within five weeks. Be sure to return them so
that other teachers can use them.
• Everyone is responsible for correctly shelving the texts when returned.
• The room will be checked at the beginning of each month.
The schedule is as follows:
February— Mrs. Xavier and Mr. Logan
March—Miss Jackson and Mr. Santeusanio

Selecting Texts for Use in the

Classroom
In the classroom, there will be times when the text is selected by
the teacher, by the students, or jointly by the teacher and students.

Teachers can select texts for recreational, instructional, and

research-related purposes.
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 • Recreational Reading: These materials are based on students’
interests and are read independently by students for enjoyment
and meaningful reading practice.
• Instructional Reading: These materials comprise reading series,
big books, or sets of novels that are used for explicit instruction.
These texts are selected to match students’ reading levels.
• Research-related Reading: These materials involve the use of
reference material, such as library materials, CD-ROMs,
encyclopedias, and the Internet. These texts are primarily used for
research projects.

Selecting Texts for Recreational Reading

It is important to provide a variety of material for students to read
for recreational purposes so that reading is recognized as an
enjoyable experience based on personal choice. Student input into
choices for this collection is also important. This can be gained
through the use of simple surveys conducted at the beginning and
throughout the year. A Reading Interest Survey (see Figure 1.16)
could be used at the start of the school year to find out what types
of materials students like to read. A Text Preference Survey (see
Figure 1.17), used later in the year, will reveal any changing
student interests.

Reading Interest Survey

1 What kinds of texts do you like to read?
❑ Informational ❑ Comics
❑ Mystery ❑ Graphic Novels
❑ Science Fiction ❑ Poetry
❑ Adventure ❑ Online
❑ Fantasy ❑ Other ____________
❑ Horror
2 What is the title of your favourite text?
3 Who are your favourite authors? (List as many as you like.)
4 Name any text you have read more than once.
5 Name any text you didn’t like and explain why.
6 Give the names of some texts you have at home.
7 What are your hobbies and interests?

Figure 1.16

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Text Preference Survey

• What are the different text forms you have read so far this year?
• What text form have you enjoyed reading the most?
• What has been your favourite text this year?
• Who has been your favourite author so far this year?
• Is there any particular topic that you find interesting?
• What publication types have you read the most?

Figure 1.17

Students are often free to choose their texts for recreational

purposes and benefit from being encouraged to read a wide variety.
Recreational reading time in a classroom is an ideal time for the
teacher to model and discuss decisions that influence text selection.

Students in any classroom will span a wide range of reading ability

levels and need to know how to select texts at an appropriate level
of difficulty to suit the identified purpose.

Many different criteria contribute to text difficulty, including

vocabulary, sentence structure, and the complexity and density of
ideas. Although readability measures often account for most of
these factors in an attempt to “level” texts, it is difficult to measure
the match between a reader’s prior knowledge and the content of a
text. Global assessments of text difficulty by teachers who know the
social and cultural prior knowledge of the readers are generally
quicker and as accurate as the more sophisticated methods.

A common way of classifying texts, according to their difficulty, is to

use the following labels—independent, instructional, and frustrational.

• Independent level means the highest level at which a student

can read easily and fluently, without assistance, with 95 to 100
percent accuracy in recognizing words and comprehending
90 percent of the text. A student could read the text alone with
ease.

• Instructional level means the highest level at which a student

can still make meaning, provided preparation and assistance are
received from the teacher. Word recognition is 90 to 95 percent
accurate with at least 80 percent comprehension. These texts are
most appropriate for the explicit teaching of reading.

• Frustrational level is the level at which a student’s reading

strategies break down. Fluency disappears, word recognition
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 errors are numerous, comprehension is below 90 percent and
often signs of emotional tension, discomfort, and a negative
attitude to reading become apparent. This text is too hard for the
reader at this time.

The Five Finger Rule is a simple way that supports readers in

judging text difficulty levels. When using the Five Finger Rule,
students select a text based on interest or purpose and turn to a
page towards the beginning. They read the page and for each
unknown word, they put a finger down, in order, starting with the
little finger. If the thumb is put down before reaching the bottom of
the page, the text may be too difficult at that time. The reader
might want to select another text.

There will be times when students select texts below or above their
independent level. Like adult readers, students will choose light,
entertaining material or persist successfully with more complex
material because the topic interests them. The key point is that
students choose to read.

Within the classroom environment, the recreational reading material

can be positioned accessibly in a reading corner or the class library.
This section of the room could be attractive and well organized so it
is conducive to reading enjoyment. Comfortable seating, such as
beanbags and throw pillows, and colourful displays of texts will
promote reading and invite participation.

The students, with teacher support, can decide how the texts and
other reading materials are organized. Texts could be sorted by
form, author, or series. It is advisable to rotate the display on a
regular basis and highlight new additions to the collection or a
student’s favourite book. Including students’ publications as part of
the collection helps to maintain interest.

Many different sign-out systems for borrowing from the class

collection can be used. These include any of the following.
• Have the students write titles and dates in a notebook.
• Create systems that can be managed by selected student librarians.
• Instead of a sign-out system, rely on an honour system.

There will always be loss of some texts throughout the year due to
natural wear and tear as well as those that “just disappear.” If
students are taught correct handling techniques, even paperbacks
can last several years. It is advisable to have a process in place for
the maintenance of the collection. Some classrooms have parent
volunteers rostered to repair damaged texts.
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Selecting Texts for Instructional Reading

As well as having a wide variety of material for students to read for
recreational purposes, a classroom needs to have a supply of material,
selected by the teacher, to be used for instructional purposes. The
selection of this material will be closely linked to the Major Teaching
Emphases in First Steps Reading Map of Development, Canadian
Edition. A variety of texts at different levels of difficulty will be
required for whole-class, small-group, and individual instruction.
The following table (see Figure 1.18) illustrates how a teacher used
the Major Teaching Emphases as a basis for making decisions about
text selection.

Linking Text Selection to First Steps Reading Map of Development, Canadian Edition
Major Teaching Emphases and Instructional Approaches

Reading Phase Substrand Major Teaching Instructional Text Selected

Emphases Approach
Experimental Use of Texts Read and reread Reading Aloud to A poster of a song
a variety of texts, Students or poem the
both literary and (whole class) students have
informational. learned

Experimental Contextual Draw students’ Shared Reading A big book copy of

Understanding attention to the (whole class) a text such as The
ways people or Paper Bag Princess
characters are by R. Munsch,
represented in which represents
texts and discuss fairy-tale characters
alternatives. in different ways

Experimental Conventions Build students’ Guided Reading Seven copies of

knowledge about (6 students in a First, Take the
different text group) Flour… by Isabel
forms, e.g., Bissett
purpose, structure,
and organization.

Experimental Processes and Consolidate known Modelled Reading Goodnight Moon by

Strategies comprehension Margaret Wise
strategies and Brown
teach additional
strategies, e.g.,
connecting.

Figure 1.18 One teacher’s matching of texts, Major Teaching Emphases, and instructional approaches

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 Reading material that is used for instructional purposes needs to
be easily accessible for the teacher. These materials need not be
accessible to students prior to their use. Teachers may wish to use
some materials sight unseen for the purpose of seeking predictions
and maintaining interest. After students have been exposed to the
materials in instructional lessons, it can be useful to have them
available for ongoing reading and revisiting.

Selecting Texts for Research-related Reading

Functional reading occurs when students access texts, such as Web
sites, encyclopedias, subject-specific texts, and CD-ROMs, in order
to gather information for a particular purpose. Projects in health
education, science, and social studies often require students to
gather information from a variety of sources and present it in some
way, e.g., report, poster, speech, or PowerPoint presentation.

Materials for research-related reading may not be housed in the

classroom on a permanent basis. Often, the rich source of these
texts is the school library. Schools use a variety of systems to allow
students access to library resources. In addition, at various times
throughout the year, teachers might organize a bulk loan of
material relevant to a particular topic. This material from a school
or public library is kept in the classroom for an extended time.
Encourage students to access material available from sources
outside the school, such as the community library and home
environment, as well.

Selecting Texts to Send Home

Texts taken home are used to help develop a love of reading and
practise those reading strategies that are being taught. Reading at
home can accelerate the acquisition of reading strategies, improve
vocabulary and comprehension, and help develop automaticity and
fluency.

Sometimes, the home-reading material will be chosen by the

teacher and other times, the students will make their selections.
Students can be encouraged to use the Five Finger Rule to guide
their selections. There will be times when students select texts that
are too easy or too difficult for them. It is essential to communicate
to parents your assessment of students’ self-selected texts and share
the most appropriate home-reading experience for the student with
that text. One way to communicate this easily to the parents is
through the use of different coloured tags.

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For example:
• A red tag indicates that the student should be able to read the
text independently.
• A blue tag indicates that the student will need support to read
the text.
• A green tag indicates the text is best read to the student.

The amount of time spent on home reading and the way it is

organized will vary. With younger students, more direction may be
necessary and the teacher may select the text that is read. A
recording of the texts can be kept and the parents can be asked to
sign the entry to indicate that the reading occurred. With older
students, selection of material and choice about how much is to be
read could be individual decisions. Older students can also keep a
record of the material that they read. Teachers can create guidelines
as to how much time should be spent reading each week, but allow
flexibility as to how this occurs.

Helping Parents Understand Home Reading

With any reading that occurs at home, the key is clear communi-
cation between the teacher and the parents so that students
develop a lifelong love of reading. Newsletters, e-mails, and parent
information sessions at the beginning of the school year are
effective ways of informing parents about guidelines and the
expected outcomes of reading at home.

It is also important to alert parents to the variety of ways of

providing opportunities for students to read at home. Students will
benefit from reading at home in any of the following ways:
• reading aloud to a parent, sibling, or other relation
• reading silently and discussing with a parent—discussion could be
about the content of the text, reactions to the text, difficulties
experienced, strategies used, visual images created, links to other
reading material.
• reading silently with no questions asked—this is quite common
for adult readers so students should be allowed to do the same.
• reading along with a parent, sibling, or other relation
• listening to a text read aloud

It is important to inform parents how they can make oral reading a

positive experience for students in the home setting. Cards that will
provide parents with information about supporting oral reading are
available on the First Steps Reading Resource Book CD-ROM.

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 Supporting Oral Reading at Home
If your child makes a If your child comes to an If your child makes a If your child makes a
mistake and corrects the unfamiliar word and mistake which does not mistake which does make
error… pauses… make sense… sense…

• Offer praise or support for • Wait and give time to • Wait to see if a correction • Do nothing until the child
making the correction. work it out. is made and offer praise if has finished.
• If the guess is successful, that happens. Otherwise, • When the reading is
encourage your child to ask, “Does that make finished, go back to the
read on to maintain sense?” word and say, “The word
meaning. • Ask a question that will you said here makes sense,
• If your child is likely to give a clue to what the but let’s take a closer look
know the word, go back word is, e.g., “Where will at it. I notice it starts
to the beginning of the he go to catch the train?” with...”
sentence to have another • If your child is unlikely to • You may wish to discuss
go at it. know the word, say it the letters of the word
• Ask for a word that begins quickly and encourage the and see if your child can
with the same letter and child to read on. Later, think of any other words
would make sense. when the whole text has with similar letters.
been read, go back to
• Ask a question that will unknown words and help
give a clue to the your child use other word
meaning, e.g., “How do identification strategies
you think Johnny feels? such as these:
Angry?” – sounding out individual
• If your child is unlikely to sounds in a word
know the word, say it – sounding out chunks of
quickly and encourage words, e.g., base or root
further reading to of the word, prefixes
maintain fluency and and suffixes
avoid loss of meaning. – looking at the words
• Ask your child to look at around it
the pictures for a clue.

Figure 1.19

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CHAPTER 2

Contextual
Understanding
Overview
The Contextual Understanding substrand focuses on how the
interpretation, choice of language, and shaping of a text vary
according to the context in which it is used. From an early age,
children know that the language used in the playground may not
be as appropriate or effective in another context. Several factors
influence the use of language:

• purpose of communication
• subject matter
• mode of communication (spoken, written, visual)
• roles and relationships between the participants
• social situation

It is important that students are provided with opportunities to

reflect on how language varies and needs to be amended according
to purpose, subject, mode of communication, roles, and social
situations.

Included in this chapter is Section 1— Developing Contextual

Understanding.

Figure 2.1
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 SECTION 1

Developing Contextual
Understanding
Refuse to be put in a basket

The two different readings and two different meanings of the above
sign depend on where the reader places the emphasis in the first
word. This sign exemplifies the role of Contextual Understanding in
language. If the reader assumes refuse to be trash or rubbish, it
could be assumed that the sign is a command or a direction from an
authority in a particular place such as a school or public park. If the
reader assumes refuse to mean decline, then the sign takes on a
more abstract, deeper meaning about not conforming with
mainstream beliefs. The sign may be found on a bumper sticker or
as a T-shirt slogan.

Much hinges on where the sign is located, who put it there, and
the relationship between the writer and the reader. The collective
situational aspects of the reading, and the social and cultural
perceptions of the writer and the reader, make up what is known
as Contextual Understanding.

Contextual Understanding and

Critical Literacy
Contextual Understanding is an awareness of how the context
affects the interpretation and choice of language. From an early age,
children become aware that the spoken language varies according
to the situation in which it is used. Children often receive timely
feedback about what they have said and how they have said it.
However, the development of Contextual Understanding by a
reader is often less overt and requires explicit teaching. Students
need to be aware, for example, that an advertisement on a Web site
is aimed at persuading them to buy something and will use a
number of devices to influence them.

Critical literacy is an approach to literacy that involves analyzing

and questioning texts to reveal the beliefs and values behind the
surface meanings, and to see how a reader can be influenced and

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affected. By closely questioning the premises of texts, readers

become aware of how language is used to position particular social
and cultural groups and practices, often preserving relationships of
power. For example, a reader may question a historical account of
land settlement that leaves out or understates the importance of an
indigenous population. Because critical literacy can challenge
existing power relationships and social practices, it is inevitably
political, so teachers need to reflect regularly on what constitutes
critical literacy in the classroom, and its impact on the school
community.

To be critically literate, students need to know how context affects

the interpretation of language. Having an understanding of
situational and socio-cultural contexts equips a reader with the
fundamental knowledge to deconstruct, analyze, and closely
question texts. Although Contextual Understanding and critical
literacy are not synonymous, teaching students to be aware of the
relationship between context and the interpretation of language
provides a sound foundation for critical literacy approaches.

Contextual Understanding and

Reading
To become effective readers, students need to become aware of the
ways the author or illustrator has used devices for various effects in
the text and how this influences them as readers. Readers need to
be taught about situational context and socio-cultural context,
including how their own view of the world leads them to make an
interpretation of a text. Students need to understand how and why
their interpretations may differ from the interpretations of others.

Even the simplest texts carry messages that reflect the background,
biases, and culture of the author and illustrator.

Situational Context
An author’s choice of language can vary according to the context in
which it is used. Several factors influence this choice of language:
• the author’s purpose of communication
• the subject matter
• the text product type — report, e-mail, formal letter
• the roles and relationships between the communicating
participants — memo from a company director to the employees,
letter from a company director to a mother

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 Changing any of these factors may have an impact on the language
being used.

The same factors influence how a reader uses and interprets text.
The reader is influenced by
• the purpose for reading
• personal knowledge and familiarity with the topic or subject
• the situation in which the reading takes place
• the relationship between the author and the reader

Socio-cultural Context
These are broader influences that have an impact on language
usage. All texts reflect, to some extent, the expectations and values
of the social and cultural groups of the time they were written. This
understanding of socio-cultural context involves knowing that
• the way people use language both reflects and shapes their socio-
cultural outlook—the beliefs, values, and assumptions of their
socio-cultural group, especially with regard to gender, ethnicity, and
status
• texts will be interpreted differently by different people according
to their socio-cultural background—awareness of the influence of
socio-cultural factors on composing and comprehending texts
is pivotal
• language and culture are strongly related
• language is intentionally crafted, communicated, and manipulated
to influence others, often to maintain or challenge existing power
relationships between groups, such as employers and employees,
businesses and consumers, and governments and citizens
• various forms of English used around the world reflect and shape
socio-cultural attitudes and assumptions, including variations of
standard English generally used in formal communication,
education, and some professional settings

When authors write texts, their socio-cultural contexts will

influence the type of language they use. Likewise, the moment a
text is picked up by a reader, the reader’s view of the world, society,
and culture will influence the reading and interpretation of the
text. Texts are not neutral. Each reader will have a different reading
of the text according to what he or she brings to that text. For
example, an environmentalist and a mining engineer might react
very differently to a report on Antarctica as each person reads the
text with a different set of values, beliefs, and understanding about
the topic.

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Why Teach Contextual

Understanding?
The world today is swamped with information from a range of
media and a variety of sources. Developing Contextual
Understanding allows students to analyze this information and
• become aware that texts are open to several valid interpretations
• monitor, assess, and reaffirm their understandings of texts
• recognize the power of texts and how they can influence readers
to take a certain point of view
• recognize and evaluate the beliefs that influence texts
• make informed decisions about their view on specific topics
• become aware that language is constructed, used, and manipulated
in powerful ways

A wide variety of materials is necessary for teaching Contextual

Understanding. Authentic reading materials, such as magazines,
advertising brochures, food packaging, and newspapers, often
reveal more about the beliefs, values, and assumptions of the
authors than school books. However, old reading series that are
often deemed “politically incorrect” and fairy-tales are worth
examining closely as they reflect the values of times and
circumstances that contrast with modern, dominant social norms.

What Students Need to Know

If students are going to be able to offer opinions and justify and
substantiate those opinions, they need to be aware of the following.
• Authors and illustrators present a view of the world that can
be challenged.
• Authors and illustrators represent facts, events, characters, and
people in different ways.
• Authors and illustrators use devices to achieve a specific purpose.

Authors and illustrators present a view of the

world that can be challenged.
• Texts can be looked at from various points of view.
• Texts are selective versions of reality, told from a particular point
of view.
• There is no one right interpretation of a text. It is possible to
challenge and resist the preferred or dominant reading and the
way people, places, and events are depicted.
• Authors write for a particular audience and assume that audiences
have specific cultural knowledge and values.
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 • The values of a dominant group or culture are often represented
as the norm.
• There are gaps and silences in every text. Readers will fill these
gaps differently based on their own socio-cultural contexts.

Authors and illustrators represent facts, events,

characters, and people in different ways.
• Facts and events are chosen or omitted and then represented by
authors and illustrators to present a particular point of view.
• Characters from literary texts are not real, but are constructed by
authors and illustrators to create a particular representation.
• When creating informational texts, authors select information to
represent people in a certain way.

Consider the following text representations of people.

Text What Does This Say About…?

Often the class would have parties Gender
where the girls would bring
something they had cooked, and
the boys brought the drinks.
Day after day, Grandma sat in her Age
chair, rocking back and forth,
unaware of most of what was
happening around her.
The librarian peered over the top Occupation
of her spectacles, shook her bob
of greying hair, and narrowed her
eyes.
Everyone except Jake went to see Socio-economic status
the show. His dad had spent the
house-keeping money on a horse
race.
Each captain took turns to pick Physical appearance
kids for their teams until only the
skinny kids with glasses remained.
We asked Phuong to join our Cultural background
group because we wanted
someone who was good at
mathematics.
The farmer was confused by the Geographical background
modern escalator.
Figure 2.2 These representations of people are constructed by the authors.

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Authors and illustrators use devices to achieve

a specific purpose.
Devices Used by Authors
Authors use language devices to influence the reader. Their use of
language devices often reveals their socio-cultural background. To
comprehend a text and interpret the author’s message, a reader
needs to understand the socio-cultural perspective from which
a text is written.

Authors also choose language devices that suit the situational

context of the language event. This context encompasses purpose,
subject matter, and relationship between author and reader.

Consider the following devices used by authors.

Analogy
Using analogy involves the comparison of one thing with another,
sometimes extending the comparison too far in seeking to persuade,
e.g., A classroom is just like an extended family, so every student
deserves the sort of care and affection that parents generally provide.

Incentives
This persuasive device is commonly used in advertising. Bonuses,
free products, discounts, and privileges are offered to the reader,
e.g., Buy one ticket—get one free.

Connotation
Connotation refers to the suggestion of a meaning by a word
beyond what it explicitly denotes or describes. The suggestion
can create positive or negative influences.

Millionaire Sophie Enwright had a reputation for being thrifty.

Millionaire Sophie Enwright had a reputation for being stingy.
Millionaire Sophie Enwright had a reputation for being frugal.
Millionaire Sophie Enwright had a reputation for being penny-wise.

Euphemism
News articles often use a euphemism or a mild expression in place
of a blunt one. For example, the word develop can refer to spoiling
natural terrain to put in a housing subdivision.

Exaggeration
Exaggerating involves the use of sweeping statements, e.g., The
megacity is a hotbed of crime.

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 Figurative language
Figurative language refers to using language not meant to be read
literally. Types include similes (e.g., cute as a button), metaphors
(e.g., he was a lion in battle), idioms (e.g., it’s raining cats and dogs),
and hyperbole (e.g., I could eat a horse). The understanding of
figurative language is determined by a shared socio-cultural context.

Flattery
Flattery (particularly in advertising) involves an appeal to the
reader’s self-image, including the need to belong or the need for
prestige, e.g., You can look as young as you feel. Flattery also includes
association—discrediting or enhancing a position by association with
some other person, group, or idea, e.g., You want to hire her? That’s
the kind of political correctness I’d expect from the NDP.

Flashback
This device, commonly used in literary texts, explores events that
have occurred previously and have had an impact on the current
situation. Flashback is often achieved through dream sequences,
calling up of memories, or the narration of one of the characters.
Flashback may be used to create a sense of nostalgia or to illustrate
selective recall.

Foreshadowing
Foreshadowing is a device commonly used in literary texts to hint
at what is to come and perhaps create suspense. For instance, in
one scene a character might be described as having a bad cough; in
a later one, be deathly ill.

Inclusion of details
Authors select only those details that support their perspectives.
Other details that would contradict a perspective are omitted.

Irony, wit, and humour

Irony, wit, and humour are devices that rely heavily on a shared
socio-cultural context to achieve the author’s purpose.

Irony uses a contrast between the reality and the expectation, what
is said and what is meant, or what appears to be true and what is
true, e.g., As he watched the rain fall, Peter remarked, “Lovely day for
a picnic.”

Wit refers to the perception and expression of a relationship between

seemingly incompatible or different things in a cleverly amusing way.

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Humour is the perception, enjoyment, or expression of something

amusing, comical, incongruous, or absurd.

Irrelevance
Irrelevance refers to the deliberate inclusion of points or arguments
that do not contribute to the main idea; the aim is to distract the
reader.

Omission of details
As presented in Figure 2.3, the author has omitted the facts that
Jones’s two major rivals had been injured and were unable to
compete. The effect is misleading or distorted information.

Overgeneralization
This is the use of a statement that encompasses a wide group of
people or situations and is not based on fact, e.g., Everyone knows
that…dogs are smarter than cats. Jones Blitzes Field
Oversimplification The brilliant Archie
This occurs when a simple (and often single) statement is used to Jones yesterday empha-
explain a situation that is the result of complex and interwoven sized his dominance
factors, e.g., The Allies won the Second World War because of their over other sprinters
ascendancy in the air. when he won the
Regional 100 m Sum-
Personification mer Sprint. Jones led
Personification means to give human qualities to inanimate objects from start to finish,
and abstract ideas, e.g., The XYZ Company believes…, The stuffed leaving his opponents
bear smiled as he was lifted from the ground. trailing in his wake.

Personalization Figure 2.3 Omission of

This involves adopting a tone of intimacy through the use of details

personal pronouns, e.g., We were attacked because of who we are

and what we believe. Personalization can include commands, e.g., Your
country needs you! and rhetorical questions, e.g., Are you getting a
fair deal at work?

Print size and font selection

Choosing specific words to be printed in bold type, italics, colour, Squids Will Be
or in a larger font size can indicate aspects the author feels are Squids, written by
Jon Scieszka and
important for the reader to notice. Different fonts can be used for illustrated by Lane
different reasons. A character’s thoughts, for instance, could be Smith, makes
effective use of font
shown in italicized type. and print size.
Quoting someone out of context
Quoting someone out of context to mislead or influence the reader
can create bias. Authors often select a particular section of a written
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 or spoken text, possibly using it to present a different impression or
point of view than that originally intended.

Consider the differ- Repeating words or ideas

ence, for instance, Repetition is used to persuade readers by emphasizing particular
in saying “brilliant
performance” when parts of a text, e.g., The company has offered no support to the
the rest of the community. Nil. None. Zilch.
sentence is “Her
brilliant performance Symbolism
was the show’s only
redeeming feature.” A symbol is anything that can be used to represent something else,
e.g., a red rose as love, a seed as hope.

To understand the symbols used in text, the reader needs to share

a similar cultural background to the author. Symbols are often
culturally specific and the same meaning may not be understood
between cultures, e.g., The colour white is associated with most
weddings in Canada, but with funerals in Bali.

Sarcasm and satire

Sarcasm and satire rely heavily on a shared socio-cultural context to
achieve the author’s purpose. Sarcasm is scathing language that is
intended to offend or ridicule. Satire ridicules human weaknesses,
vices, or follies with the intention of bringing about social reform.

Testimony
The use of quotations from experts or people positively associated
with a situation or product is called testimony. Testimony also
includes the use of statistics, e.g., Nine out of 10 dentists agree that…

Understatement
Understatement is used when trying to downplay the gravity of a
situation or event, e.g., In the recent tornado, a number of trees lost
branches. (Many older trees suffered split trunks and had to be cut
down.)

Devices Used by Illustrators

Illustrators use visual devices to try to influence the reader. Consider
the following devices used by illustrators.

Amount of detail
Illustrators include varying amounts of details to enhance and
complement the text. In a single picture, details can convey
information that would take an author many sentences. Details also
tend to give a more realistic feel to the illustrations.

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Artistic style Consider how

The artistic style refers to the way the illustrations are rendered. The Antoine de Saint-
Exupéry’s drawings
artistic style may tend towards realistic or towards representational. support his famous
In realistic art, subjects and objects are portrayed with detailed book The Little
Prince.
accuracy, as they would be in real life; in representational art, the
illustrator may be trying to show an inner reality or imaginative
qualities. The artistic style conveys a certain message to the reader
and reinforces the text.

Colour
Colours have symbolic meaning. Illustrators often choose colours to
create certain effects. Strong bold colours may indicate happiness;
dark sombre colours may indicate lack of hope.

Composition and page design

The placement of visual elements on a page or in a text is another
device illustrators use. Objects placed in the foreground tend to
have more prominence than those in the background. Visual
elements placed on the right-hand page have prominence over
those on the left. Newspapers exploit this prominence by increasing
the cost of advertisements in that section of the page. An illustrator
or book designer can also attract the reader’s attention through the
use of white spaces in the page design.

Medium
Medium refers to the material or technique an illustrator has used,
e.g., collage, charcoal, watercolours, photographs. The choice of medium
by the illustrator can provide readers with clues about the message or
purpose of the text, e.g., photographs suggest the text is realistic.

Size
Illustrators may indicate the more important characters or people
by making them larger than others. The relative sizes of visual
elements may also change at different places in a text as different
points are emphasized.

Supporting the Development of

Contextual Understanding
Contextual Understanding is an integral part of a comprehensive
approach to teaching reading. It is best taught within the context
of established instructional approaches to reading. See Chapter 1:
Use of Texts for more on these approaches.

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 Modelled Reading provides an ideal forum for the teacher to think
aloud to demonstrate how the text is being examined during the
reading.

Shared Reading enables the students and the teacher to question the
text and the author’s motives together, jointly constructing meaning.

Guided Reading is a forum for students to work using a teacher-

provided scaffold to pose revealing questions at pre-determined
checkpoints.

Effective teaching and learning practices can also provide a

springboard for supporting the development of Contextual
Understanding.

These effective teaching and learning practices include

See Chapter 7 of
Linking Assessment, • familiarizing
Teaching and • discussing
Learning for more on
these effective • analyzing
teaching and • investigating
learning practices. • innovating
• simulating
• reflecting

Familiarizing involves bringing different texts and different

aspects of texts to the attention of students. Material such as
greeting cards, cereal boxes, and magazine advertisements can be
collected, compared, displayed, and discussed.

Discussing is central to helping students analyze text well. Initially,

teachers may stimulate discussion by posing critical questions about
gender stereotypes in folk and fairy-tales or persuasive devices in
junk mail advertisements or magazine articles. A scan of the cover
of a book may lead to a question about the intended audience or
whether the text appears to be literary or informational. In time,
students can effectively examine texts alone, posing many of the
questions listed later in this chapter (see p. 68).

Predicting and confirming are also important aspects to be

discussed. By discussing these aspects, students may then be able to
detect familiar patterns of dominant cultural values in texts.

Analyzing texts involves examining parts of the texts to reveal the

social and cultural values that are embedded in them. This analysis
is often accomplished by comparing similar texts. Consider the
following.

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• Compare two versions of the same story, event, or phenomenon.

• Compare the way characters or groups of people are portrayed
in different texts.
• Compare the characters, setting, or plot of two literary texts.
• Compare the points of view, accuracy, validity, and currency of
factual accounts. Include a comparison of the perspectives
adopted by the media in different parts of the world and by
different interest groups.

