4 - Z

bl S

NASA Technical Memorandum 100874

Heat Trans Aerospace Propulsion

Robert J. Simoneau, Robert C. Hmdricks,

and Herbert J. Gladden
Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio
4B1Sd-Tfl-10087q) T R B B S I E 6 I & AEBfjSPACg
Psopuzsrcg (BBSA) 48 N88-23957
CSCL 201)

Unclaz
63/34 Q1469S2

Plenary lecture prepared for the

National Heat Transfer Conference
cosponsored by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the Ameri
*
Institute of Chemical Engineers, and the American Nuclear Society
Houston, Texas, July 24-27, 1988
 HEAT TRANSFER I N AEROSPACE PROPULSION

Robert J. Simoneau, Robert C. Hendricks, and H e r b e r t J. Gladden

N a t i o n a l A e r o n a u t i c s and Space Admi n i s t r a t i o n
Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, O h i o 441 35

SUMMARY

T h i s paper p r e s e n t s an o v e r v i e w o f h e a t t r a n s f e r r e l a t e d r e s e a r c h i n sup-
p o r t o f aerospace p r o p u l s i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y as seen from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e
NASA Lewis Research Center. For t h i s paper, aerospace p r o p u l s i o n i s d e f i n e d
t o cover t h e f u l l spectrum from c o n v e n t i o n a l a i r c r a f t power p l a n t s t h r o u g h t h e
Aerospace Plane t o space p r o p u l s i o n . The c o n v e n t i o n a l s u b s o n i c l s u p e r s o n i c
a i r c r a f t arena, whether commercial o r m i l i t a r y , r e l i e s on t h e t u r b i n e engine.
r-l
A key c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t u r b i n e engines i s t h a t t h e y i n v o l v e f u n d a m e n t a l l y
I
m unsteady f l o w s which must be p r o p e r l y t r e a t e d . Space p r o p u l s i o n i s charac-
2 t e r i z e d by v e r y demanding performance r e q u i r e m e n t s which f r e q u e n t l y push sys-
*I tems t o t h e i r l i m i t s and demand v e r y t a i l o r e d d e s i g n s . The h y p e r s o n i c 1
transatmospheric f l i g h t p r o p u l s i o n systems a r e s u b j e c t t o v e r y severe heat
loads and t h e engine and a i r f r a m e a r e t r u l y one e n t i t y . The impact o f t h e spe-
c i a l demands of each of these aerospace p r o p u l s i o n systems on heat t r a n s f e r
w i l l be e x p l o r e d i n t h i s paper.

INTRODUCTION

Aerospace p r o p u l s i o n p r e s e n t s a demanding c h a l l e n g e t o t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r
e n g i n e e r . The d e s i g n e r seeks t o t r a n s f o r m t h e chemical energy o f t h e f u e l i n t o
t h e u s e f u l work of p r o p u l s i v e t h r u s t a t maximum e f f e c t i v e n e s s . To do t h i s t h e
p r o p u l s i o n system must be o p e r a t e d a t v e r y h i g h temperatures and p r e s s u r e s w i t h
v e r y few p a r a s i t i c l o s s e s , a l l c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t o as small a package as p o s s i b l e
t o minimize weight. These requirements a r e f r e q u e n t l y i n c o n f l i c t and t h e con-
f l i c t o f t e n c e n t e r s around t h e a b i l i t y t o p r o t e c t t h e p r o p u l s i o n s u r f a c e s f r o m
t h i s h o s t i l e thermal environment.

One approach, b e i n g a g g r e s s i v e l y pursued t o d a y on a n a t i o n a l s c a l e , i s t o

develop m a t e r i a l s capable of w i t h s t a n d i n g these h o s t i l e environments and o f f e r
an e s s e n t i a l l y a d i a b a t i c s u r f a c e t h a t w i l l n o t m e l t o r l o s e i t s s t r u c t u r a l
i n t e g r i t y . F a i l i n g t h i s , t h e o t h e r approach i s t o a c t i v e l y c o o l t h e exposed
surfaces. Both o f these r e q u i r e t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r engineer, a l t h o u g h t h e
cooled system i s p r o b a b l y t h e more demanding and i s a major a c t i v i t y i n t o d a y ' s
p r o p u l s i o n system designs.

There a r e numerous f i g u r e s o f m e r i t f o r t h e performance o f an aerospace

p r o p u l s i o n system, depending on t h e m i s s i o n o f t h e f l i g h t system: s p e c i f i c f u e l
consumption (SFC); t h r u s t - t o - w e i g h t r a t i o (TIN); and s p e c i f i c impulse ( I s p ) , t o
name a few. S p e c i f i c impulse, which i s t h e r a t i o o f t h e t h r u s t t o t h e weight
( n o t mass) f l o w r a t e o f t h e p r o p e l l a n t s , i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l i n d e c i d i n g t h e
engine requirements f o r a m i s s i o n s i n c e i t r e l a t e s t h e engine and p r o p e l l a n t s
t o t h e t o t a l system t o be p r o p e l l e d . An example o f a h y p o t h e t i c a l E a r t h - t o -
o r b i t m i s s i o n , taken f r o m c h a r t s prepared by t h e A i r Force W r i g h t A e r o n a u t i c a l
Labs (AFWAL) i s shown i n f i g u r e 1, i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e range o f I s p needed t o do
t h e m i s s i o n . A companion f i g u r e 2 shows t h e engine s e l e c t i o n s a v a i l a b l e f o r
such a m i s s i o n u s i n g e i t h e r hydrogen o r hydrocarbon f u e l s . Another i n t e r e s t i n g
l o o k a t engine s e l e c t i o n i s shown i n f i g u r e 3 . N o t i c e t h a t one o f t h e bounda-
r i e s i s heat t r a n s f e r ; a l i m i t d e s i g n e r s a r e c o n s t a n t l y s t r i v i n g t o move, i n
o r d e r t o expand an e n g i n e ' s o p e r a t i n g c o r r i d o r .

Charts such as these show t h a t aerospace p r o p u l s i o n has v e r y complex

requirements, which demand a wide v a r i e t y o f v e r y h i g h performance engines.
Thus, f o r purposes of t h i s paper aerospace p r o p u l s i o n i s d e f i n e d i n i t s broad-
e s t c o n t e x t , r a n g i n g from t h e p r o p u l s i o n o f subsonic and supersonic a i r c r a f t
through p r o p e l l i n g v e h i c l e s t o t h e deep r e g i o n s o f space.

The paper w i l l b e g i n by examining some i n t e r e s t i n g aspects o f c o n v e n t i o n a l

subsonic1supersonic a i r c r a f t p r o p u l s i o n . I t w i l l move t h e n t o t h e o t h e r end o f
t h e spectrum t o space p r o p u l s i o n . The f i n a l s e c t i o n w i l l b r i d g e t h e gap f r o m
a i r c r a f t t o space i n t r u e "aerospace" p r o p u l s i o n - t r a n s a t m o s p h e r i c f l i g h t p r o -
p u l s i o n . Such a v a s t t e r r i t o r y by n e c e s s i t y r e q u i r e s some n a r r o w i n g . Thus, i t
i s t h e a u t h o r s ' i n t e n t i o n t o s e l e c t a few l i m i t e d , b u t h o p e f u l l y i n t e r e s t i n g ,
i n s i g h t s t o t h e type of h e a t t r a n s f e r problems f a c i n g d e s i g n e r s today i n aero-
space p r o p u l s i o n . T h i s paper i s n o t i n t e n d e d t o be an i n - d e p t h s t a t e - o f - a r t
r e v i e w on any one s u b j e c t . I n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e assembling t h e m a t e r i a l t h e
a u t h o r s have drawn on t h e work of NASA and NASA c o n t r a c t o r s , w i t h supplements
f r o m t h e general l i t e r a t u r e where necessary t o make a p o i n t . I n d o i n g t h i s ,
t h e authors wish t o acknowledge i n advance t h e v e r y s i z a b l e r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t y
i n aerospace p r o p u l s i o n h e a t t r a n s f e r , even though o n l y a small p a r t o f i t i s
referenced.

SUBSONICISUPERSONIC PROPULSION

The p r o p u l s i o n system f o r subsonic and low end (Mach 2 t o 4) supersonic

f l i g h t i s the t u r b i n e engine, now e n t e r i n g i t s second h a l f c e n t u r y . I n b o t h
t h e c i v i l and m i l i t a r y arenas t h e engine d e s i g n e r s have s e t t h e i r s i g h t s on
a c h i e v i n g a major advancement i n t u r b i n e engine t e c h n o l o g y by t h e t u r n o f t h e
c e n t u r y . An example i n t h e commercial arena, f o c u s i n g on v e r y h i g h p r o p u l s i o n
e f f i c i e n c y , i s an u l t r a - h i g h bypass r a t i o engine shown i n f i g u r e 4, b a s i c a l l y a
shrouded turboprop. I n t h e m i l i t a r y arena t h e f o c u s i s on v e r y h i g h perform-
ance and v e r y l i g h t w e i g h t , as f o r example shown i n f i g u r e 5. A common f e a t u r e ,
which i s of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t t o h e a t t r a n s f e r e n g i n e e r s , i s t h a t t h e core
o f the engine - t h e h o t s e c t i o n - w i l l be o p e r a t e d a t v e r y h i g h temperatures,
approaching s t o i c h i o m e t r i c .

The h o t s e c t i o n i n c l u d e s : t h e combustor, t h e t u r b i n e , and t h e exhaust

nozzles, and a l s o some a l l i e d components. They a l l o f f e r s p e c i a l h e a t t r a n s f e r
c h a l l e n g e s . However, t h e t u r b i n e i s e s p e c i a l l y demanding, so we w i l l concen-
t r a t e on i t . The t e c h n i c a l c h a l l e n g e s a r e many. They i n c l u d e : t h e proper
t r e a t m e n t o f t i m e dependency; t u r b u l e n c e ( c l o s u r e ) modeling; f i l m c o o l i n g ; com-
p l e x i n t e r n a l passages; r o t a t i o n a l e f f e c t s ; and a l s o new m a t e r i a l s and thermal d

s t r e s s a n a l y s i s . We w i l l e x p l o r e t h e f i r s t t o p i c i n some depth, a l b e i t l i m -
i t e d , and touch on t h e o t h e r s .

A c e n t r a l f a c t t o be addressed i n t u r b i n e s i s t h a t t h e f l o w i n them i s
f u n d a m e n t a l l y unsteady. Most f l u i d mechanics and h e a t t r a n s f e r analyses
d i r e c t e d a t t u r b i n e s today a r e steady f l o w analyses. T h i s i s okay as l o n g as
we understand t h a t " s t e a d y " r e a l l y means t i m e average and t h a t t h e a v e r a g i n g
must be p r o p e r l y done.

B e f o r e p u r s u i n g t h i s f u r t h e r , l e t us examine some o f t h i s unsteady flow.

Laser anemometry measurements by Suder e t a l . (1987) and Hathaway e t a l . (1987)
i n t h e wake o f a compressor r o t o r a r e shown i n f i g u r e 6 and d i s p l a y t h e " t u r b u -
l e n t " k i n e t i c energy d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e downstream s t a t o r passage. The
u n s t e a d i n e s s i n t h i s f l o w has s e v e r a l components. One i s t h e change i n mean
v e l o c i t y due t o t h e p a s s i n g a i r f o i l s . T h i s has been removed f r o m f i g u r e 6 by
ensemble a v e r a g i n g . The r e m a i n i n g d i s t u r b a n c e s a r e l a b e l l e d " u n r e s o l v e d
u n s t e a d i n e s s " by Hathaway s i n c e t h e y c o n t a i n b o t h c l a s s i c a l s t o c h a s t i c t u r b u -
l e n c e c o n v e c t i n g t h r o u g h t h e machine and v o r t e x shedding f r o m t h e p a s s i n g
b l a d e s . These cannot be removed f r o m t h i s d a t a , because t h e y o c c u r a t a f r e -
quency d i f f e r e n t t h a n t h e b l a d e p a s s i n g f r e q u e n c y . By a d i f f e r e n t a n a l y s i s o f
s i m i l a r d a t a Hathaway e t a l . (1986) e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t u r b o m a c h i n e r y a i r f o i l s
have shed v o r t i c e s d e s p i t e t h e i r v e r y h i g h Reynolds numbers and near s o n i c
v e l o c i t i e s . Another v i e w o f t u r b o m a c h i n e r y u n s t e a d i n e s s has been p r o v i d e d by
Sharma (1983) i n t h e wake o f a t u r b i n e r o t o r . A c o m p u t a t i o n a l v i e w o f f l o w
u n s t e a d i n e s s i s p r o v i d e d b y Jorgenson and Chima (19881, and shown i n f i g u r e 7
f o r t h e Space S h u t t l e Main Engine (SSME) f u e l t u r b i n e . The v a r i a b l e d a r k
areas near t h e f r o n t o f t h e r o t o r b l a d e s r e p r e s e n t unsteady v e l o c i t i e s o r p r e s -
sure f o r c e s on these b l a d e s as t h e y pass t h r o u g h t h e upstream s t a t o r wakes.

