TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 1

LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION: ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGAUGE. FACTORS

THAT DEFINE A COMMUNICATIVE SITUATION: SENDER, RECEIVER,
FUNCTIONALITY AND CONTEXT

0. INTRODUCTION

1. LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION.

2. ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGAUGE.

3. FACTORS THAT DEFINE A COMMUNICATIVE SITUATION: SENDER, RECEIVER,

FUNCTIONALITY AND CONTEXT

4. DIDACTIC APPLICATION

5. CONCLUSIONS

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the title of the topic, this topic focuses on the study of language and
specifically, language as communication, and is also related to topic 2, which deals with
verbal and non-verbal communication.

Let us begin by considering that communication has been a major concern since
ancient times as the ability to produce utterances is crucial in the learning process of a
language so that it has a communicative effect.

In fact, being able to communicate in a foreign language is one of the stage

objectives that students must have achieved by the end of Primary Education (objective
f), as stated in the LOMLOE 3/2020, the Royal Decree 157/2022 and the Decree 38/2022
of Castile and León.

Having said this, to develop this topic, I will divide it into four sections. In the first
section, I will deal with the definition of both language and communication. In the second
section, I will talk about the differences between oral and written language. The third
section will deal with the factors that define a communicative situation, and, in the fourth
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

section I will give an example of didactic application related to this topic. Finally, I will
present the conclusions and the bibliography used for the development of this topic.

1. LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of my essay
which deals with language as communication.

1.1. LANGUAGE

On the one hand, I will start defining language and its properties, so what is
language? The concept of language has been defined innumerable times throughout
the years, so I will give some examples of it to get a general idea of what it is.

According to the Oxford dictionary (2023), language is defined as “the method

of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a
structured and conventional way”.

However, authors like Crystal (2003) defined language as a “system of

conventional spoken or written symbols as well as body expressions by means of which
human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture,
communicate”.

Once I have given these definitions of language, I will now mention the different
properties that are also its defining characteristics. To do so, I will follow Hocket (1960s)
who distinguished six properties of language that make human language different from
other communication systems:

 Communicative vs. informative: that is, informative signals are those which
are not given intentionally (e.g.: yawing when we are bored) while
communicative signals are given intentionally (e.g.: saying something directly)
 Displacement: is the property which allows humans to refer to the past, the
future or to other locations and places. E.g.: “Last week we learned the farm
animals”.
 Arbitrariness: that is, there is not a natural connection between the linguistic
form and the meaning of a word. For example, the word “school” does not have
an iconic relationship with the building where teachers work, and students learn.
 Productivity: is the ability that humans have to create new expressions and
utterances to describe new objects or situations. E.g.: the “to troll”, which means
to boycott, or to trick.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

 Cultural Transmission: is the process by which language is passed from one

generation to the other.
 Discreteness: which means that the sounds used in language are significantly
distinct. E.g.: the sounds /v/ and /b/ are very similar but can make a difference in
meaning.
 Other properties are:
▪ The use of the vocal-auditory channel, that is, linguistic communication
is generated via the vocal organs and perceived through the ear, although
it can also be transmitted through writing or sign language.
▪ Reciprocity, which means that any speaker or sender can also be the
hearer or receiver.
▪ Specialization, which means that linguistic signals have no other
purpose than to convey meaning.
▪ And rapid fading or transitoriness, which means that linguistic signals
do not last forever.

1.2. COMMUNICATION

Now that we know what language is and its main properties, I will now deal with
the definition of both communication and the communicative competence, as we are
talking about language as communication in this topic.

Starting by communication, I will give a definition of it to get a general idea of

what the term means. So, what is communication?

Communication is defined by the Oxford dictionary (2023) as “the transmission

or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other medium”.

Once we know what communication is, it would be appropriate to talk about the
concept of communicative competence here, which is also developed in topic 3. So,
what is the communicative competence?

Well, the communicative competence refers to individuals’ ability to use

language for effective communication in a variety of contexts.

The concept was coined by the Dell Hymes (1966) as a reaction to Chomsky’s
(1965) theory, who differentiated between “competence” (that is, the language
knowledge) and “performance” (that is, the actual use of that language knowledge in
concrete situations), saying that we only needed to focus on the “competence” to study
language. Hymes’ main criticism was that Chomsky had forgotten the rules of language
use, because when people speak, not only do they use grammatically correct utterances,
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

they also know when and where to use them and to whom. Hymes also distinguished
four aspects of the Communicative Competence:

• Systematic potential: speakers have a system with a potential to create a

lot of language.

• Appropriacy: speakers know what language is appropriate in each situation.

• Occurrence: speakers know how often something is said in language.

• Feasibility: speakers know whether something is possible or not in language.

Other authors like Canale and Swain (1980) extended the theory with five
different sub-competences or components:

 Grammatical Competence: the language knowledge

 Sociolinguistic and sociocultural Competence: the knowledge of the rules

of language use and the cultural aspects of the target language.

 Discourse Competence: the ability to produce cohesive and coherent

utterances.

 Strategic Competence: the ability to solve communication problems as they

arise.

2. ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE

After developing the first section of my essay, in the second section I will deal
with the oral and written language, as language appears in two modes of communication,
which are in turn, oral and written. But what is the oral and the written language?

On the one hand, oral language, according to Harmer (2007), is “language

expressed through the aural medium, in a two-way process between speaker and
listener, in which the speaker has to encode the message he/she wishes to convey in an
appropriate way, while the listener has to decode or interpret that message in order to
produce an appropriate answer and become himself/herself a speaker”.

When talking about oral language, we should differentiate between linguistic and
paralinguistic features. Linguistic features have phonetic resources such as stress,
rhythm, intonation, and lexical, semantic and morphosyntactic resources. Paralinguistic
features are namely body, facial gestures, mime, etc.

On the other hand, written language, according to Harmer (2007), is “language

expressed through the visual medium, and especially interesting is the integration of both
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

written skills, because, when we read or write, not only do we decode the message, we
also interpret what we are reading or writing”.

When talking about written language, we should mention that it seems clear that
all writing systems developed independently at different times and in different parts of
the world. In fact, we can distinguish two types of writing systems:

▪ Non-phonological systems: that is, they do not show a relationship between

symbols and the sounds of the language. They include pictograms, ideograms,
cuneiform writing or the Egyptian writing.

▪ Phonological systems: that is, they do show a clear relationship between

symbols and the sounds of the language. They can be:
- Syllabic systems: where each grapheme corresponds to a syllable.
- Alphabetic systems: where each grapheme corresponds to a phoneme
(e.g. Spanish).

Finally, what are the main differences between oral and written language?
According to Halliday (1989), they are the following:

ORAL LANGUAGE WRITTEN LANGUAGE

 There is a tendency to ellipsis and  There is not as much abbreviation and
abbreviation of words. ellipsis (except for colloquial language).
 There is much use of coordinated  The grammar used is more complex,
sentences. combining simple and embedded clauses
 There is use of more general and simple and phrases.
vocabulary.  The vocabulary is more complex and
 There is use of semantic conversational elaborated.
fillers.  Repetition is avoided by choosing other
 Grammar is simpler. terms like synonyms.
 There is much repetition.  Written language is permanent.
 It is time bound.  The presence of the receiver is not
 And speech is produced by more than one necessary.
participant.

3. FACTORS THAT DEFINE A COMMUNICATIVE SITUATION

TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

After developing the second section, I will now start developing the third section
of my essay, which deals with the factors that define a communicative situation. But
what are those factors?

3.1. ELEMENTS IN COMMUNICATION

Let us begin by mentioning the ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION stablished

by Jakobson (1960) and extended by others which are based on the elements of the
telephone system by Shannon and Weaver. They are the following:

⚫ ADDRESSER: or sender of information.

⚫ ADDRESSEE: or receiver of that information.
⚫ MESSAGE: is the information that is being transmitted.
⚫ CODE: refers to the system of symbols used to transmit the message
⚫ REGISTER: is the style of language used (formal or informal).
⚫ PURPOSE: or intention of the message.
⚫ CHANNEL: or the medium through which the message is transmitted.
⚫ FEEDBACK: which is the evaluation of the reaction that the sender receives from
the receiver after this has received the message.
⚫ And CONTEXT: that is, the other verbal signs in the same message, and the
world in which the message takes place.

Now that we know the elements of communication, before turning our attention
towards functionality, we should talk a little bit about the element of the CONTEXT, as
the context in communication is important, because depending on the context, the
language that we use will change. Thus, we can distinguish two types of contexts
according to Holtgraves (2002):

 The linguistic context, which refers to the accompanying text, that is, what
comes before and after the piece of information we are paying attention to.
 And the situational context, which refers to the non-verbal environment,
including the immediate situation and the sociocultural background.

3.2. FUNCTIONALITY

Finally, to finish with this section, we will answer to the following question: what
do we use language for? Well, as regards the FUNCTIONALITY of language, language
has a wide variety of functions depending on the author we consult:
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

I will start by mentioning the most popular classification by Jakobson (1960),

who distinguished six functions of language related to elements involved in
communication:

⚫ REFERENTIAL, DENOTATIVE OR COGNITIVE: which describes a situation,

object, or mental state.
⚫ EMOTIVE OR EXPRESSIVE: which focuses on the addresser and allows us to
express our attitude towards what we are saying. It is represented by
interjections. E.g.: Oh, my God!
⚫ CONATIVE: which focuses on the receiver of our message and is represented
by vocatives and imperatives. E.g.: “Students, open your books”.
⚫ PHATIC: which maintains and prolongs communication between speakers. E.g.:
“really?”, “right?”.
⚫ MELALINGUISTIC OR METALINGUAL: which refers to the use of language to
talk about language itself. E.g.: “how do you say this in English?”.
⚫ POETIC: which aims to exploit the sonic potential of language giving our touch
to the message using rhetorical figures, changing the tone, the volume, etc. E.g.:
“I’m happier than a butcher’s dog”.

Another classification is the one by Austin and Searle (1960s), who

distinguished the following functions known as speech acts.

⚫ DECLARATIVE: that is, when we produce changes with our utterances. E.g.: “I
declare this meeting open”
⚫ DIRECTIVE: that is, when we want the receiver to do something. E.g.: “Close the
door”.
⚫ ASSERTIVE: that is, to tell how things are by affirming, concluding, informing,
etc. E.g.: “Today is Monday”.
⚫ COMMISSIVE: that is, when we commit to do something by warning, promising,
threatening, etc. E.g.: “Beware of dog”.
⚫ EXPRESSIVE: that is, when we express our feelings, emotions, and attitudes by
thanking, complaining, apologizing, etc. E.g.: “I am sorry”.

4. DIDACTIC APPLICATION

Once all the sections of the title have been developed, I will briefly talk in this
fourth section of my essay about the didactic applications of this topic. As we are talking
about using language for communication along this topic, we should opt for
communicative activities in our classroom.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

Thus, there are plenty of activities to foster interaction between students and
develop the communicative competence among which I would suggest using the
following:

To focus on oral communication, we can use:

⚫ Guessing games like “guess who?”, where students, in pairs, ask each other
questions to guess a secret character they have previously chosen.
⚫ “Headbandz”, a guessing game where students wear a band around their head
with a flashcard on their forehead that they will have to guess by asking questions
like “what am I?” “Am I an animal?”…
⚫ Picture dictation, where students describe a picture to their classmates who will
have to draw it and see if it resembles the original picture.
⚫ Information gathering activities, where they move around the class to ask each
other questions and fill a chart. E.g.: what’s your name?, where are you from?
How old are you?, etc.
⚫ Creative games like “story cubes”, where students create a story according to
what the sides of the dice show after rolling them.
⚫ Description activities, dialogues and interviews.
⚫ Simulations and problem-solving activities, such as making students talk and
reach an agreement to solve a problem. E.g.: deciding the best activity to do on
a Friday evening.
⚫ Or Wespeke, a platform for language exchange where we can organize
meetings with students from other schools and make them use English.

To focus on written communication, we can use:

⚫ “Pequetweets”, a project developed by Gil. J and Martínez J. (2017) in which

students write their ideas and thoughts about diverse topics in a tweet using the
TWITTER social media.
⚫ E-pals, that is, to make students write e-mails to students from English-speaking
countries.
⚫ Note-leaving activities.
⚫ Or a collaborative “PADLET”, which is a platform to build a collaborative space
through the creation of a wall where students will write, like and comment other
classmates’ posts in a private way.

5. CONCLUSIONS
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

To come to an end, we can conclude that languages are a means of

communication that allow us to transmit information, express feelings, and attitudes,
establish social relationships, etc. We can communicate both in writing and speech, and
to be communicatively competent in a language, we must not only pay attention to the
grammar rules, but also to the appropriate use of language in each situation, as it may
change according to the context. I would like to finish this essay with a quote by
Kristantara, who said that:

“Language is important, but making a language a means of communication is no less

important”

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Finally, I will mention the bibliography used for the development of this topic:

Crystal, D. (2003). The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language.

Cutting, J. (2002). Pragmatics and Discourse. A Resource Book for students.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1989). Spoken and Written Language.

Hymes, D. (1971). Competence and Performance in linguistic theory. Language

acquisition: Models and methods.

Richards, J.C., Platt, J. & Platt, H. (2010). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching
and Applied Linguistics.

Yule, G. (2016). The Study of Language.

LOMLOE 3/2020, 29th of December, which regulates education in Spain.

Royal Decree 157/2022, March 1st, which establishes the basic curriculum for Primary
Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022, September 29th, which establishes the curriculum in Castile and León.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 1. LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION: ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGAUGE. FACTORS THAT DEFINE A
COMMUNICATIVE SITUATION: SENDER, RECEIVER, FUNCTIONALITY AND CONTEXT
0. INTRODUCTION 3. FACTORS THAT DEFINE A COMMUNICATIVE
SITUATION
-Topic 2.
- Major concern 3.1. Elements in communication
- Laws - Elements – Jakobson (1960) & Shannon & Weaver
- 4 sections + Addresser
+ Addressee
1. LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION + Message
+ Code
1.1. Language + Register
+ Purpose
- Definition of language – Oxford Dictionary (2021) + Channel
– Crystal (2003) + Feedback
- Properties of language – Hocket (1960s) + Context
+ Communicative vs. informative - The context – Holtgraves (2002)
+ Displacement + Linguistic context
+ Arbitrariness + Situational context
+ Productivity
+ Cultural Transmission 3.2. Functionality
+ Discreteness
+ Others: - Functions of language – Jakobson (1960)
- Vocal-auditory channel + Referential, denotative, or cognitive
- Reciprocity + Emotive or expressive
- Specialization + Conative
- Rapid fading (transitoriness) + Phatic
+ Metalinguistic or metalingual
1.2. Communication + Poetic
- Functions of language – Austin & Searle (1960s)
- Definition of communication – Oxford dictionary (2021) + Declarative
- Definition of Communicative Competence. + Directive
1. Dell Hymes (1996). + Assertive
+ Systematic potential. + Commissive
+ Appropriacy. + Expressive
+ Occurrence.
+ Feasibility. 4. DIDACTIC APPLICATION
2. Chomsky (1965).
+ Competence - Oral communication
+ Performance
3. Canale & Swain (1980). + Guessing games
+Grammatical Competence. + Describing
+ Sociolinguistic Competence. + Picture dictation
+ Discourse Competence. + Interviews
+ Strategic Competence. + Dialogues
+ Story Cubes
2. ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE + Information gathering
+ Simulation and problem-solving activities
-Definition of oral language – Harmer (2007) + Wespeke
+ Linguistic features
+ Paralinguistic features - Written communication
-Definition of written language – Harmer (2007)
+ Non-phonological systems + Pequetweets – (Gil, J. & and Martínez, J. 2017).
+ Phonological systems + Padlet
- Alphabetic + E-pals
- Syllabic + Note-leaving
- Differences between oral & written language – Halliday
(1989) 5. CONCLUSION

Kristantara
“Language is important, but making a language a means
of communication is no less important”
 Topic 1

LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION:
ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE.
FACTORS DEFINING A
COMMUNICATIVE SITUATION:
SENDER, RECEIVER, FUNCTION AND
CONTEXT.

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 Topic 2

COMMUNICATION IN THE FOREIGN

LANGUAGE CLASS: VERBAL AND
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION.
EXTRA-LINGUISTIC STRATEGIES:
NON-VERBAL RESPONSES TO
MESSAGES IN DIFFERENT
CONTEXTS.

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 Topic 3

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

LINGUISTIC SKILLS: AURAL
COMPREHENSION AND ORAL
EXPRESSION, WRITTEN
COMPREHENSION AND
EXPRESSION. COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE IN ENGLISH.

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 Topic 4

APPRECIATION OF THE KNOWLEDGE

OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AS A TOOL
FOR INTERPERSONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION.
INTEREST IN LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY
THROUGH THE KNOWLEDGE OF A
NEW LANGUAGE AND ITS CULTURE.

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 Topic 5

AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOGRAPHY,

HISTORY AND CULTURE OF
ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES.
HOW TO TEACH THE MOST
RELEVANT GEOGRAPHICAL
HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL
ASPECTS.

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 Topic 6

THE CONTRIBUTION OF
LINGUISTICS TO THE TEACHING OF
FOREIGN LANGUAGES. THE
LANGUAGE LEARNING PROCESS:
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN ACQUISITION OF THE
FIRST LANGUAGE AND THE FOREIGN
LANGUAGE.

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 Topic 7

ORAL FOREIGN LANGUAGE. THE

COMPLEXITY OF GETTING THE
GENERAL MEANING IN AN ORAL
EXCHANGE: FROM HEARING TO
ACTIVE AND SELECTIVE LISTENING.
SPEAKING FROM IMITATION TO
INDEPENDENT PRODUCTION.

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 Topic 8

WRITTEN FOREIGN LANGUAGE. THE

EVOLUTION OF THE READING -
WRITING PROCESS. READING
COMPREHENSION: GLOBAL AND
SPECIFIC COMPREHENSION
TECHNIQUES. WRITING: FROM
INTERPRETING TO PRODUCING
TEXTS.

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 Topic 9

A DESCRIPTION OF THE
PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM OF
ENGLISH. MODELS AND
TECHNIQUES FOR LEARNING.
HEARING, DISCRIMINATING AND
PRODUCING SOUNDS, RHYTHM,
STRESS AND INTONATION.
PHONETIC CORRECTION.

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 Topic 10

THE ORTOGRAPHIC CODE IN THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE. SOUND -
SPELLING RELATIONSHIPS.
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHING
OF WRITING/SPELLING. APPLYING
SPELLING TO WRITTEN WORK.

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 Topic 11

LEXICAL AND SEMANTIC FIELDS IN

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
VOCABULARY NECESSARY FOR
SOCIALISING. EXCHANGING
INFORMATION AND EXPRESSING
ATTITUDES. ACTIVITIES RELATED
TO THE TEACHING AND LEARNING
OF VOCABULARY IN THE FOREIGN
LANGUAGE CLASS.

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 Topic 12

ESSENTIAL MORPHOSYNTACTIC
ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH.
ELEMENTARY STRUCTURES FOR
COMMUNICATING. A PROGRESSIVE
USE OF GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
IN ORAL AND WRITTEN PRODUCTION
TO IMPROVE COMMUNICATION.

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 Topic 13

THE HISTORY OF THE EVOLUTION OF

FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING:
FROM THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION
METHOD TO CONTEMPORARY
APPROACHES.

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 Topic 14

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

FOCUSSED ON THE ACQUISITION OF
COMMUNICATIVE SKILLS. A
SPECIFIC METHODOLOGY FOR THE
TEACHING OF ENGLISH.

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 Topic 15

THE MOST APPROPRIATE PERIODS,

AUTHORS AND GENRES OF
LITERATURE FOR WORKING ON IN
THE ENGLISH CLASS. TEXT TYPES.

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 Topic 16

CHILDREN'S LITERATURE IN
ENGLISH. TEACHING TECHNIQUES
FOR AURAL COMPREHENSION;
DEVELOPING THE READING HABIT,
AND BECOMING AWARE OF THE
POETIC FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE.

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 Topic 17

THE SONG AS A FORM OF POETRY

AND AS A LITERARY CREATION IN
THE ENGLISH CLASS. TYPES OF
SONGS. USING SONGS TO LEARN
PRONUNCIATION, VOCABULARY AND
CULTURE.

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 Topic 18

THE ROLE OF GAMES AND

CREATIVITY IN THE LEARNING OF
FOREIGN LANGUAGES. TYPES OF
GAMES USED IN LANGUAGE
LEARNING. THE GAME AS A
TECHNIQUE FOR THE ACHIEVING OF
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN
THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE.

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 Topic 19

DRAMA TECHNIQUES AS A
RESOURCE IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE
LEARNING. ACTING OUT EVERYDAY
SITUATIONS, STORIES,
CHARACTERS, JOKES...
GROUPWORK IN CREATIVE
ACTIVITIES. THE ROLE OF THE
TEACHER.

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 Topic 20

THE AREA OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

IN THE CURRICULUM. CRITERIA TO
BE REFLECTED IN THE CENTRE'S
EDUCATION PROJECT AND
CURRICULAR PROJECT.

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 Topic 21

THE AREA OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES:

SYLLABUS-PLANNING. CRITERIA
FOR SEQUENCING AND TIMING OF
CONTENTS AND OBJECTIVES.
SELECTION OF METHODOLOGY IN
LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT
ACTIVITIES.

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 Topic 22

ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

MANAGEMENT VARIABLES: PUPIL
GROUPING, THE DISTRIBUTION OF
SPACE AND TIME - METHODOLOGY
SELECTION, ROLE OF THE
TEACHER...

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 Topic 23

MAKING MATERIALS FOR THE

ENGLISH CLASS. CRITERIA FOR THE
SELECTION AND USE OF
TEXTBOOKS. AUTHENTIC AND
ARTIFICIAL TEXTS: LIMITS TO
THEIR USE. PUPIL COLLABORATION
IN MATERIAL DESIGN.

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 Topic 24

TECHNOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL

ASPECTS OF THE USE OF AUDIO-
VISUAL MATERIALS (THE
NEWSPAPER, TV, TAPE RECORDER
AND VIDEO...). THE COMPUTER AS
AN AUXILIARY RESOURCE IN THE
LEARNING OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES.

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 Topic 25

PUPIL-CENTRED TEACHING AND

LEARNING OF THE FOREIGN
LANGUAGE: THEORIES AND
APPLICATIONS. THE IDENTIFYING
OF MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS AND
ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE. PRACTICAL
APPLICATIONS.

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 2

COMMUNICATION IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOM: VERBAL AND

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION. EXTRALINGUISTIC STRATEGIES: NON-
VERBAL REACTIONS TO MESSAGES IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS

0. INTRODUCTION

1. COMMUNICATION IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

2. VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

3. EXTRALINGUISTIC STRATEGIES: NON-VERBAL REACTIONS TO MESSAGES

IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS

4. DIDACTIC APPLICATIONS

5. CONCLUSIONS

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the title of the topic, this essay mainly focuses on the communication
in the English classroom, specifically, on verbal and non-verbal communication. This
topic is also related to topic 1, which deals with the language as communication and the
factors involved in it.

Let us begin by considering that communication has been a major concern since
ancient times as the ability to produce utterances is crucial in the learning process of a
language so that it has a communicative effect.

In fact, being able to communicate in a foreign language is one of the stage

objectives that students must have achieved by the end of Primary Education (objective
f), as stated both in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree 157/2022. Moreover,
according to the Decree 38/2022 of Castile and León, students should be able to both
understand and use verbal and non-verbal resources.

Having said this, to develop this topic, I will divide it into four sections. In the first
section, I will deal with communication in the English classroom. In the second section,
I will talk about verbal and non-verbal communication. In the third section, I will deal with
the extralinguistic strategies used in the classroom. The fourth section will deal with a
didactic application of the topic. Finally, I will present the conclusions and the
bibliography used for the development of this topic.

1. COMMUNICATION IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

1.1. DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of my essay
which deals with communication in the foreign language classroom. Thus, the first
question we should ask ourselves is: what is communication?

COMMUNICATION is defined by the Oxford dictionary (2021) as “the

transmission or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other
medium”.

It is also defined by C.G. Brown as the transfer of information from one person
to another, which must be understood by the receiver.

As a last definition, Murphy and Thomas gave us a better and more adequate
definition for the development of this topic. They defined communication as the process
to transmit and receive verbal and non-verbal messages and that is considered effective
when a desired response or reaction by the receiver is achieved.
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1.2. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Once we know what communication is, it could be appropriate to briefly mention

the different TYPES OF COMMUNICATION that exist, or at least, some of them. Thus,
we can find the following types according to Crystal (2007):

▪ Auditory-vocal communication: which includes speech, physiological reflexes,

vocal qualities, and musical effects.
▪ Visual communication: which includes the sign language, writing and kinesics.
▪ Tactile communication: which includes deaf and blind languages, secret codes,
and proxemics.
▪ And olfactory and gustatory, which deal with a more instinctive aspect of
communication.

Apart from this general classification, communication can also be classified

according to its nature. According to the Argentinian psychologist Corbin (2017),
communication can be classified according to:

▪ The number of participants into individual, collective, intrapersonal, or massive.

▪ The sensory channel, which coincides with Crystals previous classification.
▪ The technological channel through the phone, Internet, TV, or movies.
▪ The use or purpose into publicity, journalistic, educational, or political
communication.
▪ And into verbal and non-verbal communication, which will be developed later.

1.3. INTERACTIONS IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM

Having said this, we cannot finish this first section of the topic without talking
about how communication is developed in the foreign language classroom. To do so, I
will deal with the two TYPES OF INTERACTIONS that occur in the classroom, that is,
student to student interactions and teacher to student interactions.

First, as regards STUDENT-TO-STUDENT INTERACTIONS:

• It is based on peer relationships, which allow the maximum degree of

communication. This type of interaction also develops oral fluency and the use
of communicative strategies, as both in pair work and group work, there is a
chance for everyone to use language and feel involved. Also, students feel more
confident and help each other, sharing ideas and knowledge.
• Regarding the teacher’s role in the student-to-student interaction, he/she must
consider their age, previous knowledge and experiences when developing
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activities. Moreover, the teacher should also give students the chance to use the
target language as much as possible between them, like greeting, congratulating,
thanking formulas or simple requests. Moreover, not only must the teacher foster
the oral interaction between students, but also the written interaction.

And second, concerning the TEACHER-TO-STUDENT INTERACTIONS:

• It is based on superior knowledge and authority.

• Foreign language teachers adjust their knowledge to students’ level by
simplifying their discourse. Moreover, the so called “teacher talk” has its own
characteristics, which have been the object of several studies within the field of
sociolinguistics. Research shows that:
1. Classroom language is mainly dominated by the teacher, who selects
topics and decides how they will be treated. The teacher often controls
turn-taking and the start and end of conversations.
2. Teachers use special “frames” to move from one verbal transaction to
other. Among these, we can find “well”, “now”, “right”, “ok”, “look”, etc.
3. Non-verbal elements such as hand gestures or looks are
complementary characteristics of the “teacher talk”.
• As regards the types of verbal interaction between the teacher and the students,
the most common are questions (which are used for different purposes like
comprehension checking or for language practice); and directions (which are
used to organize activities, to show how to do an activity or to maintain discipline).

2. VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

After defining communication, its types, and the communication in the foreign
language classroom, I will now start developing the second section of my essay which
deals with two types of communication that I mentioned before: verbal and non-verbal
communication.

2.1. VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Starting by the verbal communication, how is it characterized? Well, VERBAL

COMMUNICATION is characterized by using words in the interaction between the
sender and the receiver. There are two types of verbal communication, as words or
verbal language can be expressed orally or in writing.

1. On the one hand, oral communication is performed through oral signs or

spoken words.
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2. On the other hand, written communication is performed through written codes

and includes the phonological writing systems (that is, syllabic and
alphabetical) and the non-phonological writing systems (that is, pictograms,
ideograms, Egyptian writing, etc.).

Now that we know what verbal communication is and its two types, it could be
appropriate to briefly talk about the prosodic features of verbal communication, as they
help build meaning and affect verbal interaction. The main PROSODIC FEATURES are
the following:

1. Stress: refers to the intensity given to a syllable by putting special effort resulting
in a higher volume to differentiate it from other syllables or words (Harmer, 2007)
2. Rhythm: is the combination of stressed and unstressed syllables that allows us
to slow down our speech or speed it up, be emphatic or make it more aesthetic.
(Cantero, 2003)
3. Intonation: refers to the changes in pitch or tone to convey or alter the meaning.
Depending on whether it is rising or falling, we may express doubt, surprise,
certainty, questions, etc. (Cantero, 2003)
4. Speech pauses: which help us breath, change the tone and rhythm; and in
general, they allow us to maintain the receiver’s attention. However, if these
pauses are long, they are inadequate. In written language, these pauses refer to
punctuation.

The importance of paying attention to these features lies in that they are not only
part of messages themselves, and therefore of communication, but also, they are
language specific and must be acquired in the same way as the other elements of the
target language.

2.2. NON- VERBAL COMMUNICATION

After explaining the verbal communication, let us now see what the non-verbal
communication is about.

According to Darn (2005) NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION is carried out

without using words and in many cases unconsciously. Body movements, postures,
looks, or even the way we sit, or walk are some examples. In fact, according to the
researcher Ray Birdwhistell, the founder of kinesics, in a conversation between two
people, only 35% of the message is transmitted through words, being the other 65%
communicated through non-linguistic signs.
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As regards the functions of non-verbal communication, Ekman (2004)

distinguishes five:

1. Repetition, as we can use it to strengthen a verbal message.

2. Substitution, as we can use it to say words with gestures, like “no” or “yes”
moving our heads.
3. Regulation, as it helps regulate conversations, e.g.: raising a hand meaning you
want to talk next.
4. Contradiction, as we can say something but express the opposite with a gesture
for example.
5. And complementation, as we can reinforce and affirm the information sent
verbally.

Once I have explained what non-verbal communication is and its main functions,
I will now deal with its main AREAS OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION, which are:

1. Kinesics: which refers to facial expressions, gestures, and body movements.

E.g.: moving our head to say “yes” or “no”, moving our fingers to count, etc.
2. Proxemics: which refers to how people use the space to communicate
messages, including physical contact. E.g.: when we take someone by the
shoulder as a sign of support.
3. Paralinguistics: which refers to the variations in voice quality and manner of
speaking, whether in tone, volume, speed, etc. that can work as feedback
sounds, that is, they show agreement, impatience, annoyance, or surprise. They
are also indicators of how the message was received. E.g.: a sigh, or a yawn.
4. Others are posture (i.e., the position of the body), haptics (i.e., the touch) or
oculesics (i.e., the eye contact).

