WALLS

Wall is defined structural element used to divide or enclose, and, in building

construction, to form the periphery of a room or a building.

Types of Walls
Walls may be broadly classified into two major categories;

1. Load bearing walls

2. Non load bearing walls

Load Bearing Wall

A load-bearing wall or bearing wall is a wall that is an active structural element of
a building, that is, it bears the weight of the elements above said wall, resting upon it
by conducting its weight to a foundation structure. The materials most often used to
construct load-bearing walls in large buildings are concrete, block, or brick. It can be
exterior wall or interior wall. It braces from the roof to the floor.
 Types of Load Bearing Walls
o Precast Concrete Wall

o Masonry Wall (engineering brick, stone, block) (225mm, 150mm )

o Pre Panelized Load Bearing Metal Stud Walls or Timber frame

As the height of the building increased, required thickness of wall and resulting stress
on foundation will also increase and cause it to be uneconomical.

Able To Carry Other Structure Weight beside Its Own Weight

Removing a section of a load bearing wall to create a pass-through requires adding a
new beam and columns to support the floor above.

Fig: Precast Concrete Wall (Load Bearing Wall)

Fig: Pre Panelized Load Bearing Metal Stud Walls

 Fig: Stone Wall (Load Bearing Wall)

Fig; Load bearing Masonry Wall (engineering bricks )

 3. Non Load Bearing Wall

Non-load bearing walls only carry their own weight and do not support any structural

members such as beams and slabs. Non-load bearing walls can be used as partition

walls or external walls for framed building

Types of non load bearing wall

I. Brick /block Wall
II. Hollow Concrete/ brick wall
III. Cavity wall.
IV. Panel walls.
V. Curtain walls

Fig: Brick Wall (Non Load Bearing Wall)

 Fig: Hollow Concrete Block Wall (Non Load Bearing Wall)

Cavity Walls
It is a wall constructed in 2 leaves / skins with a space / cavity between them. A type of
building wall construction consisting of an outer wall fastened to inner wall separated
by an air space. Cavity walls help to prevent the penetration of rain to the internal
surface of the wall.
Panel Wall

Panel wall is generally made of composite materials or wood and is an exterior or

interior non-load bearing wall in framed construction. It is used for aesthetics of the
buildings both inside and outside. It remains totally supported at each storey but
subjected to lateral loads.

Exterior panel wall made of composite materials

Veneered Walls

Masonry veneer wall is a single non-structural external masonry wall made of brick,
stone or manufactured stone. It has an air space behind and is called as anchored
veneer.

Curtain wall
Curtain wall is a non-load bearing concrete wall construction that protects covered
and/or conditioned interior spaces from the outside environment. Often designers
consider aluminum-framed walls of glass or thin infill of metal or other materials as
curtain walls. Curtain walls may also be in form of precast concrete panels, composite
wall panels

Curtain Walls

this is a form of lightweight non-load bearing external cladding which forms a

complete envelope or sheath around the structural frame. In low rise structures the
curtain wall framing could be of timber or patent glazing but in the usual high rise
context, box or solid members of steel or aluminium alloy are normally employed.
Basic Requirements for Curtain Walls ~

1. Provide the necessary resistance to penetration by the elements.

2. Have sufficient strength to carry own self weight and provide resistance to both
positive and negative wind pressures.

3. Provide required degree of fire resistance † glazed areas are classified in the
Building Regulations as unprotected areas therefore any required fire resistance must
be obtained from the infill or undersill panels and any backing wall or beam.

4. Be easy to assemble, fix and maintain.

5. Provide the required degree of sound and thermal insulation.

6. Provide for thermal and structural movements.

 Functional Requirements of Walls in Building Construction
Following are the functional requirements of walls in a building construction:

1. Strength

2. Stability

3. Weather and ground moisture resistance

4. Durability

5. Fire safety

6. Resistance to heat passage

7. Sound resistance

1. Strength Requirements of Walls

Strength requirements of walls in building construction is governed by strength of
material that is employed to build the wall and how materials are fitted together. The
strength of materials is determined by its compressive and tensile strength which can
be achieved from tests.

Material ultimate strengths at failure are obtained from testing samples and strength
reduction factor is applied for the ultimate strength to compute allowable material
strength. This factor is used to consider both material strength variations and their
response under stresses.