Analyzing parts of a text can also mean identifying devices that an

author or illustrator has used. This aspect of analyzing may include
finding examples of bias, exaggeration in text, or the use of colour
in illustrations or photographs.

Investigating a text can encompass finding out, analyzing, and

questioning who has written the text, when, for what purpose, and
how the author or illustrator has chosen to convey the message.
Investigators might focus on who owns a magazine or sponsors a
Web site, whether the author has credibility in the field, and who is
the text’s target audience.

Innovating by amending an existing text or transforming a text by

re-creating it in another genre, form, mode, medium, or format
enables students to disrupt the reading of a text. Students are able
to deconstruct and reconstruct parts of a text to reveal different
perspectives. Several fairy-tales have already been the subject of
innovations, changing gender roles or altering the time or place.
Simpler innovations could involve substituting alternative words for
those with excessively positive or negative connotations. Innovation
can also incorporate removing parts of a text or adding parts, such
as a sequel or postscript.

Simulating involves assuming the role of another person or group

of people to interpret a text from a different viewpoint. The point of
view may differ on the basis of culture, time, geography, age, gender,
or other factors. Some books are based on varied perspectives, such
as the Aesop fable The Tale of Johnny Town-Mouse, retold by Beatrix
Potter, and provide insights into alternative points of view.

Reflecting can be accomplished by promoting discussion about the

different identities students may assume when reading a text.
Students may, at different times, see themselves as a brother or
sister, a son or daughter, a supporter of the nation, a supporter of
the province or territory, a conservationist, a youth, a member of a
cultural or religious group. Similarly, students can reflect on the

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 divided loyalties that characters in texts may experience when they
confront situations from their different identities.

Reflecting also involves the consideration of personal values that

underpin students’ responses to texts. When responses to reading
are elaborated, students can reflect on how their thinking is driven
by their experiences, beliefs, and attitudes.

Generic Questions for Discussing Texts

Teachers can use the following lists to choose and frame questions
that will stimulate discussion according to the needs of their students,
the text selected, and the purpose of the session. When answering
these questions, students can be expected to respond clearly, justify,
and extend their answers. It may be necessary to ask further
questions such as these:
Q: From whose point of view is the text written?
A: From an adult’s point of view
Q: Why do you think that? or How do you know?

What? (the subject matter)

• What is the text about?
• What type of text is this?
• What do you think the text means?
• What do others think the text means?
• What and who is included or left out?
• What and who is valued or devalued?
Figure 2.4a

Why? (the purpose) When? (the author’s context)

• Why was it written? • When was it written?
Figure 2.4b Figure 2.4c

Who? (the relationship between author and reader)

• Who wrote the text?
• What do you know about the author?
• For whom was the text written?
• From whose point of view was the text written?
• How do your values affect your interpretation of the text?
Figure 2.4d

How? (the style and tone of communication)

• How does the author create the effect achieved?
• How could it have been written differently? (e.g., different genre,
text form, communication mode, text product type)
• How does this text compare with similar texts that you have read?
Figure 2.4e

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CHAPTER 3

Conventions
Overview
The Conventions substrand focuses on the knowledge of the
structures and features of a variety of texts. Students today need to
be aware of the language structures and features that are typical of
standard English so they are able to communicate successfully in
formal settings. This knowledge empowers students to make
choices about the mode of communication, the type of text, the
grammatical structures, the presentation style, and the words that
are most appropriate and effective in a particular setting. They are
able to talk about the choices they have made and the language
structures and features they can recognize in their daily encounters
with language. For example, students preparing a recount of a
school event for a local newspaper may decide (after reading
several newspaper articles) that they need to use a particular text
structure and its grammatical conventions to meet the expectations
of the newspaper’s readers.

This chapter includes information on developing students’ knowledge

and understandings of conventions. The four sections are as follows:
• Section 1 — Developing Phonological Awareness
• Section 2 — Teaching Graphophonics
• Section 3 — Developing Vocabulary Knowledge
• Section 4 — Developing Text-Form Knowledge

Figure 3.1
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 Effective Teaching of Conventions
The long-term goal for all students is that they can use conventions
correctly and independently while reading or writing texts. An
analytic approach where students discover these conventions works
best for engaging students in meaningful teaching and learning.

The following reflects the teaching and learning beliefs underpinning

First Steps Literacy. It can be used as an effective teaching plan of all
conventions outlined in this chapter.

• Assess prior
knowledge.

• Monitor and • Select the curricular

provide feedback. focus.
• Encourage self- • Choose the context
reflection. and the text.

• Model.
• Encourage
• Analyze and
independent
investigate.
application.
• Represent or
capture learning.

• Provide guided
practice activities.

Figure 3.2 Effective teaching of conventions

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Assess prior knowledge.

Assessment is an ongoing process of data collection and evaluation.
When assessing students’ knowledge of conventions, it is suggested
that data be collected in the context of classroom literacy events.
These may include any of the following:
• observing students in the act of reading and writing
• analyzing work products
• involving the students in conversations, e.g., interviews,
conferences, questionnaires

Whichever method is used to collect data, it is important that

teaching decisions are based on an analysis of students’ strengths
and areas of need.

Select the curricular focus and choose the context

and the text.
When selecting conventions for explicit teaching, consider the needs
of the students, their phase of development, and any curriculum
requirements.

Once a focus has been selected, it is necessary to choose an

appropriate context and text. These may include teacher-selected
texts, teacher-written texts, student-written or transcribed texts, or
environmental print.

Model, analyze and investigate, and represent or

capture learning.
Modelling involves showing the students how to correctly apply the
selected convention. Analyzing involves the students in problem
solving, evaluating, and classifying as they investigate the parts to
understand their relationship to the whole and how each part
works. Investigating may involve students looking at letters or
combinations of letters in words, looking at words in the context of a
sentence or paragraph, listening for individual phonemes in words,
or analyzing paragraphs within texts.

If appropriate, the understandings learned can be represented or

captured in some way, perhaps by developing a chart, making a
journal entry, or creating a display.

Provide guided practice activities.

Guided practice activities involve the teacher structuring learning
experiences that provide students with support and scaffolds, as
they practise their growing understandings.

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 Students can be provided with practice activities such as these:
• locating words containing a focus letter or letter combinations
• matching words written on cards to those in the text
• sorting words in a variety of ways
• producing rhyming words
• finding words to fit a given criterion
• identifying patterns in a text

First Steps Reading Map of Development, Canadian Edition, provides

phase-specific, guided practice activities.

Encourage independent application.

Once time has been spent explicitly teaching conventions, teachers
can provide opportunities for this knowledge to be transferred to
other subject areas.

Monitor and provide feedback and encourage

self-reflection.
Ongoing monitoring will ensure that learning experiences are
appropriate for students and where they are at in their
understandings.

The provision of explicit feedback is crucial to students if they are to

refine, reshape, and deepen their understandings of conventions.
It is important that feedback be directed at the strategies or
understandings students are using or attempting to use.

Encourage students to reflect on and record their growing

understandings about conventions.

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SECTION 1

Developing Phonological
Awareness
The minimal unit of sound in speech is called a phoneme; thus, the
terms phonemic awareness and phonological awareness are often used
synonymously.

What Is Phonological Awareness?

Phonological awareness is an ability to recognize, combine, and
manipulate the different sound units of spoken words. An umbrella
term, it includes units of sound larger than the phoneme, such as
syllables, or onsets and rimes. Neither phonological nor phonemic
awareness should be confused with graphophonics, which involves
the use of letters—graphe is Greek for writing.

Differences Between Phonological Awareness and Graphophonics

Phonological awareness is Graphophonics is

• auditory • visual and auditory
• based on speech • based on print
• focused on sounds • focused on letters representing
sounds
Figure 3.3

Developing phonological awareness is an appropriate precursor to

building a solid understanding of graphophonic relationships
(Adams 1990; Juel, Griffith, and Gough 1986). Phonological
awareness is the ability to hear the abstract units of sound in
speech. Consider the following tasks, all of which focus on sound,
as opposed to the sound–letter relationship.

• How many words can you hear in this sentence?

(“Jack is late for school.”)
• Do these two words rhyme? (dog and log)
• Can you say cat without the c?
• Does fox start with the same sound as fish?
• What are the three sounds in the spoken word sat?

Most young students can segment words into syllables, but

segmenting a word into its smallest possible unit of sound,
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 phonemes, is more difficult. Phonemes are not pronounced
individually when spoken as words, but in a blended way. Phonemes
are abstract. They carry no meaning and do not sound the same in
isolation as they do in context. For example, when the word big is
segmented, it sounds like buh – /i/ – guh; extra schwa sounds are
introduced (buh, guh), even though these do not exist in the spoken
word. Students also commonly blend words together because they
do not perceive them as being separate, e.g., havta (have to).

Students who are English Language Learners (ELL) often have

difficulty identifying phonemes in English words, particularly
where their first language does not include similar phonemes or is
not alphabetic.

Many students will develop phonological awareness through

language experiences both at home and at school. Those students
who have played with words when learning rhymes, songs, and
riddles will have had more opportunities to hear the sounds in
words. However, some students will not have had these language
experiences in the home so they may be unaware of phonemes in
words. The teaching of phonological awareness should be part of a
comprehensive literacy approach.

Research indicates that phonological awareness in young students

is one part of effective reading instruction and is highly predictive
of reading and spelling success (Stanovich 1986, 1992; Share and
Stanovich 1995). Phonological awareness is an important factor, but
is not sufficient in and of itself to guarantee reading success (Lyon
1997). While phonological awareness should be an essential part of
reading instruction, it is important that it does not dominate the
reading program.

Studies indicate that the teaching of phonological awareness is most

successful when there is an explicit focus on recognizing and
manipulating sound units. This research also found that instruction
was often enhanced by the inclusion of print (Ehri 1998; Treiman
1992).

What Students Need to Know

The main understandings to be developed in relation to
phonological awareness are as follows:
• word awareness: Spoken language is made up of words; words
are representations of objects (cat), emotions (love), and concepts
(height); words can rhyme.

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• syllable awareness: Some words have a single syllable and others

have more than one.
• onset and rime awareness: Single syllable words are made up of
onsets and rimes.
• phonemic awareness: Words are made up of individual sounds or
phonemes.

There is no evidence to suggest that all students acquire

phonological awareness in a particular developmental sequence.
However, there seems to be agreement that some elements of
phonological awareness appear to be more difficult than others
(Stahl and Murray 1994; Stanovich, Cunningham, and Cramer
1984). For example, students are able to split words into, and
manipulate, onsets and rimes more easily than individual
phonemes (Goswami 1994; Treiman 1992).

Figure 3.4 summarizes the phonological elements and the levels of

difficulty within each element (adapted from Smith, Simmons, and
Kame’enui 1995). When planning for teaching phonological
awareness, both the elements and the level of difficulty within each
element need to be considered. For instance, when students are

Phonological Elements and Levels of Difficulty

Element Easier More Difficult
Size of the word awareness syllable awareness onset and rime phonemic
Phonological Unit awareness awareness

Phoneme Position initial final medial

Number of 1–3 phonemes more than 3 phonemes

Phonemes

Phonological continuants, e.g., stop sounds, e.g., /t/,

Properties /m/, /r/, /f/ /d/, /p/

Phonological isolating blending segmenting manipulating

Dimension

Phonological identifying matching oddity producing

Task “Does dog rhyme “Which one “Which one “Give me a
(illustrated with with log?” rhymes with dog? doesn’t rhyme: word that
rhyming) (cat, log)” toy, cat, boy?” rhymes with
dog.”
Figure 3.4
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 asked to identify individual phonemes, they find it easier to identify
the initial phoneme than the final or medial phoneme. Similarly,
Figure 3.4 indicates that identifying the initial phoneme of a word
is an easier task than producing a word with a given phoneme.

Supporting the Development of

Phonological Awareness
First Steps Reading Map of Development, Canadian Edition, provides
suggestions for appropriate learning experiences for supporting
students’ phonological awareness in the Role Play, Experimental,
and Early phases of development.

Below are further suggestions for developing phonological awareness.

Developing Word Awareness

Reinforcing the Concept of a Word
• Discuss and name familiar objects in the environment, identifying
each as a word, e.g., “That’s a table; ‘table’ is a word.” “Tell me the
words for some of the things you can see in the room.”
• Display the students’ names on a chart at eye level and frequently
refer to the names as words.
• Read a sentence from a familiar text or rhyme and have a student
put a counter into a container for each word heard, e.g., Humpty
Dumpty sat on a wall.

Figure 3.5 Each word in the sentence will be represented by a counter.

• Point to a line of print from a familiar text and have students clap
each word they hear.
• As a familiar poem or rhyme is chanted, students can clap as they
say each word.
• After reading a text, involve the students in oral cloze activities,
where they supply the missing words.

Adding Print
• Write some words from a familiar text onto pieces of card.
Distribute the cards to the students and have them find the words
in the text.
• When using a big book in Modelled or Shared Reading sessions,
point to the words as they are read. Encourage students to join in
on subsequent readings while continuing to point to the words.

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• Draw students’ attention to words in a text by isolating the words

in some way.
• Copy sentences from a text onto strips of card. Have students
place a coloured block on each word and then count
the words.
• Write words from a familiar text or student’s names onto card.
Have students sort the cards into long or short words. Talk about
what makes the words long or short. Prompt students to find
other short or long words.
• Copy a sentence from a familiar text onto a strip of card and have
students cut the sentence into individual words. Have the
students reassemble the sentence in a pocket chart (referring to
the original if necessary), making sure to leave a space between
the words. Ask the students to count the words in the sentence.

Developing an Awareness of Rhyming Words

Developing an
The ability to recognize and generate rhyme is crucial to awareness of
phonological awareness. Being able to recognize rhyme emerges rhyming words
relates to the
before being able to generate rhymes.
phonological tasks
• Read aloud from a wide range of literature featuring rhyme, of identifying,
rhythm, and repetition. matching, noticing
oddity, and
• Read aloud from a wide range of literature featuring word play, producing a word of
such as alliteration or substitution. the same rhyme.
• Jointly create innovations on nursery rhymes by changing the
rhyming words, e.g., Humpty Dumpty sat on a rock. Humpty Dumpty
had a big shock.
• After reading or rereading a rhyming text, select words from the
text and have students suggest other rhyming words or alliterative
words. Accept nonsense words, but label them as such.
• Have students play Physical Rhyme Matching. Deal out a picture
See Linking
card to each student. Students must then find their partner to Assessment, Teaching
make a rhyming pair. Ensure that students repeat the rhyming and Learning,
Chapter 7, for more
pair to reinforce the verbal production of rhymed words. on text innovation
• When reading or rereading familiar rhyming texts, pause before as an effective
saying the rhyming word so students can supply it. teaching and
learning pratice.
• Involve the students in text innovation where they are able to
substitute and manipulate rhymes.

Developing Syllable Awareness

Being able to divide a word into syllables is extremely important
for both reading and spelling. The notion of syllables can be quite
difficult for some students. When introducing syllables, use only
one and two syllable words so the students become comfortable
with the concept.
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 • Use the students’ names to clap out syllables.
• Clap the syllables in a name and have the students guess whose
name it could be.
• Have students use percussion instruments or clap the syllables
when singing or reciting familiar rhymes.
• Have students use physical responses to demonstrate syllables,
e.g., snapping fingers, slapping thighs, stomping feet, tapping the desk.

Developing Onset and Rime Awareness

It is often easier for students to segment words into units larger
than individual phonemes. Having students separate words into
onset and rime may be one way of making the transition from
identifying syllables in words to identifying individual phonemes.
• Use students’ names to play with onset and rime. For example,
say, “It starts with /r/ and it ends with ‘oss’—put it together and it
says…” Have the students guess the name.
• Challenge the children to find different onsets to go with the
rimes they have produced, e.g., b – ash, c – ash, cr – ash.

Common Onsets
All Single Consonants

Initial Consonant Clusters

Two-letter Clusters
/r/ clusters: br, fr, tr, cr, gr, wr, dr, pr
/l/ clusters: bl, cl, fl, gl, pl, sl
/s/ clusters: sc, sk, sm, sn, sp, st, sw
Others: tw
Three-letter Clusters
scr, str, thr, spr, spl, shr, sch, squ

Consonant Digraphs
ch, sh, th, wh

Figure 3.6

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Common Rimes
37 Most Frequently Used
ack ail ain ake ale
ame an ank ap ash
at ate aw ay eat
ell est ice ick ide
ight ill in ine ing
ink ip it ock oke
op ore ot uck ug
ump unk

The above can be used to create more than 500 English words.
(Wylie and Durrell 1970)

Figure 3.7

Developing Phonemic Awareness

Being able to isolate, blend, segment, and manipulate phonemes
enables readers and writers to manipulate and control words with
confidence and ease.

Isolating Individual Phonemes

• Help students to explore the articulation of phonemes. Encourage
them to say each sound and note how their voices and the
position of their mouths change with each sound. Give students
hand-held mirrors to help them examine the movement of their
mouths as the sound is produced.
• Have the students repeat and create tongue twisters. Students’
names can be used to create the tongue twisters, e.g., Hilary’s
horses have hairy hooves or Francis found forty famous football fans.
• Involve the students in picture or word-sorting activities.

Blending and Segmenting

It is important that students have a clear understanding of the
concepts represented by the words sounds, letters, and words before
beginning to blend phonemes into words or segment words into
phonemes. It is often helpful to combine the teaching of blending
and segmenting phonemes with the introduction of print.
• Involve students in activities that require them to count the
phonemes in words. Initially, choose words with up to three
phonemes. Edelen-Smith (1997) suggests that when identifying,
blending, or segmenting phoneme sequences, a CV (Consonant
Vowel) pattern, e.g., pie, should be used before a VC pattern, e.g.,
egg, followed by a CVC pattern, e.g., red.
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 • Have fun with words by playing with them in speech. For example,
have a puppet who overemphasizes initial phonemes, saying “P-
P-P–ut the c-c-c–up on the t-t-t–able.” Encourage the students to
talk like the puppet, first together as a whole class and then
individually.
• Use an elastic band to illustrate how to stretch words into
individual sounds. Say the word at normal speed. Then,
demonstrate how to say the word slowly, stretching the sounds
and stretching the elastic band at the same time.

hippopotamus h-i-pp-o-p-o-t-a-m-u-s

Manipulating Phonemes
Manipulating
phonemes involves • Have students manipulate letters, perhaps Scrabble tiles, magnetic
substituting, letters, or letters made from card, to create or change words.
deleting, and
adding. • Involve the students in playing Sound Take-away.
– Begin by using compound words from the environment. Select
a compound word and demonstrate how to say the word with
a part missing. For example: “This is a skateboard. If I say
skateboard without the board, it says skate. This is a butterfly. If I
say butterfly without the fly, it says butter.” Have students make
up their own from objects in the environment or from pictures
provided.
– Once the students can competently do that with compound
words, move on to removing initial or final sounds from words:
“Pair. It starts with /p/ and ends with air; take the first sound away
and it says air.” Or, “Card. It starts with car and ends with /d/, take
away the /d/ and it says car.” Use the sentence until students are
able to delete sounds with a simple prompt such as “Say ‘shout’
without the /sh/.” A sound deletion that results in a real word
such as pair becoming air or treat becoming tree is easier than
one resulting in a nonsense word such as book becoming ook or
sat becoming sa.
• Show students how to create new words by adding, deleting, or
substituting phonemes, e.g., add /m/ to “eat” to make “meat”; take
the /d/ from “dear” to get “ear”; or change the /f/ in “fat” to a /b/ and
get “bat.”
• Play analogy games: “I’m thinking of a word. It begins like ball
and rhymes with tack. What could it be?” When the students know
more about the alphabet and can do this orally, they can write
the words or make them by manipulating letters.
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SECTION 2

Teaching Graphophonics
When reading texts, readers coordinate many processes and
strategies, including accessing and activating knowledge from the
semantic, syntactic, and graphophonic cueing systems, to make
sense of texts. Graphophonic cues help the reader to see the
correlation between sounds and symbols in written language.

Graphophonics is defined as the study of sound–symbol

relationships as they apply to the alphabetic principle of a written
language. The word is derived from

graph n. visual symbol, esp. letter(s), representing a phoneme or

other feature of speech [f. Gk graphe—writing]
phonology n. study of sounds in a language [f. Gk phone—voice,
sound]

What Students Need to Know

It is important that students understand that letters have a name
and represent sounds in words. Letters may represent a number of
different sounds depending on their position in the word and the
surrounding letters. Letters rarely represent a consistent sound.

For example, the letters ea represent not only the /e–/ sound, but
also different sounds in the words leaf, bread, steak, cereal, create, and
sergeant. However, some sound–symbol representations are more
common than others.

Similarly, students can become confused if led to believe that the

letters ir are the only letters that represent the /ûr/ sound. Students
will likely come across church, earth, were, and work, where different
letters are used. By grouping these words together under the /ûr/
sound, teachers are showing students the multiple possibilities of
sound–symbol relationships that are inherent in the English
language system. The students can then focus on a particular letter
pattern. Students will gradually discover the range of
sounds and representations as their experience of the written
language increases.

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 ē as in feet
e ea y
me cream thirsty
be heat
meal
leaves ey
ee beaver monkey
tree turkey
bees
cheese ei eo
receive people

i e-e ie
ski thief
chief

Figure 3.8 Multiple possibilities

For a sound knowledge of graphophonics, students need to have

the following understandings.
• Letter names are constant, whereas sounds vary. It is important
for students to know the names of the letters of the alphabet to
be able to understand which letters represent particular sounds
and vice versa.
• Letters can represent different sounds, e.g., Andrew, Amy, Audrey.
• Letters sometimes work alone and sometimes in groups, e.g., me,
bread, sheet, team.
• The sound that a letter or a group of letters represents depends on
where the letter is in a word and what other letters surround it,
e.g., cat, city, Christmas, chop.
• The same sound can be represented by different letters, e.g.,
beach, me, key, ski, thief.
• The same letter or letters may represent different sounds, e.g.,
rough, cough, dough, plough.

Researchers, educators, and authors all offer different suggestions

for the sequence of introducing graphophonic understandings. Most
teachers are aware that students do not follow a single order when
developing an understanding of symbol–sound relationships. Con-
sider the needs of students and the requirements of any curriculum
documents when making decisions about what graphophonic
understandings to introduce and when.

The following suggestions have been drawn from a range of

resources and provide a number of options.

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Routman (1991) suggests

• beginning consonants
• final consonants
• consonant digraphs (sh, ch, th, wh)
• medial consonants
• long vowels
• short vowels

The Department of Education, Western Australia (1983) suggests

the following:
When introducing single letters (using letter names and having students
discover what different sounds the letters can make), it is advisable
to begin with those that are visually very different. Here is one such
sequence: s t m b a f c e r o d i h g n y l p u w k v j x z q.

Badenhop (1992) suggests this procedure:

Step 1: Teach p, b; t, d; k, d; s, z; f, v.
Step 2: Teach a, o, i, e, u.
Step 3: Teach m, n, ng, h, w, wh, l, r.
Step 4: Teach th (the), th (moth), sh, ch, j.
Step 5: Teach ee, ea, ai, ay, oo, oo.
Step 6: Teach c, x, qu, y (sky, yolk, jelly, gym).

Step 7: Teach initial and final consonant blends:

Initial blends: sp, st, sc, sk, sm, sn, sl, sw, tw, dw, bl, cl, gl, fl, pl, pr,
br, tr, dr, gr, fr
Final blends: -st, -ft, -lk, -ld, -pt, -sp, -ct, -lp, -lt, -xt, -nd, -nt, -nch,
-mp, -nk
Three-letter blends: thr, spr, squ, spl, shr, str, scr

Step 8: Teach long vowel sounds:

Long e spellings: ee, ea, e-e, y
Long a spellings: ai, ay, a-e
Long o spellings: oe, ow, oa, o-e
Long u spellings: ew, ue, u-e
Long i spellings: ie, i-e, y

Step 9: Teach remaining diphthongs and r-controlled words:

ar, or, ir, er, ur
oi, oy; ou, ow; au, aw

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 Beck (2001) suggests this procedure:
Step 1: Introduce a, d, m, s, t, n, i, h, o, g, p, f, c, b, e, sh, k, ck, j, l,
u, th, r, w, j, x, ch, v, qu, z; building word lists that use the short
vowel sounds, e.g., cat, hit, shop, beg, mug.
Step 2: Introduce the CVCe pattern, e.g., cake, tube, kite, rode, where
the e is used to create the long vowel sound. The recommended
sequence for the CVCe pattern is /a/, /o/, /i/, /u/.
Step 3: Introduce other common ways of spelling the long vowel
sounds, e.g., ea, ee, ai, ay, ow (grow) oi, oy, ou, ow (now).
Step 4: Introduce the r-controlled vowels, such as ar, or, er, ir, ur.

(U.K.) National Literacy Strategy (1999) suggests this procedure:

Step 1: s, m, c, t, g, h
Step 2: ss, ck, l, n, d, k, sh, ch
Step 3: a, e, i, o, u, f, qu, b, r, j, p, th, ng
Step 4: v, w, x, y, z
Step 5: ai, ee, ie, oa, oo, or, ir, oi, ou
Step 6: ay, a-e, ea, igh, y, i-e, o-e, oe, ew, ue, u-e, oy, ow, er, ur, aw, air,
ear, oo

Supporting the Development of

Graphophonics
In recent years, there has been some discussion about whether or
not graphophonics should be taught in the early years of schooling.
It is known that there is a link between students’ knowledge of
graphophonics and their reading ability; therefore, it is not a question
of whether graphophonics should be taught, but how it can be
taught effectively.

The teaching of graphophonics must be explicit and take place in a

context that makes sense to students. Otherwise, students often fail
to apply their graphophonic knowledge when reading a text. The
long-term goal for all students is that they can use graphophonic
understandings independently during the reading or writing of
texts.

While graphophonic proficiency will help readers in pronouncing

the words on the page, this alone will not guarantee that a reader
comprehends the text.

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Research suggests that the brain is a pattern detector rather than an

applier of rules (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking 1999). If brains are
indeed pattern detectors, then it is important to provide students
with many opportunities to investigate letter–sound patterns and
organize their findings so generalizations can be made. An analytic
approach where students discover sounds and rules works best for
engaging students in graphophonic instruction.

Carrying Out Graphophonic Investigations

• After rereading a text, encourage students to find examples of
a specific graphophonic understanding in the text.
• Invite students to circle or underline words that contain the focus
understanding.
• Once words have been identified, discuss the common features of
each word. A sliding mask can be used to isolate any words and
to focus attention on its features.

Figure 3.9 Sliding mask

• List words from the discussion on a chart.

• Ask students to contribute other words, e.g., words with the /ûr/
sound represented by the letters ir. If students contribute words
that have a different letter representation, e.g., church, earth,
worm, accept these words but place them to one side of the chart.
It is important at this stage to show students the multiple
possibilities that exist. However, for explicit teaching, it is equally
important that students’ attention be focused on only one of the
multiple possibilities.

Ways to Spell the /ûr/ Sound

girl earth
bird
stir worm
first
third church

Figure 3.10

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 • Encourage students to search in other texts, such as books,
charted songs and poems, magazines, modelled writing examples,
or written messages, to find further examples.
• Results of these searches can be recorded in a variety of ways and
then used for ongoing discussion and investigation (see Figures
3.11 a, b, and c).

Pattern Words That Fit Words That Books Reviewed

Don’t Fit

ea represents /e–/ leaf bread The Very Hungry

Caterpillar
sea great Where the Forest
Meets the Sea
bead
Figure 3.11a

We found that the letters sh How can we spell the /sh/

can go at the beginning, at sound?
the end, or in the middle of sh ci
a word.
ship brush ship special
shut rush shut
shed cash mushroom
she s ti
shine
sugar station
mushroom
ss
Figure 3.11b
tissue
Figure 3.11c

First Steps Reading Map of Development, Canadian Edition, provides

suggestions for appropriate learning experiences for supporting
students’ graphophonic understandings in each phase of development.

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SECTION 3

Developing Vocabulary
Knowledge
The first vocabulary a child acquires is a listening vocabulary. Most
babies are able to respond correctly to spoken words before they
are able to produce those words themselves (their expressive
vocabularies). When students start to read, they begin to acquire a
reading vocabulary consisting of words they automatically
recognize and understand. They also begin to use words as they
compose written texts, thus developing a writing vocabulary.

What Is Vocabulary?
Vocabulary can be described as the list of all the words a person
knows. Vocabulary knowledge consists of the following:

• words used when speaking or writing

• words understood when listening
• words that can be decoded and understood when reading
• words automatically recognized and understood when reading
(sight vocabulary)

To support the development of reading, it is important to continue

to build vocabulary knowledge in each of the above areas.

Sight vocabulary is the bank of words a reader is able to automatically

recognize, pronounce, and understand in the context in which the
words are used. These words are called sight words because effective
readers recognize them on sight, thus maintaining the speed and
fluency required to make sense of an author’s message. All readers
have a sight vocabulary of words they recognize immediately and
effortlessly.

Stating that students recognize these words effortlessly and

immediately does not mean that students will learn all words as
sight words. However, students can and will recognize by sight
certain words as they will encounter these words many times in
print. Many of these words—high-frequency words—have irregular
spellings, making them difficult to decode. Without having some
words in their sight vocabularies, students’ reading will be slow and

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 laborious as they employ word identification strategies to determine
the pronunciation and meaning.

