CHAPTER 3

THE STRAIGHT LINE

3-1 Introduction. The

is the simplest geometric curve.
straight line
Despite its simplicity, a vital concept of mathematics and enters
the line is

into our daily experiences in numerous interesting and useful ways. In

Section 1 -7 we stated that the graph of a first degree equation in x and y
is a straight line; we shall now establish that statement.
Furthermore,
we forms such that each reveals
shall write linear equations in different
useful information concerning the location of the line which it represents.

3-2 The locus of a first degree equation. The equation

Ax + By +C= 0, (1)

where A , /?, and C not both zero, is a general

are constants with A and B
equation of the first degree. We
prove that the locus, or graph, of
shall
this equation is a straight line by showing that all points of the locus lie
on a line and that the coordinates of all points of the line satisfy the equa-
tion.
Let PI(XI,T/I) and P 2 (^2,2/2) be any two points of the graph; that is,

Ax + l Byi +C- 0, (a)

Ax2 + By* +C- 0. (b)

By subtraction, these equations yield

and if B 7* 0,
-
y\ y* = _A
x\- xi B
The equation shows that the slope of a line passing through two points
last
of the is -(A/B).
graph Therefore if Ps(xi,2/i) is any other point of the
locus, the slope of the segment PiP 3 is also -(A/B). From the equality
of these slopes we conclude that Pi, P 2 and P 3 and hence all points of the , ,

locus, lieon a line. To determine if the graph consists of all points of this
line, we need to show that the coordinates of any other point of the line

satisfy the given equation (1). Denoting a point of the line by P4 (x 4> 2/4),
we have
2/4 -y\ _ _ A
z4 - x\ B
31
32 THE STRAIGHT LINE [CHAP. 3

By clearing of fractions and transposing terms, this equation takes the

form
Ax* + By* - Axi - Byi - 0.

From equation (a), -Axi By\ - C, and hence

Ax* + By* + C = 0.

The point (4,1/4) satisfies the given equation. This completes the proof
except for the case in which 5= 0. For this value of B equation (1)
reduces to
f
X _
~ ._ _ _C ,

A
The coordinates of all points, and only those points, having the abscissa
(C/A) satisfy this equation. Hence the locus is a line parallel to the

2/-axis and located (C/A) units from the axis.

THEOREM. The locus of the equation Ax + By + C = 0, where A, B,
and C are constants with A and B not both zero, is a straight line. If
B= 0, the line is vertical; otherwise the slope is (A/B).

3-3 Special forms of the first degree equation. We shall now convert
equation (1) to other forms and interpret the coefficients geometrically.
Solving for y gives, where B 7* 0,
A C

The coefficient of x, aswe have seen, is the slope of the line. By setting
x 0, we
notice that the constant term is the ^-intercept. Substituting
m for the slope and b for the ^-intercept, we obtain the simpler form

y SB mx + b. (2)

This is called the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line. An equa-

tion in this form makes evident the slope and the y-intercept of the line
which it represents. Conversely, the equation of a line of given slope and
2/-intercept may be written at once by substituting the proper values for
m and 6.
The equation of the line of slope -2 and passing through
Illustration.

(0,5) isy = -2x + 5.

We next express equation (1) in a form which gives prominence to the
x-intercept and the y-intercept. We have
Ax + By - -C,
^ + ^-1
-C + -C
" lj or
-C/A
*
+
.

-C/B
y ClX *
3-3] SPECIAL FORMS OP THE FIRST DEGREE EQUATION 33

The denominator of x in the last equation is the z-intercept and the

denominator of y is the ^-intercept. If we let a and b stand for the inter-
cepts, we have the equation

i + f-I. (3,

This is called the intercept form of the equation of a straight line. It may
be used when the intercepts are different from zero.
Equation (2) represents a line passing through (0,6). The equation
may be altered slightly to focus attention on any other point of the line.
If the line passes through (21,1/1), we have

y\
= mxi + 6, and 6 = y\ mx\.

Substituting for b gives

y = mx + yi
- mx\,
and hence

y - yi = m(x - x,). (4)

Equation (4) is called the point-slope form of the equation of a line.