Again, as it happened with the prosodic features, it is important that our students
know that these non-verbal features are culture specific, as in some cultures, they have
different meanings, which is something that must be taught in the same way as the other
aspects of the language, as for example, a thumb up means “OK” or “good” in Spain, but
in other countries like Iran, it is an insult.

3. EXTRALINGUISTIC STRATEGIES: NON-VERBAL REACTIONS TO MESSAGES

IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS

Having explained verbal and non-verbal communication, in this last section I will
deal with both teachers’ and students extralinguistic strategies used in the foreign
language classroom.
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3.1. TEACHER’S EXTRALINGUISTIC STRATEGIES

Starting by the teacher’s strategies, they constitute an efficient and fast system
of gestures to deal with aspects like classroom management. Gestures for “work in
pairs”, “open your books”, “listen” or “write” are universal, although some teachers have
developed their own non-verbal repertoire for instruction and classroom management.

According to Darn (2005), the use of non-verbal signals helps teachers by adding
an extra dimension to language:

1. Reducing the unnecessary teacher talk.

2. Reducing the fear of silence.
3. Avoiding misunderstandings.
4. Increasing students’ participation.
5. Building up confidence.
6. Giving clear instructions.
7. Managing the classroom efficiently.
8. And allowing correction.

3.2. STUDENTS’ EXTRALINGUISTIC STRATEGIES

Now, concerning students’ extralinguistic strategies, they use non-verbal

strategies to send and react to messages.

According to Ellis (1986), foreign language learners use non-verbal strategies for
different purposes:

1. To compensate the difficulties, they have when communicating in the target

language.
2. To interact with others and maintain conversations. E.g., using gestures to ask
for clarification or repetition.
3. And to express messages and show their understanding by:
1. Physically responding to orders (“sit down”, “stand up”).
2. Responding to directions (“Go to the blackboard”).
3. Responding to requests (“Can you close the door?”).
4. Answering to questions (“How many pencils are on the table?”).
5. Responding to the lyrics of a song (“head, shoulders, knees and toes”).
6. Pointing to objects and photos (“which one is red?”; “point to the window”).
7. Sequencing and ordering elements (like in narratives or dialogues for
example).
8. And even drawing (“draw a ball under the table”).
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4. DIDACTIC APPLICATION

Once I have covered all the elements in the title of this topic, I will now give some
examples of didactic applications to work on both verbal and non-verbal communication.

Concerning VERBAL COMMUNICATION, the learning activities can be really varied:

To work on oral communication, we can use activities such as:

 Guessing games like “guess who?”, where students, in pairs, ask each other
questions to guess a secret character they have previously chosen.
 “Headbandz”, a guessing game where students wear a band around their head
with a flashcard on their forehead that they will have to guess by asking questions
like “what am I?” “Am I an animal?”…
 Picture dictation, where students describe a picture to their classmates who will
have to draw it and see if it resembles the original picture.
 Information gathering activities, where they move around the class to ask each
other questions and fill a chart. E.g.: what’s your name?, where are you from?
How old are you?, etc.
 Creative games like “story cubes”, where students create a story according to
what the sides of the dice show after rolling them.
 Description activities, dialogues and interviews.
 Social interaction, simulations and problem-solving activities.

But we can also foster written communication using the ICTs by means of:

 The use of “pequetweets”, a project developed by Gil. J and Martínez J. (2017)

in which students write their ideas and thoughts about diverse topics in a tweet
using the TWITTER social media.
 The use of “PADLET”, which is a platform to build a collaborative space through
the creation of a wall where students will write, like and comment other
classmates’ posts in a private way.
 Note-leaving activities, where students write notes to their classmates and are
read out loud in class.
 Pen-pals and E-pals, where our students write letters or e-mails to foreign
students of their age.

Finally, to work on NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION, the learning activities are

also varied, among these we can use:
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 Mime games like “Charades”, where one student will describe a word using non-
verbal language in front of the class.
 “Pantomimes”, that is, acting out a dialogue using mime.
 Using Total Physical Response techniques and games like “Simon Says” and
other variants.
 Watching silent videos and discuss body language, emotions, etc, and try to
write the dialogue.

5. CONCLUSIONS

To come to an end, we can conclude that through communication, not only do we

use linguistic signs to communicate, that is, spoken or written words, but also non-verbal
codes that carry meaning, such as gestures, body movements or facial expressions,
which are as important as verbal communication. This means that non-verbal
communication must be taught to students in the same way as verbal language, and not
only because both types of communication complement each other, but because non-
verbal communication is culture-specific, and its meaning may vary depending on the
country. I would like to finish this essay with a quote by Peter Drucke, who said that:

“The most important thing in communication is hearing what isn’t said”.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Finally, I will present the bibliography used for the development of this topic:

Crystal, D. (2003). The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language.

Cutting, J. (2002). Pragmatics and Discourse. A Resource Book for students.

Darn, S. (2005). Aspects of non-verbal communication.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1989). Spoken and Written Language.

Richards, J.C., Platt, J. & Platt, H. (2010). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching
and Applied Linguistics.

Yule, G. (2016). The Study of Language.

LOMLOE 3/2020, 29th of December, which regulates education in Spain.

Royal Decree 157/2022, March 1st, which establishes the basic curriculum for Primary
Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022, September 29th, which establishes the curriculum in Castile and León.
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TOPIC 2. COMMUNICATION IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOM: VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL

COMMUNICATION. EXTRALINGUISTIC STRATEGIES: NON-VERBAL REACTIONS TO MESSAGES IN DIFFERENT
CONTEXTS
0. INTRODUCTION - Areas of non-verbal communication
-Topic 1 1. Kinesics.
- Major concern 2. Proxemics.
- Laws 3. Paralinguistics.
- 4 sections 4. Others
+ Posture
1. COMMUNICATION IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE + Haptics
CLASSROOM + Oculesics
- Culture specific
1.1. Definition of communication
3. EXTRALINGUISTIC STRATEGIES: NON-VERBAL
- Definition of communication – Oxford Dictionary (2021) REACTIONS TO MESSAGES IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS
– G.G. Brown
– Murphy & Thomas 3.1. Teachers’ extralinguistic strategies
1.2. Types of communication
- Non- verbal repertoire
- Types of communication – Crystal (2007) -Darn (2005)
1 Auditory-vocal communication
2 Visual communication 1. Unnecessary talk 5. Confidence
3 Tactile communication 2. Fear of silence 6. Instructions
4 Olfactory and gustatory 3. Misunderstandings 7. Managing
4. Participation 8. Correction
- Types of communication – Corbin (2017)
1 Number of participants 3.2. Students’ extralinguistic strategies
2 Sensory channel
3 Technological channel - Ellis (1986).
4 Use or purpose 1. Compensate
5 Verbal and non-verbal 2. Interact
1.3. Interactions in the English classroom 3. Show understanding
1. Orders 5. Lyrics
- Student-to-student interaction 2. Directions 6. Pointing
- Teacher-to-student interaction 3. Requests 7. Sequencing
+ “Teacher talk”. 4. Questions 8. Drawing
+ Classroom language.
+ Frames 4. DIDACTIC APPLICATION
+ Non- verbal elements
+ Questions & directions - Verbal communication
1. Oral communication
2. VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION + Guessing games + Interviews
+ Describing + Dialogues
2.1. Verbal communication + Picture dictation + Drama
- Verbal communication + Info. Gathering + Simulations
1. Oral communication + Problem-solving + Roleplays
2. Written communication
+ Phonological systems 2. Written communication
+ Non-phonological systems + Pequetweets – + Note leaving
- Prosodic features (Gil, J. & and + E-pals and pen
1. Stress (Harmer, 2007). Martínez, J. 2017). pals
2. Rhythm (Cantero, 2003). + Padlet
3. Intonation (Cantero, 2003)
4. Speech pauses. - Non- verbal communication
-Language specific + Charades
+ Pantomimes – action stories
2.2. Non-verbal communication + TPR – “Simon Says”
+ Silent videos
- Non-verbal communication – Darn (2005)
- Ray Birdwhistell 5. CONCLUSION
- Functions – Ekman (2004)
1. Repetition Australian philosopher Peter Drucke
2. Substitution
3. Regulation “The most important thing in communication is hearing
4. Contradiction what isn’t said”
5. Complementation
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TOPIC 3

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LINGUISTIC SKILLS: ORAL COMPREHENSION AND

EXPRESSION, WRITTEN COMPREHENSION AND EXPRESSION. THE
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM

0. INTRODUCTION

1. ORAL COMPREHENSION AND EXPRESSION

1.1. ORAL COMPREHENSION (LISTENING SKILL)

1.2. ORAL EXPRESSION (SPEAKING SKILL)

2. WRITTEN COMPREHENSION AND EXPRESSION

2.1. WRITTEN COMPREHENSION (READING SKILL)

2.2. WRITTEN EXPRESSION (WRITING SKILL)

3. THE COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM.

4. CONCLUSIONS

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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0. INTRODUCTION.

As stated in the tittle of this topic, the present essay focuses on the language
skills in the English learning process. This topic is also related to topics 7 and 8 as they
all deal with the development of the four language skills.

Let us begin by considering that anyone who uses a language correctly has
developed a series of language skills which can be divided into receptive (they require
that the language user receives language), being the case of listening and reading, and
productive (they require a certain production of language by the language user) such
as speaking and reading.

These four skills, which coincide with Block A: Communication, stated both in
the Royal Decree 157/2022 and the Decree 38/2022 of Castile and Leon, need to be
developed in order to achieve the Communicative Competence, being its acquisition
one of the stage objectives in Primary Education, as stated both in the LOMLOE
3/2020 and in the Royal Decree 157/2022.

To develop this topic, I will divide it into four sections. The first two sections deal
with the four linguistic skills, including a definition and an explanation of the process
with some examples of activities for their application in the classroom. Then, I will talk
about the importance of integrating the skills in order to achieve the communicative
competence. Finally, I will present the conclusions and the bibliography used to
develop this topic

1. ORAL COMPREHENSION AND EXPRESSION

1.1. ORAL COMPREHENSION: LISTENING

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section about oral
comprehension and expression, and specifically, the oral comprehension, that is, the
listening skill.

When developing the linguistic skills, according to Krashen (1970s), pupils

follow the natural order, just like in their mother tongue, and the listening skill is the first
step to develop the Communicative Competence in our students. But what is
listening?

Listening can be defined according to Wilson (2008) as “the receptive skill

which deals with the decoding of sounds into signals according to the rules of the
linguistic code.” It provides aural input to students as a base for language learning,
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hence, its importance. This skill implies: hearing (that is, perceiving incoming sounds),
word recognition (that is, isolating sounds into signals and extracting meaning) and
comprehension (that is, integrating the meaning of words).

Now, the next question is: how is the listening process developed? Well, it is
useful to organize listening tasks and activities into three different stages according to
Brown (2006): pre-listening, while-listening and post-listening.

As regards the pre-listening stage, activities should aim at activating learners’

previous knowledge to create a suitable context to introduce new structures and key
vocabulary so they can understand the listening exercise. This can be done through
brainstorming exercises, such as creating a word-cloud using tools such as WordArt,
where we can create wordclouds with different shapes, colours and letter fonts; through
more traditional materials such as flashcards or posters that we can create using
apps like Canvas, with presentation tools such as Power Point, or with resources
such as songs or videos using the platform YouTube.

Concerning the while-listening stage, students will perform tasks in order to

develop listening strategies and be active; namely, extensive listening and intensive
listening. On the one hand, extensive listening or listening for general
comprehension can be developed by doing ordering or sequencing activities where
students have to order some parts of the script, which can be done by cutting out some
pieces of paper and reordering them; or using interactive platforms such as
Liveworksheets where students can do matching, ordering and dragging activities on
the Interactive Board, computers or tablets. On the other hand, intensive listening or
listening for specific comprehension, can be developed by asking specific questions
to students both orally or through worksheets. However, we can use less traditional
ways such as using Kahoot to ask them questions in an interactive and playful way.
Another resource we can use if our listening exercise is about a song, is
lyricstraining.com, which is an online platform to listen and watch music videos while
playing by filling in the gaps of the lyrics.

Finally, as regards the post-listening stage, it can be considered as follow-up

work to check comprehension and evaluate. Students can perform tasks connecting
what they have listened to with their experience integrating other skills. For instance,
students can dramatize in groups different parts of a dialogue they have previously
listened to, integrating the speaking skill, or do collective writing and change the
script or the lyrics of the song, integrating the writing skill.
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1.2. ORAL EXPRESSION: SPEAKING

After explaining the listening skill, I will start developing the second skill, the
speaking skill, which according to the natural order, comes after listening. But what is
speaking?

Speaking can be defined according to Thornbury (2013) as the ability to

communicate in speech, by making use of the oral medium, encoding sounds into
signals within a shared linguistic code. It involves much more than the use of words but
also prosodic elements (intonation, stress or rhythm), pronunciation or paralinguistic
elements.

Now, the next question is: how is the speaking process developed? Well, to
get fluency, there are three stages that we should follow which are also known as the
3Ps approach: the presentation stage, the practice stage and the production stage.

Concerning the presentation stage, this phase is good for activating previous
knowledge and presenting the new language and where students basically imitate the
pronunciation after the teacher. This can be done by giving students a very visual
presentation using tools such as Power Point or the platform Genially, accompanying
each word with visual images and the corresponding pronunciation. After presenting
the new words, students can play a mimic game where they must describe a word
using non-verbal language while the rest have to guess it for example. Another
possibility is using Wordwall or Quizlet to integrate this new language by means of
interactive activities.

Moving on to the practice stage, students practice the new linguistic forms in a
more autonomous way through communicative activities. We can do this by playing
guessing games in pairs or groups such as guess who? or headbandz, where they have to
guess a character or picture by asking each other questions. We can also use picture
dictation, descriptions, interviews, dialogues, among many others such as problem-solving
activities or simulations, where grammar can be easily put into practice in a communicative
way.

Lastly, in the production stage, students will put into practice what they have
learned, without the teacher’s control, in a creative way and using linguistic and non-linguistic
resources. For instance, students can create a lapbook about a specific topic using the
vocabulary and structures from the unit and prese it orally in front of the classroom; or record
a video where they will perform a role-play using that new language.
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2. WRITTEN COMPREHENSION AND EXPRESSION

2.1. WRITTEN COMPREHENSION: READING

After dealing with the oral skills, I will start developing the written skills, starting
with the reading skill, which according to the natural order, comes before writing. But
what is reading?

Reading according to Harmer (2007) is the receptive skill which deals with the
conversion of letters into sounds and the recognition and comprehension of words, as
we both decode and understand what we read.

After defining reading, the next question is: how is the reading process
developed? Well, there are three stages that we should follow to develop the reading
skill, and which are the same as in the listening skill: the pre-reading stage, the while-
reading stage and the post-reading stage.

First, in the pre-reading stage we will introduce our students the new
vocabulary they will need to understand the reading exercise they will do later. In order
to do so, we can give a very visual presentation again using the same tools I
mentioned before, practicing the pronunciation of each word. Then, in order to
integrate these words, we can use Wordwall, which is a platform for creating
interactive content, to do match-ups where students will match each word with their
corresponding written form. Although we can use others such as Liveworksheets
again.

In the while-reading stage, students will perform tasks in order to develop

listening strategies, namely extensive reading and intensive reading. On the one hand,
extensive reading or reading for general comprehension can be done by sequencing
and ordering different parts of the reading text. To do so we can use Kahoot or
Wordwall and create activities where students, by using their fingers on the interactive
board, will drag each part of the text to its corresponding place. On the other hand,
intensive reading, or reading for specific comprehension, can be done by asking
specific questions. We can do it with a challenge in a playful way and using tablets
and QR codes placed around the classroom. Students will scan those QR codes which
will take them to online questionnaires in Google Forms where they will ask these
specific questions and receive a score. It can also be easily done through a Kahoot.

Finally, regarding the post-reading stage, pupils will connect what they have
read with their experience, integrating other skills. This can be done, for example,
using tools such as Padlet, where the teacher will create a wall with different posts that
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students will comment using computers or tablets. They will use the vocabulary and
structures to say what they liked or did not like about the reading, describe characters,
to invent an alternative ending, etc. They will also be able to comment and like each
other’s posts.
2.2. WRITTEN EXPRESSION: WRITING

Last but not least, we shall turn our attention towards the writing skill, which
according to the natural order, it comes after reading. But what is writing?

Well, writing, according to Harmer (2004) is the most difficult skill even in
learners’ mother tongue and it involves more than the production of graphic symbols,
as symbols have to be arranged according to certain conventions (spelling,
punctuation and capitalization)

Once I have defined the writing skill, the next question is: how is the writing
process developed? Again, there are three stages that we should follow when
developing the writing skill that go from guided to free writing: these are the copying
stage, the controlled practice stage and the production stage.

First, in the copying stage, (where students will learn the written form of the
new words), we should aim at meaningful copying. Among the activities we can carry
out in this stage, we can use charts to classify words according to categories,
crosswords or wordsearches, or even play scrabble on the blackboard, writing words
both vertically and horizontally like the boardgame. We can also use again platforms
such as Liveworksheets, Quizlet or Wordwall and to do the same in an interactive way.

Moving on to the controlled practice stage, activities here can be compared to

a bridge towards freer production. For instance, pupils can read a model text about the
physical description of a character and after that, they can use this model to write their
own version to describe one of them. For example, the description of a famous person
they like. This example can be applied to other grammatical structures and vocabulary.

The final stage is free production; nevertheless, taking into account students’
linguistic level during Primary Education, written production should still be guided at
some point. We can do this by asking students create written presentations using tools
such as Power Point, Genially or Prezi in order to describe their favorite actors,
characters, youtubers, etc.

Once I have developed the four skills, It is important to highlight that the
effectiveness of language skill teaching will depend on different factors, such as the
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difficulties students may encounter and the methodology that teachers use. That is
why teachers should consider students’ interests, needs and level when selecting
topics and materials as well as creating a relaxed atmosphere for language practice.
Moreover, teachers should give students some strategies to solve those difficulties
such as learning to identify the topic and inferring the meaning from the context when
reading and listening, using their prior knowledge, organizing ideas before writing,
using non-verbal language when speaking, among many others.

3. THE COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM

After analysing each linguistic skill individually, in the last section I will talk about
the importance of integrating the four skills in order to achieve the Communicative
Competence. In addition, I will develop the concept of Communicative Competence
according to different authors.
Starting by the integration of the linguistic skills, it is important to highlight
that they must be treated in an integrated way as this is the way we communicate in
everyday life. As each of these skills depend on each other, it is essential to remark
that their treat must be balanced in our teaching plan and in all our formative units.
Thus, in order to achieve the Communicative Competence in our students, we should
integrate each skill as much as possible in every task we carry out in the classroom.
But what is the Communicative Compentence? The Communicative
Compentence can be defined as the ability that individuals’ have to use language for
effective communication in a variety of contexts.
The concept was coined by the Dell Hymes (1966) as a reaction to Chomsky’s
(1965) theory, who differentiated between “Competence” (that is, the language
knowledge) and “Performance” (that is, the actual use of that language knowledge in
concrete situations), saying that we only needed to focus on the “competence” in order
to study language. Hymes’ main criticism was that Chomsky had forgotten the rules of
language use, because when people speak, not only do they use grammatically correct
utterances, they also know when and where to use them and to whom. Hymes also
distinguished four aspects of the Communicative Competence:

• Systematic potential: speakers have a system with a potential to create a lot

of language.
• Appropriacy: speakers know what language is appropriate in each situation.
• Occurrence: speakers know how often something is said in language.
• Feasibility: speakers know whether something is possible or not in language.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

Other authors like Canale and Swain (1980) extended the theory with four
different subcompetences or components:

• Grammatical Competence: the language knowledge

• Sociolinguistic and sociocultural Competence: the knowledge of the rules of
language use and the cultural aspects of the target language.
• Discourse Competence: the ability to produce cohesive and coherent
utterances.
• Strategic Competence: the ability to solve communication problems as they
arise.
4. CONCLUSION

To come to an end, we can conclude that students must develop the four
linguistic skills as well as the different components or subcompetences in order to
achieve the Communicative Compentence, which is one of the stage objectives in
Primary Education. Moreover, this development must be done in an integrated and
balanced way, from a communicative and student-centred approach, which must be
reflected in our annual plan and in all our teaching units. These days, teachers are not
only controllers of the process, but monitors, motivators, prompters, models of
language use and planners. Students will not be passive anymore as it happened in
the past as they will use the language to learn it through communication, interaction,
construction of meaning and by developing their autonomy. Because, as Confucius
said,

“It is not enough for the students to listen, speak, read and write, they also have to
perform and use the language”.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

To finish, I will refer to the bibliography consulted for elaboration of this topic:

Brewster, J. (2002). The Primary English Teacher’s Guide.

Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English.

Harmer, J (2004). How to teach writing.

Hymes, D. (1971). Competence and Performance in linguistic theory. Language

acquisition: Models and methods.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

Thornbury, S. (2013). How to teach speaking.

Wilson, J.J. (2008). How to teach listening.

LOMLOE, 3/2020, 29th of December, which regulates education in Spain.

Royal Decree 157/2022, 1st of March, which establishes the basic curriculum in Primary
Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022, 29th of December, which establishes the curriculum in Castile and
León.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 3. DEVELOPMENT OF THE LINGUISTIC SKILLS: ORAL COMPREHENSION AND EXPRESSION; WRITTEN
COMPREHENSION AND EXPRESSION. THE COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM.
0. INTRODUCTION -How is reading developed?
1. Pre-reading Stage.
-Topics 7 & 8. + Visual Presentation
-Receptive + Wordwall.
-Productive + Liveworksheets.com
-Legislation 2. While-reading Stage.
-3 sections > Extensive reading
+ Cutting out pieces of paper
1. ORAL COMPREHENSION AND EXPRESSION + Kahoot
1.1. Oral comprehension (listening) + Wordwall
> Intensive reading
-Natural order – Krashen (1970s) + QR codes
-Definition of listening – Wilson (2008) + Google Forms.
1. Hearing 3. Post-reading Stage
2. Word recognition + Padlet
3. Comprehension 2.2. Written expression (Writing)
-How is listening developed? – Brown (2006)
1. Pre-listening Stage. -Natural order
+ Wordcloud (WordArt) -Definition of writing – Harmer (2004)
+ Flashcards/posters (Canva) -How is writing developed?
+ PPT presentations 1. Copying Stage.
+ Vocabulary videos and songs + Charts (Power Point/Genially)
2. While-listening Stage. + Crosswords.
> Extensive listening + Wordsearches.
+ Cutting out pieces of paper + Scrabble
+ Liveworksheets.com + Liveworksheets.
> Intensive listening + Quizlet.
+ Orally + Wordwall.
+ Worksheets 2. Controlled-practice Stage.
+ Kahoot + Model text
+ Lyricstraining.com 3. Free Production Stage
3. Post-listening Stage + PowerPoint
+ Dramatize + Genially
+ Collective writing + Bulbapp.com
1.2. Oral expression (Speaking) + Pixton
- Effectiveness
-Natural order - Factors
-Definition of speaking – Thornbury (2013) 1.Diffculties
1. Prosodic elements 2. Methodology
2. Pronunciation 3. Strategies
3. Paralinguistic elements
-How is speaking developed? – 3Ps approach 3. THE COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
1. Presentation Stage.
+ Presentation (Power Point/Genially) -Integration of linguistic skills.
+ Mimic game. - Definition of Communicative Competence
+ WordWall/Quizlet. 1. Dell Hymes (1996).
2. Practice Stage. + Systematic potential.
+ Guessing games (guess who?/Headbandz) + Appropriacy.
+ Picture dictation + Occurrence.
+ Descriptions + Feasibility.
+ Interviews 2. Chomsky (1965).
+ Dialogues + Competence
+ Simulations & problem-solving activities + Performance
3. Production Stage 3. Canale & Swain (1980).
+ Video (roleplay). + Grammatical Competence.
+ Lapbook + Sociolinguistic & sociocultural Competence.
+ Discourse Competence.
2. WRITTEN COMPREHENSION AND EXPRESSION + Strategic Competence.
2.1. Written comprehension (Reading) 4. CONCLUSION

-Natural order Confucius

-Definition of reading – Harmer (2007) “It’s not enough for the students to listen, speak, read or
write, they also have to perform and use the language”
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 4. THE VALUE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AS MEANS OF COMMUNICATION AMONG PEOPLE AND CULTURES. DEVELOPING AN
INTEREST IN LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY THROUGH THE STUDY OF A NEW LANGUAGE AND ITS CULTURE
0. INTRODUCTION 2. DEVELOPING AN INTEREST IN LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY THROUGH
-Topic 5 THE STUDY OF A NEW LANGUAGE AND ITS CULTURE
- Lingua franca
- Laws – understanding & appreciation of diversity 2.1. Developing interest in learning a FL
– linguistic, cultural & artistic
- 3 sections - How do we do it?
- Spanish is not the only language
1. THE VALUE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AS MEANS OF - Whole communication system
COMMUNICATION AMONG PEOPLE AND CULTURES - Similarities & differences between L1 & English

1.1. Foreign languages as means of communication SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES

- Roman alphabet - Opaque
A) FACTORS THAT MAKE FLL VERY COMMMON TODAY - 40% of related words - Silent letters
1. Multiculturalism - Same basic structures - Vowel length
2. Technological & economic advances - Auxiliary verbs
3. European Union - False friends
- Subjects not omitted
B) ADVANTAGES OF LEARNING A FL - Similar words
- Curtain (2004)
1. Sociological & educational 2.2. Learning its culture
2. Linguistic - Multicultural context
3. Cognitive - Socio-linguistic & socio-cultural competence
4. Affective 1. Courtesy – “Good morning”, “thank you”, “please”
5. Cultural 2. Currency – pounds & dollars > euros
3. Politeness – “how are you?”, “how are you doing?”, “what’s
C) COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE up?”
- Definition of Communicative Competence 4. Body language & gestures
1. Dell Hymes (1996). 5. Holidays & festivities – “Halloween”, “Bonfire night”,
+ Systematic potential. “Thanksgiving”
+ Appropriacy. 6. Music - examples
+ Occurrence. 7. History & literature – examples
+ Feasibility. 8. Cartoons & films
2. Chomsky (1965).
+ Competence 3. DIDACTIC APPLICATION
+ Performance
3. Canale & Swain (1980). 1. Songs & rhymes
+ Grammatical Competence. - Traditional songs
+ Sociolinguistic & sociocultural Competence. + Nursery rhymes – “Mary had a little lamb”, “Twinkle
+ Discourse Competence. twinkle little star”.
+ Strategic Competence. + Special occasions – “Happy birthday”, “Halloween night”,
“Christmas carols”.
1.2. English as a lingua franca + Popular songs – “Old Mcdonald had a farm”, “Oh
- Definition of lingua franca – Holmes (2016) Susanna”
- Adapted songs
A) REASONS ENGLISH = LINGUA FRANCA - Cameron (2017) + YouTube – Super Simple Songs, Lingo Kids, Dream English
1. Simplification Kids
2. Britain leading industrial country 2. Reading or listening to stories – “graded readers”
3. Colonies 3. Role-plays & dramatization
3. USA’s economic power 4. Authentic materials & realia – Newspapers, magazines…
5. Celebrating festivals – Halloween, Christmas, Thanksgiving…
B) USES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 6. Using maps
1. Internet & press 7. ICTs
2. Business & diplomacy - YouTube - Presentations pptx
3. Entertainment - Genially - Merge Cube
4. Travel - WordWall - Virtual museums
5. Scientific & technological fields - Google Maps - Google Earth
6. Education
8. Projects – E-Twinning > Erasmus +
C) ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF USING A LF
4. CONCLUSION
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Flora Lewis
- Communicate - Not everyone uses it “Learning another language is not only learning different words for
- Tolerance & respect - Unnecessary to learn more the same things, but learning another way to think about things”
- Self-confidence
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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 4

THE VALUE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AS MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

AMONG PEOPLE AND CULTURES. DEVELOPING AN INTEREST IN LINGUISTIC
DIVERSITY THROUGH THE STUDY OF A NEW LANGUAGE AND ITS CULTURE

0. INTRODUCTION

1. THE VALUE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AS MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

AMONG PEOPLE AND CULTURES

1.1. FOREIGN LANGUAGES AS MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

1.2. ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA

2. DEVELOPING AN INTEREST IN LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY THROUGH THE STUDY

OF A NEW LANGUAGE AND ITS CULTURE

2.1. DEVELOPING AN INTEREST IN LEARNING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

2.2. LEARNING ITS CULTURE

3. DIDACTIC APPLICATION

4. CONCLUSION

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the title of this topic, the present essay focuses on the knowledge of
foreign languages as a means of communication as well as on the interest towards the
linguistic diversity. This topic is kind of related to topic 5, as they both deal with cultural
aspects of the English language.

Let us begin by considering that the English language is the most important
language used internationally nowadays, as it has gained the reputation of lingua franca
through the years due to political, economic and demographic criteria.

Also, it is important to mention, that as a compulsory second language in Spain,

students must have achieved a basic communicative competence in it at the end of
Primary Education, as it is one of the stage objectives (letter f) stated in both the
LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree 157/2022. Moreover, the Royal Decree 157/2014
states that learning a second language will contribute to a greater sensitivity towards
diversity and accepting differences between cultures. Also, the Decree 38/2022 of
Castile and León includes the Block C: Interculturality, which comprises contents related
to the respect and tolerance towards other cultures and linguistic variants.

Having said this, in order to develop this topic, I will divide it into three sections.
The first section will deal with the value of foreign languages as means of communication
among people and cultures. The second section will be about the interest in linguistic
diversity through the study of a new language and its culture. The third section will include
some didactic applications to learn a new language and its culture. Finally, I will present
the conclusions and the bibliography used for the development of this topic.

1. THE VALUE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AS MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

AMONG PEOPLE AND CULTURES

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of my essay
which deals with the value of foreign languages as means of communication among
people and cultures.