What Students Need to Know

When working with students to build their reading vocabularies,
Johnson and Pearson (1984) identify three broad categories:

• high-frequency words
• selection-critical words
• multi-meaning words

Students will benefit from teaching and learning experiences that

include vocabulary from all three categories.

High-Frequency Words
High-frequency words are so called because they occur frequently
in all texts. They include function words and concrete words.

Many lists of high-frequency words include function words such as

these:
– noun determiners, e.g., the, a, this, that
– verb markers, e.g., am, have, may
– conjunctions, e.g., and, but, because
– prepositions, e.g., by, under, after
– pronouns, e.g., he, she, they

These words serve particular grammatical functions and are the

glue that holds sentences together. Students often have difficulty
remembering these words, as they cannot be represented by
illustrations or demonstrations or by showing them as objects.

These high-frequency function words occur so often that if students

are able to recognize them automatically, they can then focus on
the meaning of the text. Students need to be able to automatically
recognize many of these words as they are difficult to decode using
word identification strategies.

Other high-frequency words can be represented by illustrations,

demonstrations, or objects, e.g., dad, morning, night, school, little, run,
red. These words are relatively easy to learn because they are real to
students.

Selection-Critical Words
Selection-critical words are words that occur frequently in a
particular text and that a reader must be able to recognize to
understand the text. They are specific to a particular topic. For
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instance, students reading a text about butterflies are likely to

encounter such words as cocoon, caterpillar, antenna, abdomen, thorax,
chrysalis, and life cycle. Students need to understand these words if
they are to successfully understand the overall text. Teachers can
help students with these selection-critical words by determining
those words that may be problematic. Before reading, students can
be involved in activities that will help develop their understandings.

Multi-Meaning Words
Readers encounter new words regularly, but they may not know
the meanings of all the words. Once these words are known,
they are added to a reader’s vocabulary which increases.

A reader will also encounter new words in which they understand

the meaning in one context, but cannot transfer the same meaning
to another context. Even the basic lists of high-frequency words
contain words that have more than one meaning.

Consider the multiple meanings of the word run.

One can
• run in a race
• run a raffle
• have a run in nylon stockings or tights
• run a boat aground
• run an errand
• run in an election
• watch the salmon run
• apply paint too thickly, causing it to run
• run a car
• run across a friend in the street
• be run out of town

When readers learn new meanings for old words, their vocabulary
increases.

Supporting the Development of

Vocabulary
Words are the verbal labels that represent concepts or ideas. Graves
and Graves (1994) make the distinction between vocabulary learning
(learning new labels for known concepts) and concept learning.
When a concept is totally unfamiliar to the students, they need to
develop an understanding of the concept first; vocabulary can be
introduced later. However, if a concept is familiar to the students,

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 then introducing new vocabulary to describe it is a matter of
connecting the new words to an already understood concept. For
example, if students already understand the concept of fair/unfair,
teaching vocabulary such as bias, justice, favoritism, or discrimination
is a matter of introducing new words to the known concept.

Research supports both the direct teaching and the indirect learning
of vocabulary. Certain vocabulary knowledge is acquired indirectly
through reading and discussion (Nagy et al. 1985). It also appears
that direct teaching is more effective for the acquisition of particular
vocabulary (McKeown and Beck 1988).

Learning Vocabulary Indirectly Teaching Vocabulary Directly

Teachers can Teachers can

• provide background experiences • teach specific words

• increase awareness of words • introduce a range of word

identification strategies

• provide a wide range of • teach students how to

everyday language experiences determine the meaning of words

Figure 3.12 Ways to support vocabulary development

First Steps Reading Map of Development, Canadian Edition, provides

further suggestions for appropriate learning experiences for supporting
students’ vocabulary knowledge in each phase of development.

Learning Vocabulary Indirectly

Provide Background Experiences
Providing students with meaningful first-hand experiences is
important for the development and reinforcement of vocabulary.
These experiences can be gained from activities inside or outside
the classroom.

If first-hand experiences are not possible, teachers can facilitate

the development of vocabulary by providing a range of vicarious
experiences through role playing, viewing, speaking and listening,
or further reading.

Increase Awareness of Words

– Discuss words at every opportunity, pointing out the author’s
choice and why it is suitable in the context.
– Encourage students to collect and display new and interesting
words that they come across in their reading.

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– Involve students in word-play activities.

– Jointly construct Word Walls featuring the words students have
collected, e.g., current topic or theme words, words with unusual
spelling patterns, words that interest students.

Provide a Wide Range of Everyday Experiences with Language

Students learn new vocabulary incidentally through everyday
experiences with oral and written language.
– Involve students in discussions that require them to explain and
defend their ideas.
– Build prior knowledge by giving students the opportunities to
discuss topics, themes, or issues before reading.
– Provide opportunities for students to interact with a variety of
people.
– Provide opportunities for students to read and write for a range
of purposes. Reading provides models of rich language that help
students learn many new words, and writing provides authentic
contexts for students to use those words and develop ownership
of them.
– Provide opportunities for students to discuss their reading and the
texts they find interesting.
– Enable and encourage students to read independently.

Teaching Vocabulary Directly

Teach Specific Words
There are two criteria that may be useful when deciding which
words should be directly taught to students.

The first group of words includes those words that students will see
many times in many different contexts. High-frequency words fall
into this group.

The second group of words includes those that are essential for
understanding the major concepts, issues, or themes of a text. Words
in this group are often called selection-critical words, subject-specific
words, topic words, or technical terms. Where direct teaching of
these words is required, teach words in related groups when possible.
Doing this will help the student to create relationships among the
words so the meanings of the words will develop as the relationships
become clearer.

Students working with informational texts or more complex literary

texts often have difficulty with the specialized vocabulary they
contain.

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 When beginning a new text or unit of study, ascertain those
selection-critical words students already know and those that will
need to be introduced.

Once the selection-critical words have been chosen, copy the

sentences in which they will appear. Students can then be given an
opportunity to say whether or not they know the words presented.

Giving the words a rating such as the following might be useful

(Armbruster, Lehr, and Osborn 2001):

unknown: the word is totally unfamiliar and the meaning

is unknown
acquainted: the word is somewhat familiar and the basic meaning is
known
established: the word is very familiar—it is recognized immediately
and the meaning in the context in which it is used is known

Students may find it helpful to record and organize the words on a

graphic organizer. Figure 3.13 provides an outline.

How Well Do I Know These Words?

Unknown Acquainted Established

Don’t know it at all. Have seen or heard the I know the meaning
word before and I of the word in this
think I know the context.
meaning.

Figure 3.13

Introduce a Range of Word Identification Strategies

(See Chapter 4: Section 1—Teaching Comprehension and Word
Identification Strategies.)

Teach Students How to Determine the Meanings of Words

It would be impossible to teach students the meanings of all the
words they will encounter. The words that students need to know
will vary from student to student as their language backgrounds
differ. Instead, consider teaching strategies so students can apply
them independently to determine what new vocabulary means.

The meanings of words can be determined using any of the

following:
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– reference aids
– morphemic analysis
– text features
– context clues

Reference aids
Reference aids include dictionaries, thesauri, experts, glossaries,
and search engines.

Dictionaries provide all the meanings of a particular word. Students,

therefore, need to consider and choose a meaning that best suits
the context in which the word is used.

Glossaries in informational texts are often more useful than

dictionaries as they give the definition of a word in the context
in which it has been used.

Morphemic analysis
Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in words. For example,
the word unreasonable contains three morphemes: un, reason, and
able.

To use morphemic analysis successfully, it is necessary for students

to know about the following word parts and the meaning attached
to each:
– prefixes and suffixes
– base words, including foreign roots
– compound words

With constant practice at discovering the meanings of morphemes,

students will be able to work out meanings for themselves and to
make generalizations.

Text features
Authors include a range of clues that enable readers to determine
the meanings of words. These can be typographical aids, such as
bold or italic print; illustrations, such as photos, sidebars, graphs, and
charts; and structural or navigational aids, including footnotes and
endnotes, a glossary, and an index. Such aids can provide a direct
reference to an unknown word. Teachers can model how to use
them so students can work out the meanings of unknown words.

Context clues
Being able to recognize context clues that enable readers to infer
the meaning of new vocabulary is important when reading.
Effective readers tend to recognize context clues automatically. Less

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 effective readers can be taught how to recognize them. Students
should also realize that not all texts provide sufficient context clues
for readers to infer what unknown words mean.

Figure 3.14, adapted from Vacca and Vacca (1989), illustrates some
of the ways authors include context clues. Students do not need to
be able to define and label these clues; they are provided for
teacher reference and as a guide when selecting content to be
modelled or discussed with students. Understanding what these
clues are and how they work can help students determine the
meanings of unknown words.

Using Context Clues to Infer the Meanings of Unknown Words

Type of Context Clue Definition Example
Definition A direct explanation or description A habitat is a place where an
is given. organism lives.
Linked synonyms A word is linked with another Centipedes are very dangerous
similar word. because they have venom or
poison which can be released into
or onto a victim.
Summary A word is used to summarize Grazing animals, such as rabbits,
previous concepts. sheep, horses, and cattle that eat
only plant material, are called
herbivores.
Compare and An antonym or phrase with an It wasn’t a Conestoga, like Pa’s
contrast opposite meaning is used to define folks came in. Instead it was just
another word. an old farm wagon drawn by one
tired horse.
Cause and effect The cause or result of an unknown Because the man deliberately tried
word enables the meaning to be to get him into trouble, Albert
inferred. became irate.
Example A word is clarified by the use All substances can occur in three
of an example. different states. Water, for
example, can occur in a solid state
as ice, in the liquid state as water,
and in a gaseous state as steam.
Mood or tone The meaning of the word can be The animal screeched and writhed
inferred or hypothesized from the in pain as it tried desperately to
general mood of the sentence. escape from the hunter’s trap.

Figure 3.14

First Steps Reading Map of Development, Canadian Edition, provides

suggestions for appropriate learning experiences for supporting
students’ vocabulary knowledge in each phase of development.
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SECTION 4

Developing Text-Form
Knowledge
Students will encounter an ever-increasing range of texts as they
move through school to adulthood. They will become aware of the
purpose, organization, structure, and language features of a range
of texts. This knowledge will allow students to determine how to
read and understand a text.

What Students Need to Know

It is important for students to develop knowledge of the following
features of different forms of text:
• purpose
• text organization (text framework and features)
• text structure
• language features

Purpose
Texts are written and read for a reason. Readers can become aware
of the decisions that an author makes if they have an understanding
of the author’s purpose.

Purposes for writing a text include these:

– to entertain
– to instruct
– to persuade
– to recount
– to inquire
– to socialize
– to describe
– to explain

Understanding the purpose for reading can influence the way a text
is read. For example, if the purpose is purely for enjoyment, then if
the reader momentarily loses concentration, the outcome is unlikely
to be affected. If the purpose is to learn how to do something, however,
then it is very important that the details and sequences are under-
stood and remembered.

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 Purposes for reading a text include these:
– to experience enjoyment
– to locate specific information
– to gain a better understanding of the world
– to understand new concepts
– to expand vocabulary
– to make connections to our lives
– to seek answers to problems
– to satisfy curiosity
– to expand imagination
– to learn how to perform a task
– to find good models for writing
– to understand different cultures
– to understand different perspectives and points of view

Text Structure
The term text structure refers to the way ideas, feelings, or
information is linked within a text. It is important for students to
understand the types of patterns that are used to link and organize
information. These include
– compare and contrast
– cause and effect
– problem and solution
– listing: logical or chronological sequence, collection of details,
enumeration
– description

These text structures can be found not only in informational texts,

but also in literary texts. The structure an author chooses to use
is often a good indication of the intended message. If readers are
aware of the words authors use to signal the text structure, it will
help them comprehend a text.

Compare and Contrast

A compare and contrast structure attempts to explain how two or
more objects, events, or arguments are similar or different. To
understand a compare and contrast text, readers need to link
together the comparison and the contrast.

There are many words and syntactic patterns that signal the
compare and contrast structure. These include the following:

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Compare and Contrast Words

similarly on the other hand
otherwise but
yet notwithstanding
the opposing view not only…but also…
in spite of in contrast
instead however
meanwhile although
compared with different from
alike

Figure 3.15

Other types of words that can be used to indicate the compare and
contrast structure include
– comparatives and superlatives, e.g., Mount Olympus is high, but
Mount Everest is higher.
– antonyms in subsequent sentences, e.g., Elephants are herbivores.
Lions are carnivores.
– verbs that imply, compare, and contrast, e.g., Our new house
resembled our old house in many ways.

Cause and Effect

A cause and effect text structure is used to show causal
relationships between events. This text structure examines previous
circumstances and consequences. To understand a text that uses
cause and effect structure, readers are required to
– recognize the cause and effect relationship
– find the idea associated with the cause and the effect
– use the signal words to link these ideas

Words used to signal a cause and effect structure include the

following:

Cause and Effect Words

because as a result of
then so
therefore accordingly
due to consequently
nevertheless this resulted in
if cause
effect
Figure 3.16

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 The choice of adjectives, nouns, and verbs can also imply a cause
and effect structure, e.g., Lack of exercise may lead to obesity.
(A causal relationship is implied.)

Problem and Solution

A problem and solution text structure identifies a problem and then
attempts to generate solutions or ways of overcoming the problem.
To understand a text that uses problem and solution structure,
readers are required to
– recognize the difficulty
– identify the suggested solutions

A problem and solution structure and a cause and effect structure

are often confused. The difference between the two is that a problem
and solution structure implies intervention using a conscious action
whereas a cause and effect structure does not.

Words used to signal a problem and solution structure include these:

Problem and Solution Words

one reason for that a solution to this
the problem is one response is
this leads to to prevent
question answer
trouble difficulty
solved propose
Figure 3.18

Listing (also called Sequence or Enumeration)

A listing text structure explains the characteristics of people,
animals, objects, or places. As a broad category, this text structure
draws on lists, collections of details, and sequences. To understand
a text that uses a listing structure, readers need to identify and
accumulate the information and order it in some way.

A list is a set of items related in some way. The way the items are
related often provides the title of the list. Lists are usually set out
vertically although they can also be embedded in a text, e.g., When I
go to the beach, I take a towel, my hat, and some sunscreen. Writers
also use numbers, letters, and bullets to present information in lists.

Sequences are lists. However, the information in these lists has

been ordered in some way. The information can be sequenced
using chronological, numerical, or spatial order.

A collection of details is also a list. Usually these are a series of

statements arranged in no particular order.
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Words used to signal a listing structure include the following:

Listing Words
Sequence:
Unlike the linear
earlier finally
listing text
after this next structure, the
first second description text
presently subsequently structure can be
seen in this way:
in addition eventually
to begin with on (date)
below beside
inside
Collection of Details: Signal words for the
description pattern
an example for instance include above,
such as and so on across, behind,
another in fact below, between,
looks like, and such
several as.
Figure 3.18

Text Organization
Text organization refers to the way a text is physically laid out. It
includes the text framework, or the order in which information is
presented. Most texts start with an orientation, or introduction, of
some kind. However, the content of the introduction will vary
according to the text form. For example, the introduction of a Text features can
recount includes who, when, where, and what; the introduction of a help the reader
navigate text. If
report defines and classifies the subject. Having an understanding of well designed, they
the text framework can help readers to locate specific information. clarify meaning and
make finding
It is also important for readers to understand the terminology, information easier.
function, and ways to use a range of text, or organizational,
features, e.g., headings, subheadings, diagrams, tables. The following
table summarizes many of the organizational features in a text that
readers will encounter when reading a range of texts.

Organizational Features of Text

Text Feature Definition Function

Appendix extra information – explains parts of the text by providing
included at the end of a more detail
text
Bibliography a list of information – provides a list of texts for related reading
sources cited, used, or – acknowledges works quoted
referred to in the writing – provides evidence so readers can check
of the text on authenticity and accuracy

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 Text Feature Definition Function

Blurb a short promotional – attracts the reader’s interest to the

paragraph about the text
book or the author,
usually on the back
cover
Bolded or italicized words in texts that have – draw the reader’s attention to points
words been highlighted in the author considers to be important
some way
Bullet points heavy dots used to – draw the reader’s attention to
highlight information important points
– enable the author to provide
information in point or list form
Caption a comment under, above, – explains the content of the diagram,
or near an illustration or photograph, table, or graph
chart – provides an example
Computer menu a pull down or bar list of – represents commands on the computer
icons or symbols – enables the user to select the
appropriate command
Cross-section a diagram made by – enables the reader to see inside an
cutting through an object
object, usually at right
angles
Diagram a visual representation – provides more detail
of information presented – shows a sequence
– provides a more simplified view
Flowchart a visual representation – enables readers to follow a process
of a sequence
Footnote a note, usually in a small – supplies extra information about a fact
font, at the bottom of a or idea in the main text
page – cites a reference
– directs the reader to other parts of the
text
Foreword a short introduction to a – presents an overview of the text
text written by someone – recommends the text
other than the author
Glossary a definition of terms – defines words in a particular context
used in the text
Graph a pictorial or symbolic – enables the reader to make comparison
representation of data between data
– enables the reader to identify trends

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Text Feature Definition Function

Heading the main title of chapter – enables readers to quickly find a

or large section of a text section or chapter of a text
Home page the opening or main – greets visitors
page of a Web site – provides information about the Web site
Hyperlink a segment of text or a – enables users to navigate between
graphical item that various sections of a hypertext or from
serves as a cross one Web site to another Web site
reference between parts
of a hypertext
Hypertext a computer-based text – enables users to access particular
retrieval system locations within Web sites by clicking
on hyperlinks
Index an alphabetically – provides quick access to specific topics
arranged list of the
contents of a text
Legend an explanatory list of – provides readers with a quick reference
symbols used on a map, point when trying to identify symbols
chart, diagram, table – assists readers with the interpretation
of maps, charts, diagrams, tables
Magnifications enlarged representations – enable readers to see a close up of
of objects, images, or objects, images, or models
models
Map a representation of a – enables readers to find a location
location – enables readers to compare size,
features, position
Preface an introduction to a text – provides an explanation of the
written by the author contents of the text
– explains how a new edition is different
– introduces the text
Search engine a program that searches – gathers and reports requested
databases for information information from Internet Web sites
on specific terms/topics
Sidebar a short text containing – provides additional or contrasting
further information, information
often printed alongside
a longer article
Site map a visual or textual model – allows users to navigate the Web site
of a Web site usually as they search for specific information
organized in hierarchical
form

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 Text Feature Definition Function

Subheading the title of a subsection – provides a short, succinct description

of a text of that section of the text
– enables the reader to quickly access
specific information
Symbol a sign or character used – enables information to be presented
to represent something briefly
else – provides a code to interpret diagrams
and drawings
Table a framework for – enables readers to compare data
recording data
Table of contents the plan showing the – provides an overview
organization of the text – enables reader to browse for specific
content
Timeline a visual representation – provides information in a visual form
of key events
Title page the page of the text that – provides publishing information about
features the full title, a text
the author’s name, the
publisher’s name, and
location
Web site buttons the symbols or aids used – enables users to quickly move from
to navigate Web pages one part of a Web site to another, or
between related Web sites

Figure 3.19

Language Features
The term language features refers to the type of vocabulary and
grammatical structures used in a text. Each text form has specific
language features that are appropriate to that form.

These include the following:

– who or what the text is about—the text participants can be
specific, e.g., Charlotte, My dad, or generalized, e.g., bees, volcanoes.
– tense, e.g., past, present
– use of active voice, e.g., The oil spill caused the pollution.
– use of passive voice, e.g., The pollution was caused by the oil spill.
– type of pronouns—these can be personal, e.g., my, ours, his, hers,
or impersonal, e.g., its
– type of linking words
– nominalization, or changing verbs to nouns, e.g., to compute
becomes the computation.

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– word choice, e.g., precise technical adjectives, action verbs

– style, e.g., colloquial, formal
– use of direct speech, e.g., The adviser replied, “It’s not our policy to
give out that information.”
– use of indirect speech, e.g., The adviser said that it was not
company policy to report that kind of information.
– use of rhyme, rhythm, or repetition
– use of signal words, e.g., for different text structures and for choice,
linking, conclusions, classification

Signal Words

Choice Conclusions
either/or in conclusion
neither/nor the findings are
another findings
otherwise in summary
another possibility hence
alternatively thus
with the exception of on the whole
whether…or in the main

Linking Classification
moreover belongs to
besides and further is
in the same way defined as
likewise an example of
what is more
additionally
too
as well as

Figure 3.20

Supporting the Development of

Text-Form Knowledge See Linking
Assessment, Teaching
Figure 3.21 provides a summary of the purpose, text framework, and Learning,
Chapter 7, for more
and language features related to different text forms. on analyzing as an
effective teaching
Students can begin developing their text-form knowledge by and learning
collecting and sorting examples of texts. These examples can then practice.
be analyzed. Analyzing texts involves students focusing on separate

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 sections of texts so they can understand the whole text and how it
works. When analyzing texts, there is a focus on
– examining the relationship of the parts to the whole, e.g.,
sentences within paragraphs, paragraphs within whole texts
– collecting, examining, and classifying language features
– searching for patterns

First Steps Reading Map of Development, Canadian Edition, provides

further suggestions for appropriate learning experiences for
supporting students’ knowledge of text forms in each phase of
development.

Text Forms Purpose Text Framework Language Features and Examples

may include some/all
of the following

narrative, fantasy, to entertain introduction defined characters Harry Potter

adventure, science initiating events descriptive language dark, gloomy
fiction, fable, problem/s
fairy-tale, myth resolution dialogue
usually in past tense was running, thought
use of action verbs ran, yelled, cried
use of personal pronouns he, she, they
linking words related to after that, the next
time morning

biography, to recount introduction specific participants My family and I

autobiography, a series of events simple past tense chased, went, saw
journal, diary, in time order
newspaper report re-orientation action verbs
(optional) first or third person I, we, hers, his, theirs
evaluation pronouns
(optional)
linking words related to first, second,
time yesterday

recipe, experiment, to instruct goal generalized and ingredients, batteries,

instruction manual, materials specific participants the eggs
rules of a game method reader referred to in a Player A, each person
evaluation general way, or not (You) Draw a semicircle
mentioned at all
simple present tense twist, stir, cut
mainly action verbs (you) twist, (you) stir
detailed factual descriptions 6 cm, square, red, 400 g
linking words related to first, then, next
time

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Text Forms Purpose Text Framework Language Features and Examples

may include some/all
of the following

(cont’d) (cont’d) (cont’d) detailed information

on how carefully, thoroughly
where 5 cm from the top
when after replacing the back
report to describe classification and generalized participants whales, Canada, satellites
generalization action verbs (behaviours) climb, erupt, eat, produce
description of
parts timeless present tense are, exist, grow
summary factual, precise description grey fur, 5 cm thick
technical vocabulary nuclear fission
third-person pronouns herself, its, they
signal words to compare, is similar to, but not
contrast, classify as belongs to
explanation, to explain definition generalized participants volcanoes, cyclones
affidavit, memo, components and mainly action verbs falls, rises, erupts
rules, policy, parts
journal, timetable, operation some passive verbs is saturated, was caused
some textbooks application timeless present tense are, happens, turns, fills
signal words to show time finally, following if/then,
cause/effect so, as a consequence
exposition, debate, to persuade introduction generalized participants, recreational fishers
essay, discussion, arguments often abstract ideas conservation
editorial, position reiteration variety of verb types
paper
frequent use of passives were caught, is
influenced by
mainly timeless present tense
nominalization calculation versus
calculate
signal words—reasoning therefore, so, because of
survey, to inquire introduction generalized participants all interviewees
questionnaire body mainly action verbs use, circle
prompt
usually in the second Have you...?
person
precise language
includes question words how, when, where, what
invitation, apology, to socialize introduction specific participants Raoul, Li Chin
message, personal body mainly action verbs went, did, enjoyed
correspondence, closing
note, usually first person I, We
announcement usually past tense rang, will be held
(future for invitations)
signal words to show time in the morning,
at 7.00 p.m.

Figure 3.21 Overview of text-form knowledge

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 CHAPTER 4

Processes and
Strategies
Overview
The Processes and Strategies substrand focuses on how students
can apply their knowledge and understandings to comprehend
and compose texts. Some students employ strategies intuitively,
particularly in familiar contexts with familiar people. However,
some students will encounter more complex texts and sophisticated
purposes in unfamiliar contexts, so will need to select processes and
strategies from a versatile repertoire.

The focus of this chapter is to provide teaching and learning

experiences that can be applied to all phases of reading
development. Provided are activities that can be easily adapted to
meet the needs of students across a range of phases.

This chapter contains the following two sections:

• Section 1—Teaching Comprehension and Word Identification
Strategies
• Section 2—Teaching Students to Access and Use Information

Figure 4.1

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Teaching Notes for All Phases

These Teaching Notes are designed to be read in conjunction with
the Major Teaching Emphases in the Processes and Strategies
substrand outlined in the phases of First Steps Reading Map of
Development, Canadian Edition.

These notes provide background information for supporting readers

in using processes and strategies to identify unknown words,
comprehend text, and access and use information. The information
is organized under these headings:
• Building Knowledge Within the Cueing Systems
• Using Strategies
• Locating, Selecting, and Evaluating Texts
• Reflecting on Strategies

Building Knowledge Within the Cueing Systems

All readers draw on cueing systems to make sense of what they
read. Doing so enables readers to relate what is new to what they
already know. A cueing system is a set of cues or clues built into
the structure and patterns of language. These structures and
patterns are seen as systems because the English language is
systematic in the way that words are ordered to create meaning,
letters and sounds are related, punctuation is used, and the
language is used to communicate. Major cueing systems are the
semantic, syntactic, and graphophonic. As shown in Figure 4.2,
effective readers use cueing systems interdependently.

Semantic Syntactic

Effective readers
also make use of
Graphophonic other cueing
systems, including
the pragmatic.

Figure 4.2 Use of cueing systems promotes the

creation of meaning.

The knowledge within the cueing systems makes up an individual’s

knowledge base, or prior knowledge which comes from previous

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 experiences. It is critical that students, from a very early age, be
provided with opportunities to build their knowledge base within
each of the cueing systems. The amount of relevant prior
knowledge and the activation of that knowledge determine a
reader’s success in understanding and assimilating new information.

Semantic Syntactic
• Topic/Concept • Grammatical (word
knowledge order) knowledge
• Cultural/World • Word function
knowledge knowledge
• Vocabulary knowledge • Text knowledge
• Word structure
knowledge

Prior
Graphophonic
Knowledge
• Graphophonic knowledge
• Orthographic knowledge

Figure 4.3 All the knowledge within a student’s cueing

systems constitutes prior knowledge.

Semantic Cueing System

Semantic cues draw on readers’ knowledge of words. They are
associated with the meanings of words, phrases, and sentences and
knowledge of the world of the topic. For example, the word energy
means something different in physics than it does in everyday life.
Semantic cues are tied to readers’ cultural and world knowledge
and knowledge of the concept or topic. The essential question is,
What would make sense here?

Topic or concept knowledge

Not all readers have the same amount of prior knowledge on all
topics or concepts and not every reader will have the same amount
of knowledge on a specific topic or concept. The type and frequency
of knowledge-building experiences provided by the teacher will
depend on each student’s prior knowledge about a topic or concept.

Teachers can help students to build their topic knowledge by

• providing a wide variety of texts
• providing first-hand experiences
• providing vicarious experiences, e.g., demonstrations, multi-media,
graphics, speakers, or use of outside resources

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• talking about the topic from their own experience

• discussing and analyzing texts and experiences

Cultural or world knowledge

Cultural or world knowledge consists of a reader’s experiences,
values, attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions of these. Cultural or world
knowledge can have a significant impact on the reader’s
interpretation of a text.

Vocabulary knowledge
Vocabulary refers to the list of all the words a reader knows. Sight
vocabulary refers to the list of words a reader recognizes
immediately without having to use word identification strategies.
Recognition implies that readers can pronounce and understand the
meaning of a word in the context in which it is used.

Word structure knowledge

Word structure knowledge refers to the reader’s knowledge of
words, word parts, and how words work. Text knowledge, with
its focus on writing
Syntactic Cueing System purpose, text
structure, and text
Syntactic cues draw on readers’ knowledge of the ways words are organization, can be
patterned or structured to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. seen as part of the
pragmatic cueing
Readers use these cues to help decide if text sounds right. Syntactic
system rather than
cues include knowledge of grammatical features (word order in the syntactic cueing
sentences) and knowledge of word functions. As viewed by First system. Pragmatics
recognizes that
Steps Literacy, Canadian Edition, they also include knowledge of the readers are affected
organization and structure of whole texts. by an author’s
deliberate choices of
Grammatical (word order) knowledge such things as text
form, conventions,
Grammatical knowledge refers to a reader’s knowledge of the and voice to best
patterns of the language. It involves knowing the order in which engage an audience
and realize a certain
words are combined to make sentences and paragraphs. Grammatical purpose.
knowledge includes understandings about the use of punctuation. In the pragmatic
cueing system, the
The essential question is, Can I say it that way in English? other cueing systems
are linked with the
Word function knowledge context. Readers
In this aspect of the syntactic cueing system, the reader draws on seek to understand
how the context
knowledge of what words do within a sentence; for example, colours how
subject and object. sentences convey
information. Cues
Text knowledge relate to knowledge
of audience, purpose
Text knowledge refers to a reader’s knowledge of the purpose, of writing, and
structure, organization, and language features of text forms. situation.

