Kinds of Literature

Short Story
A short story is a piece of prose fiction that typically can
be read in one sitting and focuses on a self-contained incident
or series of linked incidents, with the intent of evoking a
"single effect" or mood.
Elements of the Short Story

1. Setting. This element refers to the place and time of the story.
2. Conflict. In every story, there has to be a problem.
3. Character. The development of the characters is important to
the short story.
4. Plot. The plot is the arrangement of the events in the story.
5. Theme. This is the controlling idea or the insight that the author
wants the reader to understand at the end of the story.
6. Point of view. This elements is how the story is told.
What Is Falling Action?
In storytelling, falling action refers to the period after the
dramatic confrontation of the climax. This portion of the
narrative helps deflate the plot's tension and gives the
character time to unwind after the emotional scene.
What is a falling action example?
The story begins to move to the conclusion, or the
resolution, at which point everything will be tied up and
resolved. For example, in a hero tale, the hero's journey
home after defeating the villain would be the falling
action.
What is exposition in the story?
The exposition is the introduction to a story, including the primary
characters' names, setting, mood, and time. Conflict. The conflict is the
primary problem that drives the plot of the story, often a main goal for the
protagonist to achieve or overcome.
Exposition is the first part of a story, usually opening with exposition to
introduce the setting and characters.
It can be as short or long as needed for the author’s purposes, but it does
not include any rising action or climax.
An example of exposition in literature would be Huck Finn telling us
about his life on the Mississippi River.
It is also used by news broadcasters at the beginning of a newscast before
they cover their main story.
What Is the Climax of a Story?
In literary terms, the definition of climax is the highest point of tension in a
storyline, often depicted by a confrontation between the protagonist and
antagonist. A climax resolves the main conflict of the story and is the
moment the main character reaches—or fails to reach—their goal.

Where can you find the climax in a story?

The climax in a story is the point, usually near the end of the third act,
where the value of the story is tested to its highest degree. As such, it
is also the moment in a story with the greatest amount of drama,
action, and movement.
Denouement - noun
1. the final part of a play, movie, or narrative in which the strands
of the plot are drawn together and matters are explained or resolved.

The denouement is the final outcome of the story, generally

occurring after the climax of the plot. Often it's where all the secrets
(if there are any) are revealed and loose ends are tied up. For
example, the denouement of William Shakespeare's Romeo and
Juliet comes just after Romeo and Juliet take their own lives.
Rising action - Rising action in literature refers
to all the events that happen in a story on the way to
the climax. The rising action pushes the plot along,
building tension to keep us invested in the story as it
moves forward.
For example, in a suspense or crime novel, the rising
action could be the protagonist going on a journey to
solve a mystery or crime. But in a romance novel, the
rising action could be the characters' journey to
falling in love.
Essay

An essay is generally a short piece of writing

outlining the writer’s perspective or story. It is often
considered synonymous with a story or a paper or an
article. Essays can be both formal as well as informal.
Formal essays are generally academic in nature and
tackle serious topics. We will be focusing on informal
essays which are more personal and often have
humorous elements.
Elements of Essay

1. Introduction
► An essay introduction consists of one paragraph
that introduces your reader to your essay. Mention
any background information or general information
that is pertinent to the topic in the introduction
before your thesis statement. The introduction
should summarize the point you intend to make in
the body of your essay.
2. Body
► The supporting paragraphs that back up your thesis
make up the body of an essay. Each paragraph should
contain at least one point to confirm your thesis with
any necessary supporting information. A
five-paragraph essay, for example, has three body
paragraphs. Depending on the style of your essay, you
may have more body paragraphs. Write one body
paragraph for each point that supports your thesis.
3. Conclusion
► The conclusion of an essay is one paragraph that
summarizes the principal points made throughout
the body. Contrary to the introductory paragraph,
which summarizes the overall idea of the essay, the
conclusion should specifically confirm why your
thesis is correct using the points from your
supporting body paragraphs.
Types of Essay