What does a l l t h i s mean f o r h e a t t r a n s f e r ? The q u e s t i o n can p r o b a b l y be

b e s t answered by l o o k i n g a t some r e m a r k a b l e work b e i n g performed b y Dunn
(1982, 1988). Dunn's f a c i l i t y i s a shock t u n n e l i n which a f u l l t u r b i n e stage
can be o p e r a t e d a t f u l l y s c a l e d c o n d i t i o n s f o r a p e r i o d o f 30 ms. F i g u r e 8
shows a t u r b i n e i n s t r u m e n t e d w i t h v e r y h i g h response (100 kHz) t h i n f i l m h e a t
f l u x gages and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g h e a t f l u x d a t a on t h e s u c t i o n s i d e o f t h e
b l a d e f o r one s t a t o r vane p a s s i n g e v e n t , which l a s t e d f o r 97 p s . N o t i c e t h a t
t h e h e a t f l u x jumps f r o m l a m i n a r t o t u r b u l e n t l e v e l s d u r i n g e v e r y c y c l e . Data
l i k e these have convinced r e s e a r c h e r s t h a t t h e y w i l l e v e n t u a l l y need f u l l f l o w
f i e l d and h e a t t r a n s f e r d a t a t a k e n i n t h e same f a c i l i t y . T h i s i s a l m o s t impos-
s i b l e i n t h e shock t u n n e l . Blowdown r i g s such as d e s c r i b e d b y G u e r n e t t e (1988)
o f f e r a p o s s i b i l i t y . Another approach b y O I B r i e n (1986, 1988a, 1988b) i s t o
employ a s i m u l a t e d t u r b i n e r o t o r wake r i g . Data f r o m these experiments a r e
shown i n f i g u r e 9. By combining t h e f l o w f i e l d and h e a t f l u x i n f o r m a t i o n and
employing t h e w i d e l y used Lowery and Vachon (1975) c o r r e l a t i o n f o r t h e e f f e c t
of f r e e - s t r e a m t u r b u l e n c e on h e a t t r a n s f e r t o t h e s t a g n a t i o n r e g i o n o f a c i r c u -
l a r c y l i n d e r , one f i n d s s u r p r i s i n g l y good agreement f o r t h e e f f e c t o f t h e r o t o r
wake on t h e downstream s t a t o r s t a g n a t i o n h e a t t r a n s f e r . I t should be n o t e d
t h a t t h i s r e s u l t i s an average r e s u l t , b u t t h a t t h e average i s an ensemble
based on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f l o w and t h e b l a d e p a s s i n g u n s t e a d i n e s s
has been r e t a i n e d .

O t h e r averages a r e even more g l o b a l , y e t t h e y a r e r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e v a r i -

e t y o f u n s t e a d i n e s s i n t h e f l o w . An example i s h e a t t r a n s f e r d a t a b y D r i n g e t
a l . (1986) and B l a i r e t a l . (1988) a c q u i r e d i n a l a r g e low speed t u r b i n e . The
d a t a , shown i n f i g u r e 10, i n d i c a t e a v e r y s u b s t a n t i a l e f f e c t o f i n l e t t u r b u -
l e n c e on t h e f i r s t vane row. The r o t o r , s u b j e c t e d t o t h e s t a t o r wakes, shows
v e r y h i g h t r a n s f e r , b u t t h e r e s i d u a l e f f e c t s o f t h e i n l e t t u r b u l e n c e seem t o
be much l e s s d r a m a t i c . Data i n t h e second vane row, downstream o f t h e f i r s t
stage, n o t shown h e r e i n , e x h i b i t e d a h i g h degree t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l i t y . T h i s
may be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e v o r t i c a l f l o w s seen b y Sharma (1983) i n t h e same
machine. Measurements of t h e time-averaged t o t a l p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n e x i t -
i n g t h e f i r s t stage r o t o r of t h i s same t u r b i n e have been made by J o s l y n and
D r i n g (1988) and a r e shown i n f i g u r e I l ( a > . A v e r y complex f l o w passage s t r u c -
t u r e can be seen. Working c l o s e l y w i t h these d a t a Man Mohan Rai a t NASA Ames
has attempted t o c a l c u l a t e these f l o w s w i t h a t i m e a c c u r a t e three-dimensional
v i s c o u s r o t o r - s t a t o r i n t e r a c t i o n code, Rai (1987). The r e s u l t s o f R a i l s c a l c u -
l a t i o n s , shown i n f i g u r e I l ( b > , a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h e data. Work i s c o n t i n - B
u i n g t o r e f i n e t h e g r i d and b l a d e l v a n e count, t u r b u l e n c e modeling, a v e r a g i n g
techniques, and t r e a t m e n t o f t h e i n l e t c o n d i t i o n s .

As an a s i d e , one should n o t e t h a t much o f what i s seen i n t h e above exper-

i m e n t a l and a n a l y t i c a l f i g u r e s would n o t be p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t v e r y s o p h i s t i c a t e d
computer g r a p h i c s . The c u r r e n t a b i l i t y t o measure and compute i s so g r e a t t h a t
i t i s r a p i d l y o u t s t r i p p i n g o u r a b i l i t y t o absorb and comprehend t h e informa-
t i o n . G r a p h i c ' s and a n i m a t i o n , as seen above, a l l o w i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e d a t a
never seen b e f o r e . I t i s an a r e a r e q u i r i n g a t t e n t i o n . A t t h e same t i m e i t i s
an area r e q u i r i n g c a r e . The n i c e r i t l o o k s t h e more be1 i e v a b l e i t i s . We
must never f o r g e t t h a t t h e r e s u l t i s o n l y good i f i t p r o p e r l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e
p h y s i c s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t computer g r a p h i c s have
moved beyond n i c e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t o a v a l i d t o o l f o r a i d i n g t h e understanding
o f the physics.

A l l o f t h i s suggests a s t r o n g need f o r a r a t i o n a l approach f o r r e l a t i n g

t h e time r e s o l v e d i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e t i m e average. One such methodology i s
p r o v i d e d by Adamczyk (1985). Adamczyk performed a sequence o f a v e r a g i n g pro-
cesses on t h e Navier-Stokes e q u a t i o n s , based on t h e unsteady p h y s i c s i n a t u r -
bomachine. He c a l l s t h i s t h e average passage method. Three success averages
f o r random unsteadiness, p e r i o d i c unsteadiness, and unequal b l a d e count f r o m
row t o row y i e l d s a s e t of e q u a t i o n s which r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a b l e l e s s computer
power t o s o l v e , b u t a l s o i n t r o d u c e many new unknowns which must be determined
i n some o t h e r way.

T h i s o t h e r way i s what Adamczyk c a l l s " c l o s u r e " modeling. This i s n o t t o

be confused w i t h c l a s s i c a l t u r b u l e n c e modeling, a l t h o u g h t h e f o r m o f t h e c l o -
sure terms l o o k s v e r y s i m i l a r t o t u r b u l e n c e terms and, i n f a c t , t h e y i n c l u d e
s t o c h a s t i c t u r b u l e n c e as one component. While t h i s method r e q u i r e s v e r y com-
p l e x p h y s i c a l modeling, i t o f f e r s a sound r a t i o n a l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t i m e
averages and a l l o w s a s y s t e m a t i c e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e importance o f t h e v a r i o u s
unsteady terms. An example o f a m u l t i s t a g e computation w i t h t h i s method i s
shown i n f i g u r e 12, t h e t o t a l temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e SSME f u e l pump
t u r b i n e . Of p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r heat t r a n s f e r , one can see a v e r y
s t r o n g m i x i n g and r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l t o t a l temperature p r o f i l e .
T h i s i s t h e " f r e e - s t r e a m " boundary c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e c o n v e c t i v e heat t r a n s f e r
and, if we cannot g e t t h a t r i g h t , we s u r e l y w i l l n o t g e t t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r
right.

The thoughts expressed i n t h i s s e c t i o n can b e s t be summarized by l o o k i n g

a t a c h a r t ( f i g . 13) o f t h e h i e r a r c h y o f experimental and computational t o o l s
a t o u r d i s p o s a l today. As one c l i m b s t h e s t a i r s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 13, one
g a i n s i n c r e a s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and d e t a i l a t t h e expense o f i n c r e a s e d computa-
t i o n a l and experimental c o m p l e x i t y , t i m e and money. Going down t h e s t a i r s
y i e l d s s i m p l i c i t y and t h e broader p i c t u r e (which i s what t h e d e s i g n e r r e a l l y
wants and needs) a t t h e expense o f l o s s o f i n f o r m a t i o n which must be g o t t e n
elsewhere. The c h a l l e n g e i s balance and t h e key i s a r a t i o n a l methodology
which a l l o w s us t o move from b l o c k t o b l o c k i n t e l l i g e n t l y . The shaded areas
a r e t h e ones r e c e i v i n g t h e most a t t e n t i o n today.

As was p o i n t e d o u t e a r l i e r , t h e a u t h o r s i n t e n d e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e
unsteady n a t u r e of t h e t u r b i n e and t h e t i m e a v e r a g i n g ideas; however, t h e r e a r e
many o t h e r i m p o r t a n t heat t r a n s f e r problems i n t u r b i n e s and t h e y deserve some
mention.

F i r s t , n o t a l l i m p o r t a n t heat t r a n s f e r areas a r e s u b j e c t t o unsteady

e x t e r n a l f l o w s , a l t h o u g h t h e y may c o n t a i n embedded unsteadiness, such as sepa-
r a t i o n and t u r b u l e n c e . One such example i s t h e endwall r e g i o n i n t h e f i r s t
vane row, which sees t h e v e r y h o t gases from t h e combustor. T u r b i n e endwall
r e g i o n s show v e r y complex h e a t t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n s , as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 14.
These d a t a were a c q u i r e d by Hippensteele and R u s s e l l (1988), u s i n g l i q u i d c r y s -
t a l technology i n a l a r g e p l e x i g l a s s l i n e a r cascade. F i g u r e 14(a) i s t h e
a c t u a l l i q u i d c r y s t a l i s o t h e r m ( a l s o i s o - h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t ) and f i g -
u r e 14(b> i s a c o l o r g r a p h i c composite of t h e d a t a . These c o n t o u r s suggest
t h a t t h e phenomenon i s h i g h l y three-dimensional and w i l l r e q u i r e a f u l l t h r e e -
dimensional a n a l y s i s . These d a t a and r e c e n t d a t a by Boyle and R u s s e l l (1988)
show t h a t t h e shape of these contours i s s t r o n g l y dependent on Reynolds number,
which f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e s t h e problem. F u l l three-dimensional Navier-Stokes
codes, such as one b y Chima (1988), i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 15 a r e under develop-
ment i n many p l a c e s . They show good promise f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g these f l o w s , b u t
t o d a t e v e r y few o f them c a l c u l a t e heat t r a n s f e r w i t h much accuracy, i f a t a l l .

Although f u l l c l o s u r e modeling i n r o t a t i n g machines r e q u i r e s a v e r a g i n g i n

several t i m e frames, t h e r e i s s t i l l an i m p o r t a n t r o l e f o r " t u r b u l e n c e modeling"
as most people understand i t . I n o r d e r t o p r o p e r l y e v a l u a t e w a l l r e l a t e d phe-
nomena, e i t h e r heat t r a n s f e r o r s k i n f r i c t i o n , t h e analyses must have a p r o p e r
a c c o u n t i n g f o r t u r b u l e n c e e f f e c t s . The f l o w s i n p r o p u l s i o n systems a r e s u b j e c t
t o h i g h l e v e l s o f f r e e - s t r e a m t u r b u l e n c e and a r e f r e q u e n t l y a t Reynolds numbers
i n t h e l a m i n a r - t u r b u l e n t t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n . Thus, t u r b u l e n c e and t r a n s i t i o n
modeling go hand i n hand i n t u r b i n e h e a t t r a n s f e r . The t r a n s i t i o n a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h such f l o w s i s l a r g e l y n o n l i n e a r and i s f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o as t h e
"bypass" mode ( i . e . , bypassing l i n e a r s t a b i l i t y ) . The mechanism o f "bypass"
t r a n s i t i o n i s n o t w e l l understood, making t h e use of t u r b u l e n c e models i n t h i s
r e g i o n an educated guess.

Turbulence models f o r d e s c r i b i n g t r a n s i t i o n and used t o p r e d i c t t u r b i n e

blade h e a t t r a n s f e r and f r i c t i o n f a c t o r have i n c l u d e d zero-equation ( m i x i n g
l e n g t h ) , one-equation ( k i n e t i c energy e q u a t i o n and a l g e b r a i c l e n g t h s c a l e ) and
two-equation ( k - e e q u a t i o n s ) . Two-equation models do a good j o b o f s i m u l a t -
i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n caused by t h e t r a n s p o r t o f t u r b u l e n c e f r o m t h e f r e e stream
i n t o t h e boundary l a y e r . Rodi and Scheuerer (1985) and Schmidt and Patankar
(1987) a r e examples o f t h e i r use. T y p i c a l o f these analyses, t h e y do v e r y w e l l
a g a i n s t standard benchmark t e s t d a t a such as shown i n f i g u r e 16(a), u s i n g t h e
d a t a o f B l a i r (1983). However, as soon one moves c l o s e t o t h e t u r b i n e case,
such as shown i n f i g u r e 16(b), u s i n g t h e d a t a o f H y l t o n e t a l . (1983>, d i s c r e p -
ancies b e g i n t o appear. I n a d d i t i o n t o a g e n e r a l l a c k o f knowledge o f bypass
t r a n s i t i o n , t h e r e i s a l s o a l a c k o f s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e e f f e c t o f
c u r v a t u r e , roughness, p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t , e t c . To produce t h e r e s u l t s shown i n
f i g u r e 16, Schmidt and Patankar (1987) determined t h a t a m o d i f i c a t i o n was
r e q u i r e d i n t h e k e q u a t i o n f o r t h e t u r b u l e n t p r o d u c t i o n term v t ( a u l a y ) 2 .
T h i s was m o d i f i e d by a model u s i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n s t a n t s . The p r o d u c t i o n o f
t u r b u l e n c e i n t r a n s i t i o n i s a key unknown. The two-equation model i s sensi-
t i v e t o t h e i n i t i a l s t a r t i n g p r o f i l e s ( k and e l . A l l t h i s suggests t h a t
two-equation models "mimic" a t r a n s i t i o n process; t h e y do n o t c o n t a i n t h e
physics.