If the line of equation (4) passes through the point (#2,1/2), then

and we have

y - yi =
^-E"7J
(*
- *>) ^
It can readily be seen that the graph of this equation passes through the
points (xiii/i) and (0*2,1/2). This form is called the two-point form of the
equation of a straight line.
The equations (2)-(5) do not apply when the line is vertical. In this
case m is not defined, and neither could we substitute properly for the
intercepts in the forms (2) and (3). The equation of a vertical line can
be written immediately, however, if any point of the line is known. Thus
a vertical line through (xi,yi) has the abscissa x\ for all points of the line.
Hence the equation is

X = X\.

A
horizontal line through (x\,yi) has = 0, and equation (4) applies.
m
Of course, the ordinates are all the same on a horizontal line, and we could
write the equation directly as

==
y yi*
34 THE STRAIGHT LINE [CHAP. 3

Illustrations. If a line cuts the coordinate axes so that the x-intercept

is 3 and the ^-intercept is -5, its equation by formula (3) is

or 5* -3s/ = 15.
1+^=1,
The equation of the line through (1,4) with slope 3 is, by the point-
slope form,
y
- 4 = 3(x + 1), .
or 3x - y +7 = 0.

To obtain the equation of the line through (3,5) and (4,1), we substi-
tute in formula (5), and have

Whence, simplifying,
1y _ 35 = - 4X - 12, or 4x + 7y = 23.

The show that formulas (2) -(5) can be employed to write,

illustrations

quickly and simply, equations of lines which pass through two given points
or through one known point with a given slope. The inverse problem,
that of drawing the graph of a linear equation in x and y, is likewise simple.
Since the locus is a straight line, two points are sufficient for constructing
the graph. For this purpose the intercepts on the axes are usually the
most convenient. For example, we find the intercepts of the equation
3x - 4i/
= 12 to be a = 4 and b = -3. Hence the graph is the line drawn
through (4,0) and (0,-3), The
intercepts are not sufficient for drawing a
line which passes through the origin. For this case the intercepts a and b
are both zero. Hence a point other than the origin is necessary.
Wehave seen that the slope of the line corresponding to the equation
Ax + By + C = Q is -(A/B). That is, the slope is obtained from the
equation by dividing the coefficient of x by the coefficient of y and revers-
ing the sign of the result. Hence we can readily determine if the lines
represented by two equations are parallel, perpendicular, or if they inter-
sect obliquely. Lines are parallel if their slopes are equal, and we recall
that two lines are perpendicular if the slope of one is the negative of the
reciprocal of the slope of the other.

EXAMPLE 1. Find the equation of the line which passes through (-1,3) and
is parallel to 4x + 3y = 2.

Solution. We shall show two ways for finding the required equation. First,
from the given equation, the slope is seen to be ($). Substituting this slope
value and the coordinates of the given point in the point-slope formula, we have

V
- 3 - -|(a + 1),
or
4x + 3y = 5.
3-3] SPECIAL FORMS OP THE FIRST DEGREE EQUATION 35

Alternatively, we notice that 4x + 3y = D is parallel to the given line for any

real value of D. To determine D so that the line shall pass through ( 1,3), we
substitute these coordinates for x and y and obtain

4(-l) + 3(3) = />, or D= 5.

By using 5 for D, we have again the equation 4x + 3z/

= 5.

EXAMPLE 2. A point moves so that it is equally distant from the two points
A (3,2) and (5,6). Find the equation of its locus.

Solution. From plane geometry we know that the locus is the line perpendicular
to the segment AB
and passing through its mid-point. The slope of is 2, and AB
the coordinates of the mid-point are (4,4). The required slope is Hence we .

write x + 2y = D. This equation has the proper slope, and we need to determine
D so that the line shall pass through (4,4). Substituting, we get

x + 2y = 4 + 2(4) = 12.

The required equation, therefore, is x 2y + = 12. We could also obtain this

equation by using the point-slope form (4).

EXERCISE 3-1

By solving for //, write each equation 1-12 in the slope-intercept form. In each
case give the value of the slope m
and the value of the y-intercept b. Draw the
lines.