1.1. FOREING LANGUAGES AS MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

I will start dealing with some FACTORS THAT MAKE FOREIGN LANGUAGE
LEARNING VERY COMMON NOWADAYS. We know that since ancient times people
have learned languages in order to communicate with other societies and countries, but
why do we learn languages today? In general, the main factors are:

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

 Multiculturalism, as countries are eventually more open to receive people from

other countries and cultures, which can be seen in immigration.
 Technological and economic advances, which have transformed our lives
entirely, as for example, sometimes we need to know English in order to
understand a webpage on the Internet or to use a certain device. Also, tourism and
the international relationships between countries have made foreign languages
essential.
 And the creation of the European Union, which enabled people to travel freely
from one country to another, whether to visit it, to stay, to work or to study thanks
to the different agreements between countries and institutions (an example would
be scholarships that allows students to go to other countries and spend some time
there studying the language).

Once we know the main factors that made foreign language learning common,
let us now see what the ADVANTAGES OF LEARNING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE are.
According to Curtain (2004), the main advantages are the following:

1. SOCIOLOGICAL AND EDUCATIONAL, because it allows students to learn

about life, have more job opportunities, get information from other media and
different from the ones in their own language and establish relationships with
people from other countries, among others.
2. COGNITIVE REASONS, because it helps overcome children’s egocentrism in
this stage, as they realise there are other ways of living and thinking. Also,
learning a foreign language is associated to an improvement in learning in other
areas such as mathematics, artistic expression and literacy.
3. LINGUISTIC REASONS, because children’s brain plasticity allows them to learn
languages at auditory and phonological levels in a different way than adults.
4. And AFFECTIVE, because children have that spontaneity that teenagers or
adults lack because of inhibiting factors such as embarrassment, shyness and
fear of sounding ridiculous.

As we are talking here about the use of languages as means of communication,

it could be appropriate to deal with THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE, because as we said before in the introduction, to achieve a basic
communicative competence in the foreign language is one of the stage objectives in the
LOMLOE 3/2020. But what is the communicative competence?

Well, the communicative competence refers to individuals’ ability to use

language for effective communication in a variety of contexts.

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

The concept was coined by the Dell Hymes (1966) as a reaction to Chomsky’s
(1965) theory, who differentiated between “competence” (that is, the language
knowledge) and “performance” (that is, the actual use of that language knowledge in
concrete situations), saying that we only needed to focus on the “competence” in order
to study language. Hymes’ main criticism was that Chomsky had forgotten the rules of
language use, because when people speak, not only they use grammatically correct
utterances, they also know when and where to use them and to whom. Hymes also
distinguished four aspects of the Communicative Competence:

• Systematic potential: speakers have a system with a potential to create a

lot of language.

• Appropriacy: speakers know what language is appropriate in each situation.

• Occurrence: speakers know how often something is said in language.

• Feasibility: speakers know whether something is possible or not in language.

Other authors like Canale and Swain (1980) extended the theory with four
different subcompetences or components:

 Grammatical Competence: the language knowledge

 Sociolinguistic and sociocultural Competence: the knowledge of the rules

of language use and the cultural aspects of the target language.

 Discourse Competence: the ability to produce cohesive and coherent

utterances.

 Strategic Competence: the ability to solve communication problems as they

arise.

1.2. ENGLISH AS THE LINGUA FRANCA

Having said this, let us focus now on the learning of the ENGLISH LANGUAGE
AS LINGUA FRANCA. But what is a lingua franca? According to Holmes (2016),
“lingua franca is a language that is used as means of communication between different
linguistic groups in a multilingual speech community”, so it is easy to think that, being the
most used language internationally, English is the lingua franca. But why is English
considered the international language nowadays? There are several reasons
according to Cameron (2017):

 Because of the degree of morphological and syntactic simplification of English.

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

 Because Britain became the leading industrial country at the beginning of the
19th century.

 Because the English colonies in the 19th century in Canada, Africa and
Australia contributed to the expansion of the English language.

 And because USA’s economic power turned the country into a superpower in
the 20th century.

Now that we know the reasons why English is considered a lingua franca, let’s
now see the USES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, as it is estimated that non-native
speakers of English now outnumber native speakers, something that has to do with its
use. Thus, according to Cameron (2017) English is used for:

 Internet and Press as most websites are in English.

 Business and diplomacy as for example, English is the official language of

many international organizations, including the United Nations.

 Entertainment, with TV series, films, etc. from Hollywood and music from all
over the world.

 Travel, as when going abroad we normally communicate in English.

 Scientific and technological fields.

 And education, as the learning of English has replaced French in Spanish

schools since the 80s.

However, despite the importance of the English language, there are several
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF USING A GLOBAL LANGUAGE:

On the one hand, using a global language has some advantages, such as:

 Being able to communicate with people all over the world.

 Because it favours tolerance and respect towards other cultures.
 And because it increases self-confidence.
On the other hand, using a global language also has some disadvantages, such
as:

 Considering that everyone speaks English because it is the lingua franca.

 Or considering as unnecessary to learn other languages because we speak the
global one.

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

2. DEVELOPING AN INTEREST IN LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY THROUGH THE STUDY

OF A NEW LANGUAGE AND ITS CULTURE

Once I have finished developing the first section of my essay, I will start with the
second section, which deals with developing in students an interest in linguistic diversity
through the study of a new language and its culture.

2.1. DEVELOPING AN INTEREST IN LEARNING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Bearing this in mind, the first thing is to DEVELOP INTEREST IN THE

LEARNING OF A NEW LANGUAGE, but how do we do it? Making them be aware of
the fact that Spanish is not the only existing language and that mastering a foreign
language does not only involve translating word-by-word, but rather learn a whole new
communication system. When doing so, we must make students be aware of the
similarities and differences between the two languages which may facilitate the learning
of the target language but also which may be a problem:

On the one hand, there are some similarities between Spanish and English such
as:

 The use of the Roman alphabet.

 Around the 40% of words in English have a related word in Spanish.
 Sentences in both languages have the same basic structures.

On the other hand, there are some differences that students may have problems
with:

 English is an opaque language which means it is not pronounced as it written.

 Some letters in English are pronounced like the “h”, while in Spanish they are
silent.
 The length of the vowel sounds is different in both languages and students have
problems pronouncing words like “sheep”.
 In question formation, students may not use auxiliaries because they do not exist
in Spanish.
 The same happens with the subject. We can omit it in Spanish, but not in English.
 And we must not forget about “false friends”, which are words that look very
similar in both languages but have a different meaning (e.g. argument), and
words that are very similar but spelled differently (e.g. giraffe).

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2.2. LEARNING ITS CULTURE

The next step to develop interest towards diversity is LEARNING ITS CULTURE. If
we have a look at the actual panorama in public schools all over Spain we will easily
agree that they are set in a multicultural context The foreign language class then
becomes one of the most appropriate environments not only to discover and appreciate
English but also to appreciate the value of knowing other cultures. And how do we do
it? By working on the socio-linguistic and socio-cultural competence. Thus, we
should teach our students the different components of the sociolinguistic and socio-
cultural competence including social, cultural, stylistic and non-verbal elements:

 Courtesy formulas like good morning, thank you, please.

 National currency, i.e. pounds and dollars and their value in euros.
 Politeness, i.e. how we should address people depending on the context. E.g.:
how are you doing?, how are you? What’s up?
 Body language and gestures, as non-verbal language changes from one country
to another.
 Holidays and festivities like Halloween, Bonfire night, Thanksgiving, etc.
 Music, as an important part they listen to is in English.
 History and literature.
 And cartoons and films.

3. DIDACTIC APPLICATION

After developing the two main sections of this topic, I will develop a third section
in which I will include different ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES TO TEACH CULTURE
AND LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY in the English classroom. Thus, we can use:

• Songs and rhymes which can be:

o historical (Henry VIII in imitation of ABBA’s Money, money, money)

o traditional (Christmas Carols)

o habits (Good morning, good morning, it’s time to wake up)

o objects (I’m a little teapot).

These can all be found and listened to in the platform YouTube.

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

• Listening or reading stories: as many portrait socio-cultural aspects of English

speaking countries. E.g. Diary of a Wimpy Kid is quite popular these days in
schools.

• Work on role-plays and drama techniques.

• Authentic materials or Realia: like bringing pounds or dollars to classroom.

• Celebrating festivities in the class: like getting dressed during one day of
school in Halloween. Some schools celebrate these days where students take
normal lessons, but they are dressed according to the festivity they are
celebrating.

• Using maps about the linguistic diversity.

• ICTs: we can make use of the ICTs to teach culture to our students, as there are
plenty of resources we can use. Mainly Youtube, Genially and Wordwall (where
we can create interactive content), visiting virtual museums or using virtual
reality in Co Spaces (a platform to create and view virtual content) and Merge
Cubes (cubes used for augmented reality that students will have on the palm of
their hands) as well as Google Earth, to visit English-speaking countries and
their streets and main monuments.

• Projects: like participating in European eTwinning projects within the Erasmus+

program with English-speaking countries using the ICTs and communication.

4. CONCLUSION

To come to an end, we can conclude that it is very important that we, as teachers,
transmit the importance of socio-linguistic and socio-cultural aspects from early stages
as well as valuing differences in English varieties. It is essential that students know the
importance of learning a second language and its culture and the advantages it has, as
they will not only learn the language, but also a new way of thinking. In short, students
must learn the similarities and differences among difference cultures and learn to view
them as enriching factors. I would like to finish with a quote by Flora Lewis, who said
that:

“Learning another language is not only learning different words for the same things, but
learning another way to think about things”

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brewster, J. (2002). The Primary English Teacher’s Guide: New Edition.

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

Cameron, J. (2017). The English-speaking World.

Hadley, A. (2001). Teaching language in context.

Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching.

Holmes, P. (2016). The cultural and intercultural dimensions of English as a lingua

Franca.

House, S. (2004). An introduction to Teaching English to Children.

LOMLOE 3/2020 passed on the 29th of December which regulates education in Spain.

Royal Decree 157/2022, March 1st, which establishes the basic curriculum for Primary
Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022, September 29th, which establishes the curriculum in Castile and León.

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 5. GEOGRAPHICAL, HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL FRAMEWORK OF ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES. DIDACTIC APPLICATION OF THE MOST
RELEVANT GEOGRAPHICAL, HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL ASPECTS
0. INTRODUCTION C) CULTURAL FRAMEWORK
- Topic 4 1. Literature – Melville, Twain, Hemingway, Fitzgerald, Silvia Plath > Dan
- Lingua franca Brown, Stephen King
- Laws – sensitivity towards diversity 2. Cinema – Paul Newman, M. Monroe, M. Brando > Woody Allen, Spielberg
– identification of tales, traditions, games... 3. Music – Elvis Presley, M. Jackson > Imagine Dragons, Bruno Mars, Ariana
- 3 sections Grande, Beyoncé...
4. Festivities – 4th of July, Halloween, Thanksgiving…
1. GEOGRAPHICAL, HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL FRAMEWORK OF
ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES. 1.3. OTHER ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES
1.1. UNITED KINGDOM
- Capital – London A) IRELAND
- Currency – pound 1. Seas – Atlantic Ocean, North 4. Currency – Euro
- Constitutional monarchy & representative democracy Channel 5. National icons – St. Patrick,
- Chief of state – King Charles III 2. Capital – Dublin trefoil, leprechauns.
- Head of Government – Prime Minister – Rishi Sunak 3. Cities – Galway, Cork

A) GEOGRAFICAL FRAMEWORK B) AUSTRALIA

1. Cities – England (Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham) 1. Seas – Pacific Ocean, Indian 5. National icons – Sydney’s
– N. Irland (Belfast) Channel Opera, Great Barrier Reef,
– Scotland (Glasgow, Edinburgh) 2. Capital – Canberra Outback, kangaroos, koalas.
– Wales (Cardiff). 3. Cities – Sidney, Melbourne, Perth
2. Seas – North Sea, Irish Sea, Atlantic Ocean, English Channel. 4. Currency – Australian dollar
3. Rivers – Severn & Thames.
4. Relief – highland, lowland, Cheviot Hills, Pennine chain, C) NEW ZEALAND
Cambrian Mountains 1. Seas – Pacific Ocean 4. Currency – N. Zealand dollar
5. Population – 68 M. 2. Capital – Wellington 5. National icons – kiwi
3. Cities – Auckland
B) HISTORICAL FRAMEWORK
1. Pre- Celtic (Stonehenge) > Celts > Romans D) CANADA
2. 5th century – Angles, Saxons, Jutes > Vikings 1. Seas – Atlantic, Pacific, Artic Ocean 5. Currency – Canadian dollar
3. Feudalism (1066) < Battle of Hastings < Normans 2. Capital – Ottawa 6. National icons –
4. Ireland – Henry II (12th century) & Act of Union (1707). 3. Cities – Toronto, Vancouver, Montreal Groundhog, Maple flag
5. Renaissance – Elizabeth I 4. Relief – Rocky Mountains
6. Industrial Revolution & Victorian Era (late 18th & 19th century)
7. 20th century – European Union (1973) E) COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS
8. 21st century – left the EU (31st of January 2020) > David
Cameron > Theresa May > Boris Jonson >Rishi Sunak - 54 members
> Charles III’s coronation (2023).
2. DIDACTIC APPLICATION OF THE MOST RELEVANT GEOGRAPHICAL,
C) CULTURAL FRAMEWORK HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL ASPECTS
1. Literature – Shakespeare, Defoe, Swift, Dickens, Jane Austen
> Tolkien, J.K. Rowling, Ken Follet. A) GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS
2. Cinema – Chaplin > S. Connery, E. McGregor, H. Mirren 1. Maps & puzzles – WordWall, Genially, Puzzle creators.
> A. Hitchcock. 2. Arts & crafts – paper flags, mock-ups
3. Music – The Beatles, R. Stones, Queen, Spice Girls 3. Quizzes – Kahoot, Genially, Quizlet, Quizizz...
> Adele, Ed Sheeran, Dua Lipa. 4. Challenges – QR codes (tablets) > Google Forms
4. Festivities – Bonfire Night (5th November) 5. Reading & listening comprehension activities > Carmen
Sandiego
1.2. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 6. WebQuests
- Capital – Washington DC 7. Google Maps/Earth
- Currency – dollar 8. Board games – Brain Box, Carmen Sandiego
- Presidential federal republic B) HISTORICAL ASPECTS
- Head of Government – President – Joe Biden 1. Songs & rhymes – Historyteachers channels
2. Virtual reality – museums, Google Earth
A) GEOGRAFICAL FRAMEWORK 3. Videos or films – Pocahontas, Robin Hood, King Arthur,
1. Cities – New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Boston, Houston, Merlin...
Philadelphia, San Francisco 4. Texts, storybooks, comics.
2. Seas – Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean. 5. Quizzes & WebQuests.
3. Rivers – Missouri, Mississippi, Rio Grande, Colorado,
Great Lakes. C) CULTURAL ASPECTS
4. Relief – Appalachian Mountains, Rocky Mountains, Great 1. Role-plays
Plains. 2. Projects – eTwinning – Erasmus+
5. Population – 332 M. 3. E-pals
4. Authentic materials & Realia
B) HISTORICAL FRAMEWORK 5. Boardgames – Trivia, Brain Box...
1. Colonies 17th century– Virginia, N. England > Pilgrims > Slavery. 6. Celebrating festivities – dressing up, cultural weeks, CLIL
2. 18th century – Declaration of Independence > Constitution > G. sessions...
Washington
3. 19th century – Abraham Lincoln > Civil War 4. CONCLUSION
4. 20th century – World War I > Great Depression > Roosevelt > Flora Lewis
Worl War II > Cold War “Learning another language is not only learning different words for the same
5. 21st century – G. Bush Jr. (Terrorist attack) > Obama > Trump > things, but learning another way to think about things”
Biden
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TOPIC 5

GEOGRAPHICAL, HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL FRAMEWORK OF ENGLISH-

SPEAKING COUNTRIES. DIDACTIC APPLICATION OF THE MOST RELEVANT
GEOGRAPHICAL, HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL ASPECTS

0. INTRODUCTION
As stated in the title of this topic, the present essay focuses on the geographical,
historical, and cultural framework of English-speaking countries and its didactic
application in the classroom. This topic is kind of related to topic 4, as they both deal with
cultural aspects of the English language.

Let us begin by considering that the English language is the most important
language used internationally nowadays, as it has gained the reputation of lingua franca
through the years due to political, economic and demographic criteria as Great Britain
and in more recent times the USA, have become powerful countries that have spread
the English language around the world, making it the mother tongue of countries such
as Canada, Australia, Ireland or Austral-Asia.

Also, it is important to mention, that as a compulsory second language in Spain,

students must have achieved a basic communicative competence in it at the end of
Primary Education, as it is one of the stage objectives (letter f) stated in both the
LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree 157/2022. Moreover, the Royal Decree 157/2014
states that learning a second language will contribute to a greater sensitivity towards
diversity and accepting differences between cultures. Also, the Decree 38/2022 of
Castile and León includes the Block C: Interculturality, which comprises contents related
to the respect and tolerance towards other cultures and linguistic variants.

Having said this, to develop this topic, I will divide it into two sections. The first
section will deal with the geography, history, and culture of the main English-speaking
countries, and in the second section I will deal with their didactic application. Finally, I
will present the conclusions and the bibliography used for the development of this topic.

1. GEOGRAPHICAL, HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL FRAMEWORK OF ENGLISH-

SPEAKING COUNTRIES
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After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of this essay,
which deals with the geographical, historical, and cultural framework of English-speaking
countries.

1.1. UNITED KINGDOM

Let us start with the UNITED KINGDOM, which consists of Great Britain
(England, Wales, and Scotland) and Northern Ireland. Its capital is London, and its
currency is the sterling pound. The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and
representative democracy, with a chief of state, Charles III, and a head of the
Government, the Prime Minister, which is currently, Rishi Sunak.

Regarding the GEOGRAPHICAL FRAMEWORK, the UK is also known as the

British Isles, as it is an island country.

 Apart from London, other major cities in England are Liverpool, Manchester and
Birmingham; Belfast in Northern Ireland, Edinburgh and Glasgow in Scotland; or
Cardiff in Wales.
 As an island, it is surrounded by different seas: the North Sea; the Irish Sea; the
Atlantic Ocean and the English Channel, which separates the UK from France. As
for the rivers, the main ones are the Severn and the Thames.
 Concerning the relief, the UK is divided into a highland and a lowland zone. The
Cheviot Hills separate England from Scotland, the Pennine chain extends through
the centre of England, and along the border of Wales, are the Cambrian Mountains.
 Finally, regarding its population, in 2022 it was beyond the 68 million inhabitants.

Now, in relation to the HISTORICAL FRAMEWORK, I will mention some of the

most remarkable aspects.

 Little is known about the pre-Celtic period (before 800 BC), apart from some
monuments like Stonehenge. The Celts were followed by the Britons and the
Romans in 43 A.D., who left with them roads and cities such as London.
 In the middle of the 5th century, The Angles, Saxons, and Jutes came from the
continent, followed by the Vikings.
 Feudalism started with the arrival of the Normans in 1066 after the Battle of
Hastings.
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 Ireland was conquered by Henry II in the 12th century, but after the Second World
War, it became independent as the Republic of Ireland. Then, after the Act of Union
between England and Scotland in 1707, the Kingdom of Great Britain was created.
 During the Renaissance, the reign of Elizabeth I began a period of colonial
expansion.
 Later, during the Industrial Revolution (18th) and the Victorian Era (19th century),
Britain became the first industrial power in the world, despite the independence of the
American colonies.
 The 20th century was characterised by the disintegration of Britain’s colonial empire
and the fact that they joined the European Union in 1973.
 In the 21st century, it is important to mention that the UK left the European Union
on the 31st of January 2020 after a referendum held in 2016 during David Cameron’s
government, who was substituted by Theresa May and later by Boris Jonson. In
2022, Boris Jonson was substituted by Rishi Sunak as Prime Minister. Finally, it is
important to note Charles III’s coronation in 2023 after his mother, the Queen
Elizabeth II passed away in September, 2022.

To finish, let’s now have a look at the CULTURAL FRAMEWORK with literature,
cinema, music and festivities.

 As regards literature, among UK’s famous authors that are developed in topics history
topics 15 and 16, we should mention Shakespeare (with Romeo and Juliet), Defoe
(with Robinson Crusoe), Swift (with Gulliver Travels), Dickens (with Hard Times),
Austen (with Pride and Prejudice), and many others. As for more popular and current
authors we can highlight Tolkien with his Lord of The Rings; J.K. Rowling with her
Harry Potter series or Ken Follet with the Pillars of the Earth.
 Concerning cinema, the UK is also famous for its actors such as the pioneer Charles
Chaplin and Hollywood stars like Sean Connery, Ewan McGregor or Hellen Mirren
among others, and directors like Alfred Hitchcock.
 Regarding music, we must mention pop and rock music. Some British exponents are
The Beatles, the Rolling Stones, Queen or even the Spice Girls. Nowadays, Adele,
Ed Sheeran or Dua Lipa are quite popular.
 As for festivities, we can highlight special days such as the Bonfire Night on the 5th
of November.

1.2. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

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Let’s continue with the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, which comprises 50

states and a federal district (the District of Columbia). Its capital is Washington DC
and its currency the American dollar. The USA is a constitutional federal republic
and a representative democracy. The head of the state and government is the
President, who is currently John Biden.

Regarding the GEOGRAPHICAL FRAMEWORK, the USA is the world’s 3rd

largest country.

 Apart from Washington DC, other major cities are New York, Los Angeles,
Chicago, Boston, Houston, Philadelphia, or San Francisco among others.
 The country is in central North America, between Canada and Mexico although it
has two separated states, Alaska, and Hawaii.
 It is also surrounded by two oceans, the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. As
for the rivers, the main ones are Missouri, Mississippi, Rio Grande, or the Colorado
in the Grand Canyon. We can also mention the Great Lakes to the north.
 Regarding the relief, the most remarkable are the Appalachian Mountains to the
east and the Rocky Mountains to the west, and the Great Plains in the middle.
 Finally, the population of the United States was beyond 332 million of inhabitants
in 2021.

Now, concerning the HISTORICAL FRAMEWORK, its history started after the
Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492.

 The US’ history started with Britain’s colonies in the 17th century, such as Virginia or
New England, which was founded by the “Pilgrims”. During this time, the practice of
slavery with African people also started.
 In the 18th century, a desire of independence grew, resulting in a war against Britain.
It ended with the United States Declaration of Independence, the first
Constitution, and with George Washington as the first President of the country.
 After Abraham Lincoln’s election as President in the 1860s, he wanted to abolish
slavery, which provoked the Civil War between the north and the south and ended
with the victory of the north and the abolition of slavery.
 In the 20th century, the participation in the First World War was followed by a period
of prosperity, which came to an end when the Great Depression started.
 Later, with President Roosevelt, the US recovered economically, but it ended up
entering the Second World War, where it played a decisive role to defeat Germany
and Japan.
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 Right afterwards, the Cold War started between the communists and the capitalists
lasting until 1991.
 Finally, the 21st century started with the terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre,
and after the unpopular policies of the President George Bush Jr., Barack Obama
was elected as the first African-American President. This was substituted by the
controversial Donald Trump, and the latter by Joe Biden.

To finish, let us now have a look at the CULTURAL FRAMEWORK.

 As regards literature, the US has had famous writers throughout history (also
developed in topics 15 and 16) like Herman Melville and his Moby Dick, Mark Twain
and his Adventures of Tom Sawyer, and many others like Hemingway, Fitzgerald,
Silvia Plath, etc. Other popular and current authors are Dan Brown with his Da Vinci
Code and related novels or Stephen King and his horror stories like It.
 Concerning cinema, the USA is also famous for its Hollywood stars like Paul
Newman, Marilyn Monroe, Marlon Brando, directors like Woody Allen or Steven
Spielberg.
 Regarding music, we must mention the importance of genres like jazz or hip hop,
which originated in this country, and of course, singers like Elvis Presley or Michael
Jackson. Nowadays, popular singers and bands are Imagine Dragons, Bruno
Mars, Ariana Grande, Beyoncé, etc.
 As for festivities, there are notable special days in the USA, like the 4th of July, when
they celebrate the Independence Day, Halloween, Thanksgiving…

1.3. OTHER ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES

Now, to finish with this section, I would like to mention briefly the most relevant
aspects other main English-speaking countries: Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, and
Canada.

Let us start with IRELAND, which is an island located between the Atlantic
Ocean and the North Channel, and that shares frontiers with Northern Ireland. Its capital
is Dublin, being other cities Galway and Cork. Its currency is the Euro. National icons
are the festivity of St. Patrick’s Day, the trefoil, and leprechauns.

Continuing with AUSTRALIA, it is a vast island surrounded by the Pacific and

Indian Oceans. Its capital is Canberra, and other big cities are Sydney, Melbourne, or
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Perth. As for its currency, it is the Australian dollar. The country is known worldwide
for Sydney’s Opera, the Great Barrier Reef, the Outback (a vast natural desert area)
and unique species such as kangaroos or koalas.

Next is NEW ZEALAND, an island country in the Pacific Ocean consisting of two
big islands and hundreds of smaller ones. Its capital is Wellington although its largest
city is Auckland. Its currency is the New Zealand Dollar. Its national icon, as well as its
informal demonym is the kiwi, a unique species of bird.

Finally, concerning CANADA, it is a vast country located between Alaska, the

US and the Atlantic, Pacific and Artic Oceans. Its capital is Ottawa and other big cities
are Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal. From its relief, we must highlight the Rocky
Mountains. As for the festivities, the most popular one is the Groundhog Day. The
country is also well-known for its iconic flag with a maple leave on it.

Apart from these countries, there are 54 members in the Commonwealth of

Nations where English is a mother tongue or an official language.

2. DIDACTIC APPLICATION OF THE MOST REMARKABLE GEOGRAPHICAL,

HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL ASPECTS

After mentioning these geographic, historical, and cultural aspects, I will start
developing the second section of this topic, which deals with the didactic application in
the English classroom. But how can we do it?

To teach GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS we can use:

 Maps: to teach the most important cities, their flags, their relief, rivers, weather
or even their wildlife by sticking the names on it. This can be done using
WordWall or Genially and create an interactive image with labels on it and with
puzzles.
 Arts and crats: like making paper flags or creating mock-ups of the countries’
relief and rivers.
 Quizzes: by using platforms like Kahoot, Genially, WordWall, Quizlet or
Quizizz.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

 Challenges: placing QR codes around the classroom that students will have to
scan using tablets. This QRs will take them to online Google Forms
questionnaires about geography.
 Reading and listening comprehension activities: such as watching or reading
episodes from the series “Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego?”
 WebQuests: i.e., making students work together to seek information about
geographical aspects.
 Google Maps and Google Earth to visit English-speaking countries and their
streets using the ICTs.
 Board games: like Brain Box, where students must memorize data from
countries during some seconds and then answer questions; or the boardgame
“Where in the USA is Carmen Sandiego?”

Now, continuing with the teaching of HISTORICAL ASPECTS, we can use the
following resources or activities:
 Songs and rhymes using videos from YouTube like the channel
“Historyteachers” where they sing historical aspects using famous songs.

 Virtual reality as we can make a virtual visit to some museums or use Google
Earth to visit historical places.

 Videos or films such as Pocahontas to show our students the British conquest
of the USA, Robin Hood, King Arthur and the Round Table, Merlin, etc.

 Texts, storybooks, and comics that portray a historical context or aspect.

 Quizzes and Webquests again.

Finally, to teach CULTURAL ASPECTS, we can use some of the previous

resources or activities, but also the following ones:
 Role-plays to practice social conventions such as greetings and politeness, or
even to practice with pounds or dollars pretending they are shopping.
 Projects such as European eTwinning projects within the Erasmus+ program
with English-speaking countries using the ICTs and communication.

 E-pals if we have the chance, where children will use language to communicate
with children from English-speaking countries and share cultural information
using the ICTs.

 Authentic materials or Realia: like bringing pounds or dollars to classroom.

TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

 Trivia games.

 And celebrating festivities in the class: like getting dressed for one day, e.g.
in Halloween.

3. CONCLUSION

To come to an end, we can conclude that it is essential that we, as teachers, not
only transmit linguistic aspects in our classroom, but also accompany them with socio-
linguistic, socio-cultural, and historical aspects from early stages as well as valuing
differences between the different English-speaking countries and our own country.
Students must know the importance of learning a second language and its culture, and
the advantages it has, as they will not only learn the language, but also a new way of
thinking. In short, students must learn similarities and differences among difference
cultures and learn to view them as enriching factors. I would like to finish with a quote by
Flora Lewis, who said that:

“Learning another language is not only learning different words for the same
things, but learning another way to think about things”

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cameron, J. (2017). The English-speaking World.