Stone, brick, steel and concrete are examples of materials that could be used to
construct walls. Generally, the entire compressive strength of bricks and stones are not
employed in small building such as houses by functional stability of the building.

2. Stability Requirements of Walls

Stability of walls greatly depends on stability of its foundation, load eccentricity,
temperature effects, lateral loads such as earthquake and wind loads, and changing in
moisture.

Overturning tendency of the wall is due to loads that are not acting on the center of
the wall like loads from roofs and floors and lateral loads. If both lateral loads and
eccentric loads increases wall deformation is increasing and thus the wall will be
unstable.

Building codes provide recommendation for wall height and width to prevent
instability resulted from loads. Moreover, horizontal restrictions such as tie between
walls and roofs and intersection between walls and piers prevent deformation due to
lateral loads.

Furthermore, walls with irregular configurations as shown in Figure-1 are more stable
than regular straight walls because buttress actions come into effect in the former.
 Figure–1: Different irregular profile walls

4. Weather and Ground Moisture Resistance of Walls

Walls should have enough resistance against moistures (water vapor and liquid water)
that might penetrate through foundation walls by absorbing water from ground or by
falling of rain on the walls.
Damp-proof layer with a thickness of 150 mm can be employed above ground level
for all foundation walls. This could prevent water absorption from the ground which
could have a detrimental effect if it is not dealt with properly.

The water that might penetrate walls from the rainfall depends on many factors such
as quality of materials and the way of assembling those materials together and
prevailing winds.

There are several solutions for situations such as using greater thickness for walls,
construction brick, stone, or block walls in two skins with 50 mm cavity between them,
protecting wall outer face by cladding or plastering, and utilizing a glass sheet as a
curtain wall.

Moreover, environmental features such as hills, trees, or other constructed buildings

around should be taken into consideration in determining proper solutions, because
these can change severity of exposure conditions to prevailing winds that direct rain
on the walls
4. Durability Requirements of Walls
Durability of walls is determined by frequency and the amount of work that is required
to make the wall meet the minimum requirements functionally and aesthetically
acceptable. Functional requirements might include the wall capability to resist rain and
thermal properties.

It is difficult to specify standard acceptable appearance of walls especially in cases

where unusual materials such as glass and plastic sheets are used. This is because the
minimum acceptable appearance can be varied from person to another. However, this
not the case when familiar materials are employed such as high quality bricks or
stones which are chosen with good judgments.

The wall that is constructed with bricks will be durable and need not be repairing over
its lifespan if good burned bricks and high quality mortars is used, proper attentions is
paid to wall openings, and exposure conditions is considered.
When lime mortar is used for brick wall construction is will be necessary to repoint the
lime mortar to avoid moisture penetration and regain good appearance.
5. Fire Safety Requirements of Walls
The first and most important measure against fire is providing a convenient way to
escape from it because at early stages of breaking out life of occupant will be in
danger because of fumes and smokes.

Safety against spreading of fire is the second measures which include restricting lining,
structural, external fire spread in addition to provide access for fire fighters. The
restrictions are carried out by providing fire resistance for walls and specify level of
flammability of materials used to cover inside walls and floors.
6. Resistance to Heat Passage
It is very important to contain heat and prevent its loss because it leads to obtain cost
effective, desirable, and comfortable thermal conditions in buildings. Therefore, it is
recommended to construct a wall that is thermally insulated to avoid too much loss of
heat.

The loss of heat can be prevented by using light weight and low conductive materials.
Moreover, dense high conductive materials have great capacity for thermal storing
compare with lightweight materials with low conductivity.

If a building has a continuous source of heating it would be useful to apply low density
materials for the outside face of the wall and high density material for inside face. In
contrary, using light weight material is advantageous when the building is heated
intermittently.
7. Sound Resistance of Walls
Impact and airborne are the two ways of transmitting sounds. The latter is induced as
cyclical disturbances of air from a source such as radio while the former is generated
because of an impact on solid surfaces for example footsteps that induce floor
vibration and in return the air around is vibrated and heard as sound.
High density materials can be used to resist airborne sounds such as concrete walls,
cavity wall, and solid wall. However, impact sounds are transmitted quickly through
dense materials therefore, materials which can cushion or interrupt path of the impact
sound should be employed.
Bonding in walls

Types of bonds in brick masonry wall construction are classified based on laying and
bonding style of bricks in walls. The bonds in brick masonry are developed by the
mortar filling between layers of bricks and in grooves when bricks are laid adjacent to
each other and in layers in walls.