V a n c o i l l i e and D i c k (1988) s t a t e t h a t t h e reason c o n v e n t i o n a l t u r b u l e n c e

models f a i l t o g i v e a good d e s c r i p t i o n of t r a n s i t i o n a l boundary l a y e r s i s t h a t
i n t e r m i t t e n t f l o w cannot be modeled by g l o b a l t i m e averages. They use condi-
t i o n e d c o n t i n u i t y , momentum, and t u r b u l e n c e e q u a t i o n s t o d e s c r i b e t h e i n t e r m i t -
t e n t f l o w i n t r a n s i t i o n . The t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n i s w e l l p r e d i c t e d ; however, a
knowledge o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n l e n g t h i s r e q u i r e d . There i s a need t o c o n t i n u e
t h e search f o r t u r b u l e n c e models more a p p l i c a b l e t o bypass t r a n s i t i o n f o r use
i n p r e d i c t i v e codes.

An area o f s p e c i a l concern i n t u r b i n e h o t s e c t i o n h e a t t r a n s f e r i s f i l m
cooling. Film cooling i s not confined t o turbines. I t i s a l s o important i n
combustors, augmentors, and n o z z l e s . F i l m c o o l i n g i s t h e p r i m a r y method
whereby t u r b i n e engine h o t s e c t i o n p a r t s a r e p r o t e c t e d from t h e h o s t i l e thermal
environment. Every m a n u f a c t u r e r has an a g g r e s s i v e program i n t h i s area. F i l m
c o o l i n g d e s i g n methods a r e b u i l t l a r g e l y on an e m p i r i c a l base w i t h c o r r e l a t i o n s
based l a r g e l y on v e r y s p e c i f i c experiments f o r b o t h h o l e shape and p o s i t i o n
p a t t e r n . This i s n o t t o say t h a t t h e r e a r e n o t any v e r y f i n e general d a t a s e t s
i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e ; t h e r e a r e . One r a t h e r e x t e n s i v e , and q u i t e r e a l i s t i c , s e t
was generated by A l l i s o n Gas T u r b i n e under t h e NASA HOST P r o j e c t . (See Gladden
and Simoneau (19881 f o r a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e HOST T u r b i n e .Heat T r a n s f e r pro-
gram.) A sample o f these d a t a , r e p o r t e d b y H y l t o n e t a l . (1983, 19881, i s
shown i n f i g u r e 17. The f i g u r e shows a p r o g r e s s i o n f r o m no f i l m c o o l i n g , t o
c o o l i n g i n t h e l e a d i n g edge r e g i o n o n l y , t o , f i n a l l y , f i l m c o o l i n g o v e r a major
p a r t o f the a i r f o i l . I t i s c l e a r f r o m these t h a t t o g e t optimum e f f e c t
r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e t a i l o r i n g , something h a r d t o do a p r i o r i f r o m a n a l y s i s .
Some a n a l y t i c progress has been made by m o d i f y i n g boundary-layer codes, as i s
a l s o shown on f i g u r e 17, b u t these a r e h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e t o e x p e r i m e n t a l i n p u t .
This i s a c r i t i c a l heat t r a n s f e r area t h a t c r i e s o u t f o r a s o l i d a n a l y t i c
base. There a r e , o f course, many f i n e e f f o r t s a t e s t a b l i s h i n g a s o l i d base.
The work o f Simon e t a l . (1985, 1986) i s b u t one example. F i l m c o o l i n g i s
e s p e c i a l l y unique f r o m an a n a l y t i c p e r s p e c t i v e . I t i s a h i g h l y l o c a l i z e d phe-
nomenon t h a t must be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a g l o b a l f l o w code, t h a t a l r e a d y has more
than i t can handle. I t i s b o t h an i n t e r n a l - a n d e x t e r n a l f l o w problem, r e l a t i v e
t o t h e b l a d e . The c o o l a n t f l o w a f f e c t s n o t o n l y h e a t t r a n s f e r b u t a l s o t h e
aerodynamic and thermodynamic performance o f t h e machine. The a b i l i t y t o e f f i -
c i e n t l y and e f f e c t i v e l y f i l m c o o l t u r b i n e blades c o n t i n u e s t o be an i m p o r t a n t
technology i n t h e push t o i n c r e a s e engine performance.

While space does n o t a l l o w any in-depth t r e a t m e n t o f heat t r a n s f e r i n t h e

i n t e r n a l passages o f t u r b i n e a i r f o i l s , a few remarks a r e i n o r d e r . F i r s t , t h e
f l o w and heat t r a n s f e r i s v e r y complex. A modern t u r b i n e a i r f o i l has complex
s e r p e n t i n e f l o w passages w i t h r i b s on t h e w a l l s , impingement j e t s , p i n f i n s ,
and o f course, f i l m c o o l i n g . There u s u a l l y s e v e r a l f l o w s p l i t s w i t h i n t h e a i r -
f o i l , as w e l l as t h e f l o w outward by f i l m c o o l i n g . The passages a r e a l l s h o r t
and thus can be c o n s i d e r e d e n t r a n c e r e g i o n s . They a r e s u b j e c t t o r o t a t i o n and,
consequently, s t r o n g buoyancy f o r c e s and c o r i o l i s f o r c e s . The s t a t e - o f - t h e -
a r t , as w i t h f i l m c o o l i n g , i s a heavy e m p i r i c a l base b u i l t on s p e c i f i c c o n f i g u -
r a t i o n s unique and p r o p r i e t a r y t o t h e engine manufacturers. The f l o w s a r e
f u n d a m e n t a l l y e l l i p t i c and thus r e q u i r e v e r y l a r g e computer memories t o deal
w i t h these complex shapes. The a r e a o f t u r b i n e i n t e r n a l passage h e a t t r a n s f e r
r e l i e s h e a v i l y on c o r r e l a t i o n s and w i l l f o r sometime t o come. One p a r t i c u l a r l y
n i c e g e n e r i c e f f o r t , a g a i n done under HOST, (see Gladden and Simoneau ( 1 9 8 8 > > ,
i s r e s e a r c h on i n t e r n a l passages w i t h and w i t h o u t t u r b u l a t i n g r i b s and s u b j e c t
t o r o t a t i o n , which was done a t P r a t t & W h i t n e y l U n i t e d Technologies Research
Center and i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 18. The c o m p l e x i t y i s o b v i o u s . P a r t i c u -
l a r l y remarkable i s t h e v a r i a t i o n f r o m one s u r f a c e t o t h e o t h e r i n t h e same
passage. The heat t r a n s f e r can go f r o m an augmentation o f a f a c t o r o f t h r e e on
one w a l l t o no augmentation on t h e o p p o s i t e w a l l . Data and c o r r e l a t i o n s such
as these a r e v e r y v a l u a b l e i n t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r design.

Because o u r heat t r a n s f e r a n a l y s i s c a p a b i l i t y i s s t i l l q u i t e i m p e r f e c t and

h e a v i l y r e l i a n t on c o r r e l a t i o n and e m p i r i c a l d a t a , e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n remains v e r y
i m p o r t a n t . Most o f t h e above r e s u l t s a r e f r o m l a b o r a t o r y s i m u l a t i o n s , a l b e i t
sometimes v e r y r e a l i s t i c . Designers a r e always seeking d a t a f r o m " r e a l engine"
environments. For h e a t t r a n s f e r t h i s i s q u i t e a c h a l l e n g e . I t was a major
a c t i v i t y under HOST, as d e s c r i b e d by Englund and Seasholtz (1988). Developing
such i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and, then, s u c c e s s f u l l y u s i n g i t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o
e s t a b l i s h i n g a r e l i a b l e l i n k between t h e l a b o r a t o r y and t h e r e a l w o r l d . One
such example i s r e p o r t e d by Gladden and P r o c t o r (1985) and shown i n f i g u r e 19.
I n a r e a l engine environment cascade t h e f u e l f l o w t o t h e combustor was c y c l e d
over a 200 K v a r i a t i o n a t a 1500 K mean. T h i s f l u c t u a t i o n was measured w i t h a
dual element dynamic gas temperature probe developed by Elmore e t a l . (1984)
f o r HOST. The r e s u l t i n g i n f l u e n c e on t h e t u r b i n e vane was measured w i t h t h i n
f i l m thermocouples and t r a n s l a t e d i n t o h e a t f l u x by a dynamic c o n d u c t i o n analy-
s i s . The u n c e r t a i n t y bands a r e q u i t e h i g h a t t h i s p o i n t b u t t h e system shows
r e a l promise and r e s e a r c h i s c o n t i n u i n g . Another example a r e r e a l t i m e , a c t u a l
engine t u r b i n e blade temperatures measured by P r a t t & Whitney ( P r z i r e m b e l
(1988)) w i t h a scanning i n f e r o m e t e r and computer system and shown i n f i g u r e 20.
These d a t a a r e r a t e d a c c u r a t e t o 10 K i n an engine o p e r a t i n g n o m i n a l l y a t
1700 K.

A v e r y s p e c i a l area, looming on t h e immediate h o r i z o n f o r t u r b i n e engine

h o t s e c t i o n s , i s t h e c h a l l e n g e o f new m a t e r i a l s - t h e metal m a t r i x and ceramic
m a t r i x composites. The composites o f f e r t h e h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e s o f l i g h t
w e i g h t , h i g h s t r e n g t h , and, e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e h o t s e c t i o n , h i g h e r
m e l t i n g p o i n t s . We r e a l l y have j u s t begun t o t h i n k o f t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r prob-
lems. One example w i l l be discussed i n t h e s e c t i o n on HYPERSONICS. For now
j u s t a couple o f remarks a r e i n o r d e r . The e a r l y g r e a t hope was uncooled
ceramic m a t r i x composite o r c a r b o n l c a r b o n h o t p a r t s . The q u e s t i o n becomes what
i f these new m a t e r i a l s need t o be a c t i v e l y cooled? What do we know o f t h e h e a t
t r a n s f e r o f composites? For example, a good composite has an " i m p e r f e c t " bond
between t h e f i b e r and t h e m a t r i x . The bond must be good enough t o t r a n s f e r t h e
l o a d among t h e f i b e r s y e t so n o t good t h a t i t breaks t h e f i b e r s . The thermo-
p h y s i c a l b e h a v i o r o f such a system i s p r e s e n t l y unknown. The heat t r a n s f e r o f
h i g h temperature composites i s a new h o r i z o n .

I n summary, t h e t u r b i n e engine remains t h e backbone o f subsonic/supersonic

flight. I n o r d e r t o achieve i t s maximum p o t e n t i a l , d e s i g n e r s a r e pushing t h e
h o t s e c t i o n t o h i g h e r and h i g h e r temperatures - approaching s t o i c h i o m e t r i c .
T h i s r e p r e s e n t s a major c h a l l e n g e t o h e a t t r a n s f e r e n g i n e e r s . The computa-
t i o n a l and experimental t o o l s a v a i l a b l e t o d a y a r e t r u l y i m p r e s s i v e . The a b i l -
i t y t o compute f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e engine gas p a t h i s growing s t e a d i l y ; however,
t h e a b i l i t y t o compute t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r - a w a l l phenomenon - i s n o t so
impressive. Turbulence modeling i n these environments has a l o n g way t o go.
Furthermore, t h e key h e a t t r a n s f e r component, t h e t u r b i n e , i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y
unsteady and t h e q u e s t i o n s of t i m e r e s o l u t i o n , t i m e a v e r a g i n g and t h e r e s u l t -
i n g c l o s u r e modeling need much work. Much o f t h e work, such as f i l m c o o l i n g
and i n t e r n a l passages, i s h i g h l y e m p i r i c a l and c o n f i g u r a t i o n s p e c i f i c . L i n k -
i n g t h e l a b o r a t o r y t o t h e r e a l engine remains a major c h a l l e n g e and t h e advent
o f new composite m a t e r i a l s opens even newer h o r i z o n s .

SPACE PROPULSION

Space p r o p u l s i o n i s by r o c k e t . Rocket p r o p u l s i o n i s u s u a l l y s u b d i v i d e d
i n t o l i q u i d and s o l i d . With s t a b l e b i n d e r s s o l i d s a r e s t o r a b l e , immediate
response, g e n e r a l l y r e l i a b l e , b u t low I s p . Some l i q u i d p r o p e l l a n t s , such as
h y d r a z i n e , a r e considered s t o r a b l e , o t h e r s , such as hydrogenloxygen, a r e n o t .
Most transatmospheri c l s p a c e and n e a r l y a1 1 space m i s s i o n s r e l y on LH2-LOX
because o f i t s h i g h performance ( I s p ) . T h i s p r e s e n t s s t o r a g e problems on and
near t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e launch pad, and i n space, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r l u n a r and
p l a n e t a r y missions, which w i l l be discussed l a t e r .