Hadley, A. (2001). Teaching language in context.
Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching.
Musman, R. (1986). Background to the USA.
O’Hanlon, M. (2000). Customs and traditions in Britain.
LOMLOE 3/2020, December 29th, which regulated education in Spain.
Royal Decree 157/2022 March 1st, which establishes the basic curriculum in Primary
Education nationwide..
Decree 38/2022, September 29th, which establishes the curriculum for Primary
Education in Castile and León.
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TOPIC 6. CONTRIBUTION OF LINGUISTICS TO FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING. THE LINGUISTIC LEARNING PROCESS:
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
0. INTRODUCTION 2. THE LINGUISTIC LEARNING PROCESS: SIMILARITIES AND
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE
-Topic 13 & 14. ACQUISITION
- Genetically programmed, mother tongue, second
language. 2.1. Theories on first language acquisition (L1)
- Laws – processes
– Multilinguialism 1. Behaviorism (1920-50s) – Skinner
- 2 sections 2. Constructivism (1950s) – Chomsky
3. Cognitivism (1950s-1970s) – Piaget
1. CONTRIBUTION OF LINGUISTICS TO FOREIGN 4. Critical Period (1960s) – Lenneberg
LANGUAGE TEACHING. 5. Input Theory (1970s) – Krashen
6. Interactionist Theory (late 1970s) – Vygotsky
1.1. Linguistics and its main areas
2.2. Theories on second language acquisition (L2)
- Definition of linguistics – George Yule (2006)
1. Acculturation Model (1980s) – Schumann
- Theoretical linguistics: 2. Accommodation Model (1970s) – Chomsky
3. Constructivism (1970s) – Piaget
+ Phonetics 4. Monitor Model (1970s) – Krashen – 5 hypotheses
+ Phonology
+ Morphology + Acquisition-learning Hypothesis
+ Syntax + Affective Filter Hypothesis
+ Semantics + Morphology
+ Pragmatics + Input Hypothesis
+ Discourse Analysis + Monitor Hypothesis
+ Natural Order Hypothesis
- Applied linguistics – George Yule (2006)
2.3. Similarities and differences between L1 and L2
+ Computational linguistics acquisition
+ Sociolinguistics
+ Psycholinguistics - Similarities – Unsworth (2002), Gass (2008) & Cook (2010)
+ Forensic linguistics + Skill integration & C. Competence
+ Early stage
1.2. Applied linguistics in relation to language teaching + Innate ability
+ Imitation
- Contributions to language teaching – Richards, Platt & + Inductively
Platt (2010) – Topic 13 + Natural order

+ Grammar-Translation Method – Karl Plotz - Differences – Unsworth (2002) & Cook (2010)
(1840s) + Age
+ Direct Method – Sauveur & Frankle (1860s) + Affective factors
+ Natural Approach – Terrel & Krashen (1970s) + Way of speaking
+ Audiolingual Method – university of Michigan + Transference
(1950s) + Learning environment
+ Silent Way – Gattegno (1976) + Language exposure & practice
+ Suggestopedia – Lozanov (1978)
+ Total Physical Response (TPR) – James Asher 3. CONCLUSION
(1970s)
+ Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) - Although L1 and L2 – differences
– Marsh (1994) - Updated
+ Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) – - Communicative & student-centered
Halliday & Hymes (1970s) - in the past
+ Eclectic approach Geoffrey Willans
“You can never understand a language until you understand
at least two”
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TOPIC 6

CONTRIBUTION OF LINGUISTICS TO FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING. THE

LINGUISTIC LEARNING PROCESS: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

0. INTRODUCTION
1. CONTRIBUTION OF LINGUISTICS TO FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING.
1.1. LINGUISTICS AND ITS MAIN AREAS
1.2. APPLIED LINGUISTICS IN RELATION TO LANGAUGE TEACHING
2. THE LINGUISTIC LEARNING PROCESS: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
2.1. THEORIES ON L1 ACQUISITION
2.2. THEORIES ON L2 ACQUISITION
2.3. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN L1 AND L2 ACQUISITION
3. CONLUSIONS
4. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

0. INTRODUCTION

The present essay focuses on the contribution of linguistics to foreign language

teaching as regards theories on how the first and second language are learned. This
topic is related to topic number 13, which deals with the history of learning and teaching
methods and approaches; and to topic number 14, which deals with the different
methods and techniques to achieve the communicative competence.
Let us begin by considering that it seems that human beings are genetically
programmed to acquire language but, how it is acquired? Children learn their mother
tongue before they are six, having a good command of complex structures, phonological,
and semantic rules without being aware. In fact, we do not become aware of the
intricacies of the linguistic process until we study a second language, which have been
studied by linguistics since the 17th century.
Also, as we know, students must have achieved a basic communicative
competence by the end of Primary Education, which is one of the stage objectives
(objective f) in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree 157/2022. Moreover, we need
to mention that students will not only have to achieve this communicative competence in
the foreign language, but also in their own language, which are two processes that
happen at the same time. In this sense, both the Royal Decree 157/2022 and the Decree
38/2022 of Castile and León include the Block of contents B: Multilingualism.
To develop this topic, I will divide into 2 sections: first, I will talk about the
contributions of linguistics to foreign language teaching, defining linguistics and its
components. Secondly, I will explain the different theories in first and second language
acquisition. Finally, I will present the conclusions and the bibliography consulted to
develop this topic.

1. CONTRIBUTION OF LINGUISTICS TO FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of my essay,
which deals with the contribution of linguistics to foreign language teaching and the
different theories of first and second language acquisition. But first, what is linguistics
and what are its components?

1.1. LINGUÍSTICS AND ITS MAIN AREAS

According to George Yule (2006), linguistics is the is the scientific discipline

that studies the origin, evolution and structure of language and it comprises two
disciplines: theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.

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On the one hand, theoretical linguistics deals with theories about universal
aspects of language and comprises the following areas:

⚫ Phonetics: which deals with how sounds are produced (articulatory phonetics),
transmitted (acoustic phonetics) and perceived (auditory phonetics).
⚫ Phonology: which deals with speech sounds (phonemes) and how they are used
and organized.
⚫ Morphology: which is the study of word formation.
⚫ Syntax: which is the study of language rules and the structures of phrases and
sentences.
⚫ Semantics: which is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.
⚫ Pragmatics: which studies the meaning of language in use.
⚫ And Discourse Analysis: which is the study of language beyond the sentence,
that is, the text and conversation.

On the other hand, applied linguistics, is defined by Yule (2006) as the use of
linguistic research in language teaching although it covers other areas such as:

⚫ Computational Linguistics, that is, the application of the concepts of computer

science to the analysis of language.
⚫ Sociolinguistics, or the study of the relationship between language and society.
⚫ Psycholinguistics, that is, the study of the relationship between linguistic and
psychological behaviour.
⚫ And forensic linguistics, which is used to provide evidence in court.

1.2. APPLIED LINGUISTICS IN RELATION TO LANGUAGE TEACHING

Having said this, the focus of this essay is on applied linguistics. In this sense, I
will briefly mention some of the main contributions to language teaching according to
Richards, Platt & Platt (2010), which are also developed in topic 13 and which deals
with methodologies and approaches:
 Grammar-Translation Method: by Karl Plotz (1840s) in which learning is done
by translating from one language to the other and vice versa, memorizing
vocabulary and grammar.

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 Direct Method: by Sauveur & Frankle (1860s) in which teaching is done entirely
in the target language, grammar rules are avoided and there is emphasis on good
pronunciation.
 Audiolingual Method developed in the University of Michigan (1950s), where
language is learned by acquiring habits, using extensive drills where language is
first heard and then written.
 Natural Approach: by Terrel & Krashen (1970s) in which learning is done by
exposing learners to language that is made comprehensible in a similar way than
the mother tongue.
 Silent Way: by Gattegno (1976), in which the teacher let students express
themselves and where there is no use of the mother tongue.
 Suggestopedia: by Lozanov (1978), according to which, a language can be
acquired only when the learner is receptive and has no mental blocks, which is
done through various methods such as background music, pictures, etc.
 Total Physical Response (TPR): by James Asher (1970s), which highlights the
importance of aural comprehension by using simple commands to which students
must answer with movement.
 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): developed by Marsh
(1994), in which language is learned through the teaching of other contents such
as Science, History or Geography.
 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT): by Halliday & Hymes (1970s),
which focuses on learners communicating effectively and appropriately in the
various situations they would be likely to find themselves in.
 Apart from all these main methods, it’s important to mention the eclectic
Approach, in which teachers use techniques from a range of language teaching
approaches and methodologies.

2. THE LANGUAGE LEARNING PROCESS: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

BETWEEN FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

2.1. THEORIES ON FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (L1)

Once we know what linguistics is, its main areas and its contributions to language
teaching, let us now talk about the language learning process of the L1.

◼ First, according to Behaviourism (1920-50s) (or the Learning Perspective),

children imitate what they see and hear and learn from punishment and

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

reinforcement. The most important theorist is Skinner, who argued that adults
shape the speech of infants by reinforcing their babbling that sound most like
words.

◼ Second, according to Generativism (1950s) (or Nativist Perspective), humans

are biologically programmed to acquire knowledge. Chomsky, the main theorist,
proposed that all humans have a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that
contains knowledge of grammatical rules that are common to all languages.

◼ Third, according to Cognitivism (1950s-1970s) and its main theorist Piaget,

structures will only emerge if there is an already-established cognitive foundation.
For instance, children will be able to develop comparative and superlative
linguistic forms once they understand the size of objects.

◼ Fourth, the Critical Period Theory (1960s), whose main theorist was
Lenneberg, establishes that between the age of two and puberty, the human
brain shows a high plasticity that allows first language learning. Hence, this could
be the time in which other languages must be learned.

◼ Fifth, the Input Theory (1970s) is exemplified by what linguists have called
“motherese”. According to this theory, whose main theorist is Krashen, parents
have a special way of talking to babies or infants which facilitates language
acquisition as utterances are simple, clear, expressive and attention-catching.

◼ Finally, according to the Interactionist Theory (late 1970s), language learning

is influenced by children’s desire to communicate with others. The main theorist
is Vygotsky with his model of collaborative learning. According this theory,
conversations with older people can help children both cognitively and
linguistically.

2.2. THEORIES ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (L2)

After explaining the main theories on first language acquisition, it is normal to

think that both first language and second language acquisition theories are parallel, as
they can be extrapolated up to some extent into second language acquisition. Thus, the
main second language acquisition theories are the following:

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

 First, the Acculturation Model is a theory proposed by Schumann (1986), which

is based on the social factors experienced by those learning a language within
the target culture. He states that “the degree to which a learner acculturates to
the target language group will control the degree to which they acquire the second
language.

 Second, Howard Giles (1970s)’ Accommodation Model analyses the

relationship between the learner’s social group and the target language
community as the former is responsible for the negative or positive attitudes
towards L2 learning.

 Third, according to Constructivism, whose father is considered to be Piaget

(1950s), second language is best acquired when it is taught in the environment
where it is used as a means of social interaction, enabling learners to construct
meaning about the language.

 Finally, Krashen (1970s) developed the Monitor Model, where he establishes 5

different hypotheses on second language learning;

 First, the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis, which says there are two

different ways of approaching a language: acquiring a language or
learning it. If one acquires a language, we will do it unconsciously and if
we learn it, it will be a conscious process of study.

 Second, the Affective Filter Hypothesis, which refers to an imaginary

barrier which prevents learners from acquiring language. A learner who is
tense, angry or bored may filter out “input”.

 Third, the Input Hypothesis which states that input only enters the
student when it is comprehensible, so visual aids and paralinguistic
elements are needed. In addition, input that students get must be a little
beyond their current level, this is the so-called i+1, the “i” is the learner’s
interlanguage and the “+1” is the next stage of language acquisition.

6
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

 Fourth, according to the Monitor Hypothesis itself, learners use their

conscious knowledge of the language to correct what they are going to
say before they say it.

 Finally, the Natural Order Hypothesis which argues that the acquisition
of grammatical structures in the mother tongue occurs in a predictable
sequence, and the same should happen in the L2 acquisition.

2.3. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FIRST AND SECOND

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Once we know the different first and second language acquisition theories, in the
second section of my essay I will mention the similarities and differences that exist
between the first and second language acquisition.

On the one hand, let us begin by the similarities, which according to Unsworth
(2002), Gass (2008) and Cook (2010) are the following:

⚫ Skill integration and the communicative competence are the main aim of both L1
and L2 acquisition.
⚫ Both the L1 and the L2 are introduced at an early age.
⚫ Children use their innate ability to learn language and create new utterances.
⚫ Imitation is common in both L1 acquisition (parents) and L2 acquisition
(teachers).
⚫ Grammar is learnt inductively, that is, from the particular to the general.
⚫ Children follow the natural order in both L1 and L2 acquisition.

On the other hand, let us mention now the differences in L1 and L2 acquisition,
which according to Unsworth (2002) and Cook (2010) are the following:

⚫ As regards age, some people think that the sooner you learn a language, the
better, but the truth is that some people, after puberty, get stuck in the learning
process while others master more than one language.
⚫ Concerning affective factors, children do not resist L1 acquisition. However, they
may have both negative and positive attitudes towards L2 acquisition.
⚫ The way of speaking is different, as parents do not talk to their children in the
same way as teachers do to their students. For instant, “motherese” talking.

7
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

⚫ L2 learning does not cause transference to L1, but L1 does cause transference
to L2.
⚫ The learning environment is different, as L2 learning is learned in an artificial-
formal situation (the classroom) that lacks the diversity of contexts and situations
that L1 acquisition has.
⚫ And finally, L2 learners have less time and opportunities for language exposure
and practice than children acquiring their L1.

3. CONCLUSIONS

To come to an end, we can conclude that although L1 and L2 are acquired in a

parallel way, there are some differences in their acquisition that teachers must be aware
of to improve the teaching-learning process.
Also, teachers need to be updated concerning new approaches and methods
towards L2 teaching so as to make their own eclectic method suitable for their students
within the communicative and student-centred approach stated by the LOMLOE 3/2020,
which gives the same importance to oral and written skills as opposed to what happened
in the past; as our main objective in the Foreign Language area is that students acquire
a basic communicative competence.
I would like to finish this topic with a quote by Geoffrey Willans, which remarks
the unconscious learning of a language and how learners become aware of the
intricacies of a language when they learn a foreign one, and who said that:

“You can never understand a language until you understand at least two”.

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Finally, I will refer to the bibliography consulted for the elaboration of this topic:

Brewster, J. (2002). The Primary English Teacher’s Guide.

Crystal, D. (2011). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.

Ellis, R. (2015). Understanding Second Language Acquisition.

Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English.

Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching.

8
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

Richards J.C, Platt, J. y Platt, H. (2010). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and

Applied Linguistics.

Yule, G. (2006). The Study of Language.

LOMLOE 3/2020, 29th of December, which regulates education in Spain.

Royal Decree 157/2022, 1st of March, which establishes the basic curriculum for Primary

Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022, 29th of September, which establishes the curriculum for Primary

Education in Castile and León.

9
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 7. THE ORAL FOREIGN LANGUAGE. THE COMPLEXITY OF GLOBAL UNDERSTANDING IN ORAL INTERACTION:
FROM HEARING TO ACTIVE AND SELECTIVE UNDERSTANDING. BEGINNING TO SPEAK: FROM IMITATION TO
AUTONOMOUS PRODUCTION
0. INTRODUCTION - Strategies
1. Identify topic
-Topics 3 & 8. 2. Prior knowledge
-Receptive 3. Context
-Productive
-Oral & Written - Methodological principles
-Legislation 1. Simple
-3 sections 2. Understand
3. Extralinguistic
1. THE ORAL FOREIGN LANGUAGE
3. BEGINNING TO SPEAK: FROM IMITATION TO
- Initial considerations. AUTONOMOUS PRODUCTON
- Definition of oral language – Harmer (2007)
- Historical point of view. -Natural order
> Oral language -Definition of speaking – Thornbury (2013)
> Written language 1. Prosodic elements
- Linguistic features 2. Pronunciation
> Lexical & morphosyntactic features 3. Paralinguistic elements
> Prosodic elements/features
- Stress (Harmer 2007) -How is speaking developed? – 3Ps approach
- Rhythm (Cantero 2003)
- Intonation (Cantero 2003) 1. Presentation Stage.
- Speech pauses + Presentation (Power Point/Genially)
> Paralinguistic elements (Darn 2005) + Mimic game.
- Differences oral vs written language – Halliday (1989) + WordWall/Quizlet.
2. THE COMPLEXITY OF GLOBAL UNDERSTANDING IN
ORAL INTERACTION: FROM HEARING TO ACTIVE AND 2. Practice Stage.
SELECTIVE UNDERSTANDING + Guessing games (guess who?/Headbandz)
+ Picture dictation
-Natural order hypothesis - Krashen (1970s) + Descriptions
-Definition of listening – Wilson (2008) + Interviews
1. Hearing + Dialogues
2. Word recognition + Simulations/problem-solving activities
3. Comprehension + Social interaction activities
+ Information gathering activities
-How is listening developed? – Brown (2006)
3. Production Stage
1. Pre-listening Stage. + Video (roleplay).
+ Wordcloud (WordArt) + Lapbook
+ Flashcards/posters (Canvas)
+ Book covers - Difficulties – Ur (1996)
+ PPT presentations 1. Inhibition
+ Songs and videos (YouTube) 2. Nothing to say
3. Participation
2. While-listening Stage. 3. Mother tongue
> Extensive listening
+ Cutting out pieces of paper - Strategies
+ Liveworksheets.com 1. Stock
> Intensive listening 2. Check & ask
+ Orally 3. Non-verbal
+ Worksheets
+ Kahoot - Methodological principles
+ Lyricstraining.com 1. Atmosphere
2. Interests, concerns & needs,
3. Post-listening Stage
+ Dramatize 4. CONCLUSION
+ Collective writing Harmer
“Language is learned through its use”
- Difficulties – Ur (1987)
1. Sounds
2. Accents & colloquialisms
3. Summarize info
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 7

THE ORAL FOREIGN LANGUAGE. THE COMPLEXITY OF GLOBAL

UNDERSTANDING IN ORAL INTERACTION: FROM HEARING TO ACTIVE AND
SELECTIVE UNDERSTANDING. BEGINNING TO SPEAK: FROM IMITATION TO
AUTONOMOUS PRODUCTION

0. INTRODUCTION

1. THE ORAL FOREIGN LANGUAGE.

2. THE COMPLEXITY OF GLOBAL UNDERSTANDING IN ORAL INTERACTION:

FROM HEARING TO ACTIVE AND SELECTIVE UNDERSTANDING.

3. BEGINNING TO SPEAK: FROM IMITATION TO AUTONOMOUS PRODUCTION.

4. CONCLUSIONS.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

0. INTRODUCTION.

As stated in the tittle of this topic, the present essay, which is related to topics 3
and 8, focuses on the oral foreign language, specifically on the oral comprehension
and the oral production in the English classroom.

Let us begin by considering that anyone who uses a language correctly has
developed a series of language skills which can be divided into receptive (they require
that the language user receives language), being the case of listening and reading and
productive (they require a certain production of language by the language user) such
as speaking and reading. These skills can also be classified according to the medium
in oral skills (that is, listening and speaking) and written skills (that is, reading and
writing). The focus of this essay, as stated before, will be on the development of the
aforementioned oral skills.

It is important to note, that the development of oral skills, as well as written

skills, are mentioned in Block A: Communication, stated both in the Royal Decree
157/2022 and the Decree 38/2022 of Castile and Leon. These need to be developed in
order to achieve the Communicative Competence, being its acquisition one of the
stage objectives in Primary Education, as stated both in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the
Royal Decree 157/2022.

To develop this topic, I will divide it into three sections. The first section deals
with some initial considerations about the oral foreign language. Then, the next two
sections deal with the oral comprehension and the oral production, including a
definition, an explanation of the process giving some examples of activities, and the
difficulties that may arise in the process as well as the strategies we can use to solve
them. Finally, I will present the conclusions and the bibliography used to develop this
topic.

1. THE ORAL FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Starting with some initial considerations, we can say that learning a foreign
language in Primary Education has a practical objective which is being able to
communicate, and, in order to do so, students have to combine the four skills. The
main concern of this topic is the oral language, which comprises both listening and
speaking, but what is the oral language? According to Harmer (2007), oral language
is language expressed through the aural medium, in a two-way process between
speaker and listener, in which the speaker has to encode the message he/she wishes
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

to convey in an appropriate way, while the listener has to decode or interpret that
message in order to produce an appropriate answer and become himself/herself a
speaker.

But from a historical point of view, what was the role of these oral skills
throughout history? Well, for many hundreds of thousands of years, human language
was transmitted and developed entirely as a spoken means of communication, being
the oral language considered as unworthy of study as it lacked rules and organization,
and the written language the only source of standards of linguistic excellence. Thus,
the first methods of foreign language acquisition (which are developed in topic 6)
denied the role of the spoken word and mainly concentrated on the written one.
However, the focus on the oral communication in the foreign language classroom
started with the Direct and the Audio-lingual methods. Nowadays, according to the
Communicative Approach, no means of communication is better than the other. In fact,
the four skills must be worked on and integrated at the same time as they complement
each other.

When talking about oral language, we should differentiate between linguistic

and paralinguistic features.

On the one hand linguistic features have lexical, semantic and

morphosyntactic resources and phonetic resources such stress, rhythm, intonation,
which are also called prosodic features. I would like to briefly define the latter, which
are also developed in topic 2, as they help build meaning and affect verbal interaction.
They are also language specific, which means they vary from language to language,
which means they should be taught in the same way as the other elements of the
target language. But what are stress, rhythm, and intonation?

1. Stress: refers to the intensity given to a syllable by putting special effort

resulting in a higher volume to differentiate it from other syllables or words
(Harmer, 2007)
2. Rhythm: is the combination of stressed and unstressed syllables that allows us
to slow down our speech or speed it up, be emphatic or make it more aesthetic.
(Cantero, 2003)
3. Intonation: refers to the changes in pitch or tone to convey or alter the
meaning. Depending on whether it is rising or falling, we may express doubt,
surprise, certainty, questions, etc. (Cantero, 2003)
 TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

4. We should also mention speech pauses: which help us breath, change the
tone and rhythm; and in general, they allow us to maintain the receiver’s
attention. However, if these pauses are long, they are inadequate. In written
language, these pauses refer to punctuation.

On the other hand, according to Darn (2005), paralinguistic features, which

are developed in topic 2, are considered an area of non-verbal language, which refer to
variations in voice quality and manner of speaking, whether in tone, volume, speed,
etc. that can work as feedback sounds, that is, they show agreement, impatience,
annoyance, or surprise. They are also indicators of how the message was received.

Finally, it could be appropriate to see the characteristics that differentiate

oral language from written language, so what are the main differences
between them?

ORAL LANGUAGE WRITTEN LANGUAGE

 There is a tendency to ellipsis and  There is not as much abbreviation and

abbreviation of words. ellipsis (except for colloquial language).
 There is much use of coordinated  The grammar used is more complex,
sentences. combining simple and embedded
 There is use of more general and simple clauses and phrases.
vocabulary.  The vocabulary is more complex and
 There is use of semantic conversational elaborated.
fillers.  Repetition is avoided by choosing other
 Grammar is simpler. terms like synonyms.
 There is much repetition.  Written language is permanent.
 It is time bound.  The presence of the receiver is not
 And speech is produced by more than one necessary.
participant.

2. THE COMPLEXITY OF GLOBAL UNDERSTANDING IN ORAL INTERACTION:

FROM HEARING TO ACTIVE AND SELECTIVE UNDERSTANDING

After mentioning some initial considerations on the oral foreign language, I will
start developing the second section, which is about understanding in oral interaction,
that is, the listening skill.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

When developing the linguistic skills, pupils follow Krashen (1970s)’s natural
order hypothesis, just like in their mother tongue, and the listening skill is the first step
to develop the Communicative Competence in our students. But what is listening?

Listening can be defined according to Wilson (2008) as the receptive skill

which deals with the decoding of sounds into signals according to the rules of the
linguistic code. It provides aural input to students as a base for language learning,
hence, its importance. This skill implies: hearing (that is, perceiving incoming sounds),
word recognition (that is, isolating sounds into signals and extracting meaning) and
comprehension (that is, integrating the meaning of words).

Now, the next question is: how is the listening process developed? Well, it is
useful to organize listening tasks into three different stages according to Brown (2006):
pre-listening, while-listening and post-listening.

As regards, the pre-listening stage, activities should aim at activating learners’

previous knowledge to create a suitable context to introduce new structures and key
vocabulary so they can understand the listening. This can be done through
brainstorming exercises, such as creating a word-cloud using tools such as WordArt,
where we can create wordclouds with different shapes, colours and letter fonts; through
more traditional materials such as flashcards or posters that we can create using
apps like Canvas; or using book covers that deal with the same topic for example. We
can also use presentation tools such as PowerPoint or Genially, as well as platforms
to listen to songs or videos such as YouTube.

Concerning the while-listening stage, students will perform tasks in order to

develop listening strategies and be active; namely, extensive listening and intensive
listening. On the one hand, extensive listening or listening for general
comprehension can be developed by ding ordering or sequencing activities where
students have to order some parts of the script, which can be done by cutting out some
pieces of paper and reordering them; or using interactive platforms such as
Liveworksheets where students can do matching, ordering and dragging activities on
the Interactive Board, computers or tablets. On the other hand, intensive listening or
listening for specific comprehension can be developed by asking specific questions
to students both orally or through worksheets. However, we can use less traditional
ways such as using Kahoot to ask them questions in an interactive and playful way.
Another resource we can use if our listening exercise is about a song, is
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

lyricstraining.com, which is an online platform to listen and watch music videos while
playing by filling in the gaps of the lyrics.

Finally, as regards the post-listening stage, it can be considered as follow-up

work to check comprehension and evaluate. Students can perform tasks connecting
what they have listened to with their experience integrating other skills. For instance,
students can dramatize in groups different parts of a dialogue they have previously
listened to, integrating the speaking skill: or do collective writing and change the
script, integrating the writing skill.

However, although we follow the aforementioned stages, some difficulties in

the listening process may still arise. According to Ur (1987), the main difficulties that
may appear are:

• The problem of sounds (pronunciation, rhythm, intonation and stress).

• Problems with accents and colloquial vocabulary.
• Unskilful in using strategies to summarize the information.

In order to deal with these difficulties in the listening process, what should
teachers do? We should teach our students some listening strategies as well as follow
some methodological principles ourselves.

On the one hand, students should learn some strategies such us:

• Identify the topic.

• Predict and guess information using their prior knowledge.
• Infer the meaning from context.

On the other hand, teachers should follow some methodological principles:

• Present the information as simple as possible.

• Make sure that students understand the instructions.
• Use extralinguistic strategies.

3. BEGINNING TO SPEAK: FROM IMITATION TO AUTONOMOUS PRODUCTION

TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

After explaining the oral comprehension or the listening skill, I will start
developing the third section of this essay, which is about oral production, that is, the
speaking skill, which according to the natural order, comes after listening. But what is
speaking?

Speaking can be defined according to Thornbury (2013) as the ability to communicate

in speech, by making use of the oral medium, encoding sounds into signals within a
shared linguistic code. It involves much more than the use of words but also prosodic
elements (intonation, stress or rhythm), pronunciation or paralinguistic elements.

Now, the next question is: how is the speaking process developed? Well, to
get fluency, there are three stages that we should follow which are also known as the
3Ps approach: the presentation stage, the practice stage and the production stage.

Concerning the presentation stage, this phase is good for activating previous
knowledge and presenting the new language and where students basically imitate the
pronunciation after the teacher. This can be done by giving students a very visual
presentation using tools such as Power Point or the platform Genially, accompanying
each word with visual images and the corresponding pronunciation. After presenting
the new words, students can play a mimic game where they must describe a word
using non-verbal language while the rest have to guess it for example. Another
possibility is using Wordwall or Quizlet to integrate this new language by means of
interactive activities.

Moving on to the practice stage, students practice the new linguistic forms in a
more autonomous way through communicative activities. We can do this by playing
guessing games in pairs or groups such as guess who? or headbandz, where they have to
guess a character or picture by asking each other questions. We can also use picture
dictation, descriptions, interviews, dialogues, among many others such as problem-solving
activities or simulations, where grammar can be easily put into practice in a communicative
way.

Lastly, in the production stage, students will put into practice what they have
learned, without the teacher’s control, in a creative way and using linguistic and non-linguistic
resources. For instance, students can create a lapbook about a specific topic using the
vocabulary and structures from the unit and prese it orally in front of the classroom; or record
a video where they will perform a role-play using that new language.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

Again, although we follow the aforementioned stages, some difficulties in the

speaking process still arise. According to Ur (1996), the main difficulties that may
appear are:

• Inhibition.
• Having nothing to say.
• Having a low or uneven participation between students.
• Mother-tongue use.

In order to deal with these difficulties in the speaking process, what should
teachers do? We should teach our students some speaking strategies as well as
follow some methodological principles ourselves.

On the one hand, students should learn strategies such as:

• Learn a stock of minimal responses for different situations

• Learn how to ask for clarification and how to check comprehension.
• Use non-verbal language

On the other hand, teachers should follow some methodological principles:

• Create a good classroom atmosphere, for everyone to participate.

• Consider students’ interests, concerns and needs.

4. CONCLUSION

To come to an end, we can conclude that it is sometimes said that students do

not have a good oral command of English and are unable to express themselves with
ease in a foreign language even after having been studying if for years, but the truth is
that they will never do it if we do not provide them with plenty of exposure to oral
language as well as opportunities to practise it within communicative experiences in
which the fulfilment of the activity is more relevant for students than the use of
language itself, becoming language a tool for communication. Because as Harmer
said,

“Language is learned through its use”

TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

To finish, I will refer to the bibliography consulted for elaboration of this topic:

Brewster, J. (2002). The Primary English Teacher’s Guide.

Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English.

Richards J.C, Platt, J. & Platt, H. (2010). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching
and Applied Linguistics.

Thornbury, S. (2013). How to teach speaking.

Wilson, J.J. (2008). How to teach listening.

LOMLOE, 3/2020, 29th of December, which regulates education in Spain.

Royal Decree 157/2022, 1st of March, which establishes the basic curriculum in Primary
Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022, 29th of December, which establishes the curriculum in Castile and
León.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 8. THE WRITTEN FOREIGN LANGUAGE. APPROACHING, DEVELOPING AND IMPROVING THE READING-
WRITING PROCESS. READING COMPREHENSION: TECHNIQUES FOR GLOBAL AND SPECIFIC COMPREHENSION OF
TEXTS. WRITTEN EXPRESSION: FROM INTERPRETATION TO THE PRODUCTION OF TEXTS
0. INTRODUCTION - Strategies
1. Identify topic
- Topics 3 & 7. 2. Prior knowledge
- Receptive 3. Context
- Productive
- Oral & Written - Methodological principles
- Legislation 1. Simple input
- 4 sections 2. Instructions
3. Visual aids
1. THE WRITTEN FOREIGN LANGUAGE 4. Topics

- Initial considerations. 4. WRITTEN EXPRESSION: FROM INTERPRETATION TO

- Definition of written language – Harmer (2007) THE PRODUCTION OF TEXTS
- Historical point of view.
> Oral language -Natural order
> Written language – written systems -Definition of writing – Harmer (2004)
+ phonological -How is writing developed?
+ non-phonological
- Differences oral vs written language - Halliday (1989) 1. Copying Stage.
+ Charts (Power Point/Genially)
2. APPROACHING, DEVELOPING AND IMPROVING THE + Crosswords.
READING-WRITING PROCESS + Wordsearches.
+ Scrabble
- Stages – Richards, Platt & Platt (2010) + Liveworksheets.
- Reading process: + Quizlet.
1. Pre-reading. + Wordwall.
2. Initial reading (decoding) – age 6 2. Controlled-practice Stage.
3. Confirmation & fluency. + Model text
4. Reading for learning. 3. Free Production Stage
- Writing process: + PowerPoint
1. Preparation. + Genially
2. Consolidation – 7th year + Prezi
3. Differentiation.
4. Integration. - Difficulties – Ur (1996)
1. Interferences
3. READING COMPREHENSION: TECHNIQUES FOR 2. Lack
GLOBAL AND SPECIFIC COMPREHENSION OF TEXTS 3. Reason

- Natural order hypothesis - Krashen (1970s) - Strategies

-Definition of reading – Harmer (2007) 1. Read
-How is reading developed? 2. Brainstorm
1. Pre-reading Stage. 3. Organize
+ Visual Presentation 4. Revise
+ Wordwall.
+ Liveworksheets.com - Methodological principles
2. While-reading Stage. 1. Topics
> Extensive reading 2. Reason
+ Cutting out pieces of paper 3. Models
+ Kahoot 4. Correction
+ Wordwall
> Intensive reading 5. CONCLUSION
+ QR codes Harmer
+ Google Forms. “Language is learned through its use”
3. Post-reading Stage
+ Padlet

- Difficulties – Twining (1999)

1. Word or sentence
2. Interest & concentration
3. Time
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 8

THE WRITTEN FOREIGN LANGUAGE. APPROACHING, DEVELOPING AND

IMPROVING THE READING-WRITING PROCESS. READING COMPREHENSION:
TECHNIQUES FOR GLOBAL AND SPECIFIC COMPREHENSION OF TEXTS.
WRITTEN EXPRESSION: FROM INTERPRETATION TO THE PRODUCTION OF
TEXTS

0. INTRODUCTION

1. THE WRITTEN FOREIGN LANGUAGE

2. APPROACHING, DEVELOPING AND IMPROVING THE READING-WRITING

PROCESS

3. READING COMPREHENSION: TECHNIQUES FOR GLOBAL AND SPECIFIC

COMPREHENSION OF TEXTS.