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 • Purpose refers to the intended outcome as a result of interacting
with or composing a text, e.g., the purpose of a recipe is to instruct;
the purpose of debate is to persuade.
• Text structure refers to the way ideas, feelings, and pieces of
information are linked in a text, e.g., compare and contrast,
problem and solution, cause and effect, or listing.
• Text organization refers to the way a text is organized, or its
framework and text features, e.g., diagrams, headings, subheadings,
tables.
• Language features refers to the type of vocabulary and grammar
used in a text, e.g., reports use timeless present tense and precise
adjectives.

Graphophonic Cueing System

Graphophonic cues draw on readers’ knowledge of the
relationships between sounds and written forms of language.
Readers use these cues to help identify unknown words.
Graphophonic cues include knowledge of letters, knowledge of the
sounds associated with letters and groups of letters, knowledge of
print concepts, and knowledge of word structure.

Graphophonic knowledge
Graphophonic knowledge refers to a reader’s knowledge of letters
and combinations of letters and the sounds associated with them.

Orthographic knowledge
Orthographic knowledge refers to the spelling of words in a given
language according to established usage. The use of letters is
constrained by the positions in which they can occur and the
allowable sequences. Orthographic knowledge can have an impact
on a reader’s word identification and spelling.

Using Strategies
Building the knowledge base within the cueing systems is not
enough to ensure that readers will identify unknown words,
comprehend texts, or access and use information. During the
reading process, prior knowledge must be activated and accessed
to help make sense of information in the text. The selection and
use of appropriate reading strategies will achieve this.

Strategies are the mental processes you use to do something you

want to do. Reading strategies are used when identifying unknown
words, comprehending text, and accessing and using information.
(See p. 114 for a list of strategies.) The explicit teaching of a range

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of strategies is vital to ensure that students can use their prior

knowledge to achieve a purpose. Students need to orchestrate
many skills to become strategic readers.

Locating, Selecting, and Evaluating Texts

Students at all phases of development locate, select, and evaluate
texts. It is critical that students are provided with opportunities to
build their knowledge base, skills, and strategies for locating,
selecting, and evaluating texts.

Locating involves knowing what to use to find texts or information

in texts for a particular purpose.

Selecting involves knowing how to choose the most appropriate

text or information in texts to suit a particular purpose. To select
texts effectively, students benefit from an understanding of text
organization, an awareness of the available resources, and
knowledge of the most effective strategies to use.

Evaluating involves knowing how to analyze and make judgments

about the suitability of a text or information within a text to achieve
a particular purpose.

Reflecting on Strategies
Reflecting involves analyzing and making judgments about what has
been learned and how learning took place. Students need the
opportunity to stop and think about what they have learned.

Providing time for students to reflect on their reading is important.

Doing this helps students to
• become aware of reading strategies they are using
• monitor the use of their reading strategies
• apply reading strategies in other contexts
• improve their use of reading strategies
• evaluate critically the effectiveness of their use of reading strategies

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 Readers bring their
prior knowledge, as
represented by the
cueing systems, to
make sense of what
they are reading,
applying strategies
before, during, and
after reading, all in
a specific context.

Figure 4.4 A representation of the reading process

* The strategies using analogy, sounding out, chunking, consulting a

reference, reading on, rereading, and adjusting reading rate are all
aspects of the broader reading strategy of monitoring and revising
comprehension.

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SECTION 1

Teaching Comprehension
and Word Identification
Strategies
Effective teachers understand how reading occurs and are able to
plan learning experiences and instruction that support students to
become more successful readers. Teachers play an important role in
ensuring that all students build up a bank of knowledge that can be
accessed during the reading process. Teachers often work tirelessly
to ensure that students have knowledge of
• a growing list of sight words
• graphophonic elements
• grammatical features of the English language
• text structures and organization
• topics and concepts
• cultural and world matters

One of the most crucial elements of supporting reading development

is the explicit teaching of reading strategies so readers are able to
access their prior knowledge during reading. The process of
comprehending texts involves much more than the ability to
decode words. A reader must actively coordinate a range of
strategies, including both word identification and comprehension
strategies, to draw upon all available knowledge in the form of
cues. Effective readers have often come to use many of these
reading strategies automatically so many occur subconsciously.

The teaching of comprehension and word identification strategies

is essential. Explicit demonstrations, ongoing scaffolding, and
opportunities to practise and apply reading strategies will support
all readers in identifying unknown words, preparing for, monitoring,
and adjusting their reading.

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 What Are the Strategies?
Many teachers have attempted to catalogue a list of the strategies
that readers use as they comprehend text. As the reading process is
silent and motionless and involves cognitive strategies that are often
not observable, this task is challenging.

Reading research over the past two decades has provided insights
into the identification of the processes most commonly used by
skilled or effective readers. Keene and Zimmerman (1997) and
Harvey and Goudvis (2000) focused on the instruction of strategies
used by effective readers. Although educators will list and
categorize strategies in different ways, most lists contain similar
elements.

The common element in all work is the focus on what “good

readers” do as they identify words and comprehend text. This focus
provides a valid framework for determining the strategies to
introduce to students.

Effective readers are active as they read, simultaneously using a

range of strategies to identify unknown words and comprehend text.
They may use a combination of such strategies as these:
• clarifying the goal of reading the text (purpose)
• skimming or looking through a text before reading
• making predictions about what might be presented next
in the text
• refining predictions as the text is read
• making connections to what is already known
• determining which information is the most important in the text
• rereading any information considered important or difficult
to understand
• reading on when searching for some specific information
• making inferences about information not explicitly stated
in the text
• synthesizing information in the text to summarize
and monitor understanding
• generating questions about the text
• creating images from what is read
• paraphrasing or summarizing the information read
• seeking clarification when meaning is lost

These strategies provide useful information about what is important

in reading. A list of reading strategies to introduce to students has
been compiled. The following strategies are not hierarchical or phase

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specific; however, the last seven can be seen as aspects of

monitoring and revising comprehension. In any reading event, a
number of reading strategies will be used simultaneously to aid
comprehension, to identify unknown words, or both.

A Range of Reading Strategies

• Predicting • Generating Questions – Rereading
• Making Connections • Skimming – Reading On
• Comparing • Scanning – Adjusting Reading Rate
• Inferring • Determining Importance – Sounding Out
• Synthesizing • Summarizing and Paraphrasing – Chunking
• Creating Images • Monitoring and Revising – Using Analogy
Comprehension – Consulting a Reference

Defining the Strategies

Predicting
Predicting helps readers to activate their prior knowledge about a Strategy: Predicting
topic, so they begin to combine what they know with the new ■ Before
■ During
material in the text. Predictions are based on clues in the text, such ■ After
as pictures, illustrations, subtitles, and plot. These are called text
features. Clues for predictions will also come from readers’ prior
knowledge about the author, text form, or content. Students should
Specific strategies
be able to justify the source of their predictions. that help activate
prior knowledge
Readers can be encouraged to make personal predictions before and include predicting,
during reading. During reading, effective readers adjust and refine making connections,
generating
their earlier predictions as new information is gathered and new questions, and
connections are made. Predictions are usually related to events, creating images.
actions, or outcomes and will be either confirmed or rejected once
the text has been read. Students can also use predicting to identify
unknown words either before or after decoding. These types of
predictions are usually based on the context clues; students need to
determine whether the word makes sense in the text.

From what I know about fishing,

I don’t think that he will ever be
able to catch a shark with that
size line and hook.

Figure 4.5
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 Making Connections
Effective readers comprehend text through making strong
Strategy: Making connections between their prior knowledge and the new information
Connections
■ Before presented in text. Activating each student’s prior knowledge before
■ During reading is important. However, students need to use this strategy
■ After during reading as well to continually make connections as they
read.

Keene and Zimmerman (1997) categorize the types of connections

made by effective readers.

• Text-to-Self Connections: Readers think about their life and

connect their own personal experiences to the information in the
text.

• Text-to-Text Connections: Readers think about other texts

written by the same author or with common themes, style,
organization, structure, characters, or content.

• Text-to-World Connections: Readers think about what they

know about the world outside their personal experience, their
family, or their community.

It is important that readers learn to limit their connections to those

that help them understand the text better. At first, students may
make connections that have little relevance to helping
comprehension. By discussing connections, students will be able to
focus on how making relevant connections leads to an
understanding of texts.

This part reminds me of the time I

was on a small boat with my dad.
I felt terrified by the waves and
the swell. Andy must be feeling
very unsafe here.

Figure 4.6

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Comparing
Making comparisons relates closely to the connecting strategy. As
Strategy: Comparing
students make connections between the text and self, the text and ■ Before
other texts, or texts and the outside world, they also begin to make ■ During
comparisons. ■ After

Making comparisons involves students thinking more specifically

about the similarities and differences between the connections they
are making. When students make comparisons, they may ask
questions, e.g., How is this different from what I do? How is this text
the same as the other one I read? How does this information differ
from what I believe about this issue?

The author is using a very similar

style in this novel to the previous
one she wrote. Once again, she is
using a flashback in time to create
two plots.

Figure 4.7

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 Inferring
Effective readers take information from a text and add their own
ideas to make inferences. During the process of inferring, readers
Strategy: Inferring
■ Before
make predictions, draw conclusions, and make judgments to create
■ During interpretations of a text. Drawing inferences allows students to
■ After move beyond the literal text and to make assumptions about what
is not precisely stated in the text. Inferences made by students may
be unresolved by the end of text, neither confirmed nor rejected by
the author.

Edward learns to read when he has to

help Santa read the names of all the
children in the world. I think Santa lost
his glasses on purpose. He wanted to
give Edward a reason for reading.

Figure 4.8
Effective readers can also infer the meaning of unknown words
using context clues and pictures or diagrams.

Synthesizing
When comprehending text, effective readers use synthesizing to bring
Strategy: Synthesizing
together information that may come from a variety of sources.
■ Before Synthesizing involves readers piecing information together, like
■ During putting together a jigsaw. As students read and use synthesizing, they
■ After
stop at selected places in a text and think about what they have read.
Doing this helps them to keep track of what is happening in the text.

Students who are consciously aware of using this strategy are able
to continually monitor their understanding of text. During the
process of synthesizing, students may be connecting, comparing,
determining importance, posing questions, creating images, and
representing their understanding of text in a unique form.

So, this bit helps me understand

why Grandpa left the farm. He just
couldn’t do all the jobs alone.

Figure 4.9
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Creating Images
Effective readers use all their senses to create images as they read
Strategy: Creating
text—it is as if they are making DVDs in their heads. The images Images
that individuals create are based on their prior knowledge. Sensory ■ Before
images created by readers help them to draw conclusions, make ■ During
■ After
predictions, interpret information, remember details, and generally
comprehend text. Images may be visual, auditory, olfactory,
kinesthetic, or emotional.
Creating Images
Students may need extra encouragement to create images with lots goes beyond the
visualizing strategy
of detail or those that go beyond the literal information in the text. often identified as a
Support can also be provided to help students revise their images reading strategy. It
encompasses the
when new information is gained. creation of other
types of images,
It is important that students are also given the opportunity to share including visual art
their images and to talk about how creating images helps them gain and dramatic
representations.
a better understanding of the text. Images can be shared orally, as
drawings, as jottings, or through drama.

I think the house

is really old and run
down, with vines all
over it.

Figure 4.10

Generating Questions
Strategy: Generating
Effective readers continually think of questions before, during, and Questions
after reading to assist them in comprehending text. Often, these ■ Before
questions are formed spontaneously and naturally, with one ■ During
■ After
question leading to the next. Questions may relate to the content,
style, structure, important messages, events, actions, inferences,
predictions, or author’s purpose; they may be an attempt to clarify Note that this
meaning. Self-formulated questions provide a framework for active strategy focuses on
the questions
reading, engaging students in the text as they go in search of students generate
answers. Students need to be aware that answers to all questions themselves, not on
questions asked by a
may not always be in the text. teacher.

Helping students to become aware of the questions they naturally

ask is an important goal for teaching this strategy. Encouraging
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 students to understand how the generation of questions helps
develop a deeper understanding of the text being read is also
important.

I wonder where the

dad is in this story?
Did she ever know
her dad?

Figure 4.11

Skimming
Skimming involves glancing quickly through material to gain a
Strategy: Skimming general impression or overview of the content. The reader passes
■ Before
■ During over much of the detail to get the gist of what the text contains.
■ After Skimming is often used before reading to
• quickly assess whether a text is going to meet a purpose
• determine what is to be read
• determine what’s important and what may not be relevant
• review text organization
• activate prior knowledge

Students can be helped to use skimming by being encouraged to

check any graphics, and read all boldfaced, italicized, or highlighted
text as well as titles and subheadings.

I think this book will be useful for my

project. I can see by the headings and
pictures that it includes information
about habitat, breeding, food,
hunting, and behaviour of lions. This
should be great.

Figure 4.12

Scanning
Strategy: Scanning
■ Before
Scanning involves glancing through material to locate specific
■ During details, such as names, dates, or places. For example, a reader might
■ After scan a contents page or index to find the page number of a specific

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topic, scan a dictionary or telephone book in search of a particular

word or name, or scan a text to substantiate a particular response to
an earlier reading.
From the list of options generated
by our search, this Web site looks
the best. It states that it contains
photographs of lions, which is
what I’m looking for.

Figure 4.13

Beginning readers may also scan a text looking for picture clues
that may help them identify any unknown words.

Determining Importance
Effective readers constantly ask themselves what is most important
Strategy: Determining
in this phrase, sentence, paragraph, chapter, or whole text.
Importance
Students benefit from understanding how to determine the ■ Before
important information, particularly in informational and Web site ■ During
■ After
texts. Factors such as purpose for reading, knowledge of topic, prior
experiences, beliefs, and understanding of text organization will
help readers to identify important information in a text and to
prioritize it.

Students can begin to identify important concepts or ideas from

short pieces of texts. Key words, phrases, and sentences can then be
identified. It is beneficial to begin with informational texts and
highlight text features that will help students to decipher important
information from less important information. These features
include headings, subheadings, titles, illustrations, boldfaced text,
icons, hyperlinks, and font size. Students also need opportunities to
determine important information in literary texts.

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 Here is the part about food
and hunting. I will underline the
key words. I think varied diet
and female’s duty are important.

Figure 4.14

Summarizing and Paraphrasing

Linked closely to the strategy of determining importance,
Strategy: Summarizing/
Paraphrasing summarizing and paraphrasing are part of the process of
■ Before identifying, recording, and writing the key ideas, main points, or
■ During most important information from a text into the reader’s own
■ After
words.

Summarizing is the ability to reduce a larger piece of text so the

focus is on the most important elements in the text. The restating
or rewriting of text into other words is referred to as paraphrasing,
a less difficult strategy. Summarizing and paraphrasing involve
using the key words and phrases to capture the main focus of text.

I think the purpose of this piece

of text was to help readers
understand that explorers knew
much less about the world than
we do today.

Figure 4.15

Strategy: Monitoring Monitoring and Revising Comprehension

and Revising
Comprehension This broad strategy, which could also be called monitoring and
■ Before repairing comprehension, is exercised during reading. Closely
■ During related to metacognitive thinking, it comes into play when readers
■ After
encounter problems with making sense of a text. Effective ways of
dealing with a problem include rereading all or part of the text,
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reading on in the hope that clues to understanding will emerge,

slowing down to digest an idea, or skimming or scanning ahead.

• Rereading
Effective readers understand the benefits of rereading whole texts
or parts of texts to clarify or enhance meaning. Reading or hearing
a text more than once can be beneficial for all readers, allowing
them to gain a deeper understanding of the text.

Rereading can also be used as a word identification strategy.

Effective readers sometimes reread to work out the meaning of
difficult words using context clues. The opportunity to reread a text
also helps to improve fluency.

• Reading On
Some students may
When students cannot decode an unfamiliar word in a text, they need to be made
can make use of the reading on strategy. Skipping the unfamiliar aware that all readers
encounter problems
word and reading on to the end of the sentence or the next two or understanding some
three sentences often provides the reader with enough context texts, but many
comprehension
clues to help determine the unknown word. Once the unknown processes are
word has been determined, students can reread that section. available to deal with
them.
Reading on can also be used with larger chunks of text in an
attempt to clarify meaning. For example, reading on to the end of a
section, page, or chapter can often support understanding.

I’m not sure what this word is. I’ll

skip it, keep reading to the end of
the sentence, and see if that gives
me a clue.

Figure 4.16

• Adjusting Reading Rate

It is important that students learn to adjust their reading rate or pace
and recognize when doing this may be necessary. The purpose for
reading often determines the most appropriate rate. Readers may
slow down to understand new information, clarify meaning, create
sensory images, or ask questions. Readers may speed up when
scanning for key words or skimming to gain an overall impression.
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 I’ll quickly read the headings and
pictures on this Web page to see if
it will give me information about
the habitat of reptiles.

Figure 4.17
• Sounding Out
Readers use their knowledge of letter–sound relationships to take
words apart, attach sounds to the parts, and blend the parts back
together to identify unknown words. Sounding out phonemes that
are associated with the grapheme is often used as a strategy to
decode unknown words.

• Chunking
As readers encounter greater numbers of multi-syllabic words, they
can be encouraged to break words into units larger than individual
phonemes. Readers might chunk words by pronouncing word parts,
such as onset and rime, letter combinations, syllables, or word parts
that carry meaning.

• Using Analogy
Readers use analogy when they refer to words they are familiar
with to identify unknown words. They transfer what they know
about familiar words to help them identify unfamiliar words. When
using analogy, students will transfer their knowledge of common
letter sequences, onsets and rimes, letter clusters, base words, word
parts that carry meaning, and whole words.

• Consulting a Reference
The use of word identification strategies such as sounding out or
chunking may unlock both the pronunciation and meaning of
words. However, if the word is not in a reader’s vocabulary, the
reader will be unable to understand the meaning of the word.
Consulting a reference is an additional strategy that enables students
to unlock the meaning of a word. Being taught how to use
a dictionary, thesaurus, reference chart, or glossary will help
students locate the meanings, pronunciations, or derivations of
unfamiliar words.

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How to Teach the Strategies

Before reading strategies can be taught explicitly, it is critical for
teachers to have an understanding of what effective readers do and
the strategies they use while reading. The long-term goal for all
students is that they can select and use strategies flexibly and
independently during any reading event.

The use of a reading strategy rarely happens in isolation; it often

involves simultaneously using a number of strategies, such as
connecting, predicting, and inferring. Students should be
introduced to a variety of strategies and understand how these
strategies work together.

It is also appropriate to focus on an individual reading strategy

where it is introduced and practised over time. A unit of work
focusing on one strategy may consist of a combination of
demonstrations, Think-Alouds, time for practice, and opportunities
to apply the strategy across other curriculum areas. It is also
important to help students understand how different strategies can
work together. A variety of authentic texts, including literary and
informational, can be selected to support the instruction of a
particular strategy.

Figure 4.18 is based on the Gradual Release of Responsibility Model

(Pearson and Gallagher 1983). The use of this framework will help
teachers plan for the effective introduction of reading strategies.
The framework involves moving students from a supportive context
where the teacher has a high degree of control (modelling) to a
more independent context where the student has more control
(independent application).

There are four effective teaching practices outlined in this framework:

modelling, sharing, guiding, and applying. By using a balance of
these practices sequentially and recursively, and by providing a
variety of opportunities, teachers can help students use a range of
reading strategies.

Teachers can provide opportunities for students to

• actively attend to a variety of strategy demonstrations
• hear the thinking behind the use of each strategy
• contribute ideas about the use of strategies in supportive whole-
group situations
• work with others to practise the strategies

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 • receive feedback and support for the use of strategies from the
teacher and peers
• independently read and practise the strategies with a range of texts
• apply the strategies in authentic reading situations across
the curriculum

Modelling Sharing Guiding Applying

The teacher The teacher continues The teacher provides The teacher offers
demonstrates and to demonstrate the use scaffolds for students support and
Role explains the reading of a strategy with a to use the strategy. encouragement
of the strategy being range of texts, inviting The teacher provides as necessary.
Teacher introduced by thinking students to contribute feedback.
aloud the mental ideas and information. Students work
processes used to independently to
of Control

apply the strategy. apply the strategy

Degree

Students work with

in contexts across
help from the teacher
the curriculum.
and peers to practise
Students contribute the use of the
Role ideas and begin to strategy using a
of the practise the use variety of texts.
The students
Students of the strategy in
participate by actively
whole-class situations.
attending to the
demonstrations.

Figure 4.18 Teaching reading strategies using a Gradual Release

of Responsibility approach

Modelling
Modelling is the most significant step when teaching any reading
strategy. Conducting regular, short sessions that involve modelling
and thinking aloud will show how an effective reader makes use of
a particular strategy.

By using the practice of modelling to introduce new reading

strategies, teachers are able to articulate what they are thinking as
they read silently. The reading process will become obvious to
students. Thinking aloud is a vital part of the modelling process.
When introducing a new strategy, consider planning for multiple
demonstrations of how to use the strategy and what its benefits are.

Modelling sessions need to be well planned and thought out. It is

more effective to think through what needs to be modelled and
where in the text that might happen than to make spontaneous
comments as the text is being read.

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Planning Modelling Sessions

Consider the following questions, prior to modelling for students,
so modelling sessions are effective and successful.

• How do I use this strategy in my own reading?

• How does this strategy help me become a more effective reader?
• What is important for students to know about this strategy?
• Which texts might be the most appropriate to model this strategy?
• Where in this text will it be possible to demonstrate the use of the
strategy?
• What language can I use to best describe what I am doing and
thinking?

A strategy demonstration plan (see Figure 4.19) may also help

to create a successful modelling session. Demonstration plans are
completed before sessions and help to keep sessions focused.

Conducting Sessions to Model the Use of Strategies

• Introduce the name of the strategy. Explain what it means.
• Explain why it is useful and how effective readers use it.
• Explain to students that modelling involves times when the text
is being read and times when thinking is being described. Alert
students to how they will know what is happening, e.g., laying
down book or looking up.
• Begin reading text to students, stopping at selected places to think
aloud. Use precise, accurate language to describe the thinking
while demonstrating the use of the selected strategy.
• Invite students to discuss their observations of the demonstration,
e.g., “What did you notice? What language did you hear me use?”
• If appropriate, jointly construct a chart listing the key points about
the use of the strategy or the type of language that can be used.
(See Figures 4.20a and 4.20b.)

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 Strategy Demonstration Plan
Strategy to Be Introduced:
When and Why It Is Useful:

Key Points to Model:

•
•
•
•
Text Selected:
Pages to Be Used: Language to Describe My Thinking:

Figure 4.19 Strategy Demonstration Plan for teacher use

Figure 4.20a Figure 4.20b

Sharing
Sharing sessions provide the opportunity for students and teacher
to think through texts together. In these sessions, the teacher
continues to demonstrate the use of the selected strategy. However,
the major difference between modelling and sharing sessions is that
students are now invited to contribute ideas and information during
these demonstrations.

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Thinking aloud during sharing sessions is an opportunity for the

teacher to demonstrate the use of a selected strategy and enables
individual students to participate. For example, while the text is
being read and a strategy being demonstrated, students can be asked
to share how they are using the strategy, e.g., “What connections are
you making?” Inviting different students to share their thinking will
allow others to hear a range of ideas, something that is important
when teaching reading strategies.

It is beneficial to use a variety of informational and literary texts for

demonstrations during sharing sessions. As students begin sharing
their use of the strategy, the jointly constructed strategy charts can
be refined. Created over time, these cumulative anchor charts
document how to make use of a particular strategy. (See Figures
4.21a and 4.21b for examples.)

Figure 4.21a An expanded class chart on Figure 4.21b An expanded class

predicting chart on making connections

Planning Sharing Sessions

Before a sharing session with students, consider the following
questions to help maintain the focus.

• What aspects of the strategy do I need to further demonstrate?

• Which texts might be the most appropriate to reinforce this aspect
of the strategy?

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 • What language associated with this strategy do I want to review?
• How can I best involve the students in contributing to the
demonstrations?
• Will I create an opportunity to add to a class cumulative strategy
chart?

Conducting Sharing Sessions to Continue the Demonstration

of Strategies
• Reintroduce the strategy. Invite students to explain what it means.
• Elicit from the students why it is useful and how effective readers
use it.
• Begin reading text to students, stopping at selected places to think
aloud and demonstrate the use of the strategy. Use precise, accurate
language to describe the thinking involved.
• Invite students to make use of the strategy throughout the
demonstration and to share their thinking.
• Provide constructive feedback and positive comments about
students’ use of the strategy.
• Summarize different ways that individuals make use of the
strategy and add to class chart if appropriate.

Guiding
Guiding sessions provide students with the opportunity to practise
the strategies in meaningful reading contexts and when using a
Scaffolding is
teacher-provided variety of texts. Guiding sessions involve the teacher providing
support to students scaffolds as students practise the strategy. It is important to provide
working in what
Vygotsky (1980)
ongoing feedback and support as students begin to independently
called the zone of use the strategy.
proximal development,
that area just beyond In this chapter, there are many activities that link to particular
a student’s level of
development.
strategies and are appropriate for guiding sessions. The activities are
designed to provide students with the opportunity to practise each
strategy. They can be completed in either the oral or written form.
Students can share a text and complete an activity in pairs or in
small groups.

Planning Guiding Sessions

Consider the following questions, prior to students completing any
practice activity, so guiding sessions are effective and successful.

• Which strategy do my students need to practise?

• Have I provided multiple demonstrations about the use of the
strategy?
• Have I provided many opportunities for sharing sessions where
we have discussed and used the strategy?
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• What texts do I want the students to use to practise the strategy?

• Which activity might I use to provide a scaffold for the
practice session?
• What is the most effective way for the students to record
their work?
• What grouping arrangements will be most suitable for
the students?
• How will I provide feedback to the students during the activity?
• How will I provide the opportunity for students to reflect on and
share their learning after completing the activity?

Conducting Guiding Sessions to Practise the Use of Strategies

• Select texts to be used for both demonstration and independent
student use.
• Reintroduce and discuss the strategy.
• Model the use of the strategy, using a specific practice activity.
• Provide time for students to work with partners or in small
groups to read an assigned text.
• Provide time for students to complete the activity.
• Provide constructive feedback and support where necessary.
• Encourage students to share completed activities.
• Encourage students to reflect on the use of the strategy.

Applying
Students will benefit from opportunities to work independently
and apply the use of strategies learned in all reading situations. It is
important to encourage students to make use of reading strategies
when working in other curriculum areas.

Teachers can continue to talk about and demonstrate the application

of any strategies when sharing texts from across the curriculum.
Ongoing modelling of how and when strategies can be applied and
how they assist readers to identify unknown words and comprehend
text will encourage students to use strategies beyond planned
classroom reading activities.

Guided Practice Activities

The following activities are just some of those available that provide
students with support and scaffolding as they practise each reading
strategy.

Before selecting an activity, consider student needs, type of text being

used, grouping of the students, and desired outcomes. When selecting
an activity, it is also worthwhile to be aware of the following:

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 • Activities are not related to age, grade, or phase.
• Activities for each strategy are listed in order from the simplest to
the more complex.
• Activities can be used with a wide range of texts. Some activities
may be more suitable to use with informational text while other
activities may be more suitable to use with literary text. Some
activities could be suitable or be adapted to use with both types
of text.
• Students may feel more supported by doing the activities with a
partner or in small groups.
• Many of the activities could be used to practise a range of reading
strategies, not only for the suggested strategy.

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Guided Practice Activities for Reading Strategies

Creating Images/Visualizing

Summarizing/Paraphrasing

• Adjusting Reading Rate

• Consulting a Reference
Determining Importance
Generating Questions

• Using Analogy
• Sounding Out
• Reading On
Synthesizing

• Rereading

• Chunking
Connecting
Comparing
Predicting

Skimming
Inferring

Scanning
Practice
Activities
Split Images (page 135) •
Personal Predictions (page 135) •
Check the Text (page 136) •
Crystal Ball (page 136) •
Think Sheet (page 137) •
Extended Anticipation Guide (page 138) •
Connecting with the Text (page 139) •
Before-and-After Chart (page 140) •
Think and Share (page 141) •
Linking Lines (page 142) •
What’s in a Text? (page 142) •
Venn Diagrams (page 144) •
Like or Unlike? (page 144) •
Just Like (page 145) •
Double Entry Journal (page 145) •
Character Self-Portrait (page 147) •
Interviews (page 148) •
Character Rating Scales (page 148) •
Report Card (page 150) •
What’s My Point of View? (page 150) •
Developing Dialogue (page 151) •
Turn on the Lights (page 151) •
Plot Profile (page 152) •
Great Debate (page 153) •
Synthesis Journal (page 153) •
Picture This! (page 154) •
Sensory Chart (page 155) •
Post Your Senses (page 155) •
Changing Images (page 156) •
Open Mind Portrait (page 157) •
Information Images (page 157) •
Clouds of Wonder (page 158) •

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 Creating Images/Visualizing

Summarizing/Paraphrasing

• Adjusting Reading Rate

• Consulting a Reference
Determining Importance

• Using Analogy
• Sounding Out
• Reading On
Synthesizing

Questioning

• Rereading

• Chunking
Connecting
Comparing
Predicting

Skimming
Inferring

Scanning
Practice
Activities
Stop-and-Think Cards (page 159) •
B-D-A Questions (page 159) •
Written Conversations (page 160) •
Picture Flick (page 161) •
Graphic Overlays (page 161) •
Sneak Preview (page 162) •
Hunt the Text Challenge (page 163) •
Beat the Buzzer Quiz (page 164) •
Retrieval Charts (page 164) •
Interesting Words Chart (page 165) •
What’s Your Story? (page 166) •
Famous Five Key Word Search (page 167) •
Very Important Points (VIPs) (page 168) •
Main Idea Pyramid (page 168) •
Oral Summaries (page 169) •
Reciprocal Retellings (page 169) •
Main Idea Sort (page 170) •
Newspaper Report (page 170) •
66 Words (page 170) •

Figure 4.22 Guided practice activities for reading strategies

Note: The last seven reading strategies identified—rereading, reading

on, adjusting reading rate, sounding out, chunking, using analogy,
and consulting a reference—all pertain to the broad strategy of
monitoring and revising comprehension. No specific guided practice
activities apply.