Much o f NASA's c u r r e n t e f f o r t i n l i q u i d r o c k e t r y i s d i r e c t e d a t t h e Space

S h u t t l e Main Engine (SSME). Conceived as an o f f t h e s h e l f assembly, t h e per-
formance demands exceeded a l l known e n g i n e e r i n g designs and SSME has performed
we1 1. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s o f t e n l e a d t o premature component f a i l u r e s . Encap-
s u l a t e d by a 7.5 f t diameter by 14 f t l o n g c y l i n d e r , t h i s r o c k e t engine a t f u l l
power produces o v e r 500 000 l b t h r u s t w i t h a performance I s p = 452.9 sec a t
a l t i t u d e . F u r t h e r t h e system can be t h r o t t l e d t o 65 p e r c e n t , i s capable o f
m u l t i p l e s t a r t s and weighs i n a t 7004 l b . Compare i t t o an atmospheric p r o p u l -
s i o n system, a t 50 000 l b t h r u s t , which m i g h t be about t h e same s i z e and
w e i g h t . The heat t r a n s f e r engineers knowledge must span cryogens t o combustion
gases w i t h a l l t h e a t t e n d a n t regimes a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s t a r t u p and shutdown t r a n -
s i e n t s and thermophysical p r o p e r t y v a r i a t i o n s . The engineer c o u l d e a s i l y spend
s e v e r a l l i f e t i m e s and s t i l l n o t understand t h e problems. The SSME powerhead,
shown i n c r o s s - s e c t i o n i n f i g u r e 21, and t h e accompanying f l o w schematic i n
f i g u r e 22, a r e q u i t e u s e f u l toward u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p h y s i c a l components and
f l o w paths.

I t i s u s e f u l t o s t a r t t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s system w i t h t h e o v e r a l l one-
dimensional systems a n a l y s i s , and t h e n some d i v e r s e h e a t t r a n s f e r requirements
such as LOX-pump b e a r i n g s and h e a t exchanger; fuel-pump p r e b u r n e r ; i n j e c t o r ;
and combustion chamber. Even though s o p h i s t i c a t e d technology, such as computa-
t i o n a l f l u i d dynamics (CFD) and comprehensive experimental r e s e a r c h , has been
a p p l i e d t o t h e components o f j e t and r o c k e t p r o p u l s i o n systems, d e t a i l s o f
t h e i r o p e r a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y as a system, a r e u n a v a i l a b l e ; t h e y j u s t work.
These p r o p u l s i o n systems, l i k e many o t h e r s , a r e so complex, ( f i g s . 21 and 22)
t h a t even today no one model o r assembly o f models i s a v a i l a b l e t o p r o v i d e
d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n as t o t h e i r performance. For example, t h e one-
dimensional SSME powerbalance models a r e used t o d e s c r i b e what o t h e r w i s e can-
n o t y e t be q u a n t i f i e d .

The powerbalance models a r e lumped one-dimensionally, p a r t i a l l y e m p i r i c a l ,

p a r t i a l l y thermodynamic, and p a r t i a l l y a n a l y t i c models w i t h s e v e r a l b l a c k boxes
and a d j u s t a b l e c o n s t a n t s t o emulate engine performance. The e n t i r e engine i s
c o n t r o l l e d by o n l y two components, t h e o x i d i z e r v a l v e s on t h e p r e b u r n e r and
f u e l f l o w meter, ( f i g s . 21 and 22). Thus, f i x i n g any one i t e m o f t h e model p r e -
c i p i t a t e s adjustments t h r o u g h o u t t h i s f i n e - t u n e d engine. F l o w r a t e s , p r e s s u r e s ,
temperatures, and i n g e n e r a l a l l t h e pumping requirements a r e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e
SSME system - y e t a r e n o t q u a n t i f i e d e x c e p t t h r o u g h t h e powerbalance model. As
t o heat t r a n s f e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n these systems models, e m p i r i c a l lumped mod-
e l i n g i s o f t e n i n t r o d u c e d i n t o more s o p h i s t i c a t e d codes t o p r o v i d e i n s i g h t t o
t h e t r a n s p o r t o f energy b u t t h a t i s as f a r as i t goes. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , v e r y
l i t t l e heat t r a n s f e r d e t a i l can be p r o v i d e d f r o m these systems analyses t o a
turbopump manufacturer as t o t h e h o t gas g e n e r a t i o n t o d r i v e t h e t u r b i n e o r t h e
c r y o g e n i c n a t u r e o f t h e pump i n t e r c o n n e c t e d by a s h o r t common s h a f t .

Without q u a l i f i c a t i o n , t h e SSME i s a v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d h e a t exchanger. L e t

us l o o k a t some examples. R e f e r r i n g t~ f i g u r e s 21 and 22, t h e LOX pump c o o l i n g
p a t h s t a r t s b y p a s s i n g LOX t h r o u g h a h o l e i n t h e c e n t e r o f t h e i m p e l l e r s h a f t .
The low p r e s s u r e LOX c i r c u l a t e s a l o n g t h e s h a f t i n t o t h e p r e b u r n e r gas d i s t r i -
b u t i o n dome. The p r e b u r n e r s f o r b o t h t h e f u e l and o x i d i z e r pump t u r b i n e s a r e
o f t h e same d e s i g n as an i n t e r n a l r o c k e t engine w i t h i n j e c t o r s and combustors
t h a t a r e p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t r a d i a l and c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v i b r a t i o n modes by b a f -
f l e s . T h i s i s t u r n p r o v i d e s a p e r i o d i c c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l gas temperature d i s t r i -
b u t i o n o f some 100 O F d i f f e r e n c e e n t e r i n g t h e t u r b i n e . There i s a l s o a r a d i a l
temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n , as shown i n computations by VanOverbeke and Claus
(1986) ( f i g . 2 3 ) . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d s i m i l a r problems occur i n b o t h f u e l and
o x i d i z e r pumps. Some LOX c o o l a n t i s b l e d t o c o o l t h e t u r b i n e b e a r i n g s and
s e a l s . Leakage down t h e backside o f t h e i m p e l l e r and through t h e s h a f t seal
c o o l s b o t h t h e seal and t h e pump b e a r i n g . A complex CFD t h e r m o h y d r a u l i c analy-
s i s o f a LOX b a l l l r a c e i n t e r f a c e ( f i g . 24) performed by Tam e t a l . (1987)
i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t temperature d i f f e r e n c e s cause severe c y c l i c thermomechanical
loadings t h a t e v e n t u a l l y lead t o bearing f a i l u r e . Coolant a l s o f l o w s along the
t u r b i n e d i s c t o t h e b l a d e r o o t s , and e v e n t u a l l y e n t e r s t h e exhaust stream t h a t
e n t e r s t h e LOX-GOX h e a t exchanger. I n t h e upper shroud r i n g , hydrogen e n t e r s
v i a o r i f i c e s around t h e upper r i n g w i t h a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f connected tubes t h a t
feeds c o o l a n t t o t h e shroud t h a t p r o t e c t s t h e pump housing f r o m t h e h o t gas
turnaround d u c t ; some dumps i n t o t h e chamber t h a t c o o l s t h e shroud and eventu-
a l l y a l l winds up i n t h e exhaust stream t o t h e LOX-GOX heat exchanger
( f i g . 25).

The LOX-GOX h e a t exchanger c o n s i s t s o f a s i n g l e 0.19 I D tube b i f u r c a t e d t o

p r o v i d e 25.8 f t o f 0.325 I D 316 SS c o i l e d t u b i n g . J o i n t i n t e g r i t y i s c r i t i c a l .
While t h e exchanger leakage i s e x t r e m e l y low, t h e r e a r e s a f e t y concerns and a
r e d e s i g n i s under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . High p r e s s u r e LOX e n t e r s t h e exchanger assem-
b l y , i s heated i n c r o s s f l o w by h i g h p r e s s u r e , h i g h temperature p r e b u r n e r
exhaust gases and e x i t s i n t o t h e GOX o u t l e t m a n i f o l d . Thermal c o n t r o l i s pro-
v i d e d t h r o u g h a bypass system t h a t produces a showerhead spray o f LOX i n t o t h e
m a n i f o l d . The GOX produced i s used f o r t a n k p r e s s u r i z a t i o n and t h e pogo accu-
m u l a t o r , see f l o w schematic f i g u r e 22. Another major concern i s t h a t t h e t u r -
b i n e exhaust gases c i r c u l a t i n g t h r o u g h t h e exchanger do n o t become low enough
i n temperature t o f r e e z e up o r shed i c e i n t o t h e t r a n s f e r d u c t s and t h e i n j e c -
t o r . As a r e s u l t , t h e lower t h r o t t l e l i m i t i s 65 p e r c e n t .

The main i n j e c t o r i s a l s o q u i t e a complex h e a t exchanger, f i g u r e 26. Baf-

f l e s a t t e n u a t e d i r e c t gas f l o w s f r o m t h e t r a n s f e r m a n i f o l d s t h a t a r e m a l d i s t r i -
buted. Of t h e t h r e e h o t gas d u c t s t o t h e i n j e c t o r , t h e o u t e r two c a r r y t h e
gases, w i t h t h e i n n e r and l a r g e s t d u c t v i r t u a l l y f l o w l e s s ; maybe even backflow-
i n g ( f i g . 21). F l u i d hydrogen f r o m t h e r e g e n e r a t i v e l y cooled combustion cham-
ber p r o v i d e s t h e e n t h a l p y d r o p t o d r i v e t h e p r i m a r y pump t u r b i n e and c o o l s t h e
powerhead d u c t s and bowls; i t then f l o w s i n t o t h e i n j e c t o r between t h e p r i m a r y
and secondary f a c e p l a t e s ( f i g . 22). Hot hydrogen r i c h gases f r o m t h e LOXIGOX
exchanger and t h e f u e l pump t u r b i n e s exhaust a r e impinged o n t o t h e LOX p o s t s
t h a t a r e p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t v i b r a t i o n by v o r t e x shedding s p i r a l t r i p s . An
a n a l y s i s o f t h e f l o w o v e r t h e LOX p o s t s i n t h e main i n j e c t o r was c a r r i e d o u t
by Rogers e t a l . (1986) a t NASA Ames. I t was d i r e c t e d a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g f o r c e d
v i b r a t i o n o f t h e p o s t s . The complex f l o w p a t t e r n s a r e i l l u s ' t r a t e d i n f i g -
u r e 27. To d a t e heat t r a n s f e r has n o t been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o these analyses
b u t t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r these codes f o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e heat t r a n s f e r a n a l y -
s i s i s q u i t e i m p r e s s i v e . These h o t gases heat t h e LOX which i s f l o w i n g f r o m
t h e upper LOX plenum i n t o t h e combustion chamber.

The main problem on t h e c o o l a n t s i d e of these h e a t exchangers i s t h e t r e -

mendous v a r i a t i o n o f thermophysical p r o p e r t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e d e n s i t y .
Hendricks (1979, 1980) has shown t h a t a v a s t a r r a y of d a t a can be c o r r e l a t e d
by r e l a t i n g t h e d a t a t o t h e f l u i d c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y and by u s i n g c o r r e s p o n d i n g
s t a t e s t y p e concepts f r o m thermodynamics. An example o f such a c o r r e l a t i o n
i s shown i n f i g u r e 28. S i m i l a r t o t h e s i t u a t i o n w i t h t h e t u r b i n e engine,
which was discussed above, advanced computational t o o l s a r e b e i n g b r o u g h t t o
bear on t h e gas p a t h f l o w s , w h i l e t h e i n t e r n a l passages s t i l l r e l y l a r g e l y on
correlation.

The main combustion chamber i s r e a l l y a combustor and n o z z l e combination

( f i g . 21). I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e severe c o o l i n g requirements a t t h e t h r o a t and
t h e c o n s t r a i n t t h a t Twall < I 0 0 0 O F , t h e l i n e r thermomechanical c y c l e e x h i b i t s
2.5 p e r c e n t s t r a i n ( w i t h 0.2 considered y i e l d ) i . e . , o p e r a t e s i n t h e p l a s t i c
zone. I t must deform w i t h o u t c r a c k i n g o r b u c k l i n g d u r i n g s t a r t u p and r u n , and
i t must r e f o r m upon shutdown w i t h o u t f a i l u r e s . Many s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e s a r e
i n s t i g a t e d by t h e r m o c y c l i n g components t h a t a r e n o t thermocompliant. Thermo-
c o m p l i a n t systems deform w i t h changes i n temperature and f l o w passages must
conform t o t a k e advantage of s u r f a c e a l t e r a t i o n s . The s t r a i n s i n t r o d u c e d b y
welds o r r i g i d s u r f a c e s can be severe and g i v e way t o f a t i g u e c r a c k i n g . The
t u r b i n e i n l e t shroud t h a t d i v e r t s hydrogen r i c h combustor gas t o t h e t u r b i n e
c o u l d be r i g i d o r f a b r i c a t e d o f m a t e r i a l s t h a t deform t o m i t i g a t e thermal
shock. T u r b i n e blade temperatures a r e l i m i t e d by m a t e r i a l s and c o a t i n g s a r e
n o t a l l t h a t thermocompliant o r r e l i a b l e . F a i l u r e s a r e most o f t e n due t o
excessive compressive s t r e s s t h a t causes t h e c o a t i n g t o spa11 o r break f r e e .