4. WRITTEN EXPRESSION: FROM INTERPRETATION TO THE PRODUCTION OF

TEXTS

5. CONCLUSIONS

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the tittle of this topic, the present essay focuses on the written foreign
language, both on the reading comprehension and the written expression in the English
classroom. This topic, is related to topic 3 and topic 7, as they all deal with the
development of the four linguistic skills.

Let us begin by considering that anyone who uses a language correctly has
developed a series of language skills which can be divided into receptive (they require
that the language user receives language), being the case of listening and reading and
productive (they require a certain production of language by the language user) such as
speaking and reading. These skills can also be classified according to the medium in
oral skills (that is, listening and speaking) and written skills (that is, reading and writing).
The focus of this essay, as stated before, will be on the development of the
aforementioned written skills.

It is important to note, that the written skills as well as the oral skills, which are
mentioned in Block A: Communication of the curriculum stated in the Royal Decree
157/2022 and the Decree 38/2022 of Castile and Leon, need to be developed in order to
achieve the Communicative Competence, being its acquisition one of the stage
objectives in Primary Education, as stated both in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and in the Royal
Decree 157/2022.

To develop this topic, I will divide it into four sections. The first section deals with
some initial considerations about the written foreign language. In the second section I
will explain how learnings start to familiarize with reading and writing. The last two
sections deal with the reading and writing process in the classroom, including a definition,
an explanation of the process with some examples of activities, and the difficulties that
may arise in the process as well as the strategies we can use to solve them. Finally, I
will present the conclusions and the bibliography used to develop this topic.

1. THE WRITTEN FOREING LANGUAGE

Starting with some initial considerations, we can say that learning a foreign
language in Primary Education has a practical objective which is being able to
communicate, and, in order to do so, students have to combine the four skills. The main
concern of this topic is the written language, which comprises both reading and writing,
but what is the written language? According to Harmer (2007), written language is
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

language expressed through the visual medium, and especially interesting is the
integration of both written skills. Because, when we read, not only do we decode the
message, but we also interpret what we are reading.

But from a historical point of view, what was the role of these two skills
throughout history? Well, although human language was transmitted and developed
entirely as a spoken means of communication for many hundreds of thousands of years,
the oral language was considered as unworthy of study as it lacked rules and
organization, and the written language was the only source of standards of linguistic
excellence, having more permanence and authority. Thus, the first methods of foreign
language acquisition (which are developed in topic 6) denied the role of the spoken word
and mainly concentrated on the written one. However, with the Direct and the Audio-
lingual methods, the focus on oral communication started again. Nowadays, according
to the Communicative Approach, no means of communication is better than the other. In
fact, the four skills must be worked on and integrated at the same time as they
complement each other.
When talking about written language, we should mention that it seems clear that
all writing systems developed independently at different times and in different parts of
the world. In fact, we can distinguish two types of writing systems:

▪ Non-phonological systems: that is, they do not show a relationship between

symbols and the sounds of the language. They include pictograms, ideograms,
cuneiform writing, and Egyptian writing.

▪ Phonological systems: that is, they do show a clear relationship between

symbols and the sounds of the language. They can be:
- Syllabic systems: where each grapheme corresponds to a syllable.
- Alphabetic systems: where each grapheme corresponds to a phoneme.

Finally, it could be appropriate to mention the characteristics that differentiate the

written language from the oral language, so what are the main differences between
them?

ORAL LANGUAGE WRITTEN LANGUAGE

 There is a tendency to ellipsis and  There is not as much abbreviation and
abbreviation of words. ellipsis (except for colloquial language).
 There is much use of coordinated
sentences.
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 There is use of more general and simple  The grammar used is more complex,
vocabulary. combining simple and embedded clauses
 There is use of semantic conversational and phrases.
fillers.  The vocabulary is more complex and
 Grammar is simpler. elaborated.
 There is much repetition.  Repetition is avoided by choosing other
 It is time bound. terms like synonyms.
 And speech is produced by more than one  Written language is permanent.
participant.  The presence of the receiver is not
necessary.

2. APPROACHING, DEVELOPING AND IMPROVING THE READING-WRITING

PROCESS

After mentioning some initial considerations on the written foreign language, I will start
developing the second section, which is about the different stages learners go through
since they are born in order to approach and develop both the reading and writing
process.

On the one hand, regarding the reading process, learners follow four stages according
to Richards, Platt and Platt (2010):

• Pre-reading: children approach reading by developing print awareness. For

example, seeing written words on T-shirts, children can understand some basic
concepts, such as reading from left to right and they can also memorise the form
and shapes of letters.
• Initial reading “decoding” (at the age of 6): children are more aware of the letter-
sound relationship, realizing that letters represent sounds.
• Confirmation and fluency: children decode words with fluency, acquiring
orthographic rules and recognizing patterns of words.
• Reading for learning: children are able to use reading to acquire knowledge and
get information.
On the other hand, regarding the writing process, learners also follow four stages:
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• Preparation: children approach writing by means of drawings and scribbling. As

for spelling, it can be learned with some games such as hangman, tracing words
on the back with their fingers, etc.
• Consolidation (around the 7th year), when children begin to use the writing system
to express what they can already say in speech.
• Differentiation, in which writing begins to diverge from speech and develop its
own pattern and organization.
• Integration, when writers have achieved good command of language and develop
a personal style.

3. READING COMPREHENSION: TECHNIQUES FOR GLOBAL AND SPECIFIC

COMPREHENSION OF TEXTS

After dealing with the reading-writing process, I will start developing the written
comprehension in the English classroom, in other words, which according to the natural
order, it comes before writing. But what is reading?

Reading according to Harmer (2007) is the receptive skill which deals with the
conversion of letters into sounds and the recognition and comprehension of words, as
we both decode and understand what we read.

After defining reading, the next question is: how is the reading process developed?
Well, there are three stages that we should follow to develop the reading skill, and
which are the same as in the listening skill: the pre-reading stage, the while-reading
stage and the post-reading stage.

First, in the pre-reading stage we will introduce our students the new
vocabulary they will need to understand the reading exercise they will do later. In order
to do so, we can give a very visual presentation again using the same tools I
mentioned before, practicing the pronunciation of each word. Then, in order to
integrate these words, we can use Wordwall, which is a platform for creating
interactive content, to do match-ups where students will match each word with their
corresponding written form. Although we can use others such as Liveworksheets
again.

In the while-reading stage, students will perform tasks in order to develop

listening strategies, namely extensive reading and intensive reading. On the one hand,
extensive reading or reading for general comprehension can be done by sequencing
and ordering different parts of the reading text. To do so we can use Kahoot or Wordwall
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

and create activities where students, by using their fingers on the interactive board, will
drag each part of the text to its corresponding place. On the other hand, intensive
reading, or reading for specific comprehension, can be done by asking specific
questions. We can do it with a challenge in a playful way and using tablets and QR
codes placed around the classroom. Students will scan those QR codes which will take
them to online questionnaires in Google Forms where they will ask these specific
questions and receive a score. It can also be easily done through a Kahoot.

Finally, regarding the post-reading stage, pupils will connect what they have
read with their experience, integrating other skills. This can be done, for example, using
tools such as Padlet, where the teacher will create a wall with different posts that
students will comment using computers or tablets. They will use the vocabulary and
structures to say what they liked or did not like about the reading, describe characters,
to invent an alternative ending, etc. They will also be able to comment and like each
other’s posts.

Again, although we follow the aforementioned stages, some difficulties in the reading
process still arise. According to Twining (1999), some difficulties that may appear are:

• Failure to understand a word or a sentence.

• Lack of interest or concentration.
• Lack of time for all the students to practice.

In order to deal with these difficulties in the reading process, what should teachers do?
We should teach our students some reading strategies as well as follow some
methodological principles ourselves.

On the one hand, students should learn some reading strategies such as:

• Identify the topic.

• Guessing from the title using prior knowledge.
• Infer the meaning from context.

On the other hand, teachers should follow some methodological principles:

• Use simple input of language.

• Make sure that students understand the instructions.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

• Use visual aids (maps, charts, etc.)

4. WRITTEN EXPRESSION: FROM INTERPRETATION TO THE PRODUCTION OF

TEXTS

After explaining the reading skill or reading comprehension, I will start developing the
written expression or the writing skill, which according to the natural order, comes after
reading. But what is writing?

Well, writing, according to Harmer (2004) is the most difficult skill even in learners’
mother tongue and it involves more than the production of graphic symbols, as symbols
have to be arranged according to certain conventions.

Once I have defined the writing skill, the next question is: how is the writing
process developed? Again, there are three stages that we should follow when
developing the writing skill that go from guided to free writing: these are the copying
stage, the controlled practice stage and the production stage.

First, in the copying stage, (where students will learn the written form of the
new words), we should aim at meaningful copying. Among the activities we can carry
out in this stage, we can use charts to classify words according to categories,
crosswords or wordsearches, or even play scrabble on the blackboard, writing words
both vertically and horizontally like the boardgame. We can also use again platforms
such as Liveworksheets, Quizlet or Wordwall and to do the same in an interactive way.

Moving on to the controlled practice stage, activities here can be compared to

a bridge towards freer production. For instance, pupils can read a model text about the
physical description of a character and after that, they can use this model to write their
own version to describe one of them. For example, the description of a famous person
they like. This example can be applied to other grammatical structures and vocabulary.

The final stage is free production; nevertheless, taking into account students’
linguistic level during Primary Education, written production should still be guided at
some point. We can do this by asking students create written presentations using tools
such as Power Point, Genially or Prezi in order to describe their favorite actors,
characters, youtubers, etc.

Again, although we follow the aforementioned stages, some difficulties in the writing
process still arise. Some difficulties that may appear are:
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• Interferences of the first language.

• Lack of vocabulary and structures.
• Students can’t find a reason for writing.

In order to deal with these difficulties in the writing process, what should teachers do?
We should teach our students some writing strategies as well as follow some
methodological principles ourselves.

On the one hand, students should learn some writing strategies such as:

• Read a lot.
• Brainstorm ideas.
• Organize ideas.
• Revise and edit.

On the other hand, teachers should follow some methodological principles:

• Select topics students like.

• Give students a reason for writing.
• Provide models.
• Involve the students in the correction of their writings.

5. CONCLUSIONS

To come to an end, we can conclude that there is no doubt that children find written skills
difficult to acquire and that they sometimes lack motivation, so we, as teachers, must
also plan meaningful and useful written interactive tasks to develop these skills. This
means we must provide them with plenty of exposure to written language as well as the
opportunities to practice it within communicative experiences in which the fulfilment of
the activity is more relevant for students than the use of language itself, becoming
language a tool for communication. Because as Harmer said,

“Language is learned through its use”

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Finally, the following bibliography was used in order to develop this topic:
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

Brewster, J. (2002). The Primary English Teacher’s Guide.

Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English.

Harmer, J (2004). How to teach writing.

Richards J.C, Platt, J. & Platt, H. (2010). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and
Applied Linguistics.

LOMLOE, 3/2020, 29th of December, which regulates education in Spain.

Royal Decree 157/2022, 1st of March, which establishes the basic curriculum in Primary
Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022, 29th of December, which establishes the curriculum in Castile and León.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICONES

TOPIC 9.
DESCRIPTION OF THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM. LEARNING MODELS AND TECHNIQUES. PERCEPTION,
DISCRIMINATION AND PRODUCTION OF SOUNDS, INTONATION, RHYTHM AND STRESS. PHONETIC CORRECTION.
0. INTRODUCTION 2. Drama voice techniques
+ stretching & relaxation
- Topic 10. + breathing
- Opaque language + resonance
- Legislation –sounds of the language + articulation
- 4 sections + tone awareness

1. DESCRIPTION OF THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL 3. Multisensory techniques

SYSTEM + visual sense
+ auditory sense
1.1. Phonetics and phonology + tactile sense

- Definition of phonetics – Yule (2006) 3. PERCEPTION, DISCRIMINATION AND PRODUCTION OF

+ Articulatory phonetics SOUNDS, INTONATION, RHYTHM AND STRESS
+ Acoustic phonetics
+ Auditory phonetics - Levels in mastery of phonetics – Harmer (2007)
1. Perception
- Definition of phonology – Yule (2006) 2. Discrimination
- Phonemes – Gimson (1994) 3. Production
- 44-26
- Phonological system of English - ACTIVITIES

1.2. Segmental and suprasegmental features 1. Common or traditional techniques & activities

- Definition of segmental features + Minimal pairs + Wall charts

+ Odd one out + Rhymes, chants, jolly songs.
1. Vowel sounds
+ Tongue position + Meaningful drills + Games (such as the
+ Palate
+ Tongue-twisters bingo, the hangman,
+ Lips
+ ”a” – “ran” /ae/ + I have, who has phonemic crosswords…)
+ Chinese whispers
2. Semivowel sounds
+ /j/ - “yesterday” or /w/ - “whale” 2. ICTs, computer-produced and mobile learning

3. Consonant sounds - 22 + Oz phonics + Howjsay

+ vibration (voiced, unvoiced)
+ Pirate phonics + YouTube
+ place of articulation (bilabial, labial,
labiodental, alveolar, post-alveolar, palo- + Liveworksheets.com (phonics videos &
alveolar, velar, glottal or palatal)
+ Gamestolearnenglish.com tongue-twisters)
+ mode of articulation (plosives, fricatives,
affricates, nasal, lateral, approximant, + Forvo.com + Merge Cube
glides)
4. PHONETIC CORRECTION
- Definition of suprasegmental features
1. Stress – Harmer (2007)
- Difference mistakes & errors
2. Rhythm – Cantero (2003)
- Overcorrect
3. Intonation – Cantero (2003)
- Black lists of mispronounced words
- Supportive & relaxed atmosphere
2. LEARNING MODELS & TECHNIQUES
- Spanish students
2.1. Learning models - short and long vowels. - -ed ending.

- Which variety? - “v” and “b”. - liquid “s”

- RP (or Received Pronunciation) - glottal “h”. - silent letters
- weak and strong forms. - Stressing
2.2. Techniques to learn pronunciation

1. Voice quality techniques 5. CONCLUSION

+ Object in lips Molière
+ Yawning voice “If you make yourself understood, you’re speaking well”
+ Exaggerating
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TOPIC 9

DESCRIPTION OF THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM. LEARNING

MODELS AND TECHNIQUES. PERCEPTION, DISCRIMINATION AND
PRODUCTION OF SOUNDS, INTONATION, RHYTHM AND STRESS. PHONETIC
CORRECTION.

0. INTRODUCTION.

1. DESCRIPTION OF THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM.

2. LEARNING MODELS AND TECHNIQUES.

3. PERCEPTION, DISCRIMINATION AND PRODUCTION OF SOUNDS,

INTONATION, RHYTHM AND STRESS.

4. PHONETIC CORRECTION.

5. CONCLUSIONS.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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0. INTRODUCTION

The present essay focuses on the description of the English phonological system
and the teaching of pronunciation in the English classroom, that is, the topic 9, which is
also related to topic 10, which deals with the English orthographic code. It is also related
to topics 11 and 12, as they all belong to the same block of topics which deal with different
areas of linguistics such as phonetics and phonology, semantics, lexicography, syntax,
etc.

Let us begin by considering that although the English language is the most
important language used internationally nowadays, it is still complicated for learners in
terms of spelling and pronunciation, because English is an opaque language, that is,
there is not a correspondence between spelling and pronunciation. This means that
learners must be aware that learning a language is not only a matter of memorizing
vocabulary and grammatical structures, but also of pronouncing correctly.

As a key factor, pronunciation is crucial to be communicatively competence in a

foreign language, which is one of the stage objectives that students must have achieved
by the end of Primary Education, as stated in the LOMLOE 3/2022 and the Royal Decree
157/2022. Moreover, in the Decree 38/2022 from Castile and Leon, the block of contents
letter A: Communication mentions the familiarization with the sounds of the language
and sound patterns through the use of songs, rhymes, tongue twisters and other oral
resources.

In order to develop this topic, I will divide it into four sections. In the first section,
I will deal with the description of the English phonological system, emphasizing on the
difference between phonetics and phonology and its two elements: segmental and
suprasegmental. In the second section, I will focus on some models and techniques in
order to improve pronunciation. In the third section, I will mention some examples on
how to work with sound, stress, rhythm and intonation in order to perceive, discriminate
and produce language correctly. The last section will be about phonetic correction.
Finally, I will present the conclusions and the bibliography used to develop this topic.

1. DESCRIPTION OF THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM

After introducing the topic, I will develop the first section of this topic, which deals
with the description of the English phonological system.

1.1. PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

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Firstly, I will start differentiating between the concepts of phonetics and

phonology.

On the one hand, phonetics, according to Yule (2006) deals with the study of
how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived, which is related to the three main
fields of phonetics:

- Articulatory phonetics: that is, the area which deals with sound production.

- Acoustic phonetics: that is, the area which deals with the transmission of
speech sound waves.

- Auditory phonetics: that is, the area which deals with the hearing process.

On the other hand, Yule (2006) defines phonology as the study of speech
sounds, the way they are organized and used. It deals with phonemes, that is, the
smallest phonological units that can make a difference in meaning (Gimson, 1994). In
fact, this difference in meaning is a problem for learners, as there are 44 phonemes but
only 26 letters in English.

All the phonemes together form the phonological system of the English
language, which cannot be understood without phonetics, as they both complement one
another.

1.2. SEGMENTAL AND SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES

Secondly, I will differentiate between segmental and suprasegmental elements,

as phonology covers both the word level (that is, segmental) and the sentence level (that
is, suprasegmental).

On the one hand, segmental features refer to vowel, semivowel and consonant
sounds:

1. Vowel sounds: in vowels the air flow is never obstructed. There are 12 pure
vowels and 8 diphthongs, and, they are all voiced. The vowels can be classified
according to different criteria such as the position of the tongue, the palate or the lips into
front, central or back; high, mid or low; and open, mid-open/mid-close and close. For
example, the letter “a” in the verb “ran”, which is represented by “a” and “e” together, is
a short vowel, which is a front sound where the tongue is placed in the lower part of the
mouth and the palate is raised.

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

2. Semivowel sounds: semivowels are pronounced like a vowel, but we use

them in a consonantal way, since they only occur before vowel phonemes. For instance,
the /j/ sound, such as in “yesterday” and the /w/ sound, such as in “whale”.

3. Consonant sounds: in consonants, unlike vowels, the air stream is

obstructed. There are 22 pure consonants in English, and they are classified according
to different criteria:

• The state of vibration of the vocal folds: voiceless or voiced.

• The place of articulation, that is, the point in which there is an obstruction in
passage of the air: bilabial, labio-dental, dental, alveolar, post-alveolar,
palato-alveolar, velar, glottal, palatal.
• The mode of articulation, that is, position adopted by the organs of articulation
as regards the air stream pass: plosives, fricatives, affricates, nasals, lateral,
approximant or glides (the two semi-vowels).

On the other hand, suprasegmental features (also called prosodic) refer to how
words and sentences sound and comprise three elements: stress, rhythm and intonation.

1. Stress: refers to the intensity given to a syllable by putting special effort

resulting in a higher volume to differentiate it from other syllables or words (Harmer,
2007).
2. Rhythm: is the combination of stressed and unstressed syllables that allows
us to slow down our speech or speed it up, be emphatic or make our speech more
aesthetic. (Cantero, 2003).
3. Intonation: refers to the changes in pitch or tone in order to convey or alter the
meaning. Depending on whether it is rising or falling, we may express doubt, surprise,
certainty, questions, etc. (Cantero, 2003).

2. LEARNING MODELS AND TECHNIQUES

After describing the English phonological system, I will now mention some models
that we could follow as well as some techniques that we can use in order to learn a good
pronunciation.

2.1. LEARNING MODELS

Focusing on the learning models, we know that in the English language, as in

every language, many accents exist (British, American, Australian, Canadian…), so we

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

may ask ourselves the following question: which variety of English should we teach
to our students?

Well, we must admit that RP (or Received Pronunciation), also called The
Queen English or BBC English has been the imposed or the most implemented model
both in Britain and by British teachers teaching overseas as it is understood in all English-
speaking communities and there is much more material to teach it. Moreover, when
teaching pronunciation, we should opt for just one specific accent so that pronunciation
is coherent.

However, pronunciation teaching must be an integral part of our teaching plan

and it is a must for teachers nowadays to make students be aware of the different sounds
and features they can encounter to improve their speaking and listening proficiency. We
must also be realistic and highlight that we do not aim at making students sound like
native speakers but at making themselves be understood and understand other people.

2.2. TECHNIQUES TO LEARN PRONUNCIATION

Concerning the techniques to learn pronunciation that we can use in the English
classroom, we can divide them into three types according to the aspect we work on, that
is, voice quality techniques, drama voice techniques and multisensory techniques.

1. Voice quality techniques: such as speaking with a light object placed

between the lips; using a ‘yawning’ voice when counting; or exaggerating the length of
long open vowels.

2. Drama voice techniques: which are used to warm up the organs, such as the
stretching and relaxation of the face muscles; breathing exercises which consist in
holding and releasing air for some seconds; or resonance exercises which consist in
pronouncing a vowel or consonant sound for some seconds; articulation exercises; or
tone awareness exercises which consist in saying the same sentence with different
tones.

3. Multisensory techniques: such as using pictorial representations of

phonemic symbols like charts to work on the visual sense; associating sounds with
phrases to work on the auditory sense; or using elastic bands to work on the vowel length
using the tactile sense.

3. PERCEPTION, DISCRIMINATION AND PRODUCTION OF SOUNDS,

INTONATION, RHYTHM AND STRESS

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

After mentioning some general techniques to warm up our voice, the next
question that we may ask ourselves is, what do we do if we want to practice a specific
sound, intonation pattern, rhythm or stress? We must train our students in the
perception, discrimination and production of these elements. So, the best way to achieve
such an objective is to continue using enjoyable activities, but first, I will define these
three aspects which can also be considered as the different levels in the mastery of
phonetics (Harmer 2007):

1. Perception: that is, students identify segmental or suprasegmental features of

language.

2. Discrimination: by which students can differentiate them.

3. Production: that is, they can produce them orally with little difference in
comparison to native speakers.

As regards the activities to work on these elements in our classroom, we can

highlight that in the past, the most common techniques were drills, detailed
descriptions, tongue twisters or even transcription practice. Now things have
changed as we have a whole repertoire of activities and resources to learn and practice
pronunciation, intonation, rhythm and stress.

Thus, on the one hand, we can use more common and traditional techniques and
activities such as:

• Minimal pairs • Wall charts

• Odd one out • Rhymes, chants, jolly songs.
• Meaningful drills • Games (such as the bingo,
• Tongue-twisters the hangman, phonemic
• Chinese whispers crosswords…)

On the other hand, we can make a meaningful use of the ICTs integrating
computer-based activities and, depending on the possibilities, mobile learning as there
are lots of apps and websites that allow our students to work on pronunciation in a fun
way such as:

• Oz Phonics: which is an app four younger learners filled with fun games that
work on letter-to-sound and sound-to-letter skills that allow students to learn
how to decode and work out new words.

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

• Pirate Phonics: which is another app four younger learners where they will
have to help a pirate win treasures in a series of tasks that introduce phonics
one by one. Each ‘island’ features a variety of games based around a particular
phoneme.
• Gamestolearnenglish.com: where we can play the spelling game of Hangman
on the Interactive Board. Students will have to choose a letter pronouncing it
out loud and once they know word they will have to pronounce the word correctly
to win the game.
• Liveworksheets: where, by using tablets, computers or the Interactive Board,
we can create interactive activities where students will practice spelling by
writing the word or the sound they listen to.
• Howjsay: which is an online pronunciation dictionary where just by typing a
word, students will be able to listen to its pronunciation and, also to see its
definition and translation.
• Forvo.com: which is a webpage where we can search for the pronunciation of
words and the specific accent we want. Each word is pronounced by different
native people all around the world.
• YouTube: where we can search for tongue twister videos that we can listen to
in the classroom and try to repeat them. We can even have competitions to see
which students pronounce it better. We can also use it to listen to rhymes and
songs.
• Merge Cube phonics practice, to use augmented reality to work on phonics.
We can create a cube with Co Spaces (a platform for creating augmented
reality) to work on a specific sound where each side of the cube has a word
containing that sound and an image related to it. We can make students practice
the pronunciation of each word and then give them a code made of words and
pictures taken from the cube. This code will be a tongue twister that will have to
be pronounced correctly if they want to win the game or challenge.

4. PHONETIC CORRECTION

Now that I have mentioned some techniques, activities and tools to learn
pronunciation, let us imagine that our students still make mistakes. What should we do
to fix mistakes then?

Well, in the first place, we should differentiate between mistakes and errors, as
the former are momentary lapses, but the latter are fixed. This means we should correct
mistakes in the presentation and practice stage before they become fixed errors.
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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

Nevertheless, we should not discourage students over-correcting them but still, it

is necessary that we work or tricky words from the first time we present them so as to
make learners aware of possible mistakes they can make, and, a good resource would
be the many “black lists of mispronounced words” that we can find online.

In this sense, we should also create a supportive atmosphere in which we should

teach students that mistakes are a natural part of the learning process and that we can
learn from them. This way, we can make them feel less embarrassed and afraid of
making mistakes and at the same time increase their confidence and motivation.

We as teachers must take into account that, particularly, Spanish students have
some problems with English because it is an opaque language, unlike Spanish, which is
transparent. Some of these difficulties are the following:

• Differentiating between short and • Pronouncing the -ed ending in

long vowels. past simple.
• Differentiating between “v” and • The liquid “s” at the beginning of
“b”. words.
• The glottal “h”. • Problems with silent letters
• Differentiating weak and strong • Stressing syllables or words.
forms. • Etc.

5. CONCLUSIONS

To come to an end, we can conclude that pronunciation is probably the most

neglected aspect of English teaching and most times it is due to the teachers’ lack of
confidence, no strategic planning or lack of opportunities provided to students. This is
the reason why teachers must have a good command of pronunciation as well as
theoretical principles and teaching skills to deal with these contents. Moreover, this must
be done without putting pressure on students by over-correcting them, but by making
them reflect on their own mistakes so they do not become fixed errors. Also, it is
important to highlight, that although we pursue the best pronunciation as possible as well
as the most natural accent, we must bear in mind, that the main objective that we follow
is to be communicatively competent, so in that sense, a good pronunciation comes
before a good accent. Because as Molière said:

“If you make yourself understood, you’re speaking well”

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brewster, J. (1992). The Primary English Teacher’s Guide.

Ellis, R. (1986). Understanding Second Language Acquisition.

Gimson, A.C. (1994). An introduction to the pronunciation of English

Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English.

Richards J.C, Platt, J. y Platt, H. (2010). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching

and Applied Linguistics.

Yule, G. (2006). The Study of Language.

LOMLOE 3/2020, 29th of December, which regulates education in Spain.

Royal Decree 157/2022, 1st of March, which establishes the basic curriculum for
Primary Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022, 29th of September, which establishes the curriculum for Primary
Education in Castile and Leon.