1. 3x + y = 6. 2. 3x - y
- 3 = 0. 3. 4x - 2y = 3.
4. 6z + 3y = 5. 5. x + 2y + 4 = 0. 6. x - by = 10.
7. 4x - 3// = 0. 8. 2x + 7y = 0. 9. 5x + 3y = 7.
10. x - 8// = 4. 11. 7x - lly = 9. 12. x + y = 6.
By inspection, give the slope and intercepts of each line represented by equa-
tions 13-24.

13. 4x - = 12.
y 14. x - y = 7. 15. x +y+ 4 = 0.

16. 4x + 9y - 36. 17. 3* - 4y = 12. 18. 6* - 3y - 10 = 0.

19. x + 7y = 11. 20. 2x + 3y = 14. 21. 7x + 3z/ + 6 = 0.
22. 3x - 8/y = 5. 23. Sx + 3/y
= 4. 24. 3* + 3y = 1.

In each problem 25-36, write the equation of the line determined by the slope
m and the ^-intercept 6.
25. m = 3; b = -4. 26. m = 2; 6 = 3.
27. m = -4; b = 5. 28. m = -1;6 = 1.
29. m = 6 - -2.;
30. m = $ 6 = -6.;

31. m = 0; 6 = -6. 32. m -5; 6 = 0.

33. m = -J; 6 = -8. 34. m = 0; b = -2.
35. m = 0; b = 0. 36. m = - 6 = 0. ;
36 THE STRAIGHT LINE [CHAP. 3

Write the equation of the line which has the ^-intercept a and the ^-intercept 6
in each problem 37-48.
37. a = 3, b - 2. 38. a = 5, 6
- 1.

39. o = 4, 6 = -3. 40. a = 7, b

= -5.
41. a - -2, b = -2. 42. a = -1, 6 - -1.
43. a = 6 = i
,
44. o $; 6
= 1.

45. a = -y- b = f 46. a - ,

6 = -2.
47. a - -, 6 = -y. 48. a = f, 6
=f .

In each equation 49-60, write the equation of the line which passes through
the point A with the slope m. Draw the lines.
49. 4(3,1); m = 2, 50. 4(-3,-5); ro = 1.

51. 4(-2,0); m = . 52. 4(0, -3); m - -4.

53. 4(-3,-6); m = -f 54. 4(5, -2); m = -f.
55. 4(0,3); m = 0. 56. 4(3,0); m
= 0.
57. A(0,0); m = -f 58. 4(0,0); m = f
59. 4(-5,-7); m = -6. 60. 4(9,1); m - -f

Find the equation of the line determined by the points 4 and B in each prob-
lem 61-72. Check the answers by substitutions.

61. 4(3,-l); B(-4,5). 62. 4(1,5); B(4,l).

63. 4(0,2); B(4,-6). 64. 4(-2,-4); B(3,3).

65. 4(3,-2);B(3,7). 66. 4(0,0); J3(3,- 4).

67. 4(5,-); B(i-2). 68. 4(*,5); B(-2,5).

69. 4(0,1) ;B(0,0). 70. 4(3,0); (4,0).

71. 4(-l,-l); (-2,-3). 72. 4(^,1); B(-l,f).

73. Show that Ax + By = DI and Bx Ay = Z) 2 are equations of perpen-
dicular lines.
74. Show that the graphs of the equations

Ax + By = D!,
Ax + By = D 2

are (a) the same if D\ = D2 ; (b) parallel lines if Z) A ^D 2.

In each problem 75-84 find the equations of two lines through 4, one parallel
and the other perpendicular to the line corresponding to the given equation.
Draw the lines.

75. 4(4,1); 2x - +5=

Zy 0. 76. 4(-l,2); 2x
-y= 0.

77. 4(3,4) ;
Ix + 5y + 4 - 0. 78. 4(0,0) x
- y = 3.
;

79. 4(2,-3); Sx - y = 0. 80. 4(0,6); 2x - 2y 1.

81. 4(-l,l); y = 1. 82. 4(3,5); x - 0.