As w i t h t h e t u r b i n e engine, h e a l t h m o n i t o r i n g i n f l i g h t and r e s e a r c h
i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n o f r o c k e t p r o p u l s i o n systems i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t . I n a d d i t i o n
t o t h e severe o p e r a t i n g environmen-t an i n s t r u m e n t f a i l u r e o f f e r s t h e p o t e n t i a l
f o r opening a p a t h between t h e oxygen and hydrogen. Thus, a major problem
p l a g u i n g d e s i g n e r s and r e s e a r c h e r s a l i k e i s sensor f a i l u r e .

Space storage and t r a n s f e r o f c r y o g e n i c p r o p e l l a n t s whether near t h e

v i c i n i t y o f t h e launch pad, on t h e space s t a t i o n , and i n p a r t i c u l a r f o r l u n a r
and p l a n e t a r y m i s s i o n s , pose unusual h e a t t r a n s f e r and m a t e r i a l s problems.
M i s s i o n s such as space s t a t i o n and beyond w i l l r e q u i r e l a r g e p r o p e l l a n t s t o r a g e
depots and f o r some m i s s i o n s p r o p e l l a n t p r o d u c t i o n on t h e p l a n t s o r t h e i r moons
have been g i v e n s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n . For s u b c r i t i c a l p r o p e l l a n t s t o r a g e on
E a r t h one u s u a l l y knows where t h e l i q u i d i s ; b u t i n space ( o r bases w i t h micro-
g r a v i t y ) p r o p e l l a n t o r i e n t a t i o n i s a s e r i o u s concern. I n a d d i t i o n heat l e a k s
f r o m support s t r u c t u r e , f i t t i n g s , i n s u l a t i o n , and d e g r a d a t i o n due t o impalement
o f space d e b r i s r e p r e s e n t c h a l l e n g e s t o l o n g t e r m s t o r a g e o f cryogens i n space.
I n m i c r o g r a v i t y , l o c a l nonuniform sources o f h e a t u s u a l l y d i s t u r b t h e average
v o i d l l i q u i d f r a c t i o n which, a l o n g w i t h t h e energy of t h e c o n t a i n e r s u r f a c e ,
determines how t h e l i q u i d w i l l be d i s t r i b u t e d . One cannot a f f o r d t o v e n t l i q -
u i d , nor p e r m i t a gaseous p o c k e t t o become o v e r heated p o s i n g t h e t h r e a t o f
f l u i d r o l l o v e r causing a sudden u n c o n t r o l l a b l e r i s e i n p r e s s u r e . I n many cas-
es separated f l u i d s can be mixed by shaking, so one method o f c o n t r o l l i n g pro-
p e l l a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n i s t o use small t h r u s t e r s t o c r e a t e p u l s e d s e t t l i n g , i . e . ,
c r e a t e a small g - f i e l d . The c h a l l e n g e i s t o determine t h e p r o p e r frequency,
amplitude, and d u r a t i o n . CFD r e s u l t s by Hochstein (1987) ( f i g . 29) i l l u s t r a t e
p r o p e l l a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n response i n a t a n k s u b j e c t e d t o 0.008 g a t 0.1 Hz f o r
0.1 sec d u r a t i o n . P r o p e l l a n t o r i e n t a t i o n i s necessary i n a l o n g t e r m storage
regimen, b u t more i m p o r t a n t l y t o m i c r o g r a v i t y t r a n s f e r o f p r o p e l l a n t s where i t
i s i m p o r t a n t t o t r a n s f e r l i q u i d . T r a n s f e r can be a s s i s t e d by f l u i d r i f l i n g ,
i . e . , u s i n g a p o r t i o n o f t h e a x i a l momentum f o r a n g u l a r momentum t h e r e b y
o r i e n t i n g t h e p r o p e l l a n t and p e r m i t t i n g i t s l i g h t e r components t o go t o a
l i q u i f i e r l e x p a n d e r - h e a t exchanger p r i o r t o v e n t . B u t v e n t i n g i s a l a s t r e s o r t .

Most o f t h e above has been d i r e c t e d a t t h e low E a r t h o r b i t SSME; however,

t h e l o n g term goal i s t o e x p l o r e t h e f a r r e g i o n s o f t h e s o l a r system. Over t h e
years, r e s u l t s f o r minimum o r b i t a l t r a n s f e r e n e r g i e s a l o n g w i t h p r o p u l s i o n sys-
tems as i o n , a r c , and beaming have been s t u d i e d and assessed. Minimum energy
t r i p s t o Mars t a k e a l o n g t i m e ( 3 y e a r s ) and u s u a l l y i m p l i e s a n u c l e a r power
source ( 0 . 1 t o 1 MWe), and i o n t h r u s t e r s which have v e r y low t h r u s t b u t h i g h
performance ( I s p t o 5000 a t 50 cm d i a m e t e r ) . They a r e o f t e n considered f o r
i n t e r p l a n e t a r y and e x t r a s o l a r a c t i v i t i e s . Such an a p p l i c a t i o n m i g h t be a
cargo t r a n s f e r v e h i c l e . However, i f m i s s i o n t r a n s f e r times a r e t o be reasona-
b l y s h o r t (months) then chemical r o c k e t p r o p u l s i o n appears necessary.

The r e t u r n f r o m deep space o r h i g h E a r t h o r b i t r e q u i r e s some t y p e o f slow-

down o r b r a k i n g . One approach i s t o use t h e atmosphere as a brake, as shown i n
f i g u r e 30. I n t h e a e r o a s s i s t e d o r b i t a l t r a n s f e r v e h i c l e , t h e p r o p u l s i o n system
and t h e v e h i c l e must be combined t o p r o v i d e t r a n s f e r from h i g h e r t o lower
o r b i t s . I n hypersonic r e e n t r y , t h e forward body o f t h e v e h i c l e becomes v e r y
h o t . I f f l o w about t h e body i s n o t s t a b l e , h e a t can be d i r e c t e d i n t o t h e pay-
load o r , even worse, an unscheduled r e e n t r y can t a k e p l a c e . The s u b j e c t o f
aerodynamic h e a t i n g w i l l be discussed i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n .

I n summary, t h e backbone o f space p r o p u l s i o n i s t h e chemical r o c k e t

engine. I t has numerous severe h e a t t r a n s f e r problems. I n general t h e h e a t
t r a n s f e r and f l u i d f l o w t e c h n o l o g y f o r r o c k e t p r o p u l s i o n c u r r e n t l y l a g s t h a t
f o r t u r b i n e engines. As w i t h t u r b i n e engines, t h e tendency i n p e r f o r m i n g f l u i d
flow and heat t r a n s f e r analyses i s t o use advanced CFD codes on t h e gas p a t h
s i d e and c o r r e l a t i o n s on t h e c o o l a n t s i d e . A key t o advancing t h e heat t r a n s -
f e r technology w i l l be d e v e l o p i n g t h e a b i l i t y t o understand and p r e d i c t cryo-
genic f l u i d b e h a v i o r w i t h t h e same l e v e l o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n as i s done w i t h
gases. The Space S h u t t l e was b u i l t l a r g e l y on 1960's t e c h n o l o g y . That i s a l l
changing r a p i d l y . The space s t a t i o n , t h e C i v i l Space Technology I n i t i a t i v e
(CSTI) and t h e Mars m i s s i o n ( P r o j e c t P a t h f i n d e r ) a r e a l l demanding advanced
technology.
 HYPERSONICITRANSATMOSPHERIC PROPULSION

The f l i g h t regime of v e h i c l e s , such as t h e N a t i o n a l Aerospace Plane

(NASP), which - w i l l c a r r y one f r o m runway t o o r b i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y e x c i t i n g ,
because i t i s t h e t r u e m a r r i a g e between aero- and space- t o f o r m aerospace
f l i g h t . Several a e r o p r o p u l s i o n concepts a r e p o s s i b l e f o r t h e t r a n s a t m o s p h e r i c
f l i g h t regime. These concepts cover a range o f o p e r a t i n g c y c l e s f r o m t h e
t u r b o j e t l t u r b o f a n t o t h e r a m j e t l s c r a m j e t . Since t h e lower-speed f l i g h t regime
( t u r b o j e t / t u r b o f a n ) and t h e upper end o f t h e f l i g h t regime ( r o c k e t s ) have been
discussed, t h i s s e c t i o n w i l l be concerned w i t h t h e i n t e r v e n i n g regime ( i . e . ,
h y p e r s o n i c s ) . The t r a n s i t i o n from supersonic t o h y p e r s o n i c f l i g h t i s somewhat
i l l - d e f i n e d b u t i s g e n e r a l l y considered t o o c c u r i n t h e Mach number range o f 4
t o 6. T h i s t r a n s i t i o n does n o t r e p r e s e n t p h y s i c a l phenomena, such as t h a t
which occurs a t Mach one, b u t i s more o f a c o n v e n i e n t r e f e r e n c e . The a i r t u r b o -
r a m j e t , shown i n f i g u r e 31, i s capable o f o p e r a t i o n i n t h e Mach number range o f
0 t o 6. When combined w i t h a r o c k e t t h i s p r o p u l s i o n system c o u l d c o n c e i v a b l y
boost t h e v e h i c l e t o o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y . The i n c l u s i o n o f a s c r a m j e t ( f i g . 31)
(supersonic combustion) can extend t h e v e h i c l e f l i g h t Mach number range t o
about 12 b e f o r e i t would be necessary t o s w i t c h t o a r o c k e t t o a t t a i n o r b i t a l
v e l o c i t y . T h i s s e c t i o n w i l l d i s c u s s some o f t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r c h a l l e n g e s i n
a c c e l e r a t i n g f r o m supersonic f l i g h t t o o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y .

V e h i c l e f l i g h t a t h y p e r s o n i c speeds p r e s e n t s s i g n i f i c a n t h e a t t r a n s f e r
c h a l l e n g e s throughout t h e p r o p u l s i o n system and t h e a i r f r a m e because o f t h e
v e r y h i g h aerodynamic heat loads encountered. Local s t a g n a t i o n areas can expe-
r i e n c e h e a t f l u x l e v e l s exceeding 50 kL4/cm2. Heat f l u x l e v e l s up t o 10 kL4/cm2
a r e common throughout t h e p r o p u l s i o n system. By n e c e s s i t y , t h e engine and t h e
a i r f r a m e a r e h i g h l y i n t e g r a t e d . Not o n l y do t h e y share a common s t r u c t u r e a t
t h e e n g i n e l a i r f r a m e i n t e r f a c e b u t t h e a i r f r a m e a l s o a c t s as a compression s u r -
f a c e f o r t h e i n l e t and as an expansion s u r f a c e f o r t h e n o z z l e .

A l i s t o f heat t r a n s f e r c h a l l e n g e s f o r h i g h speed f l i g h t i n c l u d e s : v e r y
h i g h aerodynamic loads, l a m i n a r - t u r b u l e n t t r a n s i t i o n , shocklshock and shock1
boundary l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n s , f i l m c o o l i n g and s k i n f r i c t i o n r e d u c t i o n , advanced
composite m a t e r i a l s , combined t h e r m a l l s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s , r e a l gas e f f e c t s and
w a l l c a t a l y s i s , and thermal/management o f t h e i n t e g r a t e d e n g i n e l a i r f r a m e e n v i -
ronment. These challenges p r o b a b l y l o o k f a m i l i a r s i n c e t h e y a r e major i s s u e s
common t o any t y p e o f advanced heat engine, i . e . , management o f h i g h heat loads
i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n s t r u c t u r a l l i f e and i n t e g r i t y . However, t h e r e i s an
emphasis here on high-speed f l o w phenomena such as shock i n t e r a c t i o n s near a
s u r f a c e , advanced m a t e r i a l performance, and thermal management i n an i n t e g r a t e d
e n g i n e l a i r f r a m e environment. T h i s l i s t i s n o t meant t o be i n c l u s i v e b u t t o
i l l u s t r a t e t h e scope o f t h e c h a l l e n g e . Each o f these elements w i l l be d i s -
cussed i n t h e f o l l o w i n g paragraphs.

Knowing where t h e boundary l a y e r t r a n s i t i o n t o t u r b u l e n c e begins and i t s

e x t e n t i s j u s t as i m p o r t a n t a t hypersonic f l i g h t speeds as i t i s a t subsonic
speeds. The momentum Reynolds number a t which t r a n s i t i o n o c c u r s i s shown i n
f i g u r e 32 as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e f r e e - s t r e a m Mach number. A "rule-of-thumb" t h a t
has been used i n t h e p a s t i s t h a t t r a n s i t i o n o c c u r s when ReIM = 300 (momentum
t h i c k n e s s Reynolds number o v e r Mach number) which i s t h e upper curve i n t h e
f i g u r e . This approach i s o b v i o u s l y inadequate s i n c e most o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
d a t a show t h a t t h e boundary l a y e r would t r a n s i t i o n much f u r t h e r upstream t h a n
t h e p r e d i c t e d l o c a t i o n . Modeling of t h e p h y s i c s of t r a n s i t i o n a r e r e q u i r e d t o
improve p r e d i c t i o n c a p a b i l i t y . Mack (1975) o f JPL and Hefner and Bushnell
(1979) a t t h e NASA Langley have had some success on e x t e r n a l a i r f o i l s u r f a c e s
w i t h l i n e a r s t a b i l i t y t h e o r y and t h e n - f a c t o r approach. Demetriades e t a l .
(1980) o f Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y has attempted t o d e f i n e a s u f f i c i e n t and
necessary c o n d i t i o n f o r t r a n s i t i o n w i t h some success o v e r a range o f Mach num-
bers and s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s , e t c . However, t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f boundary l a y e r
t r a n s i t i o n i n i n t e r n a l passages w i t h supersonic f l o w i s c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e
a d d i t i o n o f expansion and compression waves, weak shocks, e t c .