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READING STRATEGY: PREDICTING

Guided Practice Activities

1 Split Images
2 Personal Predictions
3 Check the Text
4 Crystal Ball
5 Think Sheet
6 Extended Anticipation Guide

1 Split Images
Participating in a Split Images activity involves students taking
turns to view and describe illustrations in a text to a partner. Texts
should be short, unfamiliar, and with a strong, progressive plot.
Illustrations need to be clear and provide sufficient information to
enable students to make informed predictions.
• Form students into pairs.
• Direct students to take turns to view a page with an illustration
and describe it for their partners. (The other half of each pair
is not permitted to look.) For example: “There are two cats. One
of them has a bandage on its paw and the other one is asleep in
a basket…”
• Explain to the students that they should make predictions about
the illustrations, e.g., “I think the cat with the sore paw is sad
because…”
• Direct the other students to view the next illustration and to
describe it while building onto the initial prediction or storyline
suggested by their partners. This process of alternating between
students to describe the illustrations continues until the text is
completed.
• Ask partners to share their interpretation of the whole text.
Re-examine the pictures if needed.
• Read or provide time for students to read the text. Encourage
students to compare the text to the information that was conveyed
in the illustrations.

2 Personal Predictions
Completing a Personal Predictions activity line master provides
students with the opportunity to build some expectations of a text,
activate their background knowledge, and preview material before
reading.
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 • Invite students to look at and read the title, author name, and
cover page to make and record an initial prediction about the
text. They can do this on their own.
• Provide a selection of key words from the text. Ask students to
sort the key words into categories, such as characters, setting,
and events.
• Direct students to use the sorted words individually to record
a second prediction.
• Provide time for students to share predictions with a partner or in
a small group, to compare and substantiate thoughts and ideas
with others.
• Provide time for students to read the text.
• Encourage students to reflect on similarities and differences
between predictions made and the actual text.

3 Check the Text

Check the Text is an activity that works successfully when completed
as a small group or in partners. Completing a Check the Text
activity helps students to use pictures, photographs, diagrams, or
illustrations to make predictions about the text. Teachers cover the
text so that students can see only the diagrams, pictures, or
photographs.
• Provide time for students to examine and discuss any diagrams,
illustrations, or photographs in a text.
• Direct students to draft text that matches the diagrams,
illustrations, or photographs.
• Invite students to compare their versions with the actual text.

4 Crystal Ball
The Crystal Ball activity encourages readers to draw on explicit and
implicit information from a text. Once the whole text has been read,
students speculate about the future of a main character.
• After reading a text, form students into small groups. Each group
is assigned a character from the text.
• Have students brainstorm important information about their
character’s likes, dislikes, interests, or personality. The information
can be stated explicitly or implied in the text.
• Invite students to create a future for their characters, e.g., where
they are, what they are doing, who they are with. Predictions should
stem from the information in the text.
• Encourage students to share Crystal Ball predictions and back up
their speculations with information from the text.

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5 Think Sheet
Think Sheets (Raphael 1982) are based on a series of chapter titles,
headings, or subheadings taken directly from the text that will be
read to students. Students can use the questions developed from
the series to make and record predictions about what information
may be in the text.

Students can complete Think Sheets independently, although

the discussion about predictions and their bases is extremely
valuable.
• Prepare a Think Sheet by rewriting some headings or subheadings
from the chosen text into questions on the line master provided.
• Before reading the text, direct students to work with a partner
to consider, discuss, and record possible answers to the questions.
• Have students record their predictions below each question on
the chart.
• Provide time for students to read the text and record the relevant
information for each question in the appropriate What the Text
Says section.
• Have students compare their predictions with the text.

Adaptations:
Predictions may be drawn or simply entered
as key words. Once students
are familiar with the use of Think Sheets,
they could create their own questions
from the headings and subheadings of
the text.

Figure 4.23 Think Sheet, student sample

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 6 Extended Anticipation Guide
An Anticipation Guide consists of a series of statements about a particular
topic. The statements may reflect common misconceptions or consist of
accurate information. Before reading, students use their prior knowledge
to categorize statements as either true or false. Students then read the
text to confirm or reject their predictions. The Extended Anticipation
Guide (Duffelmeyer, Baum, and Merkley 1987) encourages students to
substantiate their findings by referring to the text and using their own
words to explain concepts.

Students can complete Extended Anticipation Guides independently,

although the discussion about predictions and location of specific details
that confirm or reject early predictions is extremely valuable.
• Write statements from a text that are either true or false. List
statements in the order that the information appears in the text. Focus
on the key ideas in the text, including those that are implicit. The
statements should be short and include frequent misconceptions about
the topic. (See Figure 4.24.)
• Before reading the text, ask students to mark the statements, predicting
whether they are true or false.
• Provide time for students to discuss their predictions and support their
point of view by drawing upon their prior knowledge.
• Have students read the text to confirm or reject their predictions.
Students record if the statements are true or false based on the
information in the text. They may supply references to show where
they found the information, e.g., page 4, paragraph 2.
• Provide time for students to discuss and compare the information in
the text with their predictions.

Figure 4.24 Extended Anticipation Guide, student sample

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READING STRATEGY: CONNECTING

Guided Practice Activities

1 Connecting with the Text

2 Before-and-After Chart
3 Think and Share
4 Linking Lines
5 What’s in a Text?

1 Connecting with the Text

Using a Connecting with the Text framework helps students to
In Strategies That
make personal connections with a text while reading. Work: Teaching
• Provide students with sticky notes to use while reading a text. Comprehension to
Enhance Understand-
Students use these to signal any connections they make while ing, Stephanie
reading a text. These connections may be related to personal Harvey and Anne
experiences, other texts they have read, similar characters, things Goudvis reinforce
the value of marking
they have done, or something else they know about. a text with sticky
• Provide time for students to complete the Connecting with the Text notes.
chart using the jottings they made while reading. (See Figure 4.25.)
• Encourage students to share their responses with other students
and make comparisons between the connections made.

Figure 4.25 Connecting with the Text, student sample

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 2 Before-and-After Chart
The Before-and-After Chart is a way of organizing information
elicited through brainstorming sessions and supporting students to
make connections to what they know about a topic before reading.
Adapted from Ogle (1986), the Before Reading section of this chart
provides space to record what is known before reading and what
the reader wants to find out. The After Reading section provides a
real purpose for reflecting on reading to find out what has been
learned and what is yet to be learned.
• Allow time before reading for students to brainstorm any
information they know about the selected topic. This information
is recorded in the form of key words or phrases and placed
into the Before Reading column titled What I/We Know
About ________. There is also another column, What I/We Want
to Find Out, which could prompt more student responses.
• After reading, provide time to record all the new information
learned. Students use the After Reading column titled What I/We
Have Learned. Have students read over their brainstormed
information and check if it was referred to in the text they read.
• Encourage students to consider any information they would still
like to find out. They can note what they would like to know in
the space titled What I/We Still Want to Find Out, where it can
provide motivation for further reading or research.

Adaptations:
A Before-and-After Chart could be completed over time. The initial
brainstorm of what students know and have learned may take two
sessions.

Once the students are familiar with the structure of a Before-and-

After Chart and the process of using it, add another column. The
title of this column could be Best Search Words. Discuss and record
in this column the best words to use when locating further
information from search engines, indexes, and contents pages.

3 Think and Share

Completing a Think and Share activity provides an opportunity for
students to make comparisons between characters within a story,
as well as to make connections to their own experiences.
• Provide time for students to work in small groups to list the key
events of a shared text. Have each student in the group list the
events. (See Figure 4.26 as an example.)

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• Assign a character to each student or pair of students in the small

group.
• Direct students to reflect on each event and consider what their
character was feeling and thinking at the time. These feelings and
thoughts can be recorded in the second column.
• Encourage students to take on the role of their character as they
share and compare reactions, feelings, thoughts, and justifications
of actions.

Adaptations:
The whole class can easily complete this activity. Assign a particular
character to small groups. Each small group considers certain events
from their character’s perspective. A jigsaw process can then be
used to share and compare information across groups.

Figure 4.26 Think and Share, a student’s chart

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 4 Linking Lines
Completing the Linking Lines activity helps readers make
connections between texts.

After rereading favourite texts, students draw lines between text

titles, explaining how the texts are linked.
• At the conclusion of rereading several favourite texts, organize
students into small groups.
• Have students discuss and make connections between the texts.
• Provide time for students to individually record the titles of the
selected texts.
• Direct students to draw lines between the text titles and record
any connections they have made.
• Invite students to share connections.

Adaptations:
Once students are familiar with creating Linking Lines between
written texts, they can be challenged to create Linking Lines to
well-known movies, TV shows, or Web sites.

5 What’s in a Text?
This activity helps students make connections to other texts and
draw upon their knowledge of the organization and structure of
particular text forms.

What’s in a Text? works successfully when students are in small

groups and use brainstorming to record as much information as
possible.
• Provide small groups with a common text.
• Provide a list of questions about the selected text form to stimulate
discussion and activate prior knowledge. (See Figure 4.27.)
• Have students answer the questions.

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• Provide students with ample time to read the text.

• Encourage students to discuss the text-to-text connections made
during reading. Discussions can include how the selected text
form was similar to or different from other texts.

What’s in a Text?
What other texts have you read that were fables?
What do you know about fables?
What sorts of words or phrases do you expect to find in a fable?
How do fables usually begin?
How do fables usually end?
What types of characters are usually in a fable?

Use what you already know about fables, the cover, title, and
illustrations to make a prediction on what this text is about.

Figure 4.27

Adaptations:
The line master provided on the First Steps Reading Resource Book
CD-ROM can be adapted for use with any particular text form.

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 READING STRATEGY: COMPARING
Guided Practice Activities

1 Venn Diagrams
2 Like or Unlike?
3 Just Like
4 Double Entry Journal

1 Venn Diagrams
Completing a Venn Diagram (two or more overlapping circles)
allows students to focus on making comparisons between topics,
text types, authors, characters, plots, and facts. Initially, readers can
compare two characters, either from one text or from different texts.
As students become familiar with the process, they can compare
characters from more than two texts.
• Invite students to compare two characters, e.g., Town Mouse and
Country Mouse.
• Have students work with partners or in small groups to record
things they remember about each character, e.g., character traits,
actions, physical appearance.
• Ask students to examine the two lists to decide which things are
common to both characters. Have students transfer this information
to the intersecting space on the Venn Diagram.
• Direct students to transfer the remaining information on the list
to the appropriate place on the Venn Diagram.
• Provide time for students to discuss the similarities and differences
between the characters.

2 Like or Unlike?
Like or Unlike? is an activity that encourages readers to make
connections and comparisons between what they know about their
world and the way characters or people are represented in a text.
• Select and identify the role of a main character or person from a
text, e.g., “Anne is a teenage girl.”
• Before reading the text, invite students to share what they know
about real-life people who fulfill the same role.
• Record responses on a class chart.
• Have students read the text.
• Provide time to discuss how the person or character has been
represented in the text. Record these observations on a class
chart.
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• Draw students’ attention to any differences or similarities between

what they know and how the characters or people may have been
represented in the text.
• Provide opportunities for students to discuss how the author could
change the way the character or person was represented and the
impact this would have on the text.

3 Just Like
Just Like (Hoyt 1999) is an activity that encourages readers to This activity is great
make connections and comparisons between a selected character for encouraging
both text to self
and characters from other texts or people they know in real life.
and text to text
• After reading a text, direct students to select a main character connections.
or person.
• Invite students to brainstorm all the character traits related to
their chosen person or character. These character traits should be
listed in the far left column of the line master.
• Encourage students to make comparisons between the characters
and themselves, other characters in different texts, or people they
know. Students will need to think more specifically about the
similarities and differences between the characters and these
other groups.
• Direct students to complete the table. (See Figure 4.28.)
• Provide opportunities for students to share their comparisons.

Figure 4.28 Just Like, student sample

4 Double Entry Journal

The use of a Double Entry Journal encourages students to consider
the similarities and differences within and across texts. Double Entry
Journals could be used to record and make comparisons between
the text and the connections that have been made during reading.
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 • Provide students with a Double Entry Journal line master.
• Provide time for students to read the selected text.
• Direct students to record key events from the text and to note
any connections they make. Similarities and differences can also
be noted about their connections, e.g., This storyline reminds me of
the previous book I read except the main character was a female,
not a male.
• Provide time for students to share their connections and comparisons.

Figure 4.29 Double Entry Journal, student sample

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READING STRATEGY: INFERRING

Guided Practice Activities
1 Character Self-Portrait
2 Interviews
3 Character Rating Scales
4 Report Card
5 What’s My Point of View?
6 Developing Dialogue

1 Character Self-Portrait
Creating a Character Self-Portrait provides readers with an
opportunity to combine information from the text with their prior
knowledge. While completing a character profile, students discuss
inferences and opinions about characters and listen to the points of
view and interpretations of others.
• Construct a Character Self-Portrait framework consisting of
appropriate sentence stems that relate to the text. It is essential to
vary the framework for different texts.
• Jointly select a character from the text.
• Have the students discuss the character, then complete the
sentence stems.
• Record student responses on the framework. (See Figure 4.30.)
• Invite students to refer to the text to support their responses for
each completed stem.

Adaptations:
Teachers can vary the framework so it is suitable for a wide range
of texts. The activity can also be used successfully with
informational texts, such as biographies or historical accounts.

Figure 4.30 Character Self-

Portrait, student sample
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 2 Interviews
The activity Interviews involves students role-playing a question-
and-answer situation. One student takes on the role of a character
or person while the other student asks the questions. Participating
in Interviews allows readers to make inferences about someone’s
actions and behaviours.

Students role-playing the character or person are required to

answer questions asked by their partners. Students will make their
own inferences, draw conclusions, and make connections to respond
to questions and present their own interpretations of the text.

Students conducting the interviews need to create questions that

will elicit personal interpretations of the text. It is important to
model the types of questions that will help students to focus on
finding out about the actions, feelings, and behaviours of the
character or person.
• Organize the students into pairs. Have students select a character
or person from a previously read text.
• Have students negotiate who will be the character or person and
who will be the interviewer.
• Have the pairs work together to develop appropriate questions.
• Provide time for the students to conduct their interviews.
• Invite the students to share some interviews with the whole class.
• At the conclusion of each shared interview, invite the students
to discuss which parts of the text influenced the questions
and answers.

Interview Questions for the girl in My Mama Had

a Dancing Heart by Libba Gray
Where was your dad during your life?
What was your favourite thing you did with your mama?
If your mama was around today, what would you say to her?

Figure 4.31 Sample interview questions

3 Character Rating Scales

Completing a Rating Scale encourages readers to discuss and assess
the qualities displayed by characters or people in texts, and to justify
their assessments in small-group or whole-class discussions.
Character Rating Scales provide students with the opportunity to
share their feelings about different characters or people from a text.
Providing time for discussion helps readers to relate attributes and
actions of characters to their own experiences.
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When first creating Character Rating Scales, students will often select
traits that closely relate to the action of the characters or people.
• Provide time for students to read the selected text.
• Invite small groups of students to select a main character or person
to rate.
• Direct students to discuss the character or person and list a range
of different traits, e.g., neat, bossy, friendly, helpful. Discuss and list
the opposite of each trait. A class-generated bank of traits written
on a chart allows students to work without assistance.
• Provide time for students to discuss the selected character or
person and traits, listening to a range of viewpoints. Students
make inferences about the character or person and put ratings on
the scale.
• Encourage students to refer to the text to validate their ratings,
e.g., We rated Francesco as very smart because he recovered the
stolen gold by tricking the thief. Groups should record their
justifications in the spaces provided on the framework.
• Encourage students to rate and compare other characters or
people from the text.

Adaptations:
Make ratings at three different points in the text. The three points
may be the beginning, midpoint, and end. These can be recorded
on different grids or on the same grid. Discussions could focus on
why the rating has changed.

Consider the rating of a character from the perspective of another

character in the text, e.g., from the perspective of the main character’s
brother, best friend, or mother.

Figure 4.32 Character Rating Scale, student sample

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 4 Report Card
Report Card is an activity where students prepare a traditional
school report card for a selected character or person. Students are
required to determine the appropriate subject areas, assign a grade,
and make a comment about the character or person based on the
information obtained and inferred from the text.

The subjects can be set by the teacher or brainstormed by the

students after reading the text. The grading scale can also be set by
the teacher or decided on by the students. If appropriate, the
school’s report-card grading scale could be adopted.
• Provide time for students to read the chosen text and select a
character or person, e.g., Little Red Hen.
• Have students brainstorm a list of subjects relevant to the character
or person, e.g., cooking, making friends.
• Invite students to record the subjects in the space provided on the
report card line master. (See the First Steps Reading Resource Book
CD-ROM.)
• For each subject, the students decide on a grade and record
a comment to support their grade, e.g., Cooking—A—The Little
Red Hen makes a great loaf.

Adaptation:
Students can grade the chosen character from the perspective of
a different character, e.g., Little Red Hen could be graded from the
perspective of a farmyard friend.

5 What’s My Point of View?

One title that
promotes a discussion Inviting students to discuss events from a text from different points
of point of view is of view stimulates them to make inferences and judgments and build
The True Story of the
a deeper understanding of actions and behaviour. Retelling the
Three Little Pigs, by
Jon Scieszka. known text from a different perspective can follow group discussions.
• Provide time for students to read a chosen text.
• As a whole class, students can identify and list four or five key
events from the text.
• Invite each small group to consider a different character from the
text, e.g., Mother, younger brother, next-door neighbour. Encourage
students to discuss the key events and actions of characters from
that character’s point of view.
• Organize students to form new small groups so each character
is represented in the new group, e.g., a mother, a young brother,
a next-door neighbour.
• Encourage students to share their character’s point of view about
the key events listed.
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6 Developing Dialogue
Developing Dialogue is an oral activity that involves students
working in pairs to create the dialogue of two characters or people
at a particular time. Through the use of the Developing Dialogue
activity, readers are encouraged to make inferences. Students are
encouraged to make their own interpretations of a text and to
consider that others may have different interpretations.

Developing Dialogue works well with literary texts. Once students

are familiar with the activity, it can also be applied to informational
texts.
• Organize students into pairs. Each pair can then select two
characters or people and a particular event from a familiar text.
• Provide time for students to discuss the characters or people and
what they would be saying.
• Direct students to create and practise their improvised dialogue.
You might have students record key words to use as a memory
aid when presenting their dialogue.
• Select several pairs to share their dialogues with the class.
• Students can discuss how and why the dialogues varied.

READING STRATEGY: SYNTHESIZING

Guided Practice Activities

1 Turn on the Lights

2 Plot Profile
3 Great Debate
4 Synthesis Journal

1 Turn on the Lights

Turn on the Lights provides students with the opportunity to
consciously piece together elements of a text to assist overall
comprehension. During reading, students recall and record any
information from a text that helps clarify meaning or that has a
significant impact on their understanding—in other words, that
turns on the lights.
• Direct students to use the line master provided to make jottings
(words or pictures) at self-determined points as they read the
text.

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 • Encourage students to be consciously aware of the times when
pieces come together for them during the reading. At each of
these times, students record the information that is significant in
helping them to monitor and clarify meaning. These are the
aha! moments that all readers have during reading.
• Provide an opportunity for students to share and compare their
Turn on the Lights jottings and their understanding of the text,
either in small groups or with a partner.

Figure 4.33 Turn on the Lights, student sample

2 Plot Profile
Students can create a Plot Profile to determine the main events of a
story. They can then synthesize the information and rate the
excitement level of each event.
• After reading and rereading a text, have students brainstorm and
list the main events in order.
• Provide time for small groups of students to consider each event
and determine its level of excitement. The excitement level can
then be plotted onto the grid to create a profile of the plot.
• Invite students to summarize the excitement levels of each event
in the text.
• Encourage groups to compare their profiles.

Adaptations:
Plot Profiles can be created while reading a text. Main events can
be recorded as they occur.

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After several profiles have been created, note and discuss

similarities and differences in the various profiles. You may
compare profiles from the same author or across similar text forms.

• Have the students brainstorm the main events. Record each main
event on a separate card.
• Hand out the cards to individual students.
• Invite the students to line up in the order that the events
occurred in the text.
• Jointly reread the outline of each event to check for sequence.
• Invite each student holding a card to decide how exciting the
event was. They demonstrate the level of excitement by standing
tall (very exciting), standing in normal fashion (exciting), and
sitting down (not very exciting).

3 Great Debate
Great Debate is an excellent culminating activity that can be used at
the completion of any unit of study or topic. Great Debate provides
a framework for students to synthesize information from a range of
sources or from within a single text. This information is then used
to respond to an open-ended statement.
• Create an open-ended statement directly related to the topic of
study or to a text.
• Organize students to work in groups identifying and listing
information from the text that can provide affirmative or negative
responses to the statement provided.
• Invite individual students to then create a personal position
statement. They can also include justifications about the statement.
• Provide time for students to share and compare personal position
statements. The sharing of statements allows students to draw
conclusions and consider different points of view.

4 Synthesis Journal
A Synthesis Journal (McAlexander and Burrell 1996) provides a
framework for students to use when synthesizing information
about a topic collected from various sources, possibly representing a
range of perspectives. By completing a Synthesis Journal, readers
are able to develop a greater understanding of how authors use
information to suit different purposes and audiences.

Synthesizing is a complex process that involves working with

information from several sources. The process will need to be
modelled many times before students can independently create
their own journals.

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 • Invite students to select a topic.
• Have students begin gathering information from a variety of
sources, e.g., texts, a video, a guest speaker, classmates, the teacher,
personal experiences.
• Invite students to record key information from each source onto
the Synthesis Journal framework.
• Direct students to review key information from each source and
create a synthesis of the ideas presented. Encourage students to
consider the different perspectives presented.

Synthesis Journal

Source 1: Source 2: Source 3: Source 4:

______________ ______________ ______________ ______________

My synthesis:

Figure 4.34 Synthesis Journal outline

READING STRATEGY: CREATING IMAGES

Guided Practice Activities

1 Picture This!
2 Sensory Chart
3 Post Your Senses
4 Changing Images
5 Open Mind Portrait
6 Information Images

1 Picture This!
Picture This! is an activity that allows students to practise the
comprehension strategy of creating images. After listening to a text
but not viewing any illustrations, students are invited to create a
visual representation of a part of the text.
• Select a section of text that contains a well-described setting and
has a variety of characters.
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• Read the selection to the students. Ensure that students do not

see any visual information.
• Direct students to select a character and an event in the text.
Provide time for students to create a visual representation of
their interpretation.
• If appropriate, encourage students to add sound effects.
• Organize students to share and compare their images. Encourage
students to provide reasons for the images they have created.

2 Sensory Chart
The use of a Sensory Chart provides students with an opportunity
to see, feel, and hear the characters, settings, or events of the text.
This helps the text come alive and support students’ interpretations.
The charts can be completed on an individual basis, but work most
effectively when created with a partner.
• Provide time for pairs to read a section of text they have chosen.
• At the end of the reading, encourage students to work individually
to record, pictorially or using key words, what the text so far looks
like, sounds like, or feels like.
• Encourage students to share and compare their images. The
opportunity to discuss their images through sharing and comparing
is important.
• Direct students to repeat the process for the next self-selected
section of the text.

Figure 4.35 Sensory Chart, student sample

3 Post Your Senses

Post Your Senses is an activity that helps students develop an
awareness of creating images to aid comprehension. Post Your
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 Senses involves students in recording brief notes or sketches about
the images they form as they read a text.
• Provide students with sticky notes to be used during reading.
• Invite students to place sticky notes on the text in places where
they think of a strong image (visual, auditory, olfactory,
kinesthetic, or emotional).
• Direct students to make brief notes or sketches about each image.
• Provide time for students to share their images with others.
Encourage students to discuss how the images helped them to
understand the text.

4 Changing Images
Completing a Changing Images (Miller 2002) activity helps students
to understand that mental images evolve and change as more and
more information is gathered from a text and new interpretations
are developed. Images may also change as a result of sharing with
other readers.
• Select a text to read aloud to students. Do not share any
illustrations with the students at this time.
• Stop at a selected place in the text. On the line master provided,
invite students to sketch or write about their first mental image in
the top left box.
• Organize students into pairs to discuss and share their mental images.
• Students can add to or re-create their images after conferring with
their partners.
• Continue reading aloud to another selected point in the text.
• Allow enough time for students to add to or re-create their images.
• Invite students to reconsider their images at the end of the text.

Figure 4.36 Changing Images, student sample

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5 Open Mind Portrait

Creating an Open Mind Portrait (Tompkins 2001) provides students
with the opportunity to create not only visual images, but also
emotional images of selected characters in texts. Students are
invited to create a portrait of a character and to then record key
words to describe the character’s thoughts and feelings.

• After reading a text, direct students to fold a large blank sheet

of paper in half.
• On one half of the sheet, invite students to select, then draw
a portrait of a character from their text.
• Direct students to trace the outline of the portrait onto the other
half of the sheet. No facial details should be included in this
second drawing.
• Invite students to record words or pictures onto the portrait that
describe the feelings and thoughts of their chosen character.
• Provide time for students to share their portraits and descriptive
words with each other, explaining reasons for their choices.

Adaptations:
Open Mind Portrait can be used not only with literary texts, but
also with informational texts, such as biographies or historical
accounts.

6 Information Images
It is important that students practise creating images when reading
informational texts as well as literary texts. The Information Images
activity encourages students to consider visual images when reading
informational texts such as subject-specific textbooks, as for science.
• After reading a section of an informational text, invite students
to work in small groups to create images that represent the key
information.
• Provide students with large sheets of paper to create the images
so posters can be displayed.
• Encourage students to represent the information as two
different images.
• Provide time for small groups to share and explain their images
with the whole class.

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 READING STRATEGY: GENERATING QUESTIONS
Guided Practice Activities

1 Clouds of Wonder
2 Stop-and-Think Cards
3 B-D-A Questions
4 Written Conversations

1 Clouds of Wonder
It is important that readers ask questions and think actively while
reading. Students can be encouraged to think about characters,
events, settings, actions, problems, or solutions presented in a text
and to generate wonderings as they read. The use of a Clouds of
Wonder framework promotes this type of active thinking.
• Have pairs of students read a section of a text together, e.g., one
page, two paragraphs.
• Encourage students to reflect on this section and generate
wonderings.
• Prompt students to record their questions on individual Clouds
of Wonder sheets.
• Have students share and discuss what they wondered about.
• Provide time for students to continue the process to the end of
the text, stopping at various points to generate, share, and
discuss the questions that evolve.

Figure 4.37 Clouds of Wonder, student sample

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2 Stop-and-Think Cards
Effective readers constantly ask themselves questions as a way of
monitoring their comprehension. Stop and Think is a simple
activity that encourages students to practise pausing at different
times during the reading of a text. Stop-and-Think cards placed by
students throughout the text encourage students to use the pauses
to ask themselves simple questions and to reflect on their level of
understanding.
• Provide time for students to identify random places in a text to
stop and think.
• Have students mark each place with a Stop-and-Think card.
• Have students identify at least three places in the text.
• Direct students to read the text, stopping to reflect on questions
listed on the Stop-and-Think card.

Stop-and-Think Card
 Do I understand what that was about?
 Were there any parts I did not understand?
 Could I explain what I have just read to someone else?
 What might the next part be about?
 Are there any questions I need to have answered?
Congratulations! Read ON!

Figure 4.38 The line master features six cards.

3 B-D-A Questions
B-D-A Question sheets are a way of encouraging students to
practise generating questions before, during, and after reading.
Generating questions helps students to set a clear purpose for their
reading, predict information, and make connections to what they
already know. Doing this helps students’ overall comprehension.
• Organize students to work with a partner to generate questions
before reading a text. Headings and subheadings are a useful aid
for generating questions. Questions can be recorded in the Before
Reading column on the line master provided. (See Figure 4.39.)
• Direct students to begin reading, scanning for information to
answer their initial questions. Any answers to questions can be
recorded in the same column.
• Encourage students to generate any further questions as they
read, recording them in the During Reading column. Answers can
be recorded when found.

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 • At the end of reading, partners work together to generate any
further questions they have about the topic. These questions can
be used as discussion starters for further small-group sharing
sessions or individual research.

Figure 4.39 B-D-A Questions, student sample

4 Written Conversations
Readers benefit from opportunities to discuss their questions and
interpretation of a text with a partner. Written Conversations allow
students to use writing to explore their thoughts and questions
about a text.
• Organize students to work with a partner to read the same text,
chapter, or passage.
• After reading, provide time for students to “converse” about the
text in a written form (no talking allowed). Partners take turns
writing back and forth on the same sheet of paper.
• Encourage students to consider recording thoughts as well as
questions about what and why things may have happened in the
text.
• Provide time for partners to share their written conversations
with other groups.