83. 4(7,0) ;
9z +y- 3 = 0. 84. 4(-4,0) 4z ; + 3y = 3.
3-4] THE DISTANCE PROM A LINE TO A POINT 37

85. The vertices of a triangle are A(l,0), 5(9,2), and C(3,6). Find the follow-
ing:

(a) the equations of the sides;

(b) the equations of the medians and the coordinates of their common point;
(c) the equations of the altitudes and the coordinates of their common point;
(d) the equations of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides and the coordinates
of their common point.

86. The A (-2,3), 5(6, -6), and (7(8,0). Find the

vertices of a triangle are

equations of the lines and the coordinates of the points pertaining to this triangle
which are called for in problem 85.

3-4 The distance from a line to a point. The distance from a line to a
point can be found from the equation of the line and the coordinates of the
point. We shall derive a formula for this purpose. We observe first that
the distance from a vertical line to a point is immediately obtainable by
taking the difference of the abscissa of the point and the z-intercept of the
line. Hence no additional formula is needed for this case.
Let the equation of a slant line be written in the form

Ax + By + C = Q, (1)

and be any point not on the line. Since the line is a slant
let Pi(x\,yi)

line, B ^ Consider now the line through PI parallel to the given line,
0.
and the line through the origin perpendicular to the given line, whose
equations respectively are
Ax + By + C - 1
0, (2)
Bx - Ay = 0. (3)

The required distance d (Fig. 3-1) is equal to the segment PQ, where P
and Q are the intersection points of the perpendicular line and the parallel
lines. The simultaneous solutions of equations (1) and (3), and equations
(2) and (3) give the intersection points

-BC \ -AC' -BC'

We employ the formula for the distance between two points to find the
length of PQ. Thus

(C
~ C/)2 *2
I
-t-
^ 2 + fi2)2
(

_ (C - C'?(A* +B) 2
(C
- C') 2
'

(A* + B*) 2
A +B 2 2

and
C-C'
38 THE STRAIGHT LINU [CHAP. 3

FIGURE 3-1

Since the line of equation (2) passes through PI(ZI,I/I), we have

Axi + Byi + C' = 0, and C' = -Axi - Byi.

Hence, substituting for C",

Ax^ 4- #wi 4- C
d =

To remove the ambiguity as to sign, we agree to give the radical in the

denominator the sign of B. In other words, the sign of the denominator
is selected so that the coefficient of y\ is positive. A consequence of this
choice of signs may be found by referring to the figure again, where P Pi
is parallel to the i/-axis and P (.ri,2/o) is a point of the given line. Since P
is a point on the line, we have

Now we replace t/ by yi in the left side of this equation, we get an ex-

if

pression which is not equal to zero. The expression is positive if y\ > y$

and negative if y\ < y<>. That is, the expression for d is positive if PI is
above the line and negative if PI is below the line. We may therefore
regard the distance from a line to a point as a directed distance.
The preceding discussion establishes the following theorem :

THEOREM. The directed distance from the slant line Ax + By + C =

to the point Pi (#1,2/1) is given by the formula

* ^ + *" + C (4)

where the denominator is given the sign of B. The distance is positive if

the point PI is above the line, and negative if P\ is below the line.
3-4] THE DISTANCE FROM A LINE TO A POINT 39

-4,1)

^3(9,0)

FIGURE 3-2

If equation (1) is divided by VA* + B2 ,

the form

Ax + By + C _
VA*+B*
is obtained. This is called the normal form of the equation of a line.
When an equation is in the normal form, the distance from the line to a
point is given by substituting the coordinates of the point in the left mem-
ber of the equation. By substituting the coordinates of the origin, the
constant term is seen to be the perpendicular, or normal, distance to the
origin.

EXAMPLE 1. Find the distance from the line I2y 5x - 26 to each of the
points Pi(3,-5), P 2 (-4,l), and P 3 (9,0).

Solution. We
write the equation in the form 5x I2y 26 = 0. The + +
required distances are then found by making substitutions in formula (4). Hence
, -5(3) + 12(-5) + 26 49

-5(-4) + 12(1) + 26 _ 58
13 13'

d3==
, -5(9) + 12(0) + 26 19
13 13'

The positive sign is used in the denominators because the coefficient of y is posi-
tive. The signs of the results show that PI and PS are below the line and that Pz
is above the line (Fig. 3-2).