Shock wave i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e boundary l a y e r can have a s i g n i f i c a n t

e f f e c t on t h e l o c a l aerodynamic h e a t i n g of a surface. The impact o f an o b l i q u e
shock i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h a t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r i n a f r e e - s t r e a m Mach number
of 4 i s shown i n f i g u r e 33. These d a t a f r o m Hayashi e t a l . (1984) show a sub-
s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n p r e s s u r e as w e l l as t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t . I n
a d d i t i o n , t h e measured h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t shows a l o c a l boundary l a y e r
s e p a r a t i o n and a subsequent augmentation o f about 3 : l . A comparison o f e x p e r i -
mental d a t a f o r a normal shocklboundary l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n and a two-dimensional
Navier-Stokes a n a l y s i s i s shown i n f i g u r e 34. These d a t a were a c q u i r e d i n t h e
NASA Lewis 1 - f t supersonic t u n n e l by means o f l a s e r anemometry. There i s a
good comparison o f Mach number c o n t o u r s w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s i n t h e upstream p o r -
t i o n o f t h e f l o w f i e l d . However, i n t h e downstream r e g i o n three-dimensional
e f f e c t s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t and none of t h e f l o w p h y s i c s i s adequately r e p r e s e n t e d .
A n a l y t i c a l model ing and e x p e r i m e n t a l v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s phenomena a r e c o n t i -
nuing. However, t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t amount o f c h a l l e n g i n g work l e f t t o com-
p l e t e t h e c u r r e n t e f f o r t and extend t h e r e s u l t s t o h i g h e n t h a l p y f l o w s .

Another phenomena t h a t o c c u r s i n high-speed f l i g h t i s t h e shock-on-shock

i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t o c c u r s a t an engine i n l e t o r s t r u t l e a d i n g edge as t h e v e h i c l e
a c c e l e r a t e s through a p a r t i c u l a r Mach number r e g i o n . The p h y s i c a l phenomena i s
reasonably w e l l understood and i s d e p i c t e d i n f i g u r e 35. S i x c l a s s e s o f i n t e r -
a c t i o n have been i d e n t i f i e d , however, t h e most severe h e a t i n g o c c u r s w i t h t h e
t y p e I V i n t e r a c t i o n . W i e t i n g (1987) o f t h e NASA Langley has measured stagna-
t i o n p o i n t h e a t t r a n s f e r augmentation f a c t o r s o f up t o 1 0 : l f o r t h e t y p e I V
i n t e r f e r e n c e h e a t i n g phenomena. Recent d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h W i e t i n g suggest these
f a c t o r s may approach 30:1 under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s . A t y p i c a l s c h l i e r e n photo-
graph o f a t y p e I V i n t e r f e r e n c e p a t t e r n i s shown i n f i g u r e 36. Navier-Stokes
a n a l y s i s has been a b l e t o c a p t u r e most o f t h e f l o w p h y s i c s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
t h i s phenomena, however, t h e c h a l l e n g e i s f i n d i n g methods t o reduce t h e h e a t
l o a d and/or f i n d i n g c o o l i n g schemes t h a t can t o l e r a t e o r accommodate these h i g h
heat l o a d s . These c o u l d be e i t h e r a c t i v e o r p a s s i v e c o o l i n g t e c h n i q u e s .

Much r e s e a r c h was conducted i n t h e 1960's and e a r l y 1970's on f i l m c o o l i n g

i n a supersonic f r e e - s t r e a m environment. However, v e r y l i t t l e r e s e a r c h on f i l m
c o o l i n g has taken p l a c e s i n c e t h a t time p e r i o d . F i g u r e 37 d e p i c t s t h e c u r r e n t
s t a t u s o f supersonic f i l m c o o l i n g . Depending on t h e d a t a s e t l c o r r e l a t i o n used,
s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s (and s k i n f r i c t i o n r e d u c t i o n ) w i l l be
p r e d i c t e d . These d i f f e r e n c e s may be a t t r i b u t e d t o v a r i a t i o n s i n t e s t f a c i l i -
t i e s , however, u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p h y s i c s and a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e s e n t i n g t h a t
p h y s i c s i n t h e a n a l y t i c a l model i s a major d r i v e r . I n p a r t i c u l a r , p r o p e r l y
modeling t h e shear l a y e r m i x i n g between t h e f i l m l a y e r and t h e f r e e stream
c o u l d improve t h e p r e d i c t i o n accuracy. I n p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , f i l m c o o l i n g
may be t h e method o f c h o i c e t o accommodate t h e l a r g e h e a t f l u x augmentation
t h a t occurs i n a shock-boundary l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n . The c h a l l e n g e w i l l be t o
maintain the film integrity through a lotal boundary layer separation that may
occur at this location.
Heat pipes are a potential means of passively cooling structures exposed
to high heat flux levels. These devices have been studied for several years to
develop this technology and to understand their functional characteristics and
their operating limits. Silverstein (1985) has shown (fig. 38) the heat flux
limits of several substances. Lithium, operating at a high vapor pressure,
could theoretically transport the high heat flux levels associated with shock-
on-shock interference heating to a heat sink thereby protecting the structure
and maintaining reasonable material temperatures. However, many questions
remain regarding the fabricability and operability of the devices in a hostile
environment. Material selection must be concerned about operating temperature
1 imi ts, corrosion/erosion, ducti bi 1 i ty, etc. The successful operation of the
heat pipe is dependent on its "dry-out" limits, the sonic velocity of the
transport medium as shown in figure 38, and its ability to respond to transient
phenomena. Although research is continuing on these devices at places such as
Los Alamos National Lab, demonstrating this technology in a simulated high heat
flux environment presents a challenge.
The high heat flux encountered by the leading edge of a hypersonic vehicle
in flight imposes severe demands on the materials and structures used for these
applications. The aerodynamic heating, including the shock-on-shock discussed
previously, at high flight Mach numbers creates the high heat flux with corre-
sponding high surface temperatures which can exceed the melting point of con-
ventional metallic and potential ceramic materials available for aerospace
applications today. Not only must the high heating rates be tolerated but the
distortions caused by thermal warping of the structure must be kept to a mini-
mum to achieve high inlet performance. Consequently, there is a need to
develop new materials incorporating activelpassive cooling schemes able to
withstand these severe environmental and thermomechanical conditions.
A combined analyti cal and experimental research effort has been i ni ti ated
at NASA Lewis (Melis et al. (1988)) to assess the capability of actively1
passively cooled structures to tolerate the high heating rates typical of
hypersonic flight. In addition, materials technologies and fabrication tech-
niques are being studied for applying advanced metal matrix and ceramic matrix
composite technology to activelylpassively cooled structures. This program
represents an interdisciplinary approach to focus the structures, fluids, mate-
rials, design and instrumentation disciplines on the problem. This approach is
represented by the flow diagram in figure 39. The final step in the loop is
the experimental verification in the Hot Gas Test facility (shown in the upper
right) which can provide heat flux levels up to 10 k ~ l c mat~ the stagnation
point. Earlier experiments on simpler shapes are reported by Melis et al.
(1988) and indicate that the analytical and experimental tools being brought to
bear on this problem will be most useful.
Thermal management may we1 1 be the critical element in permitting flight
at hypersonic speeds. The very large aerodynamic heating loads on both the
engine and airframe must be dealt with, if the vehicle is to survive. The mag-
nitude of the problem is indicated in figure 40, taken from Anderson et al.
(1987) which shows that at Mach 10 flight velocity, 80 percent of the heat
capacity of flowing fuel heat is needed for thermal management. This assumes a
cryogenic fuel, such as hydrogen, is being used. In addition, there must be a
b a l a n c e between t h e h e a t g e n e r a t e d , t h e h e a t absorbed, t h e f u e l r e q u i r e d f o r
p r o p u l s i o n , and t h e f u e l r e q u i r e d t o o p e r a t e a u x i l i a r y equipment i n o r d e r t o
g e t c l o s u r e o n t h e problem. The u n c e r t a i n t y g e n e r a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h e a t
t r a n s f e r (*I0 t o 20 p e r c e n t ) i s a c h a l l e n g e t o t h e d e s i g n e r i n t r y i n g t o g e t
t h i s c l o s u r e . These u n c e r t a i n t y l e v e l s r e p r e s e n t a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n
f u e l r e q u i r e m e n t s t o s a t i s f y t h e h e a t s i n k r e q u i r e m e n t s and would have a s e r i -
ous i m p a c t o n t h e p a y l o a d c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e v e h i c l e .

I n summary, t h e t r a n s a t m o s p h e r i c f l i g h t e n v e l o p e w i l l p r o b a b l y r e q u i r e a
h y b r i d engine combination. I n t h e low hypersonic regime t h e a i r t u r b o r a m j e t i s
a c a n d i d a t e , b u t f o r most o f t h e h y p e r s o n i c r e g i m e t h e s c r a m j e t i s t h e backbone
p r o p u l s i o n system. F o r h e a t t r a n s f e r e n g i n e e r s t h e i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e i n t h i s
r e g i m e , w h i c h i s d i f f e r e n t from t h e two extremes a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d , i s t h a t i t
i s a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o s h a r p l y d i v i d e where t h e a i r f r a m e l e t s o f f and t h e
e n g i n e b e g i n s . The h e a t t r a n s f e r problems a r e v e r y s i m i l a r , whether one i s
t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e e n g i n e o r t h e a i r f r a m e . Thus, t h e r e a d e r w i l l n o t e t h a t
t h e r e was v e r y l i t t l e e n g i n e s p e c i f i c d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s s e c t i o n i n c o n t r a s t
t o t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s . P r i o r t o NASP, h y p e r s o n i c s had been o n a 15 y e a r
h i a t u s . The work shown h e r e i s r a t h e r p r e l i m i n a r y , b u t i t i s moving f a s t .

Two a d d i t i o n a l p o i n t s s h o u l d be emphasized. P r o g r e s s i n t h i s f l i g h t
r e g i m e i s h i g h l y dependent o n t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l power o f advanced computers and
an a b i l i t y t o a n a l y t i c a l l y model problems and s o l v e N a v i e r - S t o k e s e q u a t i o n s
w i t h t h e e n e r g y e q u a t i o n and r e a l - g a s e f f e c t s ( h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e , r e a c t i n g
flows, etc.). The s t a t u s o f CFD f o r h y p e r s o n i c s i s d i s c u s s e d i n a r e c e n t
a r t i c l e b y Dwoyer e t a l . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . F i n a l l y , e x p e r i m e n t a l v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s e
models i s g e n e r a l l y l i m i t e d t o t h e l o w e r end of t h e f l i g h t r e g i m e . V e r i f i c a -
t i o n o f t h e h i g h e r f l i g h t Mach numbers i s dependent o n p r o t o t y p e v e h i c l e s .

CONCLUDING REMARKS

I n t h i s v e r y b r i e f r e v i e w o f h e a t t r a n s f e r i n aerospace p r o p u l s i o n we have
seen a r e a s of commonality and a r e a s of d i f f e r e n c e . I n the subsonic/supersonic
p r o p u l s i o n a r e n a t h e p r i m a r y p r o p u l s i o n system, t h e t u r b o j e t l t u r b o f a n e n g i n e ,
i s a v e r y s o p h i s t i c a t e d machine and some v e r y advanced c o m p u t a t i o n a l and exper-
i m e n t a l t o o l s a r e b e i n g b r o u g h t t o bear o n a c h i e v i n g an optimum d e s i g n .
Sparked b y t h e advanced f l u i d mechanics and s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s c a p a b i l i t i e s
and t h e a d v e n t of e x c i t i n g new m a t e r i a l s , t h e i n d u s t r y and government have l a i d
down a c h a l l e n g e t o d o u b l e t h e performance o f t o d a y ' s e n g i n e b y t h e t u r n o f t h e
c e n t u r y . The space program, on t h e o t h e r hand, has b u i l t a v e r y s o p h i s t i c a t e d
power p l a n t l a r g e l y o n an e m p i r i c a l base. The p r e s e n t r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f t h e
space program i s c a l l i n g f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t advancement i n t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l
t o o l s used t o d e s i g n and b u i l d space p r o p u l s i o n systems. F i n a l l y , i n a new-old
a r e a , h y p e r s o n i c s , a b r e a k t h r o u g h demanding t e c h n o l o g y o f 15 y e a r s ago i s b e i n g
r e s u r r e c t e d and combined w i t h new advances t o b r i n g t o r e a l i t y t h e t r u e aero-
space v e h i c l e , t h e t r a n s a t m o s p h e r i c v e h i c l e .