Mostly used material for bonds in brick masonry is cement mortar. Lime mortar and
mud mortar are also used.

Types of Bonds in Brick Masonry Wall Construction:

The most commonly used types of bonds in brick masonry are:

1. Stretcher bond

2. Header bond

3. English bond and

4. Flemish bond

1. Garden wall bond

1. Stretcher bond

Longer narrow face of the brick is called as stretcher as shown in the elevation of
figure below. Stretcher bond, also called as running bond, is created when bricks are
laid with only their stretchers showing, overlapping midway with the courses of bricks
below and above.

Stretcher bond in the brick is the simplest repeating pattern. But the limitation of
stretcher bond is that it cannot make effective bonding with adjacent bricks in full
width thick brick walls. They are suitably used only for one-half brick thick walls such as
for the construction half brick thick partition wall.

Walls constructed with stretcher bonds are not stable enough to stand alone in case
of longer span and height. Thus they Then need supporting structure such as brick
masonry columns at regular intervals.

Stretcher bonds are commonly used in the steel or reinforced concrete framed
structures as the outer facing. These are also used as the outer facing of cavity walls.
Other common applications of such walls are the boundary walls, gardens etc.

Fig-1: Stretcher Bond

2. Header bond

Header is the shorter square face of the brick which measures 9cm x 9cm. Header
bond is also known as heading bond. In header bonds, all bricks in each course are
placed as headers on the faces of the walls. While Stretcher bond is used for the
construction of walls of half brick thickness whereas header bond is used for the
construction of walls with full brick thickness which measures 18cm. In header bonds,
the overlap is kept equal to half width of the brick. To achieve this, three quarter brick
bats are used in alternate courses as quoins.
Fig-2: Header Bond

Fig-3: Header Bond Isometric View

3. English Bond

English bond in brick masonry has one course of stretcher only and a course of
header above it, i.e. it has two alternating courses of stretchers and headers. Headers
are laid centered on the stretchers in course below and each alternate row is vertically
aligned.
To break the continuity of vertical joints, quoin closer is used in the beginning and end
of a wall after first header. A quoin close is a brick cut lengthwise into two halves and
used at corners in brick walls.

Fig-4: English Bond

Fig-4: English Bond – Isometric View

4. Flemish Bond

For the breaking of vertical joints in the successive courses, closers are inserted in
alternate courses next to the quoin header. In walls having their thickness equal to
odd number of half bricks, bats are essentially used to achieve the bond.

Flemish bond, also known as Dutch bond, is created by laying alternate headers and
stretchers in a single course. The next course of brick is laid such that header lies in the
middle of the stretcher in the course below, i.e. the alternate headers of each course
are centered on the stretcher of course below. Every alternate course of Flemish bond
starts with header at the corner.

The thickness of Flemish bond is minimum one full brick. The disadvantage of using
Flemish bond is that construction of Flemish bond is difficult and requires greater skill
to lay it properly as all vertical mortar joints need to be aligned vertically for best
effects. For the breaking of vertical joints in the successive courses, closers are inserted
in alternate courses next to the quoin header. In walls having their thickness equal to
odd number of half bricks, bats are used to achieve the bond.

Flemish bonds have better appearance but are weaker than English bonds for load
bearing wall construction. Thus, if the pointing has to be done for brick masonry walls,
then Flemish bond may be used for better aesthetic view. If the walls have to be
plastered, then it is better to use English bond.

Fig-5: Flemish Bond

Fig-6: Flemish Bond Front Appearance

Flemish bonds are classified as:

o Single Flemish Bond

o Double Flemish Bond

Single Flemish bond is a combination of English bond and Flemish bond. In this type
of construction, the front exposed surface of wall consists of Flemish bond and the
back surface of the wall consists of English bond in each course. Minimum thickness
required for single Flemish bond is one and a half brick thickness. The main purpose
of using single Flemish bond is to provide greater aesthetic appearance on the front
surface with required strength in the brickwork with English bond.
Double Flemish Bond has the same appearance both in the front and back elevations,
i.e. each course consists of alternate header and stretcher. This type of bonding is
comparatively weaker than English bond