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READING STRATEGY: SKIMMING

Guided Practice Activities

1 Picture Flick
2 Graphic Overlays
3 Sneak Preview

1 Picture Flick
Picture Flick is an activity that replicates what many effective readers
do before they read a text that contains illustrations. It is often a
natural process to skim through the illustrations to get a sense of the
contents, characters, or setting. Taking a brief look at illustrations in
a text can help prepare readers for the text as well as stimulating
predictions and connections.
• Encourage students to use the following Picture Flick procedure
before independent reading.
– Look at the front cover and the title of the text.
– Skim through the text, browsing at the illustrations.
– After looking through the whole text, predict the story.
Ask: What do you think is going to happen in the text?
• Provide time for students to read the text.
• Have students discuss and make comparisons between their
predictions and what actually happened in the text.
• Provide time for students to share how skimming a text helped
with comprehension of the text.

Adaptation:
Picture Flick can be done with the whole class when using enlarged
texts, such as big books.

2 Graphic Overlays
Graphic Overlays provide students with an opportunity to build
their knowledge of text organization. It is sometimes difficult for
readers to follow texts that include pictures, diagrams, tables, graphs,
text, and photographs. Some informational texts are organized into
columns or print is placed alongside unrelated graphics. This
organization of text may hinder comprehension.

The creation of a Graphic Overlay, through skimming a text before

reading, provides students with a clear visual outline of how and
where information is located in the text.

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 • Provide students with non-permanent markers and transparent
overlays, e.g., overheads, plastic sheeting, tracing paper.
• Have students place the transparent sheeting over the appropriate
pages of the text.
• Ask students to then create a visual representation of the layout
or organization of the page. Boxes are drawn to represent chunks
of text, diagrams, headings, labels, or photographs. (See Figure
4.40b.)
• Direct students to label each box, describing what it represents,
e.g., text, subheading, photograph, caption.
• Provide opportunities for students to use the Graphic Overlay to
explain the layout of the text to a partner.
• Direct students to use the overlay to identify the parts of the text
that may help them achieve their reading purpose.

Figure 4.40a Sample text Figure 4.40b Graphic overlay

3 Sneak Preview
Completing a Sneak Preview sheet encourages students to skim
a text before they begin reading. Doing this will build interest in
the text and will assist with comprehension. Students can skim to
identify particular features, such as the contents page, cover, back
cover blurb, end pages, information about the author, illustrations,
and chapter headings.
• Invite students to explore the organization and contents of their
text prior to reading.
• Provide time for students to complete the Sneak Preview sheet.
(See Figure 4.41.)
• Encourage students to share what they discovered with a partner
or in small groups.
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• Provide time for students to read the text, encouraging them to

use the information gathered through skimming.
• Provide time for students to reflect on what information was most
useful to promote comprehension.

Figure 4.41 Sneak Preview, student sample

READING STRATEGY: SCANNING

Guided Practice Activities

1 Hunt the Text Challenge

2 Beat the Buzzer Quiz
3 Retrieval Charts
4 Interesting Words Chart

1 Hunt the Text Challenge

Hunt the Text Challenge is a type of quiz that provides students
with the opportunity to scan text to locate specific information.
Challenges can be presented one at a time and involve the students
in scanning features used to organize text, such as the index,
contents page, illustrations, headings, and subheadings. Students
can then answer the questions provided.
• Prepare a variety of challenge cards containing questions based on
a selected text. Ensure that the challenges encourage students to
scan the text to locate specific information, such as page numbers,
particular details, a certain illustration or table, a statistic, a specific
heading or subheading, a chapter title, or an answer to a question.
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 • Create a game-like situation by randomly drawing challenge cards
from a box.
• Read the card aloud and challenge the students to locate the
information.
• Direct students to use a certain sign to indicate they have found
the answer, e.g., hand up.

Adaptation:
Students could work in small groups with one student as the quiz
person and the others responding to the challenges presented.

2 Beat the Buzzer Quiz

This activity is a fun way of helping students to practise scanning
text to locate specific details. Responses to quiz questions can be
substantiated by students providing a reference for information
located in the text, e.g., page 3, second paragraph.
• After reading a text, direct students to work in pairs to create quiz
questions for other students using the text.
• Provide time for questions to be recorded onto cards. Collect cards.
• Organize students into two teams.
• Select a question and read it to the whole class. Challenge the
teams to provide the answer as well as a specific reference to a
page and paragraph in the text that substantiates their answer.
• A point can be scored for the fastest team to respond correctly to
each question.

3 Retrieval Charts
A Retrieval Chart enables students to record information about a
number of categories or topics so they can make comparisons. To
create a Retrieval Chart, students scan a text to extract important
information so they can make generalizations.
• Create headings for the Retrieval Chart based on the type of
information to be gathered. (See Figure 4.42.)
• Introduce these headings to the students.
• Allow students time to read the text.
• Provide time for students to scan the text so they can identify
relevant information.
• Let students record the information they have found onto the
Retrieval Chart.
• Discuss with students the similarities and differences in
the categories.

Adaptation:
Retrieval Charts can be completed using key words or pictorial
representations.

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Figure 4.42 Retrieval Charts permit comparisons.

4 Interesting Words Chart

Interesting Words Chart (Morris and Stewart-Dore 1984)
is an activity to clarify new or unknown vocabulary, particularly in
informational texts. Students skim for contextual clues, using what
they already know and reference materials such as dictionaries to
work out word meanings before, during, and after reading.
• Direct students to skim the text. Have them highlight any new
vocabulary or words where the meaning is unknown or unclear.
• Ask students to share any new words. If students seem hesitant to
respond, prompt them with pre-selected words, e.g., What about
the word “molten”? Does anyone know what that word means?
• Enter suggested words onto the Interesting Words Chart and
include page and paragraph references, as appropriate. (See
Figure 4.43.)
• Have students read the text looking for contextual clues that
might suggest a meaning for the word. If clues are found, have
the students complete the Any Help Given in the Text column. If
no clues are found but the students can infer the meaning, they
can write this in the My Explanation column.
• If the meaning is still not determined, direct students to a glossary,
dictionary, or other reference source. The correct meaning is then
recorded in the final column.
• As words often have several meanings, students need to be sure
they have selected the correct meaning for the text. To confirm
their understanding of the word, have students reread the section
of text for sense, using the meaning they have sourced.
• Have students reread the text in its entirety.

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 Figure 4.43 Interesting Words Chart, student sample

READING STRATEGY: DETERMINING IMPORTANCE

Guided Practice Activities

1 What’s Your Story?

2 Famous Five Key Word Search
3 Very Important Points (VIPs)
4 Main Idea Pyramid

1 What’s Your Story?

The What’s Your Story? framework distils the key elements of a
narrative text into a simple diagram. Completing this activity requires
students to identify important information. It also promotes
awareness of how knowing the organization of a narrative text aids
comprehension. What’s Your Story? also helps students to make
connections between different parts of a narrative.
• Provide time for students to read the selected text.
• Direct students to work in small groups to locate and record key
information under each category on the sheet. (See Figure 4.44.)
• Provide an opportunity for students to share and compare
information recorded.

Adaptations:
What’s Your Story? sheets can be adapted to suit a variety of other
texts. Once students have completed several What’s Your Story?
sheets, these can be used to look for patterns and make
comparisons across different texts.

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Figure 4.44 What’s Your

Story?, student sample

2 Famous Five Key Word Search

Involving students in key word searches is an effective way of
helping them to extract important information from texts. The
success of strategies such as summarizing and paraphrasing depends
on students’ ability to select appropriate key words. The process of
selecting key words will need to be modelled many times, starting
with single sentences and moving into more complex and lengthy
examples. Once students have worked in this context, the Famous
Five Key Word framework can be used independently.
• Provide time for students to read the selected passage and identify
possible key words during reading. These may be recorded on
sticky notes.
• At the conclusion of reading, direct the students to reread the
possible key words and select their famous five key words.
• Invite students to record their famous fives on the line master.
• Provide time for students to share their key words in small groups.
They can discuss and compare their selections.
• Direct students to use the key words as a stimulus to create their
own sentences about the text. Writing space is provided on the
line master.

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 3 Very Important Points (VIPs)
VIPs (Hoyt 2002) encourages students to identify important
information in a text. Students mark sections of a text that contain
very important points with sticky notes. The use of the sticky notes
allows students some flexibility in their final choice of VIPs.
• Give each student a certain number of sticky notes. Limiting the
number of sticky notes to be used helps students to focus.
• Provide time for students to create their fringe of notes.
• Provide time for students to read the text and place their notes on
what they consider to be VIPs, or places in the text that are
significant to the overall meaning of the text.
• Provide time for students to share and compare their VIPs and
verify their selections.

4 Main Idea Pyramid

Main Idea Pyramid is a graphic organizer that helps students to
determine and record important information in a paragraph or an
entire text. The pyramid activity helps to show the relationship
between supporting details and the main idea. Paragraphs with
clear topic sentences and simple lists are ideal texts.
• After reading a text or sections of a text, students brainstorm
One way to make a important facts. Encourage students to refer to the text.
main idea pyramid is • Have students record facts on cards or sticky notes so they can be
for students to draw
equilateral triangles moved.
on paper in landscape • When the brainstorming process is complete, direct students to
orientation. The top
level is a triangle
group their cards or notes into general sub-topics. Place these groups
and the other two of cards or notes at the base of the pyramid. (See Figure 4.45.)
levels are divided • Direct students to reread the combination of words or phrases in
with most divisions
at the bottom. each group and record a main idea statement for each one. These
Otherwise, teachers statements form the second level of the pyramid.
can make the
constructions.
• Direct students to use all the information at the second level to
create a main idea of the text at the top level of the pyramid.

Figure 4.45 Main Idea

Pyramid, student constructed
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READING STRATEGIES: SUMMARIZING AND

PARAPHRASING
Guided Practice Activities

1 Oral Summaries
2 Reciprocal Retellings
3 Main Idea Sort
4 Newspaper Report
5 66 Words

1 Oral Summaries
Oral Summaries is an activity that helps students monitor
comprehension and give substance to their ideas through
summarizing.
• Have students work in small groups using the same text.
• Direct students to read a specified section silently or aloud.
• Invite small groups to collaboratively summarize what has happened
so far in the text. Encourage discussion and active review of ideas.
• Direct students to read the next specified section, stopping to
repeat the process of creating a group summary.

2 Reciprocal Retellings
Summarizing and paraphrasing important information from a text
requires students to be able to strip away extraneous information,
something that calls for practice and modelling. Reciprocal
Retellings allow students to extract important information and use
it as a basis for retelling.
• After reading a text, direct students to work in small groups to
brainstorm main events.
• Invite each student in the small group to select one of the
main events.
• Using the line master provided, each student works individually
to elicit and list the main details about the selected event.
• Provide time for students to use the completed framework as a
guide to prepare a reciprocal oral or written group retelling.
Student A (Event 1) begins the retelling and then passes it on to
Student B (Event 2) to continue. This process is continued for
each student and therefore each main event.
• Encourage small groups to share their Reciprocal Retellings with
the whole class.
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 3 Main Idea Sort
The Main Idea Sort activity enables students to identify key words
and phrases to create summaries. The Main Idea Sort is an excellent
activity to use with informational texts.
• Identify key words, phrases, and headings that are necessary for
understanding the concepts of the topic in a selected text.
• Record key words, phrases, and headings randomly on a grid or
use sticky notes or cards.
• Have students read the text.
• After reading, students can cut grids into small cards.
• Invite students to arrange the words, phrases, and headings to
show their relationship, thereby forming an outline of the text.
• Direct students to work in pairs, using the key words and phrases
to create a summary of the text.

4 Newspaper Report
Creating Newspaper Reports from texts provides an opportunity for
students to summarize and paraphrase the main ideas into a new
form. A grasp of the organization, purpose, structure, and features
of a newspaper report is a prerequisite for the completion of
this activity.
• Provide time for students to read a text and discuss the
main events.
• Direct students to work together to re-create an important event
as if it was being reported in the newspaper. The following
features can be included:
– headline to capture attention
– date and place
– lead sentence to encourage the reader to read on
– details, such as who, what, why, how, and when
– conclusion
– picture
• Provide time for students to present and compare their newspaper
reports.

5 66 Words
The 66 Words is a framework that can be used to record the key
events or themes of a text. Students are challenged to read a text
and create a summary in 66 words or fewer. By providing students
with a grid with 66 rectangles, the focus is on succinct text rather
than the exact number of words. (See Figure 4.46.)

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• Have students individually write their 66 Words in sentences.

• Organize students into small groups. Each small group merges
individual ideas to create a single summary in 66 words or fewer.
If consensus is difficult, each group member may have a turn at
making the final decision about at least one sentence.
• Have groups share their summaries. Discuss what was included,
what was left out, and why.

Figure 4.46 66 Words, student sample

READING STRATEGIES: REREADING, READING

ON, ADJUSTING READING RATE
Guided Practice Activities

No guided practice activities are suggested for these strategies, all The reading
strategies rereading,
of which pertain to monitoring. It is recommended that students reading on, and
be encouraged to make use of these strategies during any reading adjusting reading
rate, as well as
event. The following instructional approaches would provide ideal sounding out, using
contexts for guiding students to practise rereading, reading on, analogy, and
and adjusting reading rate. consulting a refer-
ence, can all be seen
• Shared Reading as part of the broad
strategy monitoring
• Guided Reading and revising compre-
hension.
• Independent Reading
• Literature Circles

Figure 4.47 Contexts for guiding students

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 READING STRATEGIES: SOUNDING OUT,
CHUNKING, USING ANALOGY, CONSULTING
A REFERENCE
Guided Practice Activities

No guided practice activities are suggested for these strategies. It

is recommended that students be encouraged to make use of
these strategies to identify unknown words during any reading
event. The following instructional approaches would provide ideal
contexts for guiding students to practise sounding out, chunking,
using analogy, and consulting a reference.
• Shared Reading
• Guided Reading
• Independent Reading

For guided practice activities, see First Steps Reading Map of

Development, Canadian Edition, Chapters 4 to 8: Conventions
Substrand.

Figure 4.48 Contexts for guiding students

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Recording Strategies Introduced

Comprehension and word identification strategies can and must be
taught. Throughout this chapter, many different strategies that are
used by effective readers have been explored. The Gradual Release
of Responsibility Model, proposed by Pearson and Gallagher (1983),
is an effective way of teaching these strategies.

The framework in Figure 4.49 provides a way of tracking strategies

that have been introduced to students. The framework also
provides space so teachers can monitor the recursive use of
modelling, sharing, and guiding to teach the strategies.

Figure 4.49

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 SECTION 2

Teaching Students to Access

and Use Information
In today’s society, more and more information is available so it is
essential that schools and teachers prepare students with the skills
they need to be able to locate, access, retrieve, process, analyze, and
utilize information. These research skills will enhance the creative and
critical thinking of students and set them up to be lifelong learners.

What Is the Information Process?

The term Information Process is used to describe a sequence of
learning processes that students use actively as part of investigations.

Step 1 — Identify and define research requirements.

Step 2 — Locate and gather appropriate resources.
Step 3 — Select and record appropriate information.
Step 4 — Process and organize the information.
Step 5 — Create and share a presentation.
Step 6 — Evaluate the project.

Teachers often refer to the Information Process as project work,

research assignments, inquiries, or investigations. Depending on the
type and scope of an investigation, all can be successfully carried out
by individuals, pairs, or groups of students.

The Information Process remains constant, but as students do more

challenging research assignments, the skills and knowledge they
require will become more advanced.

Using the Gradual Release of Responsibility Model (Pearson and

Gallagher 1983) ensures that students do not become overloaded.
Explicit teaching that incorporates modelling and scaffolded support
structures will help students. Providing students with the time and
support needed to develop their knowledge and skills will result in
their becoming independent researchers. The teaching of knowledge
and skills needs to occur before independent application.

Information Process skills can be taught, developed, and integrated

across all curriculum areas as these links provide authentic contexts
for research projects and real audiences for presentations.
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Considerations About Research Projects

Research projects need to
• have a clear purpose and expectations
• have an authentic audience
• be relevant to the student
• allow for individual preferences and ownership
• be planned
• provide opportunities for students to practise and develop skills
• be motivational, flexible, and capable of promoting engagement
• promote reflection
• have authentic assessment tools
• promote both process and product

From the outset, students need to have a clear understanding of the

expectations of a research project, including the assessment criteria
and tools to be used as well as their part in the evaluation process.
Therefore, teachers should consider the following questions:
• Do I have a clear purpose for setting the project and for the
assessment and evaluation processes I will use?
• Have I planned to collect data throughout students’ project work
as well as at the end?
• What tools will I use to gather data?
• Have I incorporated a collaborative approach in my data collection?
• How will I record the data collected?
• How will I analyze and evaluate the data gathered and incorporate
it into my future teaching?

Research projects, particularly those that are more complex, take

time. Some may need to be divided into manageable sections with
guidelines. As students do research, they should be encouraged to
develop their own opinions and become autonomous. The teacher
may need to shift away from the more traditional teacher role.

Teachers may find the following line masters useful as they work
with students during the different stages of the Information
Process:
• Sample Research Plan
• Letter re Project

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 Step 1—Identifying and Defining
Research Requirements
The first step of the Information Process involves identifying and
defining the requirements of the research project. Projects can
be directed by the teacher or negotiated with the student. If the
teacher is directing the project, then students will need to identify
and define both the topic and what they are required to do. If
students have negotiated research projects, they will need to select
and define their topics. The chosen research projects should be
interesting and relevant to the students, suit a particular audience,
and be achievable within a specific time frame.

What Students Need to Know

To identify and define a research project successfully, students will
be required to know the following.

How to Select and Analyze a Research Topic

Students who have negotiated their own projects begin by choosing
an aspect to explore and defining the scope of their research. It is
also beneficial at this stage for students to consider their own
interests and what they already know about the topic.

The first task in completing a research project directed by the

teacher is to identify the key words and phrases that define it.
Students will then analyze it in terms of the content, the processes
they will use, and the ways to organize and present information.

Regardless of who selected the research project, it is helpful if

students clarify the purpose of the task, know what outcomes need
to be met, determine the audience, and check the availability of
resources before commencing.

How to Create Focus Questions

One way to define the scope of the research project is to formulate
focus questions. Successful focus questions engage the students and
head them on a path of discovery thereby providing multiple
possibilities for their investigations.

Generating effective questions takes time and practice. Therefore, it is

important that teachers work with students to help them develop an
understanding of the types of questions to ask and when to ask them.

There are many ways of organizing and discussing specific types

of questions, e.g., Bloom’s Taxonomy revised (Bloom 1956; Anderson
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and Krathwohl 2001), Question–Answer Relationships (Raphael 1982),

Three Level Guides (Herber 1978), or Open and Closed Questions.

Students should understand the nature of the questions and the

information that each type of question will elicit. Focus questions
may need to be refined or new focus questions created to support
the purpose of the task as the research work proceeds.

How to Plan for a Research Project

Successful research projects require careful management of time
and resources. Encourage students to plan so that they follow a
logical progression and divide the work into manageable sections.
By planning and organizing in this way, it will not become over-
whelming, the focus will be retained, and reflection and review
points can be incorporated throughout the work.

Planning a research project requires students to

• develop a search plan for possible resources and sources
of information
• develop and use planning frameworks

Teachers can encourage students to organize their time and

resources by jointly constructing
• timetables, calendars, and timelines that list due dates
for specific tasks
• guides that outline each step of the Information Process

Teachers can also suggest using organizational aids, such as folders

or wallets for storing documentation.

Being able to answer the following questions may help students to

identify and define a research project.

Research Projects Directed by Teachers

Questions for Students
What is this project about?
What do I have to do?
What is the purpose of the project?
What do I already know?
What do I want and need to find out?
Have I created focus questions?
What are some key words I could use to search for information?
How will I plan and organize my work?
Have I created my plan?

Figure 4.50a

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 Research Projects Negotiated with Students
Questions for Students
What would I like to investigate? What am I interested in?
Who is the audience for this investigation?
What do I think will interest them?
What do I already know?
What do I want and need to find out?
Have I created focus questions?
What are some key words I could use to search for information?
How will I plan and organize my work?
Have I created my plan?
Figure 4.50b

Supporting Students in Identifying

and Defining a Research Project
Teachers can select from the following guided practice activities that
will assist students in being able to identify and define a research
project.

1 Brainstorming
2 Card Cluster
3 Explosion Chart
4 K-W-L-S Chart
5 Share Your Topic
6 Creating Quiz Questions
7 Five Ws and an H
8 Question Web
9 Structured Overview
10 B-D-A Questions

1 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is an activity used to activate students’ prior
knowledge. When brainstorming, students are required to generate
a list of words and phrases about a specific topic. Throughout
brainstorming sessions, all suggestions are accepted and a piggy-
backing of ideas is encouraged.
• Have students work in pairs or groups to generate and record
what they already know about the investigation topic.
• Ask students to categorize the information into sub-topics.
• Once students have finished their brainstorming, they can
identify areas where information is lacking. These areas may
become the first priority for gathering information.
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2 Card Cluster
Creating a Card Cluster, a way of categorizing information, is often
used to extend a brainstorming session. Clustering involves
collating ideas or focus questions by sorting them into categories.
This sorting helps students to better plan their research projects.
• Arrange students in groups.
• Distribute blank cards or sticky notes and a marker pen to each
group of students.
• Have students record key words, phrases, or questions about their
investigation, one idea per card.
• When all the information is recorded on the cards, direct students
to place all similar ideas into clusters. Students can explain why
they have clustered certain ideas together. Often, the explanation
can generate a heading for each cluster of cards.
• Suggest that students review each cluster, refining, adding, or
deleting cards as required.

3 Explosion Chart
These charts can be used to activate and organize students’ prior
knowledge and initial questions. An Explosion Chart starts with the
central idea or focus question, and as students make associations
these are added to the central idea.
• Have students write the central idea, concept, or theme in the
middle of a page.
• As students think of ideas and questions, they can write them
around the central idea.
• Have students show connections between the ideas, e.g.,
clustering information, creating radiating lines.

4 K-W-L-S Chart
The use of K-W-L-S charts, a variation on the familiar K-W-L charts
(Ogle 1986), encourages the activation of the students’ prior
knowledge of a particular topic and helps students to generate and
refine research questions.
• Have students brainstorm what they already know about the
research topic and record it in the K column of the K-W-L-S chart.
• Students can list what they want to find out in the W column.
This information can be written in question form as it can provide
the scope of the project. (See Figure 4.51.)
• Once the project has been completed, students can record what
they learned in the L column. Any further questions can also be
recorded in a fourth column, S—What I Still Want to Know.

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 Figure 4.51 K-W-L-S Chart, student sample

5 Share Your Topic

Small-group discussions provide an opportunity for students to
share their topics to activate their prior knowledge, to stimulate
critical thinking, and to learn from peers.
• Form students into small groups. Students can be placed into
random groups or according to research topic.
• Provide a focus for the discussion by using statements such as
“Today, in your groups, share your three potential topics and
obtain feedback from the group” or “Today, in your groups, share
your chosen research topic, as well as what you have listed as
your prior knowledge and possible focus questions, and ask the
group to contribute any further knowledge or ideas that may
assist you.”

6 Creating Quiz Questions

Creating Quiz Questions can help students develop effective questions.
Effective questions form the basis of successful research projects.
• Provide students with a range of question-and-answer formats,
e.g., game cards, surveys, or questionnaires.
• Direct students to identify the different ways questions are
structured and analyze the answers, e.g., multiple choice, finish the
sentence, yes or no, full written answer. Students may also discuss
which type of question will best suit a particular context.
• Have students discuss, highlight, and analyze the language used
in the different questions.

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• Provide groups with a section of text and ask them to create a set
of questions.
• Have students share and hone questions with another group.
• The students can use the questions to create a quiz session.

7 Five Ws and an H
The activity Five Ws and an H can assist students to generate
effective focus questions. Students are challenged to list as many
questions related to their research projects as possible under each of
the headings on the Five Ws and an H line master.
• Provide students with a Five Ws and an H line master.
• Direct students to list as many questions that begin with the given
word as possible.
• After listing all possibilities on their line masters, students can
review their questions, deleting any that require a limited
response. Have students sharpen any questions that are too
general.
• From this revised list, students can number the questions in
order of priority. Prioritizing will promote planning and
time management.

Figure 4.52 Five Ws and an H,

student sample

8 Question Web
Constructing Question Webs helps students to generate and
refine effective focus questions. Students can group questions that
relate to similar topics, thereby supplying the subheadings for the
research project.

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 • Have students brainstorm questions applicable to their research.
Using the Five Ws and an H line master should help them.
• Direct students to review their questions and begin to categorize
them into topic groups.
• Have students create a heading for each topic group.
• Once all questions have been allocated, have students review their
questions. Reviewing may involve deleting, refining, or adding
questions.

Figure 4.53 On this Question Web, a student has grouped focus questions under
four headings.

9 Structured Overview
A Structured Overview is a graphic organizer that shows the
relationships between ideas. The Structured Overview provides
support for students as they organize thoughts and ideas for their
research projects. The overview can also be used to record and
retrieve information at later stages in the project. Structured
Overviews are usually organized by placing the most important idea
or concept at the top followed by the more specific details.
• Have students formulate an overall main idea or focus question.
This can be written at the top of the Structured Overview.
• In the next level, students should list potential subheadings or
note focus questions.
• Under each subheading or focus question, students now list any
known information. They can then generate and write questions
under each subheading, if they choose.

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Figure 4.54 Structured Overview, student sample

10 B-D-A Questions
See pages 159–60 for an outline of the activity. At this stage in the
Information Process, the focus is on generating the Before Reading
questions.

Step 2—Locating and Gathering

Appropriate Resources
In the second step in the Information Process, students locate
information using primary and secondary sources. This involves
identifying and selecting appropriate resources, locating resources,
and finding the relevant information within these resources.

Students benefit from being involved in asking, watching, reading,

and doing at this stage of the process. They may need to modify
their search plans as they find new resources, encounter dead ends,
and gain new insights.

What Students Need to Know

To successfully locate appropriate resources, student will need to
know about the following.

Locating Appropriate Sources of Information

Students need to have access to a range of resources and sources
of information. This range includes access to primary sources of
information, such as first-hand experiences, simulations, people,
services, and artifacts, and secondary sources of information, such
as print, non-print, and electronic resources.
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 Using the library resource centre
Students benefit from knowing
• how the library resource centre is organized, e.g., layout and
physical location of resources, the alphabetical and numerical
(Dewey) organizational systems
• how the accessing systems operate, e.g., catalogues
• how to use the accessing systems effectively
• how to borrow sources
• about the structure of books, e.g., fiction or non-fiction, title, author,
illustrator, editor, spine, cover, call number, title page, blurb, copyright
and publishing details, contents pages, index, chapters, dedication,
bibliography, glossary, preface, foreword, appendix
• what the conventions associated with accessing texts and other
resources are, e.g., use of guidewords in dictionaries and
encyclopedias

Using the available technology

Students benefit from knowing how to
• use equipment, e.g., CD/tape player, computer, fax machine,
television, video/DVD player, film or slide projector, camera, video
recorder, telephone
• use search engines, online catalogues, and databases
• use collaboration tools, such as e-mail, discussion lists, and
forums to elicit and contribute relevant information
• navigate Web pages, e.g., using hyperlinks, book marking
• use relevant software

Conducting interviews and surveys

Students will benefit from knowing how to
• request information using appropriate protocols, e.g., writing
explanatory letters, engaging in conversation to set the context for
the requested information
• create effective interview or survey questions so they obtain the
desired information
• record and collate information from interviews and surveys

Gathering appropriate resources

Students will benefit from knowing how to determine
• the availability of resources, their ease of use, and their
readability
• the credibility of the creators of the texts, e.g., checking for
credentials, awards, other works, funding from a third party

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• the accuracy, currency, and reliability of the texts by referring to

publication information, copyright information, and edition
information.

Locating Appropriate Information Within a Resource

To successfully locate appropriate information within a resource,
students will need to know the following:
– how to skim and scan the organizational features of a text, e.g.,
illustrations, diagrams, graphs, tables, title page, blurb, index, chapters,
bibliography, glossary, appendix (See Chapter 3: Conventions.)

Recording the Resources

Students will benefit from knowing how to create a bibliography
so they can record sources of information and resources using the
correct conventions.

Being able to answer the following questions may help students

locate and gather appropriate resources.

Questions for Students to Consider

• Outside of school, where could I go for information?
• Which sources and resources are most likely to provide the most
reliable information?
• How will I access these sources and resources?
• Do I know where to find the resources listed on my plan?
• Which of the resources will be most readily available and accessible?
• Have I considered and checked out a range of resources to include—
print, non-print, and electronic?
• Which resources will be most efficient and effective?
• Have I previewed the resources I am thinking of using to make
sure that I can read and understand them and that they will meet
my needs?
• Do the resources have useful organizational features so that I can
access and retrieve information?
• Does it look like the information will answer my questions?
• Is it what I want and need?
• Have I previewed the resources and the suitability of the
information for relevance, currency, reliability, validity, and
accuracy?
• What do I know about the credibility of the authors of these texts?
• Have I recorded the resources I want to use so that I can find
them again?
• Do I need to go back to my original plan and focus questions and
make any changes or additions based on my searching?
• Have I begun recording my resources?
Figure 4.55 Questions about locating and gathering resources
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 Supporting Students in Locating
and Gathering Appropriate
Resources
Teachers can select from the following guided practice activities that
will assist students in locating and gathering appropriate resources.