EXAMPLE 2. Find the distance between the parallel lines 15x Sy 51 =0

and 15z - Sy + 68 = 0.

Solution. The distance can be found by computing the distance from each line
to a particular point. To minimize the computations, we find the distance from
each line to the origin. Thus

A 15(0)
- 8(0)
- 51 _ -51 _
. __
^
40 THE STRAIGHT LINE [CHAP. 3

_ 15(0)
- 8(0) + 68 68 _ ~ A4
,
d2 ~ *

TIT :=T7

The origin is 3 units above the first line and 4 units below the second line. Hence
the lines are 7 units apart.
An alternate method for this problem would be to find the distance from one
of the lines to a particular point on the other. The point (0, 8.5) is on the second
line, and using this point and the first equation, we find

,
_ 15(0)
- 8(8.5)
- 51 -119 _ .

3-5 Families of lines. We have expressed equations of lines in various

forms. Among these are the equations

y = mx + 6 and
M- 1-

Each of these equations has two constants which have geometrical signifi-
cance. The constants of the first equation are m and b. When definite
values are assigned to these letters, a line is completely determined. Other
values for these, of course, determine other lines. Thus the quantities m
and 6 are fixed for any particular line but change from line to line. These
letters are called parameters. In the second equation a and 6 are the
parameters.

FIGURE 3-3
3-6] FAMILY OF LINES THROUGH INTERSECTION OF TWO LINES 41

A linear equation with only one parameter is obtained if the other

parameter is replaced by a fixed value. The resulting equation repre-

sents all lines with a particular property if the remaining parameter is
allowed to vary. Each value assumed by the parameter yields an equa-
tion which represents a definite line. The collection of lines defined by a
linear equation with one parameter is called a family, or system, of lines.
For example, if m = 3, the point-slope equation becomes

y = 3z + b.
This equation represents the family of lines of slope 3, one line for each
value of b. There are, of course, infinitely many lines in the family. In
family passes through each point of the coordinate plane.
fact, a line of the
Figure 3-3 shows a few lines of the family corresponding to the indicated
values of the parameter b.

EXAMPLE 1 . Write the equation of the system of lines defined by each of the

following conditions:
(a) parallel to 3x
- 2y = 5,

(b) passing through (5, 2),

(c) having the product of the intercepts equal to 4.

Solutions. The following equations are easily verified to be those required.

(a) 3x - 2y = D. (b) y + 2 = m(x - 5).

(c)
-
a
+ j^= 1, or 4* + oty-4n.

EXAMPLE 2. Write the equation of the system of lines which are parallel to
5x + 12/y 7 = 0. Find the members of the family which are 3 units distant
+
from the point (2,1).

Solution. Each member of the family 5x -f 12// 4- C = is parallel to the

given line. We wish to find values of C
which will yield lines 3 units from the
point (2,1), one passing above and the other below the point. Using the formula
for the distance from a line to a point, we obtain the equations

5(2) + 12(1) +C _ 3
5(2) + 12(1) + C _ ~*
'
13 13

The roots are C = 17 and C= 61. Hence the required equations are
5* + \2y + 17 = and 5z + I2y
- 61 - 0.

3-6 Family of lines through the intersection of two lines. The equation
of the family of lines passing through the intersection of two given lines
can be written readily. To illustrate, we consider the two intersecting
lines

From the left members of these equations we form the equation

(2*
- 30 + 5) + fc(4x + y - 11)
- 0, (1)
42 THE STRAIGHT LINE [CHAP. 3

where fc is a parameter. This equation is of the first degree in x and y

for any value of k. Hence
represents a system of lines.
it Furthermore,
each line of the family goes through the intersection of the given lines.
We verify this statement by actual substitution. The given lines intersect
at (2,3). Then, using these values for x and t/, we get

(4-9 + 5) + fc(8 + 3- 11) =0,

+ fc(0) - 0,
= 0.

This result demonstrates that equation (1) is satisfied by the coordinates

(2,3) regardless of the value of k. Hence the equation defines a family of
lines passing through the intersection of the given lines.
More generally, let the equations

C2 =
define two intersecting lines. Then the equation
(A& + Biy + Ci) + k(A& + B*y + C 2)
=

represents a system of lines through the intersection of the given lines.