1. Narrative Essays:
This is when the writer is narrating an incident or story
through the essay. So these are in the first person. The aim when
writing narrative essays is to involve the reader in them as if they
were right there when it was happening. So make them as vivid
and real as possible. One way to make this possible is to follow
the principle of ‘show, don’t tell’. So you must involve the reader
in the story.
3. Expository Essays:
In such an essay a writer presents a balanced
study of a topic. To write such an essay, the writer
must have real and extensive knowledge about the
subject. There is no scope for the writer’s feelings or
emotions in an expository essay. It is completely
based on facts, statistics, examples etc. There are
sub-types here like contrast essays, cause and effect
essays etc.
2. Descriptive Essays:
Here the writer will describe a place, an object, an
event or maybe even a memory. But it is not just plainly
describing things. The writer must paint a picture
through his words. One clever way to do that is to evoke
the senses of the reader. Do not only rely on sight but
also involve the other senses of smell, touch, sound etc.
A descriptive essay when done well will make the
reader feel the emotions the writer was feeling at the
moment.
4. Persuasive Essays:
Here the purpose of the essay is to get the
reader to your side of the argument. A persuasive
essay is not just a presentation of facts but an
attempt to convince the reader of the writer’s
point of view. Both sides of the argument have to
presented in these essays. But the ultimate aim is
to persuade the readers that the writer’s argument
carries more weight.
Drama
is the specific mode of fiction
represented in performance: a play, opera,
mime, ballet, etc, performed in a theatre,
or on radio or television
Elements of Drama
Plot: The events in a play.
Setting: The time and place of a literary work.
Characters: People or creatures in the play
Dialogue: Conversation in the play.
Theme: The central thought of a play; the idea or ideas
with which play deals.
Scenery: The various elements that used to create a
particular visual setting for a play.
Types of Drama
Comedy – Comedies are lighter in tone than ordinary works, and provide a
happy conclusion. The intention of dramatists in comedies is to make their
audience laugh. Hence, they use quaint circumstances, unusual characters,
and witty remarks.

Tragedy – Tragic dramas use darker themes, such as disaster, pain, and
death. Protagonists often have a tragic flaw — a characteristic that leads
them to their downfall.
Farce – Generally, a farce is a nonsensical genre of drama, which often
overacts or engages slapstick humor.

Melodrama – Melodrama is an exaggerated drama, which is sensational and

appeals directly to the senses of the audience. Just like the farce, the
characters are of a single dimension and simple, or may be stereotyped.

Musical Drama – In musical dramas, dramatists not only tell their stories
through acting and dialogue, but through dance as well as music. Often the
story may be comedic, though it may also involve serious subjects.
Techniques of Reading Drama

Read with a Pencil

Visualize the Characters
Contemplate the Setting
Research the Historical Context
Sit in the Director’s Chair
Poetry
Poetry
Literature that evokes a concentrated
imaginative awareness of experience or a specific
emotional response through language chosen and
arranged for its meaning, sound, and rhythm.

Poetry is a vast subject, as old as history and older,

present wherever religion is present, possibly—under
some definitions—the primal and primary form of
languages themselves.
Elements of Poetry
POETRY ASSUMPTIONS
Readers of poetry often bring with them many related assumptions:

❑ That a poem is to be read for its "message,"

❑ That this message is "hidden" in the poem,
❑ The message is to be found by treating the words as symbols
which naturally do not mean what they say but stand for
something else,
❑ You have to decipher every single word to appreciate and enjoy
the poem.
FIGURATIVE/CONNOTATIVE DEVICES

Simile is the rhetorical term used to designate the most elementary form of
resemblances: most similes are introduced by "like" or "as." These
comparisons are usually between dissimilar situations or objects that have
something in common, such as "My love is like a red, red rose.“
A metaphor leaves out "like" or "as" and implies a direct comparison
between objects or situations. "All flesh is grass." For more on metaphor,
click here.
Synecdoche is a form of metaphor, which in mentioning an important (and
attached) part signifies the whole (e.g. "hands" for labour).
Metonymy is similar to synecdoche; it's a form of metaphor allowing an
object closely associated (but unattached) with a object or situation to stand
for the thing itself (e.g. the crown or throne for a king or the bench for the
judicial system).
A symbol is like a simile or metaphor with the first term left out. "My
love is like a red, red rose" is a simile. If, through persistent identification
of the rose with the beloved woman, we may come to associate the rose
with her and her particular virtues. At this point, the rose would become
a symbol.
Allegory can be defined as a one to one correspondence between a
series of abstract ideas and a series of images or pictures presented in
the form of a story or a narrative. For example, George Orwell's Animal
Farm is an extended allegory that represents the Russian Revolution
through a fable of a farm and its rebellious animals.
Personification occurs when you treat abstractions or inanimate objects
as human, that is, giving them human attributes, powers, or feelings
(e.g., "nature wept" or "the wind whispered many truths to me").
► Irony takes many forms. Most basically, irony is a figure of speech in which
actual intent is expressed through words that carry the opposite meaning.
o Paradox: usually a literal contradiction of terms or situations
o Situational Irony: an unmailed letter
o Dramatic Irony: audience has more information or greater perspective
than the characters
o Verbal Irony: saying one thing but meaning another
• Overstatement (hyperbole)
• Understatement (meiosis)
• Sarcasm
❖ Irony may be a positive or negative force. It is most valuable as a mode of
perception that assists the poet to see around and behind opposed
attitudes, and to see the often conflicting interpretations that come from
our examination of life