Database management system

Laboratory Report10

NAME : D.VINODH
COURSE : BCA-DS
ROLL NO : 10

1. Write the names of types of failures

Types of Failures
In the context of computer systems, databases, and software, failures can be
broadly categorized based on their origin, impact, and recovery mechanisms.
Here are some common types of failures:
1. Hardware Failures: These involve physical components of a computer
system breaking down. Examples include:
o Disk Crashes
o Power Failures
o Memory Failures
o Network Failures
2. Software Failures: These occur due to bugs, errors, or glitches in the
software. Examples include:
o Operating System Crashes
o Application Crashes
o Deadlocks
3. Human Errors: Mistakes made by users or administrators can lead to
failures. Examples include:
o Accidental Deletion of Data
o Misconfiguration of Systems
o Incorrect Commands
4. Network Failures: Failures in the network infrastructure can disrupt
communication between systems. Examples include:
o Network Congestion
o Router Failures
o Broken Links
5. Environmental Failures: These are caused by external conditions
affecting the system. Examples include:
o Natural Disasters (earthquakes, floods, fires)
o Power Outages
o Cooling System Failures
6. Security Breaches: Unauthorized access or attacks can lead to system
failures. Examples include:
o Malware Attacks
 o Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks
o Data Breaches
Types of Storage
Storage devices are critical components in computing, providing means to store
and retrieve data. Here are three primary types of storage:
1. Primary Storage: Also known as main memory, this is the storage
directly accessible by the CPU. Examples include:
o Random Access Memory (RAM)
o Cache Memory
2. Secondary Storage: This refers to storage devices that are not directly
accessible by the CPU. Examples include:
o Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
o Solid State Drives (SSD)
3. Tertiary Storage: This is used for long-term storage of data that is not
accessed frequently. Examples include:
o Magnetic Tapes
o Optical Discs (CDs, DVDs, Blu-rays)
Redo and Undo Recoveries
Redo Recovery and Undo Recovery are techniques used in database systems to
ensure data consistency and integrity after a failure.
1. Redo Recovery:
o Purpose: Redo recovery is used to reapply committed transactions
to the database to ensure that the database reflects all committed
changes.
o Process: During redo recovery, the system scans the log files to
identify all transactions that were committed but whose changes
may not have been written to the database before the failure. It
then reapplies these changes to the database.
o Scenario: Suppose a transaction T1 was committed, but a failure
occurred before its changes were written to the disk. Redo
recovery will ensure that T1's changes are applied to the database
after the system restarts.
2. Undo Recovery:
o Purpose: Undo recovery is used to reverse the effects of
transactions that were in progress but not committed at the time of
the failure.
o Process: During undo recovery, the system scans the log files to
identify all transactions that were active at the time of the failure.
It then reverses any changes made by these transactions to ensure
that the database remains in a consistent state.
o Scenario: Suppose a transaction T2 was in progress but not
committed when a failure occurred. Undo recovery will roll back
the changes made by T2 to restore the database to its previous
consistent state.
Log Record
A log record is a record of events or transactions maintained by a database
management system (DBMS) to ensure data integrity and support recovery
mechanisms. Each log record typically includes information about:
• Transaction Identifier (ID): Unique identifier for the transaction.
• Type of Operation: Type of operation performed (e.g., insert, update,
delete).
• Affected Data: Details about the data affected by the operation.
• Before-Image and After-Image: The state of the data before and after
the operation.
• Timestamp: The time when the operation was performed.
Log records are crucial for implementing redo and undo operations during
recovery. They ensure that the database can be restored to a consistent state after
a failure.
Checkpoint
A checkpoint is a mechanism used in database systems to reduce the amount of
work needed during recovery by periodically saving the current state of the
database. Here’s how it works:
• Purpose: Checkpoints minimize the amount of redo and undo work
required after a failure by establishing a known point of consistency.
• Process: During a checkpoint, the DBMS performs the following steps:
o Flush Dirty Pages: All modified pages in the buffer (memory) are
written to disk.
o Write Checkpoint Record: A checkpoint record is written to the