To verify this statement, we first observe that the equation is linear for
any value of A. Next we notice that the coordinates of the intersection

point reduce each of the parts in parentheses to zero, and hence satisfy the
equation for any value of k.

EXAMPLE. Write the equation of the system of lines through the intersection
of x - 7y + 3 = and 4z 2y
- 5 - 0. Find the member of the family which
+
has the slope 3.

Solution. The equation of the system of lines passing through the intersection
of the given lines is

(x
- 7y + 3) + k(4x + 2y - 5)
= 0,

or, collecting terms,

(1 + 4fc)z + (-7 + 2k)y + 3 - 5* = 0.

The slope of each member of this system, except for the vertical line, is
^
Equating this fraction to the required slope gives

=
3, and k = 2.

The member of the system for k * 2 is 9x 3y 7 = 0.

EXERCISE 3-2

Find the distance from the line to the point in each problem 1-6.
1. 5x + I2y + 60 = 0; (3,2). 2. 4x - 3y = 15; (4,1).
3-6) FAMILY OF LINES THROUGH INTERSECTION OF TWO LINES 43

3. x+ y - 3 - 0; (4,5). 4. 3* + y - 10; (-3,-!).

5. -2x + 5y + 7 = 0; (6,0). 6. y = 7; (3, -8).

Determine the distance between the pair of parallel lines in each problem 7-10.

7. 4x - 3y
- 9 = 0, 4z - 3z/
- 24 0.

8. 12z + 5y = 13, 12x + 5i/

= 104.

9. 15z - 8#
- 34 = 0, 15x - 8y + 51 = 0.

10. x +y+ 7 -0, z + y- 11 - 0.

Write the equation of the system of lines possessing the given property in each
problem 11-18. In each case assign three values to the parameter and draw the
corresponding lines.
11. Parallel to 7x - 4y = 3.

12. Passing through (-3,4).

13. Having the x-intercept twice the y-mtercept.
14. Perpendicular to 2z 5y + 3 = 0.

15. Having the y-intercept equal to 4.

16. Having the sum of the intercepts equal to 10.

17. Through the intersection of x - 2y + 7 = and 5x - ly

- 3 = 0.

18. Forming with the coordinate axes a triangle of area 16.

Tell what geometric property is possessed by all the lines of each system in
problems 19-26.
19. y = mx + 4. 20. y = 2x + b.
21. 9x + 2y = k. 22. y + 4 - m(x - 3).

25. (4x - 7y
- 7) + ky = 0. 26. (4* +y+ 1) + fc(3x + ly) = 0.
27. In the preceding problems 19-26 determine the line of the system which
passes through (3,0).
28. Write the equation of the family of lines of slope 3, and find the two
members passing 5 units from the origin.

In each problem 29-34 find the equation of the line which passes through the
and satisfies the other given condition.
intersection of the pair of lines

29. 3x + y - 2 - 0, x + by - 4 = 0; through (5,2).

30. 5z -f 3y + 2 = 0, x - y - 2 - 0; m = -3.
31. x - lit/
= 0, 3s + y - 5 = 0; a vertical line.
32. 6s - 2y = 3, x
- 5y = 4; m = 0.
33. 3x - 4y - 2 0, 3x + 4y + =0; intercepts are equal. 1

34. = =
2ar-i/-5 0, x + i/-4 0; passing through (0,0).
35. The sides of a triangle are on the lines defined by 2x 3y + 4 = 0,
x +y+3 = 0, and 5x - 4y
- 20 0. Without solving for the vertices, find
the equations of the altitudes.
44 THE STRAIGHT LINE [CHAP. 3

Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles formed by the lines
36.
4x +3#
- 12 - and 5x - I2y - 60 = 0. [Suggestion: Let P(x,y) be a point
on a bisector and use the fact that each point of a bisector is equally distant from
the sides.]
37. Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles formed by the lines

x + 2y + 3 * and 2x + y - 2 = 0.
Write the equation Ax + By + C =
38. in normal form. Show that in
this form the coefficient of x is equal to cos w and the coefficient of y is equal to
sin w, where w is the inclination of the perpendicular segment drawn from the

origin to the line.