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TOPIC 10.
ORTHOGRAPHIC CODES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. SOUND-GRAPHEME CORRESPONDENCE. PROPOSALS FOR THE
TEACHING OF THE WRITTEN CODE. TEACHING APPLICATIONS OF ORTHOGRAPHY IN WRITTEN PRODUCTIONS
0. INTRODUCTION 3. PROPOSALS FOR THE TEACHING OF THE WRITTEN CODE
- Topics 9, 11 & 12.
- Opaque language - Initial considerations
- Legislation – Block A: Communication 1. oral before written
- 4 sections 2. short texts, flashcards, etc.
3. visual support
1. THE ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHIC CODE 4. phonological & visual abilities

1.1. What is orthography? - ACTIVITIES

- Definition of orthography – Oxford Dictionary (2021) Letter level

+ Spelling + Songs, rhymes & videos
+ Punctuation (SuperSimple Songs, LingoKids,
+ Capitalization Dream English Kids)
+ Matching, dragging, coloring or
- Definition of spelling – Yule (2006) classifying activities (worksheets,
Liveworksheets.com, WordWall).
1.2. Orthographic rules of the English language Word level
+ Visuals, picture dictionaries,
- Historic evolution wordcards. (Canva, opdome.com)
+ Unscrambled words,
- Orthographic rules crosswords, wordsearches,
1. Plural -s & -es (ch , sh, s, x, o). matching (worksheets,
2. Plural -f & irregular plural (wife/wives; Liveworksheets.com, WordWall,
person/people) Hangman, Quizlet).
3. Adj. > adv. -ly (nice/nicely) Sentence level
4. Capital letter + simple messages
5. Doubled consonants (-ed, -er, -ing, -est). + unscrambled sentences,
matching sentences, filling the
2. SOUND-GRAPHEME CORRESPONDENCE gaps
(worksheets, Liveworksheets.com,
2.1. What are phonemes and graphemes? WordWall, Quizlet).
Text level
- Definition phonemes (T9) & graphemes – Yule (2006) + model texts (descriptions,
“a” – “ran” - /ae/ postcards, recipes…)
+ freer way (acrostics, limericks,
- Difficult for learners fill-in bubbles, diaries,
1. Opaque language advertisements, stories…)
2. Spelling rules (center/centre; color/colour). (worksheets, Liveworksheets.com,
3. Never updated presentations with PPT or
- Recent studies - 75% regular PowToon; Pixton, Magmadz,
Padlet...)
2.2. Sound-grapheme discrepancies
4. TEACHING APPLICATIONS OF ORTHOGRAPHY IN
1. Vowels 2. Consonants WRITTEN PRODUCTIONS
+ Grapheme “a” + Letter “g”
> short /ae/ (cat) > soft “g” (giraffe) - Get better at spelling and orthography
> long /a/ (rather) > hard “g” (go) 1. Predictive power > Fernald method
> /o/ (watch) + Phoneme /dg/ 2. Purposeful & contextualized texts
> /schwa/ (ago) > “g” (giraffe)
> “/ei/” (fatal) > “j” (jump) - Students’ writing mistakes – Procedures Byrnes (1979
+ Phoneme long /u/ > “di” (soldier) + How to correct
> “o” (who) > “gi” (Belgian) 1. Selective correction.
> double “o” (fool) > double “g” 2. Indicating mistakes.
> “u” (rude) suggest) 3. Let them identify them.
> “ou” (soup) + How to minimize them
3. Morphemes 4. Silent letters 1. Explain them individually
+ “-ed” past simple > silent /b/ (comb) 2. Set written exercises
> /d/ (opened) > silent /k/ (know)
> /t/ (topped) > silent /s/ (island) 5. CONCLUSION
> /id/ (started) Krashen
“Spelling is improved when reading is done”
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 10
ORTHOGRAPHIC CODES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. SOUND-GRAPHEME
CORRESPONDENCE. PROPOSALS FOR THE TEACHING OF THE WRITTEN
CODE. TEACHING APPLICATIONS OF ORTHOGRAPHY IN WRITTEN
PRODUCTIONS.

0. INTRODUCTION

1. ORTHOGRAPHIC CODES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

2. SOUND-GRAPHEME CORRESPONDENCE

3. PROPOSALS FOR THE TEACHING OF THE WRITTEN CODE

4.TEACHING APPLICATIONS OF ORTHOGRAPHY IN WRITTEN PRODUCTIONS

5. CONCLUSIONS

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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0. INTRODUCTION

The present essay focuses on the description and teaching of the English
orthographic code, that is, topic 10, which is also related to topic 9, which deals with the
English phonological system. In addition, they are also related to topics 11 and 12, as
they all belong to the same block of topics which deal with different areas of linguistics
such as phonetics, phonology, semantics, lexicography or syntax.
Let us begin by considering that although the English language is the most
important language used internationally nowadays, it is still complicated for learners in
terms of spelling and pronunciation, because English is an opaque language, that is,
there is not a correspondence between spelling and pronunciation. This means that
learners must be aware that learning a language is not only a matter of memorizing
vocabulary and grammatical structures, but also of pronouncing and writing correctly.
As a key factor, both pronunciation and orthography are crucial to be
communicatively competence in a foreign language, which is one of the stage objectives
that students must have achieved by the end of Primary Education, as stated in the
LOMLOE 3/2020 and in the Royal Decree 157/2022. Moreover, in the Decree 38/2022
from Castile and Leon, the block letter A: Communication mentions the learning of
strategies for the expression of simple and contextualized written texts.
In order to develop this topic, I will divide into four sections. First, I will describe
the English orthographic code in the first section. Then, in the second section, I will
explain the difficulty of the sound-grapheme correspondence giving some examples. In
the third section, I will deal with the teaching of the written code, mentioning the different
stages to follow. The last section will be about teaching applications of orthography in
written productions. Finally, I will present the conclusions and the bibliography used to
develop this topic.

1. THE ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHIC CODE

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of the topic,
which deals with the English orthographic code. But first, what is orthography?
According to the Oxford dictionary, orthography is defined as a set of
conventions for writing a language correctly, which includes rules of spelling, punctuation
and capitalization.
As I have just mentioned, spelling is part of orthography, and to understand it
better, we should make a distinction between the two concepts as they are usually
mistaken. In this sense, spelling according to (Yule 2006) is part of orthography and

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refers to the relationship between phonemes (that is, what we pronounce) and
graphemes (that is, what we write).
After making clear what the orthographic code is, I will now explain it in a deeper
way, as English is a language that has been influenced by many people and events
through History, such as the Anglo-Saxons and Normans, the printing process that came
from Holland, the Great Vowel Shift in the 15th century, the introduction of Latin and
Greek words in the Renaissance or loanwords from Spanish, among others. As a result
of all those changes, English has developed certain orthographic rules such as the
following:
◼ Plural is usually built with –s at the end, but if the last sound is –ch/ -sh/ -s/ -x/ -o
we must add –es. (e.g. match, matches).
◼ Other plural rules affect words ending in –f (wife – wives) and some plurals are
irregular (person-people).
◼ Adjectives usually change into adverbs by adding -ly (nice, nicely).
◼ Some words always start with a capital letter such as the days of the week and
months of the year.
◼ Many consonants are doubled before -ed, -er, -ing or -est endings (stop, stopped;
big, bigger, biggest… ).

2. SOUND – GRAPHEME CORRESPONDENCE

Once I have explained what the orthographic code is and some of its main
characteristics, I will now deal with the correspondence between sounds and graphemes,
in other words, spelling. As it was described in topic 9, a phoneme is a speech sound,
whereas graphemes are the individual letters or groups of letters that represent a single
phoneme. Both phonemes and graphemes refer to the smallest unites that can make a
difference in meaning. E.g.: Letter “a” in ran > /ae/

Especially important is this difference in meaning caused by this phoneme-

grapheme correspondence, as Spanish learners find it difficult because English is an
opaque language, unlike Spanish, which is transparent. But why is this difficult for
learners?

◼ First, because in English, as an opaque language, it is not possible literally

pronounce what we read.

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

◼ Second, because the spelling rules vary within the language, for example, there
are differences between British English and American English (center/centre;
color/colour)
◼ And third, spelling has never been updated.
However, thanks to recent studies, it seems that this irregularity in the English
language is not as we thought. The problem is that the most used words in the language
are irregular, which gives that impression of irregularity although the language is actually
75% regular.

Having said this, let us now have a look at some examples of these discrepancies
between graphemes and sounds:

1. Vowels: in vowels, for example, the grapheme “a” can represent many
different vowel phonemes: short “ae” (cat), a long “a” (rather), an “o” (watch), something
between an “a” and an “o” (watch), a schwa (ago), or an “ei” (fatal). On the other hand,
a vowel phoneme can be represented by several letters. For instance, a long “u” can
occur as “o” (who), double “o” (fool), letter “u” (rude), “ou” (soup), etc.

2. Consonants: As far as consonants are concerned, letter “g” is linked to two

different phonemes, a “soft g” (giraffe) or a “hard g” (go). On the other hand, a consonant
phoneme can be represented by several letters. For instance, a “dg” sound can occur as
“g” (giraffe), “j” (jump), “di” (soldier), “gi” (Belgian) or double “g” (suggest).

3. Morphemes: some morphemes have different pronunciation, namely the “-ed”

form for the past simple verbs, which can be voiced as a “d” (opened), a “t” (topped) or
“id” (started).

4. Silent letters: Some letters do not represent any sound at all, such as the
silent “b” (comb), the silent “k” (knee) or the silent “s” (island).

3. PROPOSALS FOR THE TEACHING OF THE WRITTEN CODE

So far, I have explained the English orthographic code, its characteristics and the
difficulty in the grapheme-phone relationship. Now, in the third section of this essay, I will
deal with the proposals I have for teaching the written code.

First of all, I will mention some initial considerations that we should take into
account when teaching the written code:

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

◼ First, we need to teach students the oral language before the written one.
◼ Second, writing should be introduced in the form of short texts, flashcards,
etc. in order to get students used to spelling.
◼ Third, writing activities must have a visual support.
◼ Fourth, develop in students phonological and visual abilities for both
regular and irregular spelling by decorating the classroom with letters,
playing the sound of letters, tracing letters to remember the movement of
hands, etc.

Once I have mentioned these initial considerations when teaching the written code, I will
now describe the different stages we should follow and the different activities that we
can do in each of these levels:

◼ 1- Letter level: letters can be taught through songs, visuals, rhymes, videos
(using YouTube with channels such as Super Simple Songs, LingoKids, Dream
English Kids), or recognition activities such as matching, colouring or
classifying (which can be done using platforms like Liveworksheets.com,
WordWall or traditional worksheets)

◼ 2- Word level: (that is, spelling and handwriting), can be worked through visuals,
visual dictionaries, word walls, etc (this can be created with Canva or by using
opdome.com) Examples of activities are: meaningful copying, unscrambled
letters, crosswords, wordsearches, matching, spelling contests…(these
can be done using worksheets, the Hangman game, or platforms such as
Liveworksheets.com, WordWall or Quizlet among others.

◼ 3- Sentence level: the sentence can be worked on through simple messages,

unscrambled sentences, matching sentences, filling the gaps, running
dictations…Again, we can use worksheets or use platforms like the previous
ones to do it in an interactive way using computers, tablets or the Interactive
Board.

◼ 4- Text level: writing can be more guided (as in using model texts for
descriptions, postcards, recipes…) or in a freer way (by means of acrostics,
limericks, fill-in bubbles, diaries, advertisements, stories…) which can be
done in groups or orally to pull knowledge. To do so, we can use worksheets, or
applications such as PowerPoint, PowToon (to make animated presentations);

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

Pixton (to create comics), Madmagz (to create magazines), or Padlet (to create
a wall with posts where students can comment using the language they learn.

4. TEACHING APPLICATIONS OF ORTHOGRAPHY IN WRITTEN PRODUCTIONS

All the aforementioned stages and activities help students get better in writing.
However, what application and use does it have to get better and be good at
spelling and orthography in the English language?

Well, on the one hand, learning orthography will help students with the formation
of the predictive power for the spelling of new words. According to Fernald method for
reading and spelling, in the bilingual speakers we must try to create the connection with
analogous words so that children can end up writing words they have never seen before.

On the other hand, we should also bear in mind that the real purpose of English
should never be to write isolated and meaningless words and sentences. Instead, once
the students are familiar with spelling at word and sentence level, the teacher must help
them to write texts as purposeful and contextualized as possible, which can be done
selecting topics according to students’ interests in order to make it more motivating.

To finish this last section, I would like to answer the next question: what happens
if a student happens to make a mistake? As far as I am concerned, fluency in writing
is more important than providing teachers with mistake-free essays. I will thus only focus
on the most important mistakes, by following some procedures by Byrne (1979):

• Correcting mistakes selectively.

• Indicating mistakes (so that students correct them).
• Letting the students identify and correct their own mistakes.

And once the main mistakes have been spotted, in order to minimize the
possibility of further errors, the teacher can:

• Explain the mistakes individually

• Set written exercises to practice the problematic linguistic forms

5. CONCLUSIONS

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

To come to an end, we can conclude that orthography and specially

spelling is probably one of the most difficult aspects of English learning due to
the opaqueness of this language. This is the reason why teachers must have a
good command of English as well as theoretical principles and teaching skills to
deal with these contents. Moreover, this must be done without putting pressure
on students by over-correcting them, but by making them reflect on their own
mistakes so they do not become fixed errors. This way, students will get better at
orthography and will develop abilities that, by analogy, will enable them to write
words they have never seen before, which can be done by means of contextualized
writing tasks and by reading a lot. Because as Krashen said:

“Spelling is improved when reading is done”

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Finally, I will refer to the bibliography consulted for the elaboration of this topic:

Brewster, J. (1992). The Primary English Teacher’s Guide.

Byrne (1988). Teaching Writing Skills.

Ellis, R. (1986). Understanding Second Language Acquisition.

Gimson, A.C. (1994). An introduction to the pronunciation of English

Harmer, J. (1997). How to teach English.

Richards J.C, Platt, J. y Platt, H. (2010). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and

Applied Linguistics.

Yule, G. (2006). The Study of Language.

LOMLOE 3/2020, 29th of December which regulates education in Spain.

Royal Decree 157/2022, 1st of March, which establishes the basic curriculum for Primary

Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022, 29th of September, which establishes the curriculum for Primary

Education in Castile and Leon.

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 11. LEXICAL AND SEMANTIC FIELDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. NECESSARY VOCABULARY FOR SOCIALIZATION,
INFORMATION AND EXPRESSION OF ATTITUDES. TYPOLOGY OF ACTIVITIES RELATED TO TEACHING AND LEARNING
VOCABULARY IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASS
0. INTRODUCTION 2.3. Vocabulary for expressing attitudes
- Topics 9-12
- Words> chains> structures + Likes & dislikes (I like/I don’t like; I love/I hate …)
- Legislation – syntantic-discursive structures & Block A + Gratitude (thank you; thanks a lot …)
- 3 sections + Disappointment (It’s a pity!...)
+ Agreement & disagreement (I agree/disagree; you
1. LEXICAL AND SEMANTIC FIELDS IN THE ENGLISH are right/wrong)
LANGUAGE. + Knowledge (I remember, think, know…)
+ Obligation (Have to, must, mustn’t….?)
1.1. Lexicology
3. TYPOLOGY OF ACTIVITIES RELATED TO TEACHING AND
- Definition of lexicology – Oxford Dictionary (2021) LEARNING VOCABULARY IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE
+ Lexical family (happy, unhappy, happily…) CLASS
+ Lexical field (rain, windy, umbrella…) 3.1. Principles when teaching vocabulary

1.2. Semantics + Simple<difficult

+ Spoken first
- Definition of semantics – Yule (2006) + In context
+ Semantic field (father, mother, sister…) + In groups
- Sometimes mistaken (animals/plants -living things) + Multi-sensory input
+ Foresee problems/mistakes
1.3. Lexical relationships + Revise cyclicaly

- Definition of lexical relationships – Yule (2006) 3.2. Activities to teach vocabulary in the English classroom
+ Synonymy (close - near)
+ Antonymy (near - distant) - ACTIVITIES
+ Hyponymy (rose - flower)
+ Polysemy (get = arrive, understand, become…) PRESENTATION STAGE
+ Homonymy (rose (colour) rose (flower)) + Wordclouds (WordArt).
+ Homophony (see – sea - C) + Presentations (PPT, Genially).
+ Incompatibility (yellow & green - colours) + Songs, videos (YouTube)
SuperSimple Songs, LingoKids,
2. NECESSARY VOCABULARY FOR SOCIALIZATION, Dream English Kids...).
INFORMATION AND EXPRESSION OF ATTITUDES. + Flashcards, word cards, posters
(PPT, Canva).
- Definition of lexicon – Oxford Dictionary (2021) + Realia (Clothes, food...).
- Threshold Level – Jan Van Ek (1979) PRACTICE STAGE
+ Guessing games (Guess who?,
2.1. Vocabulary for socialization headbandz.).
+ Picture dictation and
+ Greetings & farewells (hello, bye, see you…) descriptions.
+ Meeting people (My name is, nice to meet you…) + Dialogues and role-plays
+ Invitations and offering (Would you like…?) + Communicative folders
+ Speaking on the phone (Who is that…? It’s Maria on the + Unscrambled sentences,
phone)) matching sentences, filling the
+ Asking or requesting (May I…? Can/Could you…?) gaps (worksheets,
+ Writing letters, emails & text messages (Dear…, Thank Liveworksheets, WordWall,
you for your letter…) Quizlet, Kahoot).
+ Thanking (Thanks, thank you….) CONSOLIDATION STAGE
+ Apologizing & expressing sympathy (Sorry, what a pity, + Interactive notebooks
don’t worry…) + Lapbooks & presentations ICTs
(ppt, PowToon)
2.2. Vocabulary for getting and giving information + Flipbooks
+ Picture dictionaries
+ Personal identification (I live in…, I was born…) (opdome.com)
+ Descriptions (length, shape, appearance…) + Popplet
+ Invitations and offering (Would you like…?)
+ Shopping (How much is it?, .Here you are…) 4. CONCLUSION
+ Time & routines (What time is it?...) David Crystal
+ Places (Can you tell me the way to….?) “Vocabulary is a matter of word-building as well as word-
+ Apologizing & expressing sympathy (Sorry, what using”.
a pity, don’t worry…).
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 11

LEXICAL AND SEMANTIC FIELDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. NECESSARY

VOCABULARY FOR SOCIALIZATION, INFORMATION AND EXPRESSION OF
ATTITUDES. TYPOLOGY OF ACTIVITIES RELATED TO TEACHING AND
LEARNING VOCABULARY IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASS

0. INTRODUCTION
1. LEXICAL AND SEMANTIC FIELDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
1.1. LEXICOLOGY
1.2. SEMANTICS
1.3. LEXICAL RELATIONSHIPS
2. NECESSARY VOCABULARY FOR SOCIALIZATION, INFORMATION AND
EXPRESSION OF ATTITUDES
2.1. VOCABULARY FOR SOCIALIZATION
2.2. VOCABULARY FOR GETTING AND GIVING INFORMATION
2.3. VOCABULARY FOR EXPRESSING ATTITUDES
3. TYPOLOGY OF ACTIVITIES RELATED TO TEACHING AND LEARNING
VOCABULARY IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASS
3.1. PRINCIPLES WHEN TEACHING VOCABULARY
3.2. ACTIVITIES TO TEACH VOCABULARY IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM
4. CONCLUSIONS
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the tittle of this topic, the present essay aims to focus on the semantic
and lexical fields in English and the teaching of vocabulary in the English classroom. This
topic is related to topics 9, 10, and 12, as they all cover different aspects of theoretical
linguistics, that is, phonetics, grammar, syntax, lexicography and semantics.
Let us begin by considering that words are a group of letters and sounds
that mean something. Everybody learns to speak in isolated words either their mother
tongue or a foreign language. Then, we begin to use chains of words, usually nouns and
verbs and progressively we learn to develop a more accurate and structural framework
in which we include other types of words such as adjectives, adverbs, connectors and
so on. In short, we learn words at the same time we learn their meanings and
pronunciation.
All these is necessary to achieve the communicative competence in the foreign
language, which is, in fact, one of the stage objectives (objective letter “f”), stated both
in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree 157/2022. Moreover, the Decree 38/2022
from Castile and Léon, includes communicative functions and syntactic-discursive
structures related to socialization, asking and giving information and the expression of
attitudes. In addition, in its Block A: Communication, it also includes the learning of basic
vocabulary related to the daily life, needs and personal experiences of the students.
In order to develop this topic, I will divide it into three sections: the first section
will deal with the definition of lexicology and semantics. Then, in the second section, I
will talk about the necessary lexicon that students need to learn during Primary
Education. In the last section, I will deal with different activities that we can use in our
classroom in order to teach vocabulary to our students. Finally, I will present the
conclusions and the bibliography used to develop this topic.

1. LEXICAL AND SEMANTIC FIELDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of my essay,
which deals with the lexical and semantic fields in the English language. In order to deal
with these concepts, first, we need to know what lexicology and semantics are.

1.1. Lexicology

On the one hand, lexicology, according to the Oxford Dictionary (2021) is

defined as the branch of linguistics which deals with the study of the form, meaning and

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behaviour of words. In lexicology, we must also distinguish between lexical family and
lexical field:
1- First, the lexical family is the group of words linked because they share the
same lexeme. For example, happy, unhappy, happily, happiness, etc.
2- And second, a lexical field, is a set of words of different grammatical category,
but which are related by topic. For example, rain, windy, umbrella, sunny or cold belong
to the lexical field of weather.

1.2. Semantics

On the other hand, semantics is defined by Yule (2006) as the branch of

linguistics which studies the meaning of words, phrases and sentences. Now that we
know what semantics is, I will now define the semantic field.
A semantic field can be defined as a set of words belonging to the same
grammatical category that share any feature related to meaning. For example, the
semantic field of family is father, mother, brother, sister, etc.

Once these two terms have been defined, it is important to note that they are
sometimes mistaken, as the semantic field is somewhat “elastic”. Thus, we could say
that animals and plants are two different semantic fields, but we could also group them
into a single larger field called living things.

1.3. Lexical relationships

Having said this, I will now talk about one of the issues investigated by semantics,
which are the lexical relationships, which are defined by the British linguist George
Yule (2010), as the relationships that are established between the meanings of words,
which can be relationships of synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, polysemy, homonymy,
homophony and incompatibility. He defines each of them in his Study of Language in the
following way:

 First, synonymy is the lexical relationship between two or more words whose
meanings are closely related. E.g.: close is a synonym of near.
 Second, antonymy is the relationship between two words whose meanings are
opposite. E.g.: near is an antonym of distant.

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 Third, hyponymy, is the lexical relationship between two words when the
meaning of one of them is included in the meaning of the other. E.g.: rose is a
hyponym of flower.
 Fourth, polysemy occurs when one word has two or more related meanings.
E.g.: the verb to get means to arrive, to understand, to become, etc.
 Fifth, homonymy is the relationship by which words have the same form but a
different meaning. E.g.: rose (the flower) or rose (the colour).
 Sixth, homophony is the relationship by which words have a different form, but
they are pronounced in the same way. E.g.: see (what we do with our eyes), sea
(like the Mediterranean Sea) and C (the letter of the alphabet).
 And seventh, incompatibility, which refers to groups of lexemes that are
mutually exclusive within the same category. E.g.: yellow and green are
incompatible lexemes within the category of colours.

2. NECESSARY VOCABULARY FOR SOCIALIZATION, INFORMATION AND

EXPRESSION OF ATTITUDES

Once we know the different relationships established between words, I will start
developing the second section of my essay, which deals with the necessary lexicon that
our students need for socialization, information and expression of attitudes.
But what is lexicon? According to the Oxford dictionary (2021), lexicon refers
to all the words and phrases used in a language or subject.
As regards the lexicon to teach, how do we choose among all the possible
words? In this case, we can opt for sticking to a pre-established theory like the
Threshold Level by Jan Van Ek (1976), a model that has influenced the planning of
language programs, the curriculum, textbooks, forms of assessment, etc. Moreover, the
vocabulary that is nowadays accepted to be learnt in Primary Education, agrees with the
three functions of language mentioned before: socializing, getting and giving information
and expressing attitudes.

2.1. Vocabulary for socialization

Having said this, I will start by the necessary vocabulary for socialization, as
we usually use language to communicate and maintain social relationships. Thus, the
vocabulary related to this function is:

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

 Greetings and farewells. Hello; how are you; how are you doing?; bye; see
you later; see you soon, etc.
 Meeting people. My name is…; Nice to meet you; How old are you?; where
are you from?; …
 Invitations and offering. Would you like to go to the cinema?; Do you want
me to…?; ...
 Asking or requesting: Can you give me your pen?; May I come in? Could
you close the door?...
 Writing letters, emails or text messages. Dear (whoever), Thank you for
your letter; …
 Speaking on the phone. Hello, who is that?; It’s Peter on the phone; Hold
on a minute; …
 Thanking. Thank you; thank you so much; thanks a lot; thanks…
 Apologizing and expressing sympathy. Sorry; I’m sorry; it’s a pity; don’t
worry…

2.2. Vocabulary for getting and asking for information

Once some examples of vocabulary for socialization have been shown, I will
continue with the vocabulary for giving and asking for information, which can be:

 Lexicon related to personal identification such as name, age, nationality, place

and date of birth, address, etc. E.g.: What’s your name? My name is…; How old
are you? I am... years old; Where are you from? I’m from…; I was born in…;
Where do you live? I live in…, etc.
 Lexicon related to descriptions such as physical aspects and appearance or
psychological aspects, as well as length, weather, shape, etc. E.g.: what does it
look like?; he’s wearing jeans; she has got black hair; It’s cold and windy;
 Lexicon related to shopping. E.g.: how much is it?; It’s 10 euro/pounds/dollars;
Here you are, etc.
 Lexicon related to time and routines such as hours, dates, years, months,
frequency adverbs, etc. E.g.: What time do you usually get up?; I always go to
school at 9 o’clock, what time is it? It’s half past eight, etc.
 Lexicon related to places such as location and directions. E.g.: Can you tell me
the way to the museum?; go straight on, turn left, turn right, the museum is on
your left, etc.

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2.3. Vocabulary for expressing attitudes

Finally, students might also need to use the language to express the way they
feel or the way they think of something. Thus, I will now finish this section with the
vocabulary for expressing attitudes, which can be:

 Lexicon for expressing likes and dislikes. E.g.: I like/I don’t like; I love/I hate;
etc.
 Lexicon for expressing gratitude. E.g.: thank you; thank you so much; thanks a
lot, etc.
 Lexicon for expressing disappointment. E.g.: It’s a pity!
 Lexicon for expressing agreement or disagreement: E.g.: I agree/ I disagree;
you are right/you are wrong, etc.
 Lexicon for expressing knowledge: E.g.: I remember, I think, I know, etc.
 And lexicon for expressing obligation: E.g.: have to, must, mustn’t, etc.

3. TYPOLOGY OF ACTIVITIES RELATED TO TEACHING AND LEARNING

VOCABULARY IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASS

Now that we have seen what vocabulary to teach, the next question to answer is,
how do we teach this vocabulary? In this third section I will mention different types of
activities that we ca use in our classroom to teach vocabulary to our students.

3.1. Principles when teaching vocabulary

But first, we need to take into account some principles, which are the following:

 Simple words must be taught before the difficult ones, concrete before abstract,
frequently used before hardly used, and general before specific.
 Teach the words in spoken form first.
 Present the new words in a context.
 Present the new words in groups.
 Present the new words with multi-sensory input (visual support or
extralinguistic).
 Foresee problems or mistakes that may appear, for example, with false friends.
 Revise the new words in a cyclical way.

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3.2. Activities to teach vocabulary in the English classroom

Considering these principles, let us now have a look at the activities we can use
to teach vocabulary in our classroom. In order to do so, I will divide them into three
different stages: the presentation stage, the practice stage and the consolidation stage.

 As regards the presentation stage, this is the stage where the new vocabulary is
introduced to students. We can introduce this new vocabulary by means of very visual
techniques such as presentations using PowerPoint or other tools such as Genially,
where we can present the written form of the word, its corresponding image and also
include buttons to listen to their pronunciation. Moreover, we can present the new
vocabulary at the same time we check students’ previous knowledge by means of
using online wordclouds such as ABCya.com or WordArt, where students will say
a word they know and the teacher will include it in the wordcloud. They will also be
able to choose the shape of the wordcloud as well as the colours and letter font.
Instead of presentations or wordclouds, we can also use more traditional materials
such as Flashcards or posters, which can be created using PowerPoint or tools
such as Canvas. Other possibility is realia, which is the use of real objects in the
classroom, such as bringing a suitcase with clothes in order to teach this vocabulary,
a basket with fruits and food, a doll’s house to teach the parts of the house and the
furniture, etc.

 Concerning the practice stage, students will now put the new vocabulary into practice
in adequate real contexts inside the classroom. Some of the techniques that can be
used are TPR activities such as finding a classmate around the classroom who has
the physical characteristics or clothes that the teacher says. E.g.: find someone who
is blonde and is wearing jeans; using mime and gestures to play a guessing game
to practice for instance action verbs; playing other guessing games such as
headbandz, where they will have to guess the word they have on their foreheads by
asking questions, or Taboo, where students will have to guess a word without saying
some forbidden words. If we choose to use the ICTs, we can develop interactive
activities by using tablets, computers or the SmartBoard and use tools such as
Kahoot or Quizzlet, where students will choose the correct word according to the
picture they see; Liveworksheets.com or Wordwall, where we can create matching,
dragging and spelling activities to practice the new words.

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 Finally, in the consolidation stage, the students must develop techniques they can
use on their own to consolidate and revise vocabulary. In order to do so, students
can create more traditional materials such as their own interactive notebooks
which include pictures, the written form of the word, flipbooks, labels, etc; or develop
lapbooks where they will have to use the new vocabulary in a creative way, e.g.
creating a school bag that folds and unfolds showing the different classroom material
vocabulary. However, if we opt for the use of the ICTs, we can let students create
presentations using tools such as PowerPoint or PowToon; or their own individual
or class dictionaries by using different apps on their tablets such as Simple
Flashcards Plus, which will allow them to create different categories (animals,
clothes, sports, etc.) and add as many flashcards as they want, uploading a
representative photo of the word and even a definition if they want. Then, they can
play with those flashcards and see how many words they remember. The app also
includes the pronunciation of the word they write. Finally, we can let students use
tools such as Popplet, where they will create their own word families in an attractive
and visual way.

4. CONCLUSIONS

To come to an end, we can conclude that students need to acquire a certain

vocabulary during Primary Education, which is denoted as high-frequency vocabulary in
the legislation. We have seen that this lexicon that students must learn is divided into
three categories according to the function of communication that is being performed, that
is socialization, giving and asking for information and expressing attitudes. In order to
teach this vocabulary, we must follow some principles, as learning vocabulary is not only
a matter of memorizing a list of isolated and meaningless words, but learning and using
those words in a context, which must be done through enjoyable activities where we
combine both traditional materials and the ICTs, and without forgetting the need of
revising periodically. I would like to finish this topic with a quote by David Crystal, who
said that:
“Vocabulary is a matter of word-building as well as word-using”.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Finally, I will refer to the bibliography consulted for the elaboration of this topic:

Brewster, J. (2002). The Primary English Teacher’s Guide.

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Crystal, D. (2011). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.

Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English.

Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching.

Richards J.C, Platt, J. y Platt, H. (2010). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and

Applied Linguistics.

Yule, G. (2006). The Study of Language.

LOMLOE 3/2020, 29th of December which regulates education in Spain.

Royal Decree 157/2022, 1st of March, which establishes the basic curriculum for Primary

Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022, 29th of September, which establishes the curriculum for Primary

Education in Castile and Leon.

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TOPIC 12. ESSENTIAL MORPHOSYNTACTIC ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. BASIC COMMUNICATIVE STRUCTURES.
PROGRESSIVE USE OF GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES TO IMPROVE ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE.
0. INTRODUCTION 2.2. Basic structures for getting and giving information
- Topics 9-12 + Personal identification (I live in…, I was born…)
- translating back and forth – other factors + Descriptions (length, shape, appearance…)
- Legislation – syntactic-discursive structures & Block A + Invitations and offering (Would you like…?)
- 3 sections + Shopping (How much is it?, .Here you are…)
1. ESSENTIAL MORPHOSYNTACTIC ELEMENTS OF THE + Time & routines (What time is it?...)
ENGLISH LANGUAGE + Places (Can you tell me the way to….?)
+ Apologizing & expressing sympathy (Sorry, what a pity, don’t
1.1. Morphosyntax worry…).

- Definition of morphosyntax – Oxford Dictionary (2021) 2.3. Basic structures for expressing attitudes
+ Morphology – Yule (2006) + Likes & dislikes (I like/I don’t like; I love/I hate …)
+ Syntax – Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2021) + Gratitude (thank you; thanks a lot …)
+ Grammar – Oxford Dictionary (2021) + Disappointment (It’s a pity!...)
+ Agreement & disagreement (I agree/disagree; you are
1.2. Morphology right/wrong)
+ Knowledge (I remember, think, know…)
- Definition of morphemes – Yule (2006) + Obligation (Have to, must, mustn’t….?)
1. Free morphemes (E.g.: between)
2. Bound morphemes 3. PROGRESSIVE USE OF GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES TO
+ Derivational morphemes (happy – happiness) IMPROVE ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
+ Inflectional morphemes (table – tables) 3.1. Learning grammar inductively
- Definition of inductive method
- Definition of words – Yule (2006) – 11 + Routines + Language formulas
+ Language formulas + Present the new topic
1. Full verbs (run, runs, 7. Prepositions (He arrived + Use the English language
ran, running…) after breakfast)
2. Noun (writer, library, 8. Conjunctions (and, but, 3.2. Learning grammar deductively
love…) although…) - Definition of deductive method
3. Adjectives (small horse) 9. Modal verbs (may, must, + Write the structure + Illustrate
4. Adverbs (I run fast) should, have to can…) + Underline + Provide examples
5. Determiners (a, any, my, 10. Primary verbs (to be, to + Count with fingers + Provide examples
some…) have, to do)
6. Pronouns (he, she it, 11. Interjections (Hurray!) 3.3. Typology of activities
something…)
PRESENTATION STAGE
1.3. Syntax + Visuals, songs or readings
- Definition of clauses – Crystal (2003) + Presentations (PPT, Genially).
+ Predicate + Songs, videos (YouTube) SuperSimple
+ Subject Songs, LingoKids, Dream English Kids...).
+ Proposition + Mind maps (Popplet)
- Definition of sentences – Crystal (2003) PRACTICE STAGE
+ Simple (I like languages) + Guessing games (Guess who?,
+ Compound (The bell rang, and the classes began) headbandz.).
+ Complex (Let’s go back to the theatre where we + Running dictation
watched the Shakespeare play) + Dialogues
- Definition of phrases – Crystal (2003) + Oral & written drilling
(The bell rang, and the classes began + Webpages & ESL resources (worksheets,
Liveworksheets, WordWall, Quizlet,
2. BASIC COMMUNICATIVE STRUCTURES Kahoot).
PRODUCTION STAGE
- Threshold Level – Jan Van Ek (1979) + Lapbooks & presentations ICTs (ppt,
PowToon) > Final Tasks
2.1. Basic structures for socializing + Role-plays & dramatization
+ Greetings & farewells (hello, bye, see you soon…) + Cooperative writing
+ Meeting people (My name is, nice to meet you…)
+ Invitations and offering (Would you like…?) 3.4. Retaining grammar over time
+ Asking or requesting (May I…? Can/Could you…?) - Interactive notebooks
+ Writing letters, emails & text messages (Dear…, Thank you - Flipbooks
for your letter…) - Cornel Notes
+ Speaking on the phone (who is that? It’s Peter on the phone)
+ Thanking (Thanks, thank you….) 4. CONCLUSION
+ Apologizing & expressing sympathy (Sorry, what a pity, don’t David Crystal
worry…) “Vocabulary is a matter of word-building as well as word-using”.
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TOPIC 12

ESSENTIAL MORPHOSYNTACTIC ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

BASIC COMMUNICATIVE STRUCTURES. PROGRESSIVE USE OF
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES TO IMPROVE ORAL AND WRITTEN
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

0. INTRODUCTION

1. ESSENTIAL MORPHOSYNTACTIC ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

1.1. MORPHOSYNTAX

1.2. MORPHOLOGY

1.3. SYNTAX

2. BASIC COMMUNICATIVE STRUCTURES

2.1. BASIC STRUCTURES FOR SOCIALIZING

2.2. BASIC STRUCTURES FOR GETTING AND GIVING INFORMATION

2.3. BASIC STRUCTURES FOR EXPRESSING ATTITUDES

3. PROGRESSIVE USE OF GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES TO IMPROVE ORAL

AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

3.1. LEARNING GRAMMAR INDUCTIVELY

3.2. LEARNING GRAMMAR DEDUCTIVELY

3.3. TYPOLOGY OF ACTIVITIES

3.4. RETAINING VOCABULARY OVER TIME

4. CONLUSIONS

5. BIBLIOPGRAPHY
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0. INTRODUCTION

The present essay focuses on morphosyntactic elements of the English language

and their teaching in the English classroom, which is also related to topics 9, 10 and 11,
as they all cover different aspects of theoretical linguistics, that is, phonetics,
lexicography, semantics, grammar and syntax.

Let us begin by considering that for many years, languages were taught by means
of translating back and forth between the mother tongue and the target language.
Grammar was very important back then, but there are other factors shaping the meaning
of correct sentences, such as situations, speakers and social background, that is, context
needed for the communicative competence.

In fact, being communicatively competent in a foreign language is one of the

stage objectives (objective “f”) that students must have achieved by the end of Primary
Education, as stated in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and in the Royal Decree 157/2022.
Moreover, the Decree 38/2022 from Castile and Léon, includes communicative functions
and syntactic-discursive structures related to socialization, asking and giving information
and the expression of attitudes. In addition, in its Block A: Communication, it also
includes the learning of basic vocabulary related to the daily life, needs and personal
experiences of the students.

In order to develop this topic, I will divide it into 3 sections. In the first section, I
will deal with the concept of morphosyntax. In the second section, I will deal with the
basic communicative structures taught in Primary Education, and in the third section, I
will deal with some strategies to learn grammatical categories progressively in oral and
written productions. Finally, I will present the conclusion and the bibliography used for
the development of this topic.

1. ESSENTIAL MORPHOSYNTACTIC ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of my essay,
which deals with the essential morphosyntactic elements of the English language.

Let us begin by defining the word morphosyntax deals with the study of
morphological and syntactic properties of grammatical elements. As its name suggests,
it has to do with both morphology and syntax. But what is morphology and syntax?
And what it their relationship with grammar?

On the one hand, according to Yule (2006), morphology is “the field of

theoretical linguistics which studies word formation”. On the other hand, he defines
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syntax as “the field of theoretical linguistics which studies the rules of language and the
structures of phrases and sentences”.

Bearing this in mind, according to the Oxford Dictionary (2021), grammar is

defined as “the whole structure of a language, usually consisting of syntax and
morphology, and sometimes also phonology and semantics, which are considered all
areas of grammar”.

Thus, considering this definition, we can say that morphosyntax is another word
for grammar, as they study the same thing.

Focusing on MORPHOLOGY, it is important to mention MORPHEMES, which

are the smallest linguistic units with semantic meaning in a word and that can be divided
into two types: free and bound morphemes.

On the one hand, free morphemes are morphemes that can stand alone as a
word. E.g.: the word “between”.

On the other hand, bound morphemes are morphemes that cannot stand alone
and need to be bound to a free morpheme. There are several types:

 Derivational morphemes, which derive new words. E.g.: happy – happiness

 And inflectional morphemes, which encode grammatical information. E.g.: in
the word “tables”, the -s denotes plural number.

After morphemes, we need to mention WORDS, which are formed by one or more
morphemes linked together and that carry meaning. There are 11 types of words that
English grammar is based on:

 Full verbs, which indicate what a particular subject does or is and have tense,
aspect, person and number. E.g., “run, runs, ran, running, etc.”
 Nouns, which are persons, animals, places, things or ideas. E.g. “writer, library,
love…”
 Adjectives, which complement the nouns. E.g.: “small horse”.
 Adverbs, which complement the verbs and give information about time, place or
manner. E.g.: in the sentence “I run fast”, the adverb is “fast”.
 Determiner, which come before nouns to indicate their number and definiteness.
E.g.: “a, and, my, some...”
 Pronouns, which can replace nouns. E.g.: he, she, it, something…
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 Prepositions, which generally precedes a noun or pronoun and is used to

express a relation to another element or word. E.g.: “He arrived after breakfast”.
“After” is preposition.
 Conjunctions, which are used as linkers. E.g.: “and, but, although…”
 Modal verbs, which are used with verbs to express ability, permission, advise,
orders, etc. E.g.: “may, must, should, have to, can…”
 Primary verbs, which are the verb “to be”, “to have” and “to do”.
 And interjections, which are words or phrases used as exclamation. E.g.:
Hurray!

Now that we have analyzed morphology, let’s have a look now at SYNTAX. Here,
it is important to distinguish between clauses, sentences and phrases.

 First, CLAUSES are grammatical units that include, at minimum, a predicate, a

subject and which expresses a proposition.

 Second, SENTENCES are grammatical units that are grammatically complete

and semantically independent which are composed of one or more clauses. The
start with a capital letter and end with a full stop. There are 3 types of sentences:
- Simple sentences: which require a subject and a verb. E.g.: “I like
languages”
- Compound sentences: which contain two independent clauses. E.g.:
The bell rang, and the classes began.
- Complex sentences: which contain an independent clause and a
subordinate clause. E.g.: Let’s go back to the theatre where we watched
the ballet.

 And third, PHRASES are sentences that do not have a verb and that can be
replaced by a single word. E.g.: “the green car”.

2. BASIC COMMUNICATIVE STRUCTURES.

After finishing the first section of my essay, I will start developing the second
section of my topic, which deals with the basic communicative structures of the English
language that students need to learn during Primary Education and that will help promote
their communicative competence.

Let’s start by mentioning Jan Van Ek (1976) and his Threshold Level, which is
a model that schools still use nowadays.
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Finally, the communicative structures that are to be taught in Primary Education

are stipulated in the current legislation.

2.1. Basic structures for socializing

+ Greetings & farewells (hello, bye, see you soon…)
+ Meeting people (My name is, nice to meet you…)
+ Invitations and offering (Would you like…?)
+ Asking or requesting (May I…? Can/Could you…?)
+ Writing letters, emails & text messages (Dear…, Thank you for your letter…)
+ Thanking (Thanks, thank you….)
+ Apologizing & expressing sympathy (Sorry, what a pity, don’t worry…)
2.2. Basic structures for getting and giving information
+ Personal identification (I live in…, I was born…)
+ Descriptions (length, shape, appearance…)
+ Invitations and offering (Would you like…?)
+ Shopping (How much is it?, .Here you are…)
+ Time & routines (What time is it?...)
+ Places (Can you tell me the way to….?)
+ Apologizing & expressing sympathy (Sorry, what a pity, don’t worry…).
2.3. Basic structures for expressing attitudes
+ Likes & dislikes (I like/I don’t like; I love/I hate …)
+ Gratitude (thank you; thanks a lot …)
+ Disappointment (It’s a pity!...)
+ Agreement & disagreement (I agree/disagree; you are right/wrong)
+ Knowledge (I remember, think, know…)
+ Obligation (Have to, must, mustn’t….?)

3. PROGRESSIVE USE OF GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES TO IMPROVE ORAL AND

WRITTEN COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

Now that we know which structures to teach in Primary Education, In the third
section, it is time to see how we teach them and how students can really move on from
learning grammar to use it orally and in written form.
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Basically, there are two ways in which our students can learn grammar:
inductively and deductively.

3.1. LEARNING GRAMMAR INDUCTIVELY

On the one hand, focusing on the INDUCTIVE METHOD, it does not mean
memorizing rules, but rather extracting a rule and trying to apply it. And although it may
seem difficult, there are some tricks that are going to help us with it:

 We should create routines. If every day, students get to say the date and how they
feel, they will be able to say those sentences and increasingly more difficult ones.
 We could use language formulas, which basically consists of repeated patterns,
such as “can I go to the toilet?”, “can I borrow your pencil?”, etc. Thanks to
repetition, children get confident when speaking.
 We have to use the English language as a means of communication. That is why,
it is very important for teachers to use mainly English. When pupils try to use the
secret language themselves, they will discover they need some new structures and
will ask for them.
 Last but not least, present the new topic with readings, listening, and visual
exercises. Children will soon get the knack of the structure and start imitating it.

3.2. LEARNING GRAMMAR DEDUCTIVELY

Much to our regret, namely in higher levels, it is rather difficult to present grammar
inductively, that is when we will have to teach grammar using the DEDUCTIVE
METHOD. How shall we do it then? Well, after showing grammar with visuals, we can
do as follows:

 Write the structure on the board.

 Underline the important information.
 Count with the fingers to make students aware of the number of words
 Draw pictures to illustrate the meaning
 Provide examples related to one specific topic or theme
 Do not need to explain all the grammar, unless it is relevant to the immediate
communication task.

3.3. TYPOLOGY OF ACTIVITIES

Having said this, once students know the structures, it is time for them to practice
them. But how? With different heterogeneous and interesting ACTIVITIES in which the
meaning is the most important thing. Let’s see this through the three different stages of
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the Communicative Approach according to Harmer (2007): the presentation, the

controlled practice and the production stage.

In the presentation stage of grammar, we can use visuals, songs or readings

to introduce the new structures to students. For instance, while working on the song
“Walking in the forest” by Super Simple Songs on YouTube, we can introduce the
present continuous and we can change what we are doing in the forest (i.e., singing in
the forest, jumping in the forest, etc.) by creating a mind map on Genially (a platform
for creating content) or using Popplet, (a tool for creating mind maps). Apart from this
example, we can use other aids such as visual presentations with photos that
accompany each structure; make use of flashcards and posters to express actions for
example (which can be created using tools such as Canva or SparkAdobe).

After explaining the grammatical content, students will need to practice these
structures in a more autonomous way in the practice stage. Some of the activities are
the following ones:

• Oral or written drilling, which can be done using printed worksheets, using
the blackboard or in a more innovative and interactive way using the ICTS
with tools such as Liveworksheets.com, where we can create interactive
worksheets online that students can send the teacher instantly when finished
and where allows us to do plenty of different activities (matching, dragging,
ordering, writing, etc.). We can also use learning stations where students
practice these new structures through different activities where they will
integrate the four skills (word order activities, communicative folders, writing
activities using small white boards, etc.)
• Grammar games like “finding the differences” in two similar pictures.
Students will ask each other questions about the other’s picture in order to
know the differences which they will do orally. Guessing games are another
possibility, like playing the classic “Guess who?” game or using Headbandz,
where students wear a band around their head and with a flashcard on their
forehead that they will have to guess.
• Using webpages or ESL resources to practice writing, such as
eslgamesplus.com, learnenglishkids.britishcouncil.org, abcya.com,
Liveworksheets.com, etc.
• Pupils can also work with running dictations, where pupils have to go from
one side of the class to the other and dictate a piece of text from memory to
the another student who will write it down.
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Finally, in the production stage, students will put into practice what they have learned,
without the teacher control, in a creative way and using linguistic and non-linguistic
resources.

• Here we can do role plays or dramatization, which can be done using the
ICTs and recording a video.
• Also, to elaborate and present final tasks according to the Task Based
Method is a good way to practice both vocabulary and structures, as they will
use the language in real situations. E.g. Students can elaborate a Lapbook
in cooperative groups or individually in which they write the description of a
famous person they like using the structures form the unit. E.g. physical
descriptions and the use of the verb “to wear” in present continuous. Then,
they will present it orally to the rest of the group.
• Another example would be doing cooperative writing in which everyone in a
team has to write a sentence starting with the last word the previous
classmate has written.

3.4. RETAINING GRAMMAR OVER TIME

After seeing some examples of activities, I would like to mention briefly an
example of what we could do in the classroom to help students retain the already learned
structures over time.
What we could do is to elaborate an interactive notebook that students will
complete throughout each year and that will allow them to integrate what they have just
learned but also revise it later.
Another possibility is using Cornell Notes that students will place in a binder. In
each note, they will write the basic vocabulary and structures on one side as main
objectives to achieve. On the other side, they will include pictures, examples, diagrams,
doodles, etc. At the bottom, they will write a brief summary of it.

4. CONCLUSION
To come to an end, we can conclude that students need to acquire certain
grammatical structures during Primary Education, which is denoted as syntactic-
discursive structures and communicative functions in the Decree of Castilla y León. In
order to teach this grammar, we need to consider that it is not only memorizing a list of
rules and structures, but learning and using those words in a context, which must be
done through enjoyable and communicative activities, from a student-centre approach
where the student is the protagonist of his/her own learning, and without forgetting the
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

need of revising periodically to retain these new structures over time. I would like to finish
this topic with a quote by Benjamin Franklin, who said:

“Tell me and I will forget, teach me and I will not remember, involve me and I will learn”.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brewster, J. (2002). The Primary English Teacher’s Guide.

Crystal, D. (2003). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.
Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English.
Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching.
Richards J.C, Platt, J. y Platt, H. (2010). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching
and Applied Linguistics.
Yule, G. (2006). The Study of Language.
LOMLOE 3/2020, 29th of December which regulates education in Spain.
Royal Decree 157/2022, 1st of March, which establishes the basic curriculum for
Primary Education nationwide.
Decree 38/2022, 29th of September, which establishes the curriculum for Primary
Education in Castile and Leon.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 13. HISTORY OF EVOLUTION OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING: FROM GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHODS
TO CURRENT APPROACHES
0. INTRODUCTION 3.4. Suggestopedia
-Topic 6 & 14. - Definition of Suggestopedia – (Lozanov (1978)
- Teachers select methods + Typical lesson– close eyes & listen to story
- Laws – Methodological orientations
- 4 sections 4. CURRENT APPROACHES

1. TRADITIONAL METHODS - 1990s onwards – personal learning & discovery

1.1. Grammar-Translation Method 4.1. Task-based Learning

- Definition of Grammar-Translation Method – Karl Plotz - Definition of Task Based Learning – Parbhu
(1840s) + Typical lesson – lapbooks; Pptx; PowToon;
+ Typical lesson – vocabulary>grammar>translation Mybulbapp.com

1.2. Direct Method 4.2. Project-based Learning

- Definition of Direct Method – Sauveur & Frankle - Definition of Project Based Learning – Dewey’s theories
(1860s) + Typical lesson – question >
+ Typical lesson – dialogue>questions WebQuest>presentation>mybulbapp.com

1.2. Audiolingual Method 4.3. Content language integrated leaning (CLIL)

- Definition of Audiolingual Method – University of - Definition of CLIL – Marsh (1994).

Michigan (1950s) + Typical lesson – challenges > presentation > QR codes
+ Typical lesson – memorizing dialogue>drills>gap – > quizz
Vaughan Method
4.4. Cooperative Learning
2. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
- Definition of Cooperative Learning – Watson or Shaw
- Definition of Communicative Language Teaching + Typical lesson – Jigsaw technique > UK culture
Method – Halliday & Hymes (1970s)
4.5. Gamification
- Principles of CLT:
1. Communicative Competence & fluency - Definition of Gamification – Nick Pelling (2002)
2. Teacher = guide + Typical lesson – ClassDojo/ClassCraft > Plickers,
3. Grammar Socrative, WordWall, Kahoot... > Points & rewards
4. Syllabus
5. Materials 4.6. Flipped Classroom

+ Typical lesson – role plays, problem-solving, - Definition of Flipped Classroom – Bergmann & Sams
tasks... – Babble + Typical lesson – EdPuzzle/Nearpod > classroom

3. HUMANISTIC APPROACHES 4.7. Eclectic Approach

- Students = active role - Definition of Eclectic Approach

+ Typical lesson
3.1. Total Physical Response
5. CONCLUSION
- Definition of Total Physical Response – James Asher
(1960s) - Teachers > updated
+ Typical lesson – Simon says, pointing, drawing, - Eclectic approach
moving... - Communicative & student-centered
- Oral & Written skills
3.2. Natural Method - Communicative competence

- Definition of Natural Method – Terrel & Krashen American Educator Meehan

(1970s)
+ Typical lesson varies – listen & point>circle>gaps “Make sure that our methodology is not simply packaging
old wine in new bottles. Teaching today requires a whole
3.3. Silent Way new vineyard”
- Definition of Silent Way – (Gattegno (1976)
+ Typical lesson– Cuisenaire
rod>comparisons>repeat & try
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TOPIC 14. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR THE ACQUISITION OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE. SPECIFIC
METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR TEACHING ENGLISH
0. INTRODUCTION D) PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
- Topic 6 & 13.
- Teachers select methods - Definition of Project Based Learning – Dewey’s theories
- Laws – Methodological orientations + Typical lesson – question >
- 3 sections WebQuest>presentation>mybulbapp.com

1. METHODS THAT FOCUS ON THE ACQUISITION OF THE E) CONTENT LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEANING (CLIL)
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
- Definition of CLIL – Marsh (1994).
1.1. Approach, method and technique + Typical lesson – challenges > presentation > QR codes >
quizz
- Definition of approach, method & technique – Edward
Anthony (1963) F) COOPERATIVE LEARNING
+ Approach
+ Method - Definition of Cooperative Learning – Watson or Shaw
+ Technique + Typical lesson – Jigsaw technique > UK culture

1.2. Communicative Competence G) GAMIFICATION

- Definition of Communicative Competence - Definition of Gamification – Nick Pelling (2002)

– Dell Hymes (1965) + Typical lesson – ClassDojo/ClassCraft > Plickers, Socrative,
+ Systematic potential WordWall, Kahoot... > Points & rewards
+ Occurrence
+ Appropriacy H) FLIPPED CLASSROOM
+ Feasibility
– Chomsky (1966) - Definition of Flipped Classroom – Bergmann & Sams
+ Competence + Typical lesson – EdPuzzle/Nearpod > classroom
+ Performance
– Canale & Swain (1980) 2. TECHNIQUES THAT FOCUS ON THE ACQUISITION OF THE
+ Grammatical Competence COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
+ Sociolinguistic Competence
+ Discourse Competence 1. Group and pair work.
+ Strategic Competence 2. Presentation-practice-production stages.
3. Total Physical Response Activities.
1.2. Methods that focus on the acquisition of the 4. Problem-solving activities
Communicative Competence 5. Social interaction activities
6. Projects
A) COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING 7. Learning situations

- Definition of Communicative Language Teaching Method – 3. SPECIFIC METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR TEACHING
Halliday & Hymes (1970s) ENGLISH

- Principles of CLT: 1. Communication

1. Communicative Competence & fluency 2. Active learning
2. Teacher = guide 3. Individualization
3. Grammar 4. Active role of students
4. Syllabus 5. Contents
5. Materials 6. ICTs
7. Diversity of skills, motivations & interests.
+ Typical lesson – role plays, problem-solving, tasks... – 8. Universal Design for Learning – Pastor (2022)
Babble
4. CONCLUSIONS
B) NATURAL METHOD
- Teachers > updated
- Definition of Natural Method – Terrel & Krashen (1970s) - Eclectic approach
- Communicative & student-centered
+ Typical lesson varies – listen & point>circle>gaps - Oral & Written skills
- Communicative competence
C) TASK-BASED LEARNING
American Educator Meehan
- Definition of Task Based Learning – Parbhu
“Make sure that our methodology is not simply packaging old
+ Typical lesson – lapbooks; Pptx; PowToon; wine in new bottles. Teaching today requires a whole new
Mybulbapp.com vineyard”
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TOPIC 14

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR THE ACQUISITION OF COMMUNICATIVE

COMPETENCES. SPECIFIC METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR TEACHING
ENGLISH.

0. INTRODUCTION

1. METHODS THAT FOCUS ON THE ACQUISITION OF THE COMMUNICATIVE

COMPETENCE

1.1. APPROACH, METHOD AND TECHNIQUE

1.2. COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

1.3. METHODS THAT FOCUS ON THE ACQUISITION OF THE

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

2. TECHNIQUES THAT FOCUS ON THE ACQUISITION OF THE COMMUNICATIVE

COMPETENCE

3. SPECIFIC METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR TEACHING ENGLISH

4. CONCLUSIONS

5. BIBLIPGRAPHY

0. INTRODUCTION

The present essay focuses on the methods and techniques that focus on the
acquisition of the communicative competence as well as on the methodological
foundations for teaching English. This topic is related to topic number 6, which deals with
the contributions of linguistics to foreign language teaching; and to topic number 13,
which deals with the history of the evolution of foreign language teaching.

Let us begin by considering that when starting to teach a second language,

teachers must try to find the best way to make their students learn the language. During
this process, teachers must select the method, approach or technique that best fits the
learning process in each moment. However, teaching a second language does not mean
teachers must stick to a certain method, approach or technique during the whole
teaching process. Instead, we tend to select several of these to create an eclectic
approach to cover all the aspects of the teaching-learning process.
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Also, as we know, students must have achieved a basic communicative

competence by the end of Primary Education, which is one of the stage objectives
(objective f) in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree 157/2022. Moreover, the
Decree 38/2022 of our Autonomous Community state some methodological orientations
to teach a second language among which we find the use of varied methods and active
methodologies. Some of these methods or approaches will be seen throughout this
essay later.

In order to develop this topic, I will divide into three sections: first, I will talk about
the different methods that focus on the acquisition of the communicative competence.
Then, in the second section, I will deal with the techniques for the acquisition of the
communicative competence. The third section will focus on specific methodological
foundations for teaching English. Finally, I will present the conclusions and the
bibliography consulted to develop this topic.

1. METHODS THAT FOCUS ON THE ACQUISITION OF THE COMMUNICATIVE

COMPETENCE

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of my essay,
which has to do with the methods that focus on the acquisition of the communicative
competence. But before doing so, it could be appropriate to establish a differentiation
between the concepts of method, approach and technique, as well as to have a look at
the concept of communicative competence.

1.1. Approach, method and technique

The first person to make a distinction between approach, method and technique
was Edward Anthony (1963). He defined them in the following way:

• First, an approach is the teaching philosophies about the nature of language

and language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in
language teaching.

• Second, a method is a practical realisation of an approach and which involves

the design of a syllabus with the skills and contents to be taught and the order
of presentation.

• And third, a technique is a particular strategy or procedure used to accomplish

a particular objective.

1.2. Communicative competence

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To finish with this section, it could be appropriate to define the concept of

communicative competence as we are dealing with methods and techniques that focuses
on its acquisition along this topic. Then, what is is?

As it was explained in topic 3, the concept of Communicative Compentence

can be defined as the ability that individuals’ have to use language for effective
communication in a variety of contexts.

The concept was coined by the Dell Hymes in 1966 as a reaction to Chomsky’s
(1965) theory, who differentiated between “competence” (that is, the language
knowledge) and “performance” (that is, the actual use of that language knowledge in
concrete situations), saying that we only needed to focus on the “competence” in order
to study language. Hymes’ main criticism was that Chomsky had forgotten the rules of
language use, because when people speak, not only they use grammatically correct
utterances, they also know when and where to use them and to whom. Hymes also
distinguished four aspects of the Communicative Competence:

• Systematic potential: speakers have a system with a potential to create a lot of

language.
• Appropriacy: speakers know what language is appropriate in each situation.
• Occurrence: speakers know how often something is said in language.
• Feasibility: speakers know whether something is possible or not in language.

Other authors like Canale and Swain (1980) extended the theory with five
different subcompetences or components:

• Grammatical Competence: the language knowledge

• Sociolinguistic and sociocultural Competence: the knowledge of the rules of
language use and the cultural aspects of the target language.
• Discourse Competence: the ability to produce cohesive and coherent
utterances.
• Strategic Competence: the ability to solve communication problems as they
arise.

1.3. Methods that focus on the acquisition of the Communicative

Competence
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Now that we know what a method, approach, technique and communicative

competence are, let us turn our attention to the methods that focus on the acquisition of
the communicative competence.

1.3.1. Communicative Language Teaching

Let’s start by Communicative Language Teaching whose main theorists were

Halliday and Hymes (1970s) and whose focus is to enable learners to communicate
effectively and appropriately in the various situations they would be likely to find
themselves in.

As regards its principles, Communicative Language Teaching emphasizes on the

following aspects:

1) The goal is communicative competence, so language is used

communicatively. This means, the emphasis is on fluency over accuracy.

2) The teacher is a guide in the learning process and facilitates communication,

allowing a prudent use of the mother tongue if necessary.

3) Grammar is only taught if the students benefit from it.

4) The syllabus consists of arranging functions presented in a meaningful

context

5) Materials are very varied: realia, audio-visual, tasks, role-plays, etc.

Regarding lessons, there is not a typical lesson in the Communicative Language

Teaching. Some of the possible techniques used are roleplays, problem-solving
activities, tasks, etc. Nowadays, there are some applications for learning languages
online that aim for the students to get engaged in real conversations, for instance, the
app called Babble.

1.3.2. Natural Approach

Continuing with the Natural Method which was developed in the 1970s by Terrell
and Krashen, learning takes place by exposure to language that is comprehensible or
made comprehensible to them in a similar way as the mother tongue, that is, following
some natural leaning stages that go from yes/no answers to the production of full
sentences.

As regards lessons, there is not a typical lesson, as they may vary from one lesson
to another. For instance, in a listening class, the teacher could show some pictures of
food and students will have to point to the appropriate picture the teacher says. Then
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during the listening exercise, students can cross the words they are listening to. Finally,
we could also give them the transcript and try to fill up some gaps from memory.

1.3.3. Task-based Learning

Let us see Task-based Learning now, which was popularized by Parbhu. In this
approach, the focus is on the completion of several tasks which lead to a final task where
students, cooperatively, will have to use language in context, integrating the four skills.

As an example of a typical lesson, teachers start with a pre-task where they explain
the students that they are going to create a Booklet about things to take on a camping
trip, therefore, they brainstorm some vocabulary. Then, they are given some time to
create the Booklet, practice their presentation and finally present it orally in front of their
classmates. At the end, the teacher explains the grammar and vocabulary points that
need further work.

1.3.4. Project-based Learning

Next, closely related to Task-Based Learning, it is Project-Based Learning whose

origin is attribute to Dewey’s theories. Here, activities derive from a central topic and in
order to carry out the project (often done through the use of the ICTs) a final project will
be shown at the end in the form of posters, presentations, reports, videos, etc.

An example of a typical lesson could be asking the students the following question:
“what wild animals live in our province and what relationship is established between
them?”. Pupils would have to do some research to answer to this real question.

1.3.5. Content Language Integrated Learning

Continuing with Content Language Integrated Learning or CLIL, a concept

created by Marsh (1994), language is learned through the teaching of other contents
such as Natural Science, History, Geography, Arts and Crafts, etc.

In a typical lesson of Natural Science, for example, students, while studying the
plant kingdom, they will have to learn some basic vocabulary related to plants, label the
parts of a plant, divide them into flowering or non-flowering plants and know how the
photosynthesis process works, which all is done in the second language.

1.3.6. Cooperative Learning

The next approach is Cooperative Learning, an approach that started to be

established by social theorists such as Watson or Shaw among others in which teaching
is done through cooperative groups in which learners work together in cooperative
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activities and interactions towards a goal. Thus, as they work together, students learn
how to socialize, solve problems, and handle conflict.

An example of a typical lesson could be using the Jigsaw technique, where each
student is required to research one section of the material and then teach it to the other
members of the group. Just like a jigsaw puzzle, each piece or section is put together at
the end, and only then does the entire picture make sense. For instance, each student
can search for information about the United Kingdom (gastronomy, traditions, main cities,
etc.) and then put all the information together.

1.3.7. Gamification

Let us now turn our attention to Gamification, a term coined by Nick Pelling in
2002 and which refers to the use of elements and techniques of games in non-ludic
environments. Some game-like elements are avatars, missions, points, competition,
rewards, badges, rankings, etc. Apart from increasing motivation, pupils become more
active.

Some gamification apps that we use in class are ClassDojo or ClassCraft for
behaviour control, or Plickers, Socrative, Wordwall or Kahoot for checking what students
know.

1.3.8. Flipped Classroom

Continuing with the flipped classroom, created by teachers Bergmann and

Sams (late 2000s) the instruction changes to a learner-centered model in which time in
the classroom is used to explore topics in greater depth and create meaningful learning
opportunities while students are initially introduced to new topics at home.

In a typical lesson, 'content delivery' may take a variety of forms. Often, video
lessons prepared by the teacher or third parties are used to deliver content, although
online collaborative discussions, digital research, and text readings may be used. An
example is using apps such as EDPuzzle or Nearpod can be used to watch these videos,
where the teacher will be able to include explanations and verification questions. We can
also use Teams and Moodle.

2. TECHNIQUES THAT FOCUS ON THE ACQUISITION OF THE COMMUNICATIVE

COMPETENCE

Once we have seen the main methods to achieve the Communicative

Compentence, let’s move now on to the second section, where we will see some
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techniques or strategies to achieve the communicative competence shared by some of

the previous methods:

1) Group and pair work, which helps to practice in a lively way what has already
been learnt, as it creates an atmosphere very similar to a real situation.

2) Presentation-practice-production stages. Here, the topic is introduced in

context in the Presentation Stage. Then, students integrate it in the Practice
Stage by using it withing structures. Finally, in the Production Stage, students put
into practice what they have learned.

3) Total Physical Response Activities. Some techniques might be used at the

beginning of the didactic units.

4) Problem-solving activities and simulations: for example, giving directions to

a person who needs to get to a certain place as soon as possible or give someone
suggestions of the best activity to do on a Friday evening.

5) Social interaction activities, such as a role-plays or interviews.

6) Projects, where students have to gather, exchange and produce information. For
example, create a brochure about a city including traditions, gastronomy,
monuments, etc

7) Learning situations where the contents and activities are sequenced and that
lead students to the resolution of final tasks or problems where they need to use
the language communicatively.

3. SPECIFIC METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR TEACHING ENGLISH

Now, after analysis some methods and techniques, it is time to move to the third
section of the topic, where I am going to explain some methodological principles based
on the previous methods and considering what the LOMLOE and the Decree 38/2022
from Castile and Leon state:

1) Communication: which is the essence of the educational process through

interaction. We must remember that the main objective of learning languages is
to use them for communication, and achieving the communicative competence
in the foreign language should be that goal.

2) Active learning of students by means of scenarios and real-life situations. This

is related to previously mentioned techniques such as the use of simulations or
social interaction activities.
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3) Individualization: that is, every student is unique and has particular needs.
Teachers must adapt their methodologies to them as well as the resources and
materials they use. This is related to the Universal Design for Language our
current curriculum is based on.

4) The active role of students, that is, students are the protagonists of their own
learning and teachers just a guide in the process. Teachers should promote the
acquisition of meaningful learning, making connections between students
previous and new knowledge.

5) The contents must be taught with a clear structuring of relationships,

considering the interrelationship between contents from the same area and
between content from different areas, in other words, interdisciplinarity.

6) The ICTs, which have become a daily tool in the teaching and learning of the
different areas, especially languages. They should be used in a meaningful way
to foster learning.

7) The diversity of skills, motivations and interests of students requires

flexibility in the curriculum, so that it can respond to that diversity. This is also
related to the Universal Design for Learning.

8) And finally, the use of the Universal Design for Learning applied to foreign
language learning mentioned before. But what is it and why is it so important?

According to Pastor (2022), the Universal Design for Learning is an

educational framework that guides the development of flexible learning
environments and learning spaces that can be adapted to students’ individual
learning differences. This is based on three principles:

• To provide multiple forms of representation of learning contents. This

implies presenting the information in different formats and media (text,
image, audio, video, etc) so that students can access it in the way that
best suits their needs.
• To offer multiple opportunities for action and expression. This means
providing a variety of ways for students to demonstrate their
understanding and skill acquisition, whether through writing, speaking,
drawing, building, or any other form of expression.
• To encourage the participation and commitment of all students. This
involves creating an inclusive and positive learning environment that
promotes the motivation, interest and participation of all students.
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4. CONCLUSION

Once I have developed the three sections of this topic, to come to an end, we can
conclude that teachers need to be updated concerning new approaches, methods and
techniques towards L2 teaching so as to make their own eclectic approach suitable for
their students within the communicative and student-centred approach stated by the
LOMLOE 3/2022, as our main objective in the Foreign Language area is that students
acquire a basic communicative competence. This should be done according to the
Universal Desing for Learning and the use of real scenarios in Learning Situations, as
we must adapt the teaching and learning process to all students’ differences if we really
want them to learn the contents and be able to use language in a communicative way.

I would like to finish this essay with a quote by the American Educator Meehan,
who said:

“Make sure that our methodology is not simply packaging old wine in new bottles.
Teaching today requires a whole new vineyard”.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Finally, I will refer to the bibliography consulted for the elaboration of this topic:

Brewster, J. (1992). The Primary English Teacher’s Guide.

Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English.

Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching.

Littlewood, W. (1982). Communicative Language Teaching.

Nunan, D. (1989). Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom.

Pastor, C. A. (2022). Teaching thinking on every student. The Universal Design for

Learning Model (UDL).

Richards J.C, Platt, J. & Platt, H. (2010). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching

and Applied Linguistics.

LOMLOE 3/2020, 29th of December which regulates education in Spain.

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Royal Decree 157/2022, 1st of March, which establishes the basic curriculum for

Primary Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022, 29th of September which establishes the curriculum for Primary

Education in Castile and Leon.

 TOPIC 15. MOST SUITABLE EPOCHS, AUTHORS AND GENRES FOR THEIR APPLICATION IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM. A
TYPOLOGY OF TEXTS
0. INTRODUCTION 1.2. Other genres
- Topic 16, 17, 18 & 19.
- Number of resources - literature 1. Comics: “Garfield”, “Snoopy” or “Calvin & Hobbes”
- Legislation – use of poems, drama and literary works.
- 3 sections 2. Nursery rhymes: “Humpty Dumpty”, “Mary had a little lamb”
or “The three blind mice”.
1. MOST SUITABLE EPOCHS, AUTHORS AND GENRES FOR
THEIR APPLICATION IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM 3. Riddles: “Which creature has one voice and yet becomes four-
footed and two-footed and three-footed?”
- Definition of literature – Oxford Dictionary (2021)
+ Novels 4. Togue twisters: “Betty Botter bought a bit of butter”
+ Plays
+ Poems… 5. Plays.

- Definition of children’s literature – Bika (2003) 3. APPLICATION IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM

1.1. Most adequate periods, authors and genres - 5 steps – Brown (2004)

-Myths & legends 1. CHOOSING A BOOK

A) TALES + Age, interests, prior + Illustrations

1. Middle Ages: Geoffrey Chaucer – “The canterbury Tales” knowledge. + Values
+ Availability + Participation
2.15th century: William Caxton – “Fables” (“The Fox and the + Syllabus + Enjoy
Grapes”, The Ant & the + Length + Vocabulary & grammar
Grasshopper” or “The
Tortoise & the Hare” 2. PREPARING TO TEACH

3. 16th century: William Shakespeare – “A Midsummer + Number of students + Resources

Night’s Dream”, “Romeo + Objectives
& Juliet” or “Macbeth”.
3. TEACHING TECHNIQUES
4. 17th century: Comenius – “Orbis Pictus"
La Fontaine – “The Fox & the Grapes”. + One by one + Following teacher’s reading
Charles Perrault – “Cinderella”, “Little Red + Out loud + “Reading twins” technique
Riding hood”, “Puss in + Silent reading
Boots” or “The Sleeping
Beauty”. 4. SEQUENCING ACTIVITIES
5. 18th century: John Newbery + reading > songs > dancing > performing > artwork....

6. 19th century: Grimm Brothers – “Snow White”, “Hansel & 5. CREATING GOOD & VARIED ACTIVITIES
Gretel” or “Tom Thumb”. - Didactic Application (5th grade) – “Peter Pan”
H. C. Andersen – “The Little Mermaid”, “The
Tin Soldier”, “Ugly Duckling” + Pre-reading stage – Presentation, flashcards
or “The Wild Swans”. > WordWall
Lewis Carrol – “Alice in Wonderland” + While-reading stage – Interactive image (Genially) >
Beatrix Potter – “Peter Rabbit” questions
– Kahoot, Quizizz, Worksheets,
B) NOVELS Liveworksheets.com
1. 18th century: Daniel Defoe – “Robinson Crusoe” + Post-reading stage – Padlet, Pixton
Jonathan Swift – “Gulliver’s Travels”
3. TYPOLOGY OF TEXTS
2. 19th century: Mark Twain – “The adventures of Tom
Sawyer” & “The adventures of - Definition of genre & text typology
Huckleberry Finn”.
Robert Louis Stevenson – “Treasure Island” 1. THE WRITER’S PURPOSE: descriptive, narrative, expository,
Rudyard Kipling – “The Jungle Book” argumentative.
2. THE CONTENT: autobiographies, history, realistic, non-fiction,
3. 20th century: Barrie – “Peter Pan” fantasy, epic.
Roald Dahl – “Matilda”, “Charlie and the cho- 3. THE PRESENTATION: illustrated stories, no text, bubbles &
colate factory” or “James & the with flaps, pop-ups.
giant peach”. 4. THE ORIGIN: authentic texts or adapted.

4. Late 20th and 21st century: J.K. Rowling – “Harry Potter" 3. CONCLUSION
Jeff Kinney – “Diary of a Wimpy Kid”. American writer Raymond Chandler
“All reading for pleasure is entertainment”
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TOPIC 15

MOST SUITABLE EPOCHS, AUTHORS AND GENRES FOR THEIR APPLICATION IN

THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM. A TYPOLOGY OF TEXTS

0. INTRODUCTION

1. MOST SUITABLE EPOCHS, AUTHORS AND GENRES FOR THEIR APPLICATION

IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM.

1.1. MOST ADEQUATE PERIODS, AUTHORS AND GENRES.

1.2. OTHER GENRES

2. APPLICATION IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM.

3. A TYPOLOGY OF TEXTS

4. CONCLUSIONS

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1
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0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the title of this topic, this essay focuses on the application of literature
in the English classroom as well as the different types of texts that can be used. Although
this topic is specially related to topic 16, as they both deal with literature and its
application to the foreign language classroom, it is also related to topics 17, 18 and 19,
as they all deal with the use of different resources in the classroom such as songs, games
or drama.

Let us begin by considering that there are a great number of resources that we
can use in our classroom to support the learning-teaching process among which
literature is one of them. It is important to note that among the difference resources to
use in the classroom, literature has a great potential if we know how to use it, not only
for fostering reading habits, but also for language teaching, as it provides students with
plenty of language in context that will increase their command of language, helping them
develop the communicative competence.

In fact, one of the stage objectives that students must have achieved by the end
of Primary Education (objective f) is a basic communicative competence in the foreign
language, as stated both in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree 157/2022.
Moreover, the Decree 38/2022 from Castile and Leon suggests the use of different
resources in the classroom, among which it includes songs, poems and literary works.

Having said this, in order to develop this topic, I will divide it into three sections.
In the first section, I will deal with the most suitable epochs, authors and genres for their
use in the class. In the second section, I will deal with their application in the English
classroom, and, in the third section, I will deal with the different types of texts. Finally, I
will present the conclusions and the bibliography used to develop this topic.

1. MOST SUITABLE EPOCHS, AUTHORS AND GENRES FOR THEIR APPLICATION

IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of my essay,
which deals with the different epochs, authors and genres and their application in the
English classroom. As we are dealing with an application for our students, I will focus on
some books concerning kids instead of going through all the history of literature. But first,
what is literature and children’s literature?

2
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

On the one hand, literature, according to the Oxford dictionary (2021) is

defined as “pieces of writing that are valued as works of art, especially novels, plays, and
poems, among others”.

On the other hand, children’s literature, according to Bika (2003) is “not just
literature written for children, nor is it just literature that happens to be read by children.
It is a genre, a special kind of literature with its own distinguishing characteristics that
takes into consideration children’s needs and level of development.

1.1. MOST ADEQUATE PERIODS, AUTHORS AND GENRES

Once I have defined literature and children’s literature, let us now have a look at
the different periods, authors and genres giving some examples of works for children. It
is important to note that it is difficult to find a starting point for children’s literature, as the
first productions considered as children’s literature were initially addressed to adults,
being the case of myths and legends.

Having said this, I will start by the genre of tales through different epochs in
History:

 In the Middle Ages, literature was intended to instruct children. In this period, we can
highlight Geoffrey Chaucer and his work The Canterbury Tales, a collection of 24
tales.

 In the 15th century, William Caxton published the Fables of the Greek Aesop.
Fables are always starring animals and all of them present a moral, which is a lesson
or teaching that the stories provide the reader. Some examples are The Fox and the
Grapes, The Ant and the Grasshopper or The Tortoise and the Hare.

 In the 16th century, we must highlight William Shakespeare’s works. Some

examples of his plays are the comedy of A Midsummer Night’s Dream and tragedies
like Romeo and Juliet or Macbeth.

 In the 17th century, the writer Comenius published his Orbis Pictus, which is the
considered the first illustrated book for children. It is a kind of encyclopaedia which
comprises a wide range of subjects from social and natural sciences. Another author,
La Fontaine, adapted others’ fables like Aesop’s into French, like the The Fox and
the Grapes and many others. Last, but not least, in this century we must mention

3
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

Charles Perrault, famous for his fairy tales like Cinderella, Little Red Riding Hood,
Puss in Boots or The Sleeping Beauty, which were initially meant for adults.

 In the 18th century, we must highlight the publisher John Newbery, who was
considered the “Father of Children’s Literature” as he made children’s literature
profitable.

 In the 19th century the most famous writers of tales emerged. The Grimm Brothers
wrote and adapted fairy tales such as Snow White, Hansel and Gretel or Tom
Thumb. Also, Hans Christian Andersen wrote more melodramatic tales, such as the
Little Mermaid, The Tin Soldier, the Ugly Duckling or The Wild Swans. More
modern tales appeared with Lewis Carrol and his Alice in Wonderland or Beatrix
Potter and her famous tale Peter Rabbit.

After mentioning the main writers of tales through History, I will now mention the
main authors of novels:

 The genre of novels started in the 18th century during the English Enlightment with
authors like Daniel Defoe and his Robinson Crusoe or Jonathan Swift and his
Gulliver’s Travels.

 In the 19th century, we must highlight the American author Mark Twain and his
novels The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and its sequel The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn; the British authors Robert Louis Stevenson with his novel
Treasure Island and Rudyard Kipling with his novel The Jungle Book.

 In the 20th century, I will mention Barrie and his work Peter Pan, although one of
the most famous authors is the British Roald Dahl, whose books and short stories
for children have become references in children’s literature. Some of his famous
works are Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Matilda or James and the Giant
Peach.
 At the end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st century, we must also
mention a book series that encouraged many children and youngsters to read, J.K.
Rowling’s Harry Potter, seven books about the adventures of a wizard student. We
can also mention some books which have been very popular among children and
schools, such as Diary of a Wimpy Kid by Jeff Kinney, Percy Jackson by Rick
Riordan, or The Chronicles of Narnia by C. S. Lewis.

4
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

1.2. OTHER GENRES

Once I have named the main tales and novel writers and works, I will now mention
some other genres that we can use with our students, such as comics, nursery rhymes,
tongue twisters, plays and riddles.

 First, comics are stories which combine both visual art and written text in the form of
speech bubbles and strips. Some examples are Garfield, Snoopy or Calvin and
Hobbes among many others.

 Second, nursery rhymes, which are short chants or rhymes with a marked rhythm
and musicality, and that can be accompanied by actions or games. Some famous
ones are Humpty Dumpty, Mary had a little lamb or The three blind mice.

 Third, riddles are statements, questions or phrases that have a double our hidden
meaning, put forth as a puzzle to be solved. The most famous one is “Which
creature has one voice and yet becomes four-footed and two-footed and three-
footed?” by the Sphinx of Thebes in Greece.

 Fourth, Tongue twisters are complicated phrases were pronunciation, rhythm and
stress are put into practice. One famous tongue twister is Betty Botter bought a bit
of butter.

 Fifth, plays, which consist of dialogues between characters and are intended for
theatrical performance rather than just reading. Examples are Shakespeare’s works I
mentioned before although there are novels and other stories which can be turned
into plays.
 And finally, poems, which are literary works written in the form of verses mostly
characterized for the rhyme and the expression of feelings and emotions.

2. APPLICATION IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM

Now that I have described the main genres, its authors and the works that can be
used with our students, I will now talk about their application in our classroom. When we
want to use literature in our classroom, the first question that we may ask ourselves is
the following: how do we choose the appropriate book for our students? Well,
according to Brown (2004), we should follow five steps:

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

1. CHOOSING A BOOK: when selecting books, we must consider our students’ age,
level, interests and prior knowledge about the topic. As regards the stories, we must
consider the following aspects:
 Availability.
 The content must link with the syllabus.
 The length.
 The level of vocabulary and grammar should be simple.
 Illustrations must be present.
 The characters must show some values.
 The book must encourage participation of the students.
 Finally, select a book that you think you will enjoy.

2. PREPARING TO TEACH: after choosing the book the next step is to prepare the
lessons. Thus, we need to consider the number of students, the objectives to achieve
and resources to use, that is, videos, films if the book has been taken to the big
screen, audios, interactive notebooks, etc.

3. TEACHING TECHNIQUES: the next step is to decide how children are going to read.
We could do it one by one and out loud, all students at the same time while the teacher
reads out loud or in order to increase participation and motivation, or make students
read in pairs with the technique known as “reading twins”, that is, one student reads
a paragraph and the other has to summarize it and vice versa.

4. SEQUENCING ACTIVITIES: students are not going to spend the whole lesson
reading, so we must plan other activities that must be as active as possible in order
to keep students active and motivated, such as singing, listening, dancing, performing
or artwork.

5. CREATING GOOD AND VARIED ACTIVITIES: finally, we need to introduce and work
on the text. But how? Well, it is useful to organize tasks and activities into three stages.
Let us see an example of classroom application by using the book of Peter Pan by
Barrie and for 5th grade students:

 Pre-reading: activities should aim at activating students’ prior knowledge and

introduce the vocabulary they will need for the reading activity (such as
shadow, sewing, fairy, island, ship, etc., which can be done through a
presentation with flashcards or photos and by using tools such as Word Wall

6
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

on the Smart Board, which is a platform to create interactive content where

students will drag and match the vocabulary to the corresponding word, to
integrate this new vocabulary.

 While-reading: students will perform tasks for global and specific

comprehension of the text. An example could be creating an interactive page
using Genial.ly. Over a background showing the island of Neverland, students
will have to follow a path through the island by clicking on different interactive
spots. In each of these spots, they will have to answer some global and
specific questions about the story. For example, when clicking on Captain
Hook’s pirate’s ship, they could ask some global and specific comprehension
questions about the pirates. We can also add videos from the movies, links to
other pages, etc.

 Post-reading: in this stage students will assess what they know and what they
have learned. For instance, we could play a Kahoot or Quizizz about
questions from the Peter Pan book, individually or in cooperative groups in
which they will compete for reaching the first place in the ranking. Also, an
interesting activity is using the application called Padlet, where the teacher
will create and share a wall with students in which they will have to comment
the teacher’s posts (writing what they like or dislike about a specific chapter,
describing their favourite character from that chapter, etc.) using their tablets
or computers.

3. A TYPOLOGY OF TEXTS

After seeing the tales, novels and other genres that we can apply into our
classroom, I will now talk about the different types of texts following the title of this topic.
But what is the difference between genre and text types? Well, while genre refers to
the classification of texts based on their form (that is, literary texts, poems, plays, etc.),
text typology is based on the linguistic characteristics, the physical aspects and the
objective of a text. The main text types are classified according to:

⚫ THE WRITER’S PURPOSE: they can be descriptive, narrative, expository and

argumentative.
⚫ THE CONTENT: they can be autobiographies, history, realistic non-fiction,
fantasy or epic.

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

⚫ THE PRESENTATION: they can be illustrated stories, stories with no text, stories
with bubbles and stories with flaps or pop-ups.
⚫ THE ORIGIN: they can be authentic texts for English-speaking children or
adapted texts like graded readers for foreign language learners.

3. CONCLUSION

To come to an end, we can conclude that literature has a great potential for its
application into the English classroom if we know how to use it, not only for fostering
reading habits, but also for language teaching, as it provides students with plenty of
language in context that will increase their command of language, helping them develop
the communicative competence. In order to do so, we must consider different criteria
when choosing a book, such as students’ age, level and interests, as well as its relation
to the syllabus, the length or the vocabulary and structures that are used in it. Moreover,
we must develop enjoyable and motivating activities so that students remain motivated
and active and do not see books and literature in general as something boring and
tedious. I would like to finish with a quote by the American writer Raymond Chandler
who said that:

“All reading for pleasure is entertainment”

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Finally, I will refer to the bibliography used for the development of this topic:

Brown (2014). Using Children's Literature with Young Learners.

Ellis, G. and Brewster, J. (2002). The Storytelling Handbook for Primary Teachers.

Harmer, J. (2007). How to Teach English.

Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching.

Hadley, A. (2001). Teaching language in context.

Wright, A. (2000). Storytelling for Children.

LOMLOE 3/2020 passed on the 29th of December, which regulates education in Spain.

Royal Decree 157/2022 passed on the 1st of March, which establishes the basic
curriculum for Primary Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022 passed on the 29th of September, which establishes the curriculum fo
Primary Education in Castile and Leon.

8
 TOPIC 16. CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN ENGLISH. DIDACTIC APPLICATION TECHNIQUES TO ACCESS ORAL COMPREHENSION, TO INITIATE AND
ENCOURAGE READING HABITS AND MAKE STUDENTS AWARE OF THE POETIC FUNCTION
0. INTRODUCTION 1.2. Other genres
- Topic 15 1. Comics: “Garfield”, “Snoopy” or “Calvin & Hobbes”
- Number of resources - literature
- Legislation – songs, poems and literary works. 2. Nursery rhymes: “Humpty Dumpty”, “Mary had a little lamb” or “The
- 2 sections three blind mice”.

1. CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN ENGLISH 3. Riddles: “Which creature has one voice and yet becomes four-footed and
- Definition of literature – Oxford Dictionary (2021) two-footed and three-footed?”
+ Novels
+ Plays 4. Togue twisters: “Betty Botter bought a bit of butter”
+ Poems…
5. Plays and poems
- Definition of children’s literature – Bika (2003)
2. DIDACTIC APPLICATION TECHNIQUES TO ACCESS ORAL
1.1. Brief history of children’s literature COMPREHENSION, TO INITIATE AND ENCOURAGE READING HABITS AND
-Myths & legends MAKE STUDENTS AWARE OF THE POETIC FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE

A) TALES 2.1. Didactic application techniques to access oral comprehension

1. Middle Ages: Geoffrey Chaucer – “The canterbury Tales” 1. LISTENING STAGES

+ Pre-listening stage – Presentation, flashcards
2.15th century: William Caxton – “Fables” (“The Fox and the > WordWall
Grapes”, The Ant & the + While-listening stage – sequencing & ordering
Grasshopper” or “The – Kahoot, Quizizz, Worksheets,
Tortoise & the Hare” Liveworksheets.com
+ Post-listening stage – Role-play
3. 16th century: William Shakespeare – “A Midsummer
Night’s Dream”, “Romeo 2. USING SUPPORTING TECHNIQUES
& Juliet” or “Macbeth”. + Visual support – puppets, gestures, mime...
+ Oral support – sounds, intonation, voices...
4. 17th century: Comenius – “Orbis Pictus"
La Fontaine – “The Fox & the Grapes”. 3. USING SOME OTHER STORYTELLING TECHNIQUES
Charles Perrault – “Cinderella”, “Little Red + Eye contact
Riding hood”, “Puss in + Pauses
Boots” or “The Sleeping + Encourage
Beauty”.
5. 18th century: John Newbery 2.2. Didactic application techniques to initiate and encourage reading
habits
6. 19th century: Grimm Brothers – “Snow White”, “Hansel &
Gretel” or “Tom Thumb”. 1. READING STAGES - (5th grade) – “Peter Pan”
H. C. Andersen – “The Little Mermaid”, “The + Pre-reading stage – Presentation, flashcards
Tin Soldier”, “Ugly Duckling” > WordWall
or “The Wild Swans”. + While-reading stage – Interactive image (Genially) >
Lewis Carrol – “Alice in Wonderland” questions
Beatrix Potter – “Peter Rabbit” – Kahoot, Quizizz, Worksheets,
Liveworksheets.com
B) NOVELS + Post-reading stage – Padlet, Pixton

1. 18th century: Daniel Defoe – “Robinson Crusoe” 2. READING COMPETITION

Jonathan Swift – “Gulliver’s Travels” + “Reading worm”
+ “Reading train”
2. 19th century: Mark Twain – “The adventures of Tom
Sawyer” & “The adventures of 2.3. Didactic application techniques to make students aware of the poetic
Huckleberry Finn”. function of language
Robert Louis Stevenson – “Treasure Island”
Rudyard Kipling – “The Jungle Book” 1. USING SONGS
+ Songs
3. 20th century: Barrie – “Peter Pan”
Roald Dahl – “Matilda”, “Charlie and the cho- 2. PRACTISING SOME LINGUISTIC FEATURES
colate factory” or “James & the + Rhythm & Rhyme
giant peach”.
3. PRACTISING SOME STYLISTIC FEATURES
4. Late 20th and 21st century: J.K. Rowling – “Harry Potter" + Alliteration
Jeff Kinney – “Diary of a Wimpy Kid + Anaphora
+ Parallelism

3. CONCLUSION
American writer Raymond Chandler
“All reading for pleasure is entertainment”
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 16

CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN ENGLISH. DIDACTIC APPLICATION

TECHNIQUES TO ACCESS ORAL COMPREHENSION, TO INITIATE AND
ENCOURAGE READING HABITS AND MAKE STUDENTS AWARE OF THE
POETIC FUNCTION

0. INTRODUCTION

1. CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN ENGLISH

1.1. BREIF HISTORY OF CHILDREN’S LITERATURE

1.2. OTHER GENRES

2. DIDACTIC APPLICATION TECHNIQUES TO ACCESS ORAL

COMPREHENSION, TO INITIATE AND ENCOURAGE READING HABITS AND
MAKE STUDENTS AWARE OF THE POETIC FUNCTION

2.1. DIDACTIC APPLICATION TECHNIQUES TO ACCESS ORAL

COMPREHENSION

2.2. DIDACTIC APPLICATION TECHNIQUES TO INITIATE AND

ENCOURAGE READING HABITS

2.3. DIDACTIC APPLICATION TECHNIQUES TO MAKE STUDENTS

AWARE OF THE POETIC FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE

3. CONCLUSION

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the title of this topic, this essay focuses on the application of literature
in the English classroom as well as the different types of texts that can be used. Although
this topic is specially related to topic 15, as they both deal with literature and its
application to the foreign language classroom, it is also related to topics 17, 18 and 19,
as they all deal with the use of different resources in the classroom such as songs, games
or drama.

Let us begin by considering that there are a great number of resources that we
can use in our classroom to support the learning-teaching process among which
literature is one of them. It is important to note that among the difference resources to
use in the classroom, literature has a great potential if we know how to use it, not only
for fostering reading habits, but also for language teaching, as it provides students with
plenty of language in context that will increase their command of language, helping them
develop the communicative competence.

In fact, one of the stage objectives that students must have achieved by the end
of Primary Education (objective f) is a basic communicative competence in the foreign
language, as stated both in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree 157/2022.
Moreover, the Decree 38/2022 from Castile and Leon suggests the use of different
resources in the classroom, among which it includes songs, poems and literary works.

In order to develop this topic, I will divide it into two sections. In the first section, I
will deal with the most suitable epochs, authors and genres and their application in the
English classroom and, in the second section, I will deal with the different types of texts.
Finally, I will present the conclusions and the bibliography used to develop this topic.

1. CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN ENGLISH

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of my essay,
which deals with the different epochs, authors and genres and their application in the
English classroom. As we are dealing with an application for our students, I will focus on
some books concerning kids instead of going through all the history of literature. But first,
what is literature and children’s literature?

On the one hand, literature, according to the Oxford dictionary (2020) is

defined as “pieces of writing that are valued as works of art, especially novels, plays, and
poems”. On the other hand, children’s literature, according to Hanson (1998) is "the

2
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

material created for and widely read, viewed and heard by children, that has an
imaginative element”.