I n a l l o f t h e s e areas t h e g o a l i s t o c o n c e n t r a t e more and more e n e r g y i n t o

a s m a l l e r and s m a l l e r e n v e l o p e , p l a c i n g e v e r i n c r e a s i n g demands on t h e knowl-
edge o f h e a t t r a n s f e r . As a g e n e r a l r u l e o f thumb, t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r p r o b l e m
i s h a r d e r t o s o l v e t h a n t h e f l u i d mechanics, and t h e a b i l i t y t o a c c u r a t e l y
d e s c r i b e t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a g s t h e f l u i d mechanics.
 As t h e ASME Heat T r a n s f e r D i v i s i o n e n t e r s i t s second h a l f c e n t u r y , t h e
f i e l d o f aerospace p r o p u l s i o n o f f e r s i t a c h a l l e n g e w o r t h y o f i t s h i s t o r y .

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I n t e r n a t i o n a l Gas T u r b i n e Conference, Amsterdam, The N e t h e r l a n d s .

Guenette, G.R., E p s t e i n , A.H., G i l e s , M.B., Haimes, R., and

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Gas T u r b i n e Conference, Amsterdam, June 5-9, 1988.

Hathaway, M.D., G e r t z , J.B., E p s t e i n , A.H., and S t r a z i s a r , A.J., 1986,

" R o t o r Wake C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a T r a n s o n i c A x i a l - F l o w Fan," AIAA J o u r n a l ,
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Hathaway, M.D., Suder, K.L., O k i i s h i , T.H., S t r a z i s a r , A.J., and

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S t a t o r Row o f a T r a n s o n i c A x i a l - F l o w Fan, I 1 - R e s u l t s and D i s c u s s i o n , " ASME
Paper 87-GT-227. ( A l s o , NASA TM-88946).

Hayashi, M . , S a k u r a i , A., and Aso, S., 1984, "Measurement o f H e a t - T r a n s f e r

C o e f f i c i e n t s i n Shock Wave-Turbulent Boundary Layer I n t e r a c t i o n Regions w i t h a
M u l t i - L a y e r e d T h i n F i l m Heat T r a n s f e r Gauge," NASA TM-77958.

Hefner, J.N., and B u s h n e l l , D.M., 1979, " A p p l i c a t i o n o f S t a b i l i t y Theory

t o Laminar Flow C o n t r o l , " AIAA Paper 79-1493.

H e n d r i c k s , R.C., Yeroshenko, V.M., Yaskin, L.A., and S t a r o s t i n , A.D.,

1979. " B u l k E x ~ a n s i o nF a c t o r s and D e n s i t y F l u c t u a t i o n s i n Heat and Mass
~ r a n s f e r , " 1 5 t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress OF R e f r i g e r a t i o n , Venice, I t a l y ,
Paper 81 -1 19.

H e n d r i c k s , R.C., Simoneau, R.J., and Sengers, J.V., 1980, "Toward t h e Use

o f S i m i l a r i t y Theory i n Two-Phase Choked Flows," NASA TM-81568.

H i p p e n s t e e l e , S . H . , and R u s s e l l , L.M., 1988, " H i g h - R e s o l u t i o n

L i q u i d - C r y s t a l Heat-Transfer Measurements on t h e Endwall o f a T u r b i n e Passage
w i t h V a r i a t i o n s i n Reynolds Number," ASME Paper t o be p r e s e n t e d a t 1988
N a t i o n a l Heat T r a n s f e r Conference, Houston, TX.
 H o c h s t e i n , J . I . , 1,987, " C o m p u t a t i o n a l P r e d i c t i o n o f P r o p e l l e n t
R e o r i e n t a t i o n , " C r y o g e n i c F l u i d Management Technology Workshop, V o l . 1 -
P r e s e n t a t i o n M a t e r i a l land D i s c u s s i o n , J.C. A y d e l o t t and W. D e v o l , eds.,
NASA CP-10001, pp. 317-344.

H y l t o n , L.D., M i h e l c , M.S., T u r n e r , E.R., N e a l y , D.A., and Y o r k , R . E . ,

1983, " A n a l y t i c a l and E x p e r i m e n t a l E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e Heat T r a n s f e r
D i s t r i b u t i o n Over t h e S u r f a c e s o f T u r b i n e Vanes," EDR-11209, D e t r o i t D i e s e l
A l l i s o n , I n d i a n a p o l i s , I N , NASA CR-168015.

H y l t o n , L.D., N i r m s l a n , V., S u l t a n i a n , B.K., and Kaufman, R.M., 1988,

"The E f f e c t s o f L e a d i n g Edge and Downstream F i l m C o o l i n g on T u r b i n e Vane Heat
T r a n s f e r , " A l l i s o n Gas T u r b i n e , I n d i a n a p o l i s , I N , NASA CR i n p r e s s .

Jorgenson, P.C.E., and Chima, R.V., 1988, "An E x p l i c i t Runge-Kutta

Method f o r Unsteady R o t o r I S t a t o r I n t e r a c t i o n , " AIAA Paper 88-0049. (Also,
NASA TM-100787).

J o s l y n , H.D., and D r i n g , R.P., 1988, " E x p e r i m e n t a l and A n a l y t i c a l S t u d y

o f T u r b i n e Temperature P r o f i l e A t t e n u a t i o n , " AFOSR C o n t r a c t F49620-86-C-0020,
i n preparation.

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T r a n s f e r f;om ~ e a t e dC y l in d e r s , " ~ n t e r n a t i o n a lJ o u r n a l o f Heat and Mass
T r a n s f e r , V o l . 18, No. 11, p p . 1229-1242.

Mack, L.M., 1975, " L i n e a r S t a b i l i t y Theory and t h e Problem o f S u p e r s o n i c

Boundary-Layer T r a n s i t i o n , " AIAA J o u r n a l , V o l . 13, No. 3, pp. 278-289.

M e l i s , M.E., e t . a l . , 1988, "A Unique I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y Research E f f o r t t o

Develop Cowl L i p T e c h n o l o g i e s f o r H y p e r s o n i c A p p l i c a t i o n s , " NASA TP- , to
be p u b l i s h e d .

O I B r i e n , J.E., Simoneau, R . J . , L a G r a f f , J . E . , and Morehouse, K.A., 1986,

"Unsteady Heat T r a n s f e r and D i r e c t Comparison t o S t e a d y - S t a t e Measurements i n
a Rotor-Wake E x p e r i m e n t , " Heat T r a n s f e r 1986, C.L. T i e n , V.P. Carey, and
J.K. F e r r e l l , eds., Hemisphere P u b l i s h i n g C o r p . , Washington, D.C.,' V o l . 3,
p p . 1243-1248.

O I B r i e n , J.E., 1988, " E f f e c t s o f Wake P a s s i n g on S t a g n a t i o n Region Heat

T r a n s f e r , " Paper s u b m i t t e d f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n a t t h e 1988 ASME W i n t e r Annual
M e e t i n g , Chicago, I L .

O I B r i e n , J.E., and Capp, S.P., 1988, "Two-Component Phase-Averaged

T u r b u l e n c e S t a t i s t i c s Downstream o f a R o t a t i n g Spoked-Wheel G e n e r a t o r , "
s u b m i t t e d f o r p u b l i c a t i o n t o t h e ASME J o u r n a l o f Turbomachinery.

P a r t h a s a r a t h y , K . , and Zakkay, V . , 1969, " T u r b u l e n t Shot I n j e c t i o n

S t u d i e s a t Mach 6 , " ARL 69-0066. ( A v a i l . NTIS, AD-692503).

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Government P r o d u c t s D i v i s i o n , West Palm Beach, FL.
 R a i , M.M., 1987, "Unsteady Three D i m e n s i o n a l Navier-Stokes S i m u l a t i o n s of
T u r b i n e R o t o r - S t a t o r I n t e r a c t i o n , " AIAA Paper 87-2058.

R o d i , W . , and Scheuerer, G., 1985, " C a l c u l a t i o n o f Laminar-Turbulent

Boundary Layer T r a n s i t i o n on T u r b i n e Blades," Heat T r a n s f e r and C o o l i n g i n Gas
T u r b i n e s , AGARD CP-390, AGARD, N e u i l l y - S u r - S e i n e , France, pp. 18-1 t o 18-13.

Rogers, S.E., Kwak, D., and K a u l , U., 1986, "A Numerical Study o f
Three-Dimensional I n c o m p r e s s i b l e Flow Around M u l t i p l e P o s t s , " AIAA
Paper 86-0353.

Schmidt, R.C., and P a t a n k a r , S.V., 1987, " P r e d i c t i o n of T r a n s i t i o n on a

F l a t P l a t e Under t h e I n f l u e n c e o f Free-Stream T u r b u l e n c e U s i n g
Low-Reynolds-Number Two-Equation T u r b u l e n c e Models," ASME Paper 87-HT-32.

S i l v e r s t e i n , C.C., 1985, " C o r r e l a t i o n of Heat P i p e Heat T r a n s p o r t L i m i t s

w i t h Vapor Pressure," AIAA Paper 85-0939.

Simon, F.F., and Ciancone, M.L., 1985, "Flow V i s u a l i z a t i o n S t u d y o f t h e

E f f e c t o f I n j e c t i o n H o l e Geometry on an I n c l i n e d J e t i n C r o s s f l o w , " Heat
T r a n s f e r and F l u i d Flow i n R o t a t i n g Machinery, W.J. Yang, ed., Hemisphere
P u b l i s h i n g Corp., Washington, D.C., pp. 170-192. (NASA TM-86936).

Simon, F.F., 1986, " J e t Model f o r S l o t F i l m C o o l i n g w i t h E f f e c t o f

Free-Stream and C o o l a n t Turbulence," NASA TP-2655.

Suder, K . L . , Hathaway, M.D., O k i i s h i , T.H., S t r a z i s a r , A.J., and

Adamczyk, J . J . , 1987, "Measurements o f t h e Unsteady Flow F i e l d W i t h i n t h e
S t a t o r Row o f a T r a n s o n i c A x i a l - F l o w Fan, I - Measurement and A n a l y s i s
Technique," ASME Paper 87-GT-226. ( A l s o , NASA TM-88945).

Tam, L.T., Przekwas, A.J., J a i n , S.K., Mukerjee, T., and Costes, N.C.,
1987, "SSME HPOTP B a l l B e a r i n g Assembly Two-Phase Flow and Heat T r a n s f e r
A n a l y s i s , " C o n t r a c t B r i e f i n g a t NASA M a r s h a l l Space F l i g h t C e n t e r , NASA
C o n t r a c t NAS8-35970.

V a n c o i l l i e , C., and D i c k , E., 1988, "A T u r b u l e n c e Model f o r t h e Numerical

S i m u l a t i o n o f t h e T r a n s i t i o n Zone i n a Boundary L a y e r , " I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l
o f E n g i n e e r i n g F l u i d Mechanics, V o l . 1, No. 1, pp. 24-49.

Van Overbeke, T.J., and Claus, R.W., 1986, "SSME F u e l s i d e P r e b u r n e r

Two-Dimensional A n a l y s i . ~ , " NASA TM-87299.

W i e t i n g , A.R., 1987, " E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d y o f Shock Wave I n t e r f e r e n c e

H e a t i n g on a C y l i n d r i c a l L e a d i n g Edge," NASA TM-100484.
0 5 10 15
FLIGHT VELOCITY (1000 FT ISEC)
FIG. 1 HIGH MACH PROPULSION EARTH-TO-ORBIT MISSION SENARIO.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 10
MACH NUMBER
FIG. 2 PROPULSION OPTIONS IN THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLIGHT ARENA.
 AND PRESSURE LIMITS

0 2 4 6 8 10

MACH NUMBER
F I G . 3 OPERATING CORRIDOR FOR A I R BREATHING PROPULSION
OPTIONS I N THE H I G H MACH NUMBER F L I G H T ARENA.

.
F I G 4 CROSS-SECT ION OF A CONCEPTUAL ULTRA-H IGH BY-PASS RAT I 0 ADVANCED C O M E R ICAL TURBINE ENGINE
OF THE FUTURE.
 FIG. 5 ARTIST'S VIEW OF A CONCEPTUAL ADVANCE .d
MILITARY TURBINE ENGINE OF THE FUTURE.

FIG. 6 DISTRIBUTION OF THE KINETIC ENERGY OF A ROTOR WAKE AS

IT PROGRESSES THROUGH THE DOWNSTREAM STATOR PASSAGE (ONE FRAME
FROM A DATA MOVIE).
TGmAE; P ~ C E
POOR QUALI'

FIG. 7 TIME-ACCURATE TWO-DIMENSIONAL NAVIER-STOKES CALCULATION

OF THE MACH CONTOURS IN THE SSME FUEL PUMP TURBINE (3/2, BLADE-
VANE COUNT).