1 “Pass That Please”

2 Text Features Survey
3 Sneak Preview
4 Hunt the Text Challenge
5 Beat the Buzzer Quiz
6 Graphic Overlays
7 Think Sheet
8 B-D-A Questions

1 “Pass That Please”

The activity “Pass That Please” is designed to help students practise
previewing a text by skimming its organizational features. This
activity also highlights the vast range of resources that are available
when conducting a research project.

This activity is most useful when students are working on a teacher-

directed project as the resources can be located ahead of time.
• Collect a range of resources.
• Arrange students in pairs. The pairs can sit and face each other in
an inside/outside circle arrangement.
• Give each student a resource to preview. Provide students with
time to preview the resources.
• Have partners take turns to share their findings and comment on
the suitability of each text for their projects. Have students pass
the resource on and receive another resource to preview.

2 Text Features Survey

The activity Text Features Survey allows students to practise
previewing a text to identify organizational features so they can
access and use the text.
• Give students a text and a survey form listing a range of
organizational features in a text.
• Have students preview the text, noting the organizational features
on the survey provided.

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• Prompt students to repeat the process with a number of texts.

Once the survey has been completed, the collated information
can be used to determine which texts will be most suitable for
their research projects.

The following activities are explained in detail in Section 1—

Teaching Comprehension and Word Identification Strategies.

3 Sneak Preview See pages 162–63.

4 Hunt the Text Challenge See pages 163–64.
5 Beat the Buzzer Quiz See page 164.
6 Graphic Overlays See pages 161–62.
7 Think Sheet (Raphael 1982) See page 137.
8 B-D-A Questions See pages 159–60.

At this stage in the Information Process, the focus is on using the

questions generated before reading. Doing this will help when
skimming and scanning resources.

Step 3—Selecting and Recording

Appropriate Information
The third step of the Information Process involves students selecting
and recording appropriate information to develop their research
projects. At this stage of the Information Process, students may also
be critically evaluating the suitability of texts. They will also need to
check the credentials of all the authors of the information.

After the chosen texts and information within the texts have been
evaluated, students are required to select and record information
that will be appropriate to their investigations. They will need to
take and make notes.

What Students Need to Know

To successfully select and record appropriate resources and
information within resources, students will need to know the
following:

How to Access Different Text Forms

At this stage of the Information Process, students benefit from
knowing how a text is organized so they can locate and access
information. They need knowledge about
– text structure, e.g., cause and effect, problem and solution, compare
and contrast, listing

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 – text organization, e.g., contents, index, sections, headings,
subheadings, fact boxes, boldfaced or italicized wording, bullet points,
symbols, key, captions, labels, glossary
– language features, e.g., grammatical structures, choice of vocabulary

How to Use Technology

At this stage of the Information Process, students benefit from
knowing how to
– retrieve information from electronic sources
– reference electronic materials

How to Take and Make Notes

It is critical that students understand the purpose of note-taking and
note-making. The taking and making of notes improves recall of
important information, increases the students’ understanding
between new material and their prior knowledge, and refocuses
reader attention.

Note-taking is recording key information from a text. It serves

several purposes, including expanding knowledge of a topic and
organizing and summarizing content for future reference or use in
another task. Notes should be complete, concise, and easy to
understand to the writer at a later date.

Note-making is recording responses to a text by making notes,

comments, and questions. Note-making promotes critical thinking
as students connect the new information with their prior
knowledge.

To take effective notes, students benefit from knowing how to

• select or create appropriate note-taking formats
• create a note-taking plan and personal shortcuts
• create appropriate headings and subheadings
• identify key information and record key words from written,
visual, and oral texts
• identify main ideas and supporting details
• interpret and retrieve information from text, diagrams, maps,
graphs, charts, pictures, photographs, flowcharts, and tables
• summarize and paraphrase
• synthesize

Students also benefit from knowing how to use a variety of methods

for recording information in note form. These methods, which help
students make appropriate connections between information, include
• making lists
• using sequences, e.g., flowcharts, timelines
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• creating graphic organizers, e.g., semantic grids, retrieval charts,

structured overviews, Venn Diagrams, concept maps
• using two-column or three-column notes

Determining the Appropriateness of the Information

At this stage of the Information Process, the students may need to
re-evaluate and refine their focus questions based on a preliminary
preview of their resources. They can use their focus questions to
create possible headings and subheadings to assist when taking notes.

Students benefit from knowing how to determine and evaluate

– information in the text, e.g., readability, relevance, organization
– devices used by authors to present a particular point of view, e.g.,
bias, prejudice, omissions, exaggeration, false claims (See Chapter 2:
Contextual Understanding, pp. 59–65.)

Being able to answer the following questions may help students to

select and record appropriate information.

Questions for Students to Consider

• Do I know how to locate key information in a text?
• Do I know the difference between what is a main idea and what is
supporting detail?
• Which method will I use to take my notes? What format will I use?
• As I made my notes, did I look at all the available information,
including the illustrations, captions, graphs, maps, tables, diagrams,
and charts?
• Have I compiled my notes from various resources and compared the
information from those resources?
• Did I remember to make notes (personal questions and responses) as
well as just taking notes (summarizing the text)?
• Have I written my notes in point form and not copied large chunks
of information?
• Can I understand my notes and could I explain what I have learned
to someone using them?
• Have I updated my bibliography by recording all the new resources
I have used?

Figure 4.56 Questions about selecting and recording information

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 Supporting Students in Selecting
and Recording Appropriate
Information
Teachers can select from the following guided practice activities that
will help students to select and record appropriate information.

1 C-W-S-C (Comprehend, Write, Share, Clarify)

2 Take Away
3 Pick, Pair, Share
4 Visualize and Note-take
5 Structured Overview
6 K-W-L Chart
7 Oral Summaries
8 Post Your Senses
9 Information Images
10 Retrieval Charts
11 Check the Text
12 Connecting with the Text
13 Famous Five Key Word Search
14 Very Important Points (VIPs)

1 C-W-S-C (Comprehend, Write, Share, Clarify)

The C-W-S-C activity promotes active listening and provides students
with practice in identifying, extracting, and clarifying key information.
• Select an appropriate text. Preview the text and mark any
relevant places for students to pause as they complete the activity.
• Have students listen to, view, or read the text to gain an overall
understanding of it.
• Have students listen to, view, or read the text again, pausing at
the selected places. Ask students to write key information (words
or phrases) they have identified.
• Continue in this way until the text is completed and notes have
been made for each section.
• Have students work in pairs or small groups to share their notes
by comparing and clarifying their information. Encourage
students to add or delete information if necessary.
• Combine groups and have the students repeat the process.
• Encourage students to listen to, view, or read the text again as
a final check.

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2 Take Away
Take Away is an activity that helps students to identify key
information. Students read a text, deleting less essential words,
such as pronouns, conjunctions, and prepositions. This activity is
particularly useful when students are working with electronic texts.
• Lead a discussion about those words that carry the meaning, that
is, the verbs and nouns.
• Provide students with a text and ask them to read it.
• Direct students to reread the text, sentence by sentence, deleting
non-essential words and phrases or words that contribute least to
understanding.
• Prompt students to examine the remaining words. Provide time
for students to think about these specific words and reasons why
they remain.
• In pairs, have students share and compare their words, discussing
why certain words have been deleted or left in.

3 Pick, Pair, Share

The use of underlining or highlighting in the Pair, Pick, Share
activity helps students to isolate important information. The activity
can also be used to identify redundant information. To complete this
activity, students need text that can be underlined or highlighted.
• Select a text, preview it, and write some focus questions.
• Provide each student with a copy of the text.
• Direct students to read the whole text.
• Before students read the text again, provide them with a copy of
the focus questions.
• Instruct students to reread the text, highlighting or underlining
the words or phrases that answer the focus questions. It may be
helpful if students are provided with a maximum number of
words that they can highlight or underline in each paragraph or
page of text.
• In pairs, students can decide which words are most suitable to
answer the focus questions.
• After pairs have decided, they can join another pair to share and
compare their words. Students do not have to come to a
consensus at this stage, but may wish to review their word
choices based on their discussion.

4 Visualize and Note-take

The Visualize and Note-take activity involves students in
representing concepts and main ideas pictorially. This activity will
enhance students’ understanding and ability to interpret a text. The

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 choice of text for this activity requires careful consideration as not
all texts are suitable.
• Provide students with an oral text or a written text with the
illustrations removed.
• Have students listen to or read the text.
• Direct students to listen again or reread the text, pausing at
relevant places to record a visual representation of their
understanding, e.g., sketch, flowchart, cycle, map, chart. As students
become familiar with this activity, words could be included with
the visual representation.
• Have students share their representations with a partner or small
group.

5 Structured Overview
See pages 182–83, under Step 1—Identifying and Defining Research
Requirements, for an explanation.

6 K-W-L Chart (Ogle 1986)

See pages 179–80, under Step 1—Identifying and Defining Research
Requirements, for an explanation. The focus in this stage of the
Information Process will be completing the L column — What I
Have Learned.

The following activities are explained in detail in Chapter 4: Section

1—Teaching Comprehension and Word Identification Strategies:

7 Oral Summaries See page 169.

8 Post Your Senses See pages 155–56.
9 Information Images See page 157.
10 Retrieval Charts See pages 164–65.
11 Check the Text See page 136.
12 Connecting with the Text See page 139.
13 Famous Five Key Word Search See page 167.
14 Very Important Points (VIPs) See page 168.

Step 4—Processing and Organizing

Information
The fourth step of the Information Process requires students to
process and organize the information for their research projects.
Processing involves analyzing and synthesizing information that has
been retrieved from various sources. Organizing involves completing
initial drafts and revising writing. It is important that students see
this step as creating a learning opportunity for others.

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What Students Need to Know

To successfully process and organize information, students will need
to know about the following.

Text Form
Students need to know about the structure of a text—the organization
and language features of a range of oral, visual, and written texts.
This knowledge will help them to make decisions about the most
appropriate way to organize information for their research projects.

How to Organize the Information

Once students have made a decision about which particular text form
they will use, they can select or create the appropriate framework
to organize the information they have gathered.

At this stage of the Information Process, students need to know

about creating a written, visual, or oral text as required. Creating a
text involves completing a first draft, revising, editing, proofreading,
and eventually finalizing the text.

Creating written texts requires students to

• expand upon their short notes to construct complete sentences
• create sentences that express complete thoughts
• sequence their information and the sentences
• construct paragraphs that begin with a topic sentence, provide
supporting details in the following sentences, and conclude with
a summary sentence that links into the next paragraph
• connect ideas from one paragraph to the next and throughout
an entire text
• select language features that will suit the text form, topic, and
audience
• create effective openings, e.g., use a leading question, share an
anecdote, start with dialogue, lead with an informative statement,
use the element of surprise, begin with something that leaves the
audience questioning or wondering
• create effective endings, e.g., state an opinion, judgment, or
implication, make a prediction, reiterate viewpoints, make a comment
about a change of thinking or belief, pose a question

How to Revise, Edit, and Proofread

Once students have written first drafts, they need to revise and edit
their work. Revising, editing, and proofreading can be modelled
and practised as a whole class before students independently apply
these skills to their own work.

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 Jointly constructing an Editor’s Checklist is a good starting point
so students can develop these skills.

Being able to answer the following questions may help students

process and organize information.

Questions for Students to Consider

• Have I sorted all of my information into headings that will answer
the focus questions?
• Do I have all the information I need? If not, what else do I need?
• Where could I go to find this information?
• Have I selected a familiar text form to use?
• Have I combined my sentences logically into paragraphs?
• Is there variety in my sentence leads and length?
• Does my writing flow, with all the paragraphs logically sequenced
and linked?
• Does the piece reflect my voice as a writer? Is it more than a
regurgitation of factual information?
• Have I revised and edited my text to make sure that the information
and ideas are clear?
• Have I proofread my work for spelling, punctuation, and grammar?
• Is my bibliography up-to-date?
Figure 4.57 Questions about processing and organizing information

Supporting Students in Processing

and Organizing Information
Teachers can select from the following guided practice activities that
will help students to process and organize information.
1 Physical Sentence Construction
2 Reconstructing a Text
3 From None to Some
4 Hook, Line, and Sinker
5 Group Editing
6 Editor’s Checklist
7 Oral Editing
8 Main Idea Sort
9 Main Idea Pyramid
10 Great Debate

1 Physical Sentence Construction

This activity is designed to help students understand the concept of
a sentence and the function of words and punctuation within a
sentence.
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• Create cards containing words that can be made into a sentence.

Place one word per card. Put a sticky note with the initial letter of
the word written as a capital on the back of each card.
• Prepare some cards with punctuation marks, one mark per card.
• Have a supply of blank cards and markers ready.
• Hand out out the individual word cards to students.
• Ask students with cards to form a sentence at the front.
• Have the whole class read the sentence. Pose the question “Is this
a sentence?” As students offer suggestions, such as “It needs to
start with a capital letter,” have the student holding that card
place the capital letter at the beginning of the word.
• If suggestions are made for punctuation, hand out the suggested
punctuation card and invite that student to join the sentence.
• Reread and check the sentence at each stage.
• Have students suggest how the sentence could be rearranged or
added to. Try some of the suggestions using blank cards on which
to write new or alternative words to be added to the sentence.

Adaptation:
Sometimes, students need assistance to reduce sentences. This
activity can be adapted by having students suggest words to be
deleted without altering the meaning of the sentence.

Figure 4.58 Word cards for Physical Sentence Construction

2 Reconstructing a Text
Reconstructing a Text requires students to manipulate sections of a
text to achieve the best effect. Students require an understanding of
the structure and function of texts, sentences, and paragraphs.
• Provide groups with an envelope that contains a text cut into
sections: a sentence cut into words, a paragraph cut into
individual sentences, or a text cut into paragraphs.
• Have students read each section and order the text according to
what they believe is the most effective.
• Have students share reconstructions with other groups. They can
explain their reasons for structuring their text.
• Invite students to compare their reconstructions with the
original text.

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 3 From None to Some
The activity From None to Some reinforces the importance of
paragraphing as an organizational tool, both from a writer’s and a
reader’s viewpoint.
• Have students work with a partner. Provide each pair with a
continuous text that does not contain paragraphs.
• Ask students to read the text and highlight where they think each
new paragraph may begin.
• Prompt pairs to share their work with another pair, comparing
and justifying choices made.
• Jointly construct a chart, listing how a paragraph links to the next.

4 Hook, Line, and Sinker

Hook, Line, and Sinker focuses students’ attention on headlines and
leads in paragraphs. In this activity, students recognize how to
identify devices that are used for effect.
• Collect a variety of newspaper or magazine articles. Separate the
headlines and bylines or lead sentences, from the text.
• Arrange students into pairs or small groups. Distribute two or
three headlines and bylines or lead sentences to each group.
• Provide time for students to discuss their headlines, encouraging
them to speculate on the content of the information to follow.
• Distribute the text and have students match it to the headline and
byline or lead sentence.
• Discuss what makes an effective headline or lead sentence.
List suggestions that will assist students when they are creating
effective opening sentences, e.g., posing a question, creating a title
with a double meaning.

5 Group Editing
Group Editing involves students collaboratively reviewing a piece
of text and making changes to improve it.
• Provide a first draft to each group of students.
• Have students read the piece and make changes.
The draft might
come from a
• Provide opportunities for the whole class to compare and discuss
student’s portfolio the changes made.
from the previous
year or be a piece of 6 Editor’s Checklist
writing you have
created. It should Jointly creating an Editor’s Checklist supports students in
need at least developing the skills needed to independently edit their own work
moderate revising.
and that of others.

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• During modelled, shared, and guided writing, jointly construct

an editing checklist and include common proofreading marks,
e.g., ^ insert a word, # insert space.
• Encourage students to refer to and use the checklist during
independent writing time and editing sessions.

Figure 4.59 The open space between checklist and

symbols points to the evolving nature of the checklist.

7 Oral Editing
Oral Editing provides an opportunity for students to edit their own
work as they share it with a partner. It also provides a chance to
receive feedback from an audience.
• Organize students to meet in pairs. Direct students to bring work
to be edited to the meeting.
• One student from each pair reads the work to be edited aloud.
Allow the students to stop and make changes as they go. They
may discuss their work with their partners as needed.
• Encourage students to reread the corrected sections.
• Once the reading is completed, have the partner offer
constructive feedback.
• Repeat the process for the other student in the pair.

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 The following activities are explained in detail in Section 1—
Teaching Comprehension and Word Identification Strategies.

8 Main Idea Sort See page 170.

9 Main Idea Pyramid
See page 168. At this stage in the Information Process, students
should have their notes and have completed the activity that relates
to clustering cards into the pyramid.

10 Great Debate See page 153.

Step 5—Creating and Sharing a

Presentation
The fifth step in the Information Process requires students to create
an effective presentation to share their work. When creating the
presentation, students need to consider the purpose, the
information to be shared, and the audience. With these factors in
mind, it is important that students see that choosing the
presentation format is not the first decision to be made, but one
that could evolve as they collect information and gain greater
understanding of their research projects.

Many options can be explored for creating and presenting a project.

Students can be encouraged to explore the print and non-print
media options available. Information technology can be incorporated
effectively throughout the entire Information Process and is
particularly useful at this stage. As they set about selecting a
presentation format, students need to be encouraged to reflect on
their own strengths and learning styles as well as considering their
audience.

What Students Need to Know

To successfully create and share a presentation, students will need
to know about the following

Text Form
Continue to build students’ knowledge about the structure,
organization, and language features of a range of oral, visual, and
written text forms. Students can consider using text features that
improve the navigation of an investigation, e.g., contents, index,
glossary, headings, captions, icons.

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Use of Information Technology

A variety of information technology skills will enable students to
make choices to enhance their presentations.

Useful computer skills include word processing, charting, creating

spreadsheets and databases, and designing Web pages. Students can
be taught how to use clip art and specialist packages, such as
PowerPoint, HyperStudio, and desktop publishing.

Learning how to use specialist audio and visual equipment as well The school’s
as creating sound and images may also be beneficial. teacher–librarian
could be an
Audience Presentation Skills invaluable resource
both in teaching
Decisions about how to present projects will include whether students computer
students choose oral, visual, or written modes. Each mode requires skills and in
enabling access to
different skills. print and electronic
resources.
When presenting in the oral mode, students will benefit from
– knowing how to use their voices effectively, e.g., volume, tone,
pace, clarity
– being aware of and responding to the audience, e.g., body language
– considering audience involvement
– knowing how to use aids to enhance their presentation
– developing effective introductions and closures
– responding to questions

When presenting in the visual and written modes, students may

benefit from knowing about presentation techniques such as these:
– layout and design, e.g., storyboards
– text product types, e.g., scrolls, charts, models, mobiles, books
– special effects, e.g., cut-outs, pop-ups
– borders and lettering

Being able to answer the following questions may help students

create and present a research project.

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 Questions for Students to Consider
• What would be the most effective presentation format to use?
• Am I comfortable with the information in my presentation?
• Do I understand all the information in my presentation?
• Do I have a timeline and a deadline for creating my presentation?
• Do I need to include any text features to enhance my final presentation?
(e.g., illustrations, captions, tables, graphs, maps, or diagrams)
• Do I have the necessary skills to create the presentation I would like to make?
• Do I have a time limit for the presentation?
• Have I got someone to give me feedback on my presentation idea, including the
possible design, before I implement it?
• Is my presentation original?
• Will I need any special resources or equipment for my presentation?
• Have I rehearsed my presentation so that I am familiar with the content and format?
Figure 4.60 Questions about creating and presenting a research project

Supporting Students in Creating

and Sharing a Presentation
Teachers can select from the following guided practice activities that
will help students to create and share a presentation:

1 Outlining
2 Design This!

1 Outlining
This activity enables students to investigate text layout and how the
placement of text and other features can improve the readability of
a presentation, thereby creating an impact.
• Provide groups of students with pages from a variety of texts.
• Provide time for students to discuss the pages in terms of their
visual impact and appeal. Have students justify their comments by
pointing out particular features.
• Invite each student to select one page of text. Provide laminated
sheeting or overhead projector film to make an outline around the
different sections of the text. Direct students to label the text,
illustrations, and headings.
• Have the students look at the proportion of text to non-text
features. Discuss the amount of text versus visual features and
their opinions of the effect and appeal of the pages.

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2 Design This!
The Design This! activity encourages students to create a text layout
and design to suit a particular audience.
• Provide groups of students with a jumbled piece of text. (Before
distributing this text to students, remove any organizational
features such as headings or graphics.)
• Identify an audience or context for each group, e.g., younger
students, high school students, adults, textbook, women’s magazine,
newspaper supplement.
• Have students put the text into a suitable order. They can then
work on editing and laying out the text so it will be suitable for
their audience.
• Have students add headings, graphics, and any other text features
that will enhance the appeal and readability for their audience.
• Prompt students to share their text with the whole class,
discussing their rationale for design features and text alterations.

Step 6—Evaluating the Research

Project
The final step in the Information Process involves students in
evaluating the way the research project was carried out and the
effectiveness of their presentation. Evaluation provides an
opportunity for students to identify areas of strength and areas
for improvement.

At the same time, teachers can reflect on the overall performance

of the students. There will be an assessment of the processes
involved as well as the final product. Assessment tools that can be
used at this stage include conferences, interviews, surveys, and
questionnaires.

It is important to note that even though evaluating is listed as the

final step in the Information Process, it is an ongoing process.
Students can be reflecting and assessment throughout their work
and their progress can then be monitored.

What Students Need to Know

If students have a clear understanding of the expectations of a
research project from the outset, they can assess their own
performance throughout the process.

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 In order to measure their own performance, students may need to
have an understanding of and be able to use a variety of self-
assessment tools. These include
• goal-setting sheets
• learning logs
• journals
• reflection sheets
• jointly constructed rubrics and checklists

Students also benefit from knowing how to provide feedback to

their peers.

It is important for students to know how to review the goals they

set at the beginning of their projects. The attainment of these goals
can be used to identify strengths and areas of need. They can also
be used as the basis for setting future goals.

Being able to answer the following questions may help students

assess a research project.

Questions for Students to Consider

• What did I set out to achieve with this project?
• Did I achieve all that I wanted to? If no, what stopped me from
achieving my goals?
• What new knowledge and skills do I have after completing my
project?
• Do I think others learned something through the sharing of
my work?
• Did I respond to the feedback I received from others? How?
• If I could do the project again, is there anything I would do
differently? Why?
• When it comes to the Information Process, what do I think are
my strengths?
• In what areas of the Information Process do I need to improve?
• As a result of this project, what more would I like to know?

Figure 4.61 Questions about assessing a research project

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Supporting Students in Evaluating

a Research Project
Select from the following guided practice activities that will help
students to evaluate a research project.

1 Two Stars and a Wish

2 Journals and Reflection Sheets
3 Post a Goal

1 Two Stars and a Wish

The Two Stars and a Wish activity provides a framework for peers
and teachers to give constructive feedback. The activity also promotes
active and reflective listening.

This activity can also be used for personal reflection. Comments can
be made on positive aspects of work as well as focusing on areas
for improvement.
• Before students make a presentation, have them share with the
audience those aspects on which they would like feedback.
• After the presentation, have the audience respond in the form of
two positive comments (stars) and one constructive comment
(wish). Members can respond in oral or written form. (See the
First Steps Reading Resource Book CD-ROM for a line master.)

2 Journals and Reflection Sheets

Journals and reflection sheets can be used by students to reflect Metacognitive
on their progress. These journals and sheets promote metacognitive thinking is a form
of higher order
thinking. thinking where
• At predesignated points in the Information Process, provide readers think about
students with a framework that can be used to reflect on their what strategies
to use to make
progress. The framework may be in the form of a series of sense of texts and
questions or sentence stems. (See Student Reflection Sheet and determine which will
improve their
Reflection—How Am I Doing? on the First Steps Reading Resource understanding. It
Book CD-ROM.) involves self-
monitoring and
3 Post a Goal reflecting.

The Post a Goal activity helps students to set manageable and

achievable goals and promotes metacognitive thinking.
• Provide students with the Post a Goal line master and have them
reflect on various aspects of the Information Process. They might

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 review aspects that were done well, aspects that show
improvement, and aspects that need improvement.
• Before they begin new research projects, have students return to
their reflections so they can use the information to set a plan
for improvement.

Figure 4.62 Post a Goal

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Informing Parents About the

Information Process
It is important that parents be informed about the Information
Process and the rationale behind it. It is also important for parents
to know the teacher’s expectations for the project as well as to be
aware that the process is as important as the product.

Part of informing parents is sharing with them the support role

they can play at home. The more informed parents are about the
processes and the outcomes to be achieved by students, the more
likely parents will understand that their role is to support and guide
rather than to do the work.

Parents can be provided with information through letters, family

evenings, newsletters, e-mails, and meetings. Information can be
provided to parents about the steps of the Information Process, the
teacher’s role, and the role they can play at home. The key role for
parents in supporting their child is to monitor their efforts at home
and provide feedback to the teacher on any aspects they feel may
need extra assistance.

Another aspect to share with parents is the expected amount of

time to spend on the project at school and at home.

Sending home a calendar or a timeline for the research project with

key dates marked for completion of certain tasks is a good way of
letting parents and students know the time frame for the project.
Both parents and students will also find out key completion points
along the way. A calendar or timeline will help students plan and
carry out their projects in manageable stages instead of in a rush as
the end date approaches.

Inviting parents to observe their child’s presentation is another way

of including them in the process.

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 Glossary
alliteration the repetition of the initial sound in consecutive words often
used to create tongue twisters, e.g., She sells sea shells by the
seashore
alphabetic the assumption underlying alphabetic writing systems that
principle each speech sound or phoneme of the language should have
its own distinctive graphic representation
analyzing a teaching and learning practice involving the examination
of the parts to understand the whole
applying a teaching and learning practice involving the independent
use of a skill or strategy to achieve a purpose
assonance the repetition of vowel sounds often used in lines of poetry,
e.g., Ousted from the house, the mongrel growled and howled
book clubs an approach somewhat similar to Literature Circles where
even primary students can discuss books previously read
aloud and reread before a meeting of about five students;
less formally structured than Literature Circles
cloze procedure an instructional activity involving the completion of
incomplete sentences
compound word a word as a single unit of meaning but made up of two
complete words, e.g., football, longhouse, mouthwash
concepts of print understandings about what print represents and how it
works, e.g., has a consistent directionality, is made up of
letters, words
conditions of as identified by Brian Cambourne: immersion, demonstration,
learning expectations, responsibility, approximations, practice, and
feedback/support/celebrations; the conditions are
interconnected and interwoven.
consonant a letter in the alphabet other than a, e, i, o, u
consonant cluster a sequence of two or more consonants, e.g., tr, shr, ng
context clues context clues help readers determine what unknown words
mean; they range from direct definitions, linked synonyms,
and words summarizing previous concepts to examples, text
mood, cause or effect, and use of words of opposite
meaning.
Contextual a substrand of reading that involves an understanding of
Understanding how the context affects the interpretation and choices made
by authors and illustrators
continuant a speech sound in which the vocal tract is only partly closed,
sound allowing the breath to pass through and the sound to be
prolonged, e.g., /m/, /s/
Conventions a substrand of reading that focuses on the structures and
features of texts, including spelling, grammar,
pronunciation, and layout
conventions rules that govern the customary use of print in a language,
of print e.g., punctuation, upper and lower case letters

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critical literacy a process of taking an in-depth look at what is present in a

text and what is not in order to determine the author’s
world view and purpose in writing and how the reader feels
about this; related to social justice
cueing system a set of cues or clues built into the structure and patterns of
language; these structures and patterns are seen as systems
because the English language is systematic in the way that
words are orderd to create meaning, letters and sounds are
related, punctuation is used, and the language is used to
communicate.
deconstructing analyzing a text, section by section, to reveal its structure,
linguistic features, or use of language
digraph two letters that together represent one speech sound, e.g., ch,
ai, ee, sh
DIRT Daily Independent Reading Time; a name for silent
independent reading with the purpose of promoting the act
of reading
discussing a teaching and learning practice involving the exchange of
opinions on topics, themes, or issues
echo reading a way of repeated reading to promote fluency, echo reading
calls for students to repeat aloud not only the sentences that
the teacher says fluently, but also the expression with which
they are said.
familiarizing a teaching and learning practice involving raising awareness
and activating prior knowledge
Fishbowl a modelling technique that involves students seated around
technique the perimeter of the room, observing a group of students
rehearsing a process; the teacher directs observations and
facilitates discussion.
Five Finger Rule a simple way that supports readers in judging text difficulty;
the reader chooses a page from a text that might be
interesting to read and for each unknown word puts a finger
down. If the thumb is put down before reaching page
bottom, the reader might want to select an easier text.
flexible grouping groups formed and dissolved depending on the goal of a
lesson
fluency reading aloud smoothly, easily, and with expression,
showing understanding of the author’s message
frustrational level the reading level at which a student’s reading strategies
break down; with comprehension below 90 percent, the text
is too hard for the reader so signs of emotional tension,
discomfort, and a negative attitude to reading become
apparent.
Global Statement a written snapshot of a learner in a particular phase of
development, which encapsulates the typical characteristics
of that phase
Gradual Release developed by Pearson and Gallagher (1983), this model
of Responsibility involves the sequential use of teaching practices that move
Model students from a supportive context, where the teacher has a
high degree of responsibility for demonstrating through
modelling and sharing, to a more independent context,
where students take on responsibility, first guided and then
applying their learning.
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 graphic visual representations of concepts that enable a learner to
organizers visualize, record, and retrieve information from a text
graphophonic a system of cues that draw on readers’ knowledge of the
cueing system relationships between sounds and written forms of language
in order to help identify unknown words
Guided Reading an instructional approach in which the teacher provides
scaffolds and support to a small group with a similar
identified need as they read a common text matched to their
instructional level and interests—the teacher guides the
reading.
guiding a teaching and learning practice involving the provision of
scaffolds through strategic assistance at pre-determined
checkpoints in the learning process
Have-a-Go an approach that recognizes a student may need to generate
alternative spellings to misspelled words before determining
the correct spellings
high-frequency words that occur frequently in all texts; they include function,
words or glue, words, such as prepositions, as well as concrete
words.
independent level the highest reading level at which a student can read easily
and fluently, with 95 to 100 percent accuracy in recognizing
words and 90 percent accuracy in comprehending the text
Independent an instructional approach that involves readers independently
Reading applying previously learned strategies to texts they have
chosen to read; part of the continuum of diminishing
support seen in the Gradual Release of Responsibility Model
Indicator a description of a literacy skill or behaviour on the First Steps
Maps of Development
innovating a teaching and learning practice where students alter or
amend a text to create a new one
instructional characterized by a number of widely accepted steps or stages
approaches and generally applicable to all phases of development,
several approaches taken by teachers are used for
implementing a comprehensive approach to teaching the
writing or reading processes in meaningful contexts.
instructional level the highest level at which a student can still make meaning,
provided preparation and assistance are received from the
teacher; word recognition is 90 to 95 percent accurate and
there is at least 80 percent comprehension. Texts at this level
are most appropriate for the explicit teaching of reading.
investigating a teaching and learning practice involving finding,
analyzing, questioning, and using of information for a
purpose
K-W-L-S a variation of the familiar K-W-L chart which encourages
the activation of students’ prior knowledge and helps
students generate and refine research questions; the letters
stand for Know, Want to know, Learned, Still want to know.
Key Indicator a description of a literacy behaviour that most students
display at a phase on the First Steps Maps of Development

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Language identified by First Steps as one of six instructional approaches,

Experience Language Experience Approach refers to a shared experience
Approach used as the basis for students and teacher jointly composing
and then reading a text.
language features varying according to the purpose of a text, these refer to the
type of vocabulary and grammar used in a text; they
encompass types of tense, such as past and present;
vocabulary, including technical; signal words; style, ranging
from chatty to objective; and sentence parts, including verbs
and adjectives.
Literature Circles an instructional approach where groups of students meet to
discuss, respond to, and reflect on a common text they have
chosen to read; structured to promote student independence,
responsibility, and ownership in reading of both literary and
informational texts
Major Teaching teaching priorities appropriate to phases of development
Emphases
mode of a primary way of categorizing types of communication texts;
communication First Steps pays particular attention to the oral, written, and
visual modes.
Modelled an instructional approach in which the teacher demonstrates
Reading specific reading strategies and behaviours and uses Think-
Alouds to model what an effective reader would do
modelling a teaching and learning practice involving explicit
demonstration of the thinking behind how and why
something is done
nominalization a language feature where a verb is turned into a noun so
that the idea seems more formal and objective; also,
responsibility can be shifted away from the actual cause—
consider pollution versus pollutes.
organizational organizational, or text, framework is the way a text is
framework physically organized or laid out; it varies depending on the
text form and topic.
orthographic knowing about the spelling of words in a given language
knowledge according to established usage
orthography the study of the nature and use of symbols in a writing
system, e.g., letter patterns
phase a clustering of behaviours along the First Steps Maps of
Development
phonogram see rime; also known as word families, e.g., -at, -ame, -og
phonological an ability to recognize, combine, and manipulate the different
awareness sound units of spoken words; an umbrella term, it includes
units of sound larger than the phoneme, such as syllables.
phonology the study of the sounds in a language
playing a teaching and learning practice involving the exploration of
concepts and skills through imagining and creating
positioning an attempt on the part of the author to influence the reader
to take a particular point of view; content or character is
framed in a certain way which may change as the text
develops.

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 practising a teaching and learning practice involving the rehearsal of a
skill or strategy
pragmatic cueing in the pragmatic cueing system, other cueing systems, notably
system the semantic, syntactic, and graphophonic, are linked with
the context; cues relate to knowledge of audience, purpose
of writing, and situation.
pragmatics the study of how context influences the reading event; it
includes consideration of an author’s deliberate choices to
best engage an audience and realize a certain purpose and
the ways a reader is affected by those choices.
prior knowledge in this context, the knowledge a reader draws on when
reading and interpreting texts; made up of the knowledge
within such cueing systems as the semantic, graphophonic,
and syntactic
Processes and a substrand of reading involving the application of knowledge
Strategies and understandings to comprehend and compose texts
Readers Theatre oral performance of a script where the focus is on
interpretation and expressive reading rather than on
memorization or dramatization through body movement; an
ideal forum for readers to practise fluency and an authentic
cooperative activity
Reading Aloud an instructional strategy where the teacher models expressive
to Students and fluent reading aloud while trying to engage the
students; it can be interactive if the teacher encourages
discussion intended to build prior knowledge and addresses
listeners’ ideas and questions.
reading a structured conversation in which aspects of students’
conference reading development are discussed
reflecting a teaching and learning practice involving thinking back on
the what, how, and why of experiences
rime a vowel and any following consonants of a syllable, e.g.,
“uck” in “truck”
scaffold a temporary support that the teacher provides to help bring
a student’s skills and knowledge to a higher developmental
level; part of guided practice
schwa an unstressed mid-central vowel as in the first sound in the
word alone
semantic cueing a system of language cues that draw on readers’ knowledge of
system words, especially meaning of words, phrases, and sentences,
and knowledge of the world of the topic. The essential
question is, What would make sense here?
Shared Reading an instructional approach where the teacher blends
modelling, choral reading, echo reading, and focused
discussion, involving students in reading texts that are
visible to them
sharing a teaching and learning practice that involves the joint
construction of meaning, e.g., between teacher and student,
or student and student
simulating a teaching and learning practice in which one adopts a role
or imagines oneself in a hypothetical setting

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situational factors that influence the author’s choice of language or

context the way the reader interprets the text: the purpose of
writing or reading, the subject matter or knowledge of it,
the text product type or the situation in which the reading
takes place, and the roles and relationships between the
communication participants
socio-cultural a combination of social and cultural factors, such as
economic status, geographical location, beliefs, and values
socio-cultural the expectations and values of the social and cultural groups
context at the time a text is written or read—these have an impact
on how language is used by the writer or interpreted by the
reader.
stop sounds a consonant speech sound made by stopping the flow of air,
e.g., /b/, /d/, /g/
strand one of four interwoven language modes addressed by First
Steps Literacy, reading, writing, viewing, speaking and
listening
strategy the mental processes you use to do something you want to do
substrand as presented in First Steps, under each strand of Reading,
Writing, Viewing, and Speaking and Listening, there are
interwoven lenses through which student performance in
literacy can be monitored and supported—Use of Texts,
Contextual Understanding, Conventions, and Processes and
Strategies. The Maps of Development are framed on them.
syntactic a system of cues that draw on readers’ knowledge of the ways
cueing system words are patterned or structured to form phrases, clauses,
and sentences; readers use these cues to help decide if text
sounds right.
text any means of communication using words, graphics, sounds,
and images, in print, oral, visual, or electronic form, to
represent information and ideas to an audience. These ideas
can be shared over distance and time.
text features the physical organizational features of a text that clarify and
support text meaning; these appear within the text
framework. Text features include headings and bold and
italic fonts.
text form a category of text with specific characteristics; with a
structure and organization that flows from its purpose, a
text form—for example, an editorial—provides a way for
writers and readers to think about purpose and intended
audience.
text-form knowledge of the purpose, organization, structure, and
knowledge language features of a range of texts
text see text features and organizational framework.
organization
text product type a choice made by a writer on how best to present or publish
text of an identified purpose; formats ranging from book and
magazine to e-mail and DVD
text structure refers to the way ideas, feelings, or information are linked in
a text. Common structures include problem and solution,
compare and contrast, cause and effect, and listing, as in
logical or chronological sequence.

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 transforming a teaching and learning practice involving the re-creation
of a text in another form, mode, or medium, e.g., a story to
a play, a book to a film
Use of Texts a substrand of reading involving the composition and
comprehension of texts
USSR Uninterrupted Sustained Silent Reading; a name for silent
independent reading
vowels a, e, i, o, u, sometimes referred to as long or short; long
vowels represent the sound of their letter name, e.g., bay,
bee as in boat; short vowels represent the sounds heard in bat,
bit, bet, but, bot.
word determining the pronunciation and meaning of an
identification unknown word
word recognition knowing the pronunciation and meaning of words
previously encountered

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Griffiths, A. The Day My Bum Went Psycho.
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Paterson, K. Bridge to Terabithia.
Riley, P. Vehicles—The Inside Story.
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Scieszka, J. Squids Will Be Squids.
———. The True Story of the Three Little Pigs.
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Index
A class charts, 41 Developing Dialogue, 151
accessing different text forms, 187–188 class-created Book of Favourites, 40 devices
active reading, 114 Clouds of Wonder, 158 used by authors, 61–64
adding details, 43 colour, 65 used by illustrators, 64–65
adjusting reading rate, 123, 171 compare and contrast structure, 96–97 different audiences, 40
advertising, and flattery, 62 comparing, 117, 144–146 Diller, Debbie, 15
Allington, R., 38 composition, 65 DIRT (Daily Independent Reading Time), 27
amount of detail, 64 comprehension discussing texts, 66, 68
analogy, 61, 124, 172 monitoring and revising displays, 38
analyzing, 66–67, 71 comprehension, 122–125 Double Entry Journal, 145–146
Anderson, L., 176–177 strategies. See reading strategies
Anticipation Guide, 138 computers, 41 E
application of reading strategies, 131 concept knowledge, 108–109 echo reading, 32
appropriateness of information, 189 connecting, 116, 139–143 editing, 193–194
Armbruster, B.B., 30 Connecting with the Text, 139 Editor’s Checklist, 196–197
artistic style, 65 connotation, 61 effective readers, 114
assessment consulting a reference, 124, 172 effective teaching and learning practices,
for learning, 13, 22, 26, 29 context clues, 93–94, 94f 66–68
guided reading, 22 Contextual Understanding electronic versions of texts, 39
independent reading, 29 and critical literacy, 56–57 English Language Learners (ELL), 37, 74
Language Experience Approach, 16 and effective teaching and enumeration text structure, 98–99
literature circles, 26 learning practices, 66–68 environment for reading, 38
modelled reading, 13 generic questions for discussing euphemism, 61
of prior knowledge, 71 texts, 68 evaluating the research project, 201–204
reading aloud to students, 10 and reading, 57–58 evaluation of texts, 111
shared reading, 19 reasons for teaching, 59 everyday experiences of language, 91
assisted reading, 32–33 role of, 56 exaggeration, 61
audience presentation skills, 199 situational context, 57–58 Explosion Chart, 179
author studies, 40 socio-cultural context, 58 Extended Anticipation Guide, 138
authors supporting development of, 65–68
author studies, 40 what students need to know, 59–65
challenging their view of world, 59–60 conventions
F
fads, 39
devices used by, 61–64 analyze, 71 familiarizing, 66
different ways of representing, 60 assessment of prior knowledge, 71 Famous Five Key Word Search, 167
invitations, 40 choosing appropriate context and feedback, 72
text, 71 figurative language, 62
B curricular focus, selection of, 71
B-D-A Questions, 159–160, 183 Five Finger Rule, 50, 52
effective teaching of, 70–72 Five Ws and an H, 181
background experiences, 90–91 encouragement of independent
Beat the Buzzer Quiz, 164 flashback, 62
application, 72 flattery, 62
Before-and-After Chart, 140 feedback, 72
benefits for students fluency
graphophonics, 81–87 assisted reading, 32–33
independent reading, 27 guided practice activities, 71–72
Language Experience Approach, 14 buddy reading, 36
investigating, 71 choral reading, 33
literature circles, 23–24 modelling, 71
modelled reading, 11 described, 30
monitoring, 72 echo reading, 32
reading aloud to students, 8 overview, 69
shared reading, 17 modelling, 30–31
phonological awareness, 73–80 opportunities for repeated
bibliography, 185 self-reflection, 72
blending, 79–80 reading, 31–36
text-form knowledge, 95–105 oral reading, 30–31
Bloom, B., 176 vocabulary knowledge, 87–95
book clubs, 24, 40 Poetry Club, 35
creating and sharing a presentation, Radio Reading, 34–35
Book of Favourites, 40 198–201
brainstorming, 178 Readers Theatre, 34
creating images, 119, 154–157 shadow reading, 32
Broaddus, K., 30 Creating Quiz Questions, 180–181
buddy reading, 36 shared reading, 33
critical literacy, 56–57 tape-assisted reading, 34
Crystal Ball, 136
C cueing systems, 107–110
focus questions, 176–177
C-W-S-C (Comprehend, Write, Share, font selection, 63
Clarify), 190 cultural knowledge, 109 foreshadowing, 62
Cambourne, B., 37 curricular focus, 71 friends, reading with, 42
Card Cluster, 179 From None to Some, 196
cause and effect text structure, 97–98
D frustrational level, 49–50
defining research requirements, 176–183
Changing Images, 156 Design This!, 201
Character Rating Scales, 148–149 details, 43, 62, 63, 64
G
Character Self-Portrait, 147 Gallagher, M., 5–6, 27, 125, 172,174
determining appropriateness of information, gathering appropriate resources, 183–187
Check the Text, 136 189
choral reading, 33 generating questions, 119–120, 158–160
determining importance, 121, 166–168 generic questions for discussing texts, 68
chunking, 124, 172

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 glossary of terms, 206–212 Herber, H., 177 Interviews, 148, 184
Goudvis, A., 114 high-frequency words, 88 inventories, 39
Gradual Release of Responsibility Model, home-reading material, 52–54 investigating a text, 67, 71
5–6, 27, 125, 172, 174 Hook, Line, and Sinker, 196 invitations, 40
grammatical knowledge, 109 Hoyt, L., 145, 168 irony, 62
Graphic Overlays, 161–162 humour, 63 irrelevance, 63
graphophonic cueing system, 110 Hunt the Text Challenge, 163–164
knowledge of, 110 J
graphophonics I journals
Badenhop’s suggestions, 83 identifying and defining research Double Entry Journal, 145–146
Beck’s suggestions, 84 requirements, 176–183 for evaluation of research
defined, 81 illustrators projects, 203
Department of Education, Western challenging their view of world, 59–60 Synthesis Journal, 153–154
Australia, 83 devices used by, 64–65 Just Like, 145
described, 73 different ways of representing, 60
graphophonic investigations, 85–86 invitations, 40
introduction of graphophonic images. See creating images K
important concepts, 121, 166–168 K-W-L Chart, 192
understandings, 82–84 K-W-L-S Charts, 179
National Literacy Strategy (UK), 84 Incentive Schemes, 42
incentives, 61 Karate, 43
Routman’s suggestions, 83 Keene, E., 114, 116
supporting development of, 84–86 inclusion of details, 62
independent level, 49 Krathwohl, D., 176–177
what students need to know, 81–84
Great Debate, 153 independent reading
assessment ideas, 29
L
group editing, 196 Language Experience Approach
guided practice activities benefits for students, 27 assessment ideas, 16
comparing (reading strategy), 144–146 defined, 27 benefits for students, 14
connecting (reading strategy), 139–143 description, 27 defined, 14
conventions, 71–72 key features, 27 description, 14
creating and sharing a suggestions for use, 28 key features, 14
presentation, 200–201 time for, 38 suggestions for using, 14–15
creating images (reading indirect teaching of vocabulary, 90–91, language features, 102–103
strategy), 154–157 91–94 library resource centre, 184
determining importance (reading inferring, 118, 147–151 Like or Unlike?, 144–145
strategy), 166–168 information images, 157 Linking Lines, 142
evaluating a research project, 203–204 information process listing text structure, 98–99
generating questions (reading see also research projects literature circles
strategy), 158–160 creating and sharing a assessment ideas, 26
identifying and defining a presentation, 198–201 benefits for students, 23–24
research project, 178–183 described, 174 defined, 23
inferring (reading strategy), 147–151 evaluating the research project, description, 23
locating and gathering 201–204 key features, 23
appropriate resources, 186–187 identifying and defining research promoting reading, 40
paraphrasing (reading strategy), requirements, 176–183 roles, 23, 25
169–171 locating and gathering suggestions for using, 24–25
predicting (reading strategy), 135–138 appropriate resources, 183–187 locating and gathering appropriate
processing and organizing and parents, 205 resources, 183–187
information, 194–198 processing and organizing locating texts, 111
reading strategies, generally, 131–132, information, 192–198 Lonely Texts, 42
134f selecting and recording
scanning (reading strategy), 163–166 appropriate information, 187–192 M
selecting and recording information sources, 183 Main Idea Pyramid, 168, 198
appropriate information, 190–192 information technology skills, 199 Main Idea Sort, 170
skimming (reading strategy), 161–163 innovating, 67 making connections. See connecting
summarizing (reading strategy), instructional approaches to reading medium, 65
169–171 criteria for selection, 6 Miller, D., 156
synthesizing (reading strategy), described, 5–6 modelled reading
151–154 guided reading, 6, 7, 20–22 assessment ideas, 13
guided reading independent reading, 7, 27–29 benefits for students, 11
assessment ideas, 22 Language Experience Approach, 6, 7, and Contextual Understanding, 66
benefits for students, 20 14–16 defined, 11
and contextual understanding, 66 literature circles, 7, 23–26 description, 11
defined, 20 and major teaching emphases, 51f key features, 11
description, 20 modelled reading, 6, 7, 11–13, 30–31 suggestions for using, 12
key features, 20 overview, 7 modelling
suggestions for using, 21–22 reading aloud to students, 7, 8–10 application of conventions, 71
guiding sessions, 130–131 shared reading, 6, 7, 17–19 conducting modelling sessions, 127
instructional level, 49 of fluent oral reading, 30–31
H instructional reading, 48, 51–52 planning modelling sessions, 127
Harvey, S., 114 Interesting Words Chart, 165 reading strategies, 126–128

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monitoring, 72 Picture This!, 154–155 described, 114–115

monitoring and revising comprehension, Plot Profile, 152–153 determining importance, 115, 121,
122–125, 134 poetry, 39 166–168
Moonye, M., 145, 168 Poetry Club, 35 generating questions, 115, 119–120,
morphemic analysis, 93 Post a Goal, 203–204 158–160
movies, 39 Post Your Senses, 155–156 guided practice activities. See
multi-meaning words, 89 pragmatic cueing system, 109 guided practice activities
multiple possibilities, 82f predicting, 115, 135–138 guiding sessions, 130–131
primary sources, 183 inferring, 115, 118, 147–151
N print size, 63, 76–77 making connections, 115, 116
Newspaper Report, 70 prior knowledge, 71 monitoring and revising
note-taking and note-making, 188–189 problem and solution text structure, 98 comprehension, 115, 122–125
processing and organizing information, paraphrasing, 115, 122, 169–171
O 192–198 predicting, 115, 135–139
Ogle, D., 179
omission of details, 63 promoting reading, 37–44 reading on, 115, 123, 171
onset awareness, 78 proofreading, 193–194 recording strategies, 173
Open Mind Portrait, 157 publicity campaigns, 41 reflecting on, 111
Opitz, M., 34, 35 punctuation, 31 rereading, 115, 123, 171
Oral Editing, 197–198 purpose of text, 95–96 scanning, 115, 120–121, 163–166
oral reading skimming, 115, 120, 161–163
see also fluency
Q sounding out, 115, 124, 172
Question Webs, 181–182 strategy demonstration plan, 128f
supporting at home, 54f questions
Oral Summaries, 169 summarizing, 115, 122, 169–171
Creating Quiz Questions, 180–181 synthesizing, 115, 118, 151–154
organizational features of text, 99, 99f focus questions, 176–177
organizing information, 192–198 teaching the strategies, 125–131
generating questions. See generating use of, 110–111
orthographic knowledge, 110 questions
outlining, 200 using an analogy, 124, 172
quoting someone out of context, 63–64 reading time, 38
overgeneralization, 63
oversimplification, 63 reading timeline, 42
R Reciprocal Retellings, 169
Radio Reading, 34–35
P Raphael, T., 137, 177 Reconstructing a Text, 195
page design, 65 rating scales, 148–149 recording appropriate information, 187–192
paraphrasing, 122, 169–171 Read-a-thon, 43 recording information in note form,
parents Read around the Country, 43 188–189
and Information Process, 205 Readers Theatre, 34 recording resources, 185
promoting reading, 42 reading recording strategies, 173
supporting oral reading at home, and Contextual Understanding, 57–58 recreational reading, 48–51
54f with a friend, 42 reference aids, 93, 124, 172
texts to send home, 52–54 instructional reading, 48, 51–52 reflecting, 67–68, 111
understanding home reading, 53 purposes, 95–96 reflection sheets, 203
Parkes, B., 145, 168 recreational reading, 48–51 repeated reading opportunities, 31–36
Pass That Please, 186 research-related reading, 48, 52 repeating words or ideas, 64
Pearson, P.D., 5–6, 27, 125, 172, 174 ways to promote reading, 37–44 Report Card, 150
pen pals, 40 reading abilities, 37 rereading, 123, 171
Personal Predictions, 135–136 reading aloud to students research projects
personalization, 63 assessment ideas, 10 see also Information Process
personification, 63 benefits for students, 8 considerations, 175
phonemes defined, 8 evaluating the research project,
described, 74 description, 8 201–204
isolation of individual phonemes, key features, 8 expectations, 201
79 modelling, 30–31 focus questions, 176–177
manipulation, 80 to promote reading, 39 identifying and defining research
phonemic awareness, 79–80 suggestions for using, 9 requirements, 176–183
phonological awareness reading fluency. See fluency planning for, 177
described, 73–74 Reading Interest Survey, 48, 48f selection and analysis of research topic,
onset and rime awareness, 78 reading on, 123, 171 176
phonemic awareness, 79–80 reading process research-related reading, 48, 52
phonological elements and Information Process. See Information Retrieval Charts, 164
difficulty levels, 75–76, 75f Process reviews, 42
supporting development of, 76–81 overview, 112f revisions, 193–194
syllable awareness, 77–78 reading rate adjustments, 123, 171 rhyming words, 77
what students need to know, 74–76 reading strategies rime awareness, 78
word awareness, 76–77 adjusting reading rate, 115, 123, 171
in young students, 74 application of, 131
S
phrasing, 30 sarcasm, 64
chunking, 115, 124, 172 satire, 64
Physical Rhyme Match, 77 comparing, 115, 117, 144–146
Physical Sentence Construction, 194–195 scaffolding, 130
connecting, 116, 139–143 scanning, 120–121, 163–166
Pick, Pair, Share, 191 consulting a reference, 115, 124, 172
Picture Flick, 161 school reading collection, 47
creating images, 115, 119, 154–157

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 secondary sources, 183 text features, 93 described, 87
segmenting, 79–80 Text Features Survey, 186–187 direct teaching, 90
selecting and recording appropriate text form, 193, 198 indirect teaching, 90–91, 91–94
information, 187–192 text-form knowledge sight vocabulary, 87, 109
selection-critical words, 88–89 language features, 102–103 supporting development of
selection of texts, 111 overview, 104f vocabulary, 89–94
self-reflection, 72 purpose, 95–96 vocabulary knowledge
semantic cueing system, 108–109 supporting development of, 103–104 See also vocabulary
Sensory Chart, 155 text organization, 99–102 described, 87, 109
sequence text structure, 98–99 text structure, 96–99 high-frequency words, 88
shadow reading, 32 what students need to know, 95–103 multi-meaning words, 89
Share Your Topic, 180 text knowledge, 109–110 selection-critical words, 88–89
shared reading text organization, 99, 99f what students need to know, 88–89
assessment ideas, 19 Text Preference Survey, 49f Vygotsky, L., 130
benefits for students, 17 text selection
and Contextual Understanding, 66 class inventory and W
defined, 17 recommendations for what students need to know
description, 17 purchase, 45f Contextual Understanding, 59–65
fluency, 33 for classroom use, 47–48 creating and sharing a
key features, 17 evaluation of texts for purchase, 46 presentation, 198–200
suggestions for using, 18 instructional reading, 51–52 evaluating the research project,
shared writing session, 15 recreational reading, 48–51 201–202
sharing a presentation, 198–201 research-related reading, 52 graphophonics, 81–84
sharing sessions, 128–130 for the school, 44–47 identifying and defining research
sight vocabulary, 87, 109 storing texts, 47 requirements, 176–178
sight words, 87 texts to send home, 52–54 locating and gathering
sign-out systems, 50 text structure, 96–99 appropriate resources, 183–185
simulating, 67 text swaps or exchanges, 40 phonological awareness, 74–76
situational context, 57–58 texts processing and organizing
66 Words, 170–171 accessing different text forms, information, 192–194
size of illustrations, 65 187–188 selecting and recording
skimming, 120, 161–163 defined, 3 appropriate information, 187–189
sliding mask, 85 electronic versions, 39 text-form knowledge, 95–103
Sneak Preview, 162–163 evaluation of texts, 111 vocabulary knowledge, 88–89
socio-cultural context, 58 locating texts, 111 What’s in a Text?, 142–143
sounding out, 124, 172 organizational features of text, 99, 99f What’s My Point of View?, 150
sources of information, 183 overview, 4 What’s Your Story?, 166
specific words, 91–92 purpose of, 95–96 Where in the World?, 43
Split Images, 135 selection of, 38 wit, 62
Stop-and-Think Cards, 159 selection of texts, 111 word awareness, 76–77, 90–91
strategies. See reading strategies student recommendations, 41 word function knowledge, 109
structured overview, 182, 192 talking about, 38 word identification strategies. See reading
student knowledge. See what students need use of texts, 3, 4 strategies
to know Think-Alouds, 11 word order knowledge, 109
student opinions, 42 Think and Share, 140–141 word structure knowledge, 109
student recommendations, 41 Think Sheets, 137 words
summarizing, 122, 169–171 This is Your Life, 42 concept of, 76
surveys topic knowledge, 108–109 high-frequency words, 88
conducting, 184 tracking strategies, 173 increasing awareness of, 90–91
promoting reading, 39 Turn on the Lights, 151–152 meanings, determination of, 92–93
Reading Interest Survey, 48, 48f Two Stars and a Wish, 203 multi-meaning words, 89
Text Features Survey, 186–187 typographical aids, 31 rhyming words, 77
Text Preference Survey, 49f selection-critical words, 88–89
syllable awareness, 77–78 U sight words, 87
symbolism, 64 understatement, 64 specific words, 91–92
syntactic cueing system, 109–110 Use of Texts. See instructional approaches to world knowledge, 109
Synthesis Journal, 153–154 reading world map, 43
synthesizing, 118, 151–154 USSR (Uninterrupted Sustained Silent Worthy, J., 30
Reading), 27 Written Conversations, 160
T
Take Away, 191 V Z
talking about texts, 38 valuing opinions, 42
Zimmerman, S., 114, 116
tape-assisted reading, 34 Venn Diagrams, 144
zone of proximal development, 130
teaching and learning practices, 66–68 Very Important Points (VIPs), 168
technology, 184, 188 Visualize and Note-take, 191–192
television, 39 vocabulary
television-reading chart, 43 See also vocabulary knowledge
testimony, 64 background experiences, 90–91

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 Reading Resource Book

Credits
P. 3, © Michael Newman/PhotoEdit; p. 9, Photos.com/Jupiter
Images; p. 12, Scott Cunningham/Merrill Education; p. 15,
© Ed Kashi/Corbis; p. 19, © Michael Newman/PhotoEdit; p. 21,
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p. 55, T. Lindfors/Lindfors Photography; p. 69, © Comstock; p. 106,
© Bob Daemmrich/PhotoEdit; p. 115, © Comstock Premium/
Alamy; p. 116, © ImageDJ/Alamy; p. 117, Image Source/Getty
Images; p. 118 (top), Creatas/Jupiter Images; p. 118 (bottom),
© moodboard/Corbis; p. 119, Jose Luis Pelaez Inc./Blend
Images/Getty Images; p. 120 (top), © Will & Deni McIntyre/Corbis;
p. 120 (bottom), DAJ/Getty Images; p. 121, © Jose Luis Pelaez,
Inc./Corbis; p. 122 (top), Agefotostock; p. 122 (bottom), Marla
Sweeney/Taxi/Getty Images; p. 123, © Lucidio Studio Inc./Corbis;
p. 124, © Ed Bock/Corbis; p. 162, Physical Geography 7 by Dennis
DesRivieres, © 2008 Pearson Education Canada, pg. 140. Reprinted
with permission by Pearson Education Canada Inc. Photos: top
Cary Wolinsky/Aurora & Quanta Productions, Inc., bottom
Photos.com/Jupiter Images.

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FSIL002 | First Steps in Literacy: Reading Resource Book
© Western Australian Minister for Education 2013. Published by Pearson Canada Inc.