log file, indicating that all changes up to this point have been
written to the disk.
o Update Log Records: The checkpoint record includes
information about the transactions that were active at the time of
the checkpoint.
• Benefits: Checkpoints reduce the time required for recovery since the
system can start recovery from the last checkpoint instead of scanning the
entire log. This improves the performance and reliability of the database
system.
Detailed Analysis and Explanations
Types of Failures
1. Hardware Failures:
o Disk Crashes: These occur when a hard disk drive (HDD) or
solid-state drive (SSD) fails, leading to data loss. Preventive
measures include using RAID (Redundant Array of Independent
Disks) for data redundancy and regular backups.
o Power Failures: Sudden loss of power can cause data corruption.
Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) and backup generators can
mitigate this risk.
o Memory Failures: Faulty RAM can cause system crashes and
data corruption. Error-correcting code (ECC) memory can detect
and correct memory errors.
o Network Failures: Failures in network components such as
routers, switches, or cables can disrupt connectivity. Redundant
network paths and failover mechanisms can enhance reliability.
2. Software Failures:
o Operating System Crashes: These occur when the OS
encounters a critical error. Regular updates and patches can help
prevent such crashes.
o Application Crashes: Bugs in software applications can cause
them to crash. Rigorous testing and quality assurance practices are
essential to minimize these failures.
o Deadlocks: A situation where two or more processes are unable to
proceed because each is waiting for the other to release resources.
Deadlock detection and resolution algorithms can help manage
this issue.
3. Human Errors:
o Accidental Deletion of Data: Users or administrators might
delete important data by mistake. Implementing robust data
protection policies and regular backups can mitigate this risk.
 o Misconfiguration of Systems: Incorrect configurations can lead
to system failures. Automated configuration management tools
and thorough documentation can reduce human errors.
o Incorrect Commands: Executing wrong commands can have
unintended consequences. User training and access controls are
critical for preventing such errors.
4. Network Failures:
o Network Congestion: High traffic can slow down or disrupt
network services. Quality of Service (QoS) mechanisms can help
manage network traffic effectively.
o Router Failures: Failures in routing equipment can isolate parts
of the network. Redundant routers and routing protocols like
OSPF and BGP can provide resilience.
o Broken Links: Physical damage to network cables can disrupt
communication. Using redundant paths and regularly inspecting
cables can prevent this.
5. Environmental Failures:
o Natural Disasters: Earthquakes, floods, and fires can destroy
hardware. Disaster recovery plans and geographically distributed
data centers can mitigate these risks.
o Power Outages: Extended power outages can halt operations.
UPS systems and backup generators can provide temporary
power.
o Cooling System Failures: Overheating can damage hardware.
Redundant cooling systems and regular maintenance are crucial
for data center operations.
6. Security Breaches:
o Malware Attacks: Viruses, worms, and ransomware can disrupt
or destroy data. Anti-malware software and regular updates are
essential defenses.
o Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks: Overloading a system with
traffic can make it unavailable. DoS protection services and rate
limiting can help mitigate these attacks.
o Data Breaches: Unauthorized access to sensitive data can lead to
data theft or loss. Strong encryption, access controls, and regular
security audits are vital.
Types of Storage
1. Primary Storage (Main Memory):
o RAM: Volatile memory used for temporary storage while a
computer is running. It provides fast access to data for active
processes but loses data when powered off.
o Cache Memory: A smaller, faster type of volatile memory that
stores copies of frequently accessed data from the main memory,
enhancing overall system performance.
2. Secondary Storage:
o Hard Disk Drives (HDD): Non-volatile storage devices that use
spinning disks to store data. They offer large storage capacities at
relatively low costs but are slower than SSDs.
o Solid State Drives (SSD): Non-volatile storage devices that use
flash memory to store data. They provide faster data access speeds
than HDDs but are typically more expensive.
3. Tertiary Storage:
o Magnetic Tapes: Used for archival storage, magnetic tapes
provide a cost-effective solution for long-term data retention but
have slower access times.
o Optical Discs