TURBULENT LEVEL

HEAT LAMINAR LEVEL

FLUX

ONE WAKE
PASSING EVENT
L

PHOTO OF A ROTOR BLADE INSTRUMENTED

WITH THIN-FILM SENSORS PHASE-RESOLVED CONTOUR PLOT
SHOWING THE PROGRESSION OF
TRANSITION ALONG THE AIRFOIL
FIG. 8 EFFECT OF WAKES ON LAMIMAR-TURBULENT TRANSITION IN A TURBINE STAGE.
 O D D O D D sxpcrtrnent

0 I I t ' " ~ I
o0 15' o0 15'
BAR-PASSING INTERVAL
(b) PHASE-RESOLVED RNS (C 1 PHASE-RESOLVED HEAT
FLOW UNSTEADINESS. TRANSFER (FROESSLING
NUMBER. 1 .
F I G . 9 ENSEMBLE AVERAGES OF FLOW UNSTEADINESS AND STAGNATION HEAT
TRANSFER MEASURED I N A ROTOR-WAKE SIMULATION RIG.
 HIGH REYNOLD'S NUMBER; 65-PERCENT GAP : Cx/U, = 0.78

r FIRST ROTOR 0 LOW TURB

HIGH TURB
.006

LARGE SCALE ROTARING RIG 1-1/2 STAGE

TURBINE CONFIGURATION FIRST VANE AND
ROTOR CASE REMOVED
FIG. 1 0 EFFECTS OF BOTH INLET TURBULENCE LEVELS AND ROTOR/STATOR ON TURBINE MID-SPAN AVERAGE HEAT TRANSFER.
 HUB
V
( a) .
EXPERIMENT

/
ROTATION

TIP

- HUB
(b) ANALYSIS.
FIG. 11 RELATIVE TOTAL PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AT FIRST STAGE
ROTOR EXIT OF A LARGE LOW SPEED TURBINE.
 F I G . 12 COMPUTATION OF THE EVOLUTION OF' THE TOTAL TEMPERATURE
F I E L D WITHIN THE SSME FUEL TURBINE BY THE AVERAGE PASSAGE
METHOD.

COMPUTATIONAL

EXPERIMENTAL
PATH CD-87-29000

.
F I G 13 HIERARCHY OF EXPERIMENTAL AND COMPUTATIONAL TOOLS AVAILABLE FOR TURBONACH INERY
RESEARCH.
(a EXPER IMENTAL LIQUID CRYSTAL ISO-THERM (ALSO ISO-HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT .

( b ) COPIPUTER BASED CONTOURS OF ENDWALL HEAT TRANSFER EXPERIMENTAL DISTRIBUTION.

FIG. 14 HIGH-RESOLUTION TURBINE ENDWALL HEAT TRANSFER DATA, USING LIQUID CRYSTAL
TECHMIQUES .
02%IGmUPAGE '69
: : POOR QUALITY
 (b) FLOW VECTORS NEAR THE ENDWALL (y+ OF 3 ) .
FIG. 15 TURBULENT THREE-DIMENSIONAL NAVIER-STOKES TURBINE FLOW
CODE CALCULATIONS.
 A GRID 3, TU = 4.8%
o GRID 2, Tu = 1.9%
m GRID 1, Tu = 1.0%

(a) FLAT PLATE SUBJECT TO MILD PRESSURE .

GRADIENT .
TURBULENCE = 6.5 PERCENT; EXIT MACH NUMBER = 0.90
I J CALCULATED WITHOUT
I . L
, SUCTION ,/ j ADVERSE PRESSURE
I
1
1.L
'
' GRADIENT CORRECTION
1.0
I-
L
: .8
0,
L
LL

U ,6
oc
W
V) .4
Z
Q:
E

0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.O
* SURFACE DISTANCE, S/ARC
(b) SUCTION SURFACE OF HEATED VANE CASCADE.
FIG. 16 COMPARISON OF A MODIFIED LOW REY-
NOLDS NUMBER K-& TURBULENCE MODEL WITH EX-
PERIMENTAL HEAT TRANSFER DATA.
 DATA Re2 X
4 2.49
1.96
13 1.51

PREDICTION FTU FTG DATA Pc/PT

100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100
(b) FILM COOLING IN LEADING REGION ONLY.
DATA Re2 Pc/PT

.60 - 1.55E6
-
.40 -
A
-T
.20 - $4

0-
-

-0.20 -
Pressure Suction
I I I I I I
-0.30
100 80 60
40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100
SURFACE DISTANCE, S/ARC
(C) FILM COOLING IN BOTH LEADING EDGE AND DOWNSTREAM.
FIG. 17 FILM COOLING HEAT TRANSFER DATA IN A HEATED
VANE CASCADE. INCLUDING SOME COMPARISONS WITH A HODI-
FIED BOUNDARY LAYER ANALYSIS.
 SYMBOL AT*
FLAGS OF

6 40
0- 80

--
LOW PRESSURE I
OPEN SYMBOLS - SMOOTH WALL
SOLID SYMBOLS - ROUGH WALL

HIGH PRESSURE A

0
,5 .4 .3
i
.2
I
.I 0 .I
I I
.2
I
.3 .4 .5
ROTATION NUMBER. Od/V
FIG. 18 THE EFFECTS OF ROTATION ON HEAT TRANSFER I N MULTIPASS COOLANT PASSAGES
WITH AND WITHOUT TURBULATORS ARE SHOWN FOR THE FIRST OUTWARD FLOWING LEG.
 WALL
TEMPERATURE, TEMPERATURE,
K K

HEAT TRANSFER
,
COEFFICIENT,

V)
o
0
a m
4n
"T E d2 =2s
X D D S
o mr rs
E m 202 Z
V) -I I
E gV)
orn-12 ~
cn
m
D
m
ZW-I
2 0%"
O D ~ Z
D m
r 4 - I
Z-I D m A
D I r D W D
rn
D D 541
-I Z
2 4mg
2n
V)
=
0
3
FIG. 20 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION ON A ROTOR BLADE IN REAL
OPERATING TURBINE ENGINE. USING A SCANNING OPT1 CAL PYRO-
METER.
 FIG. 21 SSNE POWERHEAD CONPONENT ARRANGEMENT.

FIG. 22 SSME PROPELLANT FLOW SCHEMATIC AT FULL POWER LEVEL.

DHGDJAL PAGE 19
.DFPO92 QVALITy
 FIG. 23 CALCULATION OF THE RADIAL TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
FLOWING FROM THE FUEL PUMP PREBURNER INTO THE TURBINE.

ARM SPOT

WARM

FIG. 24 PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF A CALCULATION OF THE TEMPERATURE

DISTRIBUTION WITHIN A BALL BEARING ELEMENT I N THE LOX TURBO-
PUMP.
 ANTI-FLOOD
VALVE
\ BYPASS LINE
FIG. 25 LOX-GOX HEAT EXCHANGER FOR SSME OXIDIZER PUMP ASSEMBLY.

FIG. 26 MAIN COMBUSTION CHAMBER INJECTOR FOR

SSME ENGINE.
 F I G . 27 PARTICLE TRACES NEAR THE POST-PLATE JUNCTION FOR TWO
ROWS OF POSTS I N THE COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE LOX POST
TYPE GEOMETERIES.

#
F I G . 28 CORRELATION OF HYDROGEN HEAT TRANSFER DATA I N THE NEAR-CRITICAL REGION BY ACCOUNTING
FOR STRONG DENSITY VARIATIONS.

G ' I R I R J B NPAGE
~ ~ IS
OF,EOOR QWrn'B',Yi
 VAPOR 7 r LIQUID

FIG. 29 COMPUTATION OF CHANGING FLUID ORIENTATION I N A PROPELLANT

USING A SMALL PULSED FREQUENCY THRUSTOR ( 0 . 1 SEC DURATION AT 0 . 1
Hz).

( a > ARTIST'S SKETCH.

(b EXPER IHENTAL CONFIGURATION BE ING W IND-TUNNEL TESTED.

FIG. 30. AEROBRAKING OF AN ORBITAL TRANSFER VEHICLE.
 (a) AIRTURBO RAHJETIROCKET.

/- SUPERSONIC COMBUSTION

(b) SCRAM JET.

FIG. 3 1 CONCEPTUAL CROSS-SECTIONS OF POTENTIAL ENGINES FOR
HYPERSONIC PROPULSION.

TRANSITION
BOUNDARY
,-I-, Re/H = 300
---a-
--- - Re/M = 100

I I I I I l l I 1 I I I I l l 1
102y I I
10 100
MACH NUMBER
FIG. 3 2 BOUNDS ON BOUNDARY LAYER TRANSITION CRITERIA FOR HIGH
MACH NUMBER FLIGHT.
0
( a ) PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION.

(b HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT DISTRIBUTION.

FIG. 33 EFFECT OF AN OBLIQUE (20.2') SHOCK ON A
SURFACE.
 ANALYSIS-20 NAVIER-STOKES

MACH NO.

r
FLOW

EXPERIMENT-U\SER ANEMOMETRY

F I G . 34 COMPARISON OF ANALYSIS AND LDV MEASUREMENTS FOR A NORMAL

SHOCK WAVE BOUNDARY LAYER INTERACTION.

BOW
SHOCK

I II 111 IV v vI
TYPE
F I G . 35 REGIONS OR CLASSES OF SHOCK-ON-SHOCK INTERFERENCES AND THEIR
INFLUENCE ON PRESSURE AND HEAT TRANSFER.
FIG. 36 SCHLIEREN PHOTOGRAPH OF A TYPE IV SHOCK-ON-SHOCK
INTERFERENCE PATTERN.
 1.o
0.8 -
-
\
---

-\

V)
V)
Q
5
>
U
C,
o
Q
0.6

0.4 - \a;
Parthasarathy
& Zakkay
.ztrY 4%

rC

iii 0.2 -

0.1 I I I I I I 1
100 1000 1O,o
-
X X-0.8
S
FIG. 37 RANGE OF SLOT FILM COOLING EFFECTIVENESS DATA
FOR HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW.
FIG. 3 8 THEORETICAL LIMITS FOR VARIOUS FLUIDS
TO ACT AS A HIGH ENERGY HEAT REMOVAL MEDIUM
I N A HEAT PIPE.
 .
F IG 39 INTERDISC IPL INARY STRUCTURES, FLU IDS, MATERIALS, DESIGN, AND INSTRUMENTATION
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY FOR VERY H IGH TEMPERATURE, HIGH HEAT LOAD ENVIRONMENTS .

"
4 6 8 10 12
FLIGHT MACH NUMBER
FIG. 40 PERCENT OF THE FLOWING FUEL NEEDED TO
PROVIDE A HEAT SINK FOR ENGINE/VEHICLE HEAT
LOADS.
px-.--
JR[!JIN,U: PA.GE jj3
2oox Q'C$AJ,rn%
I Nal~onalAeronautics and
Report Documentation Page
Space Adm8n$stratlon

1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.

NASA TM-100874
4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date

I Heat T r a n s f e r i n Aerospace P r o p u l s i o n
6. Performing Organization Code

7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.

Robert J . Simoneau, Robert C. Hendricks, E-4105

and H e r b e r t 3 . Gladden 10. Work Unit No.

9. Performing Organization Name and Address

505-62-2 1
11. Contract or Grant No.
N a t i o n a l A e r o n a u t i c s and Space A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
Lewi s Research Center
Cleveland, O h i o 44135-3191 13. Type of Report and Period Covered

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

Technical Memorandum
N a t i o n a l A e r o n a u t i c s and Space A d m i n i s t r a t i o n 14. Sponsoring Agency Code
Washington, D.C. 20546-0001

15. Supplementary Notes

P l e n a r y l e c t u r e prepared f o r t h e N a t i o n a l Heat Transfer Conference cosponsored by

t h e American S o c i e t y of Mechaniyal Engineers, t h e American I n s t i t u t e o f Chemical
Engineers, and t h e American Nuclear S o c i e t y , Houston, Texas, J u l y 24-27, 1988.

16. Abstract

T h i s paper p r e s e n t s an o v e r v i e w of h e a t t r a n s f e r r e l a t e d r e s e a r c h i n s u p p o r t o f
aerospace p r o p u l s i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y as seen from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e NASA Lewis
Research C e n t e r . For t h i s paper, aerospace p r o p u l s i o n i s defined t o cover t h e
f u l l spectrum f r o m c o n v e n t i o n a l a i r c r a f t power p l a n t s t h r o u g h t h e Aerospace Plane
t o space p r o p u l s i o n . The c o n v e n t i o n a l s u b s o n i c / s u p e r s o n i c a i r c r a f t arena,
whether commercial o r m i l i t a r y , r e l i e s on t h e t u r b i n e engine. A key c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c o f t u r b i n e engines i s t h a t t h e y i n v o l v e fundamentally unsteady f l o w s which
must be p r o p e r l y t r e a t e d . Space p r o p u l s i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by v e r y demanding
performance requirements which f r e q u e n t l y push systems t o t h e i r l i m i t s and demand
v e r y t a i l o r e d d e s i g n s . The h y p e r s o n i c f l i g h t p r o p u l s i o n systems a r e s u b j e c t t o
v e r y severe h e a t loads and t h e engine and a i r f r a m e a r e t r u l y one e n t i t y . The
impact o f t h e s p e c i a l demands of each of t h e s e aerospace p r o p u l s i o n systems on
h e a t t r a n s f e r w i l l be e x p l o r e d i n t h i s paper.

17. Key Words (Suggested by Author(s)) 18. Distribution Statement

Heat t r a n s f e r Unclassified - Unlimited
Propulsion S u b j e c t Category 34
Aerospace

19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No of pages 22. Price*
Unc1assifie.d Unclassified 48 A03
NASA FORM 1626 OCT 86
*For sale by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield. Virginia 22161
National Aeronautics and FOURTH CLASS MAIL
Space Administration
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Cleveland, Ohio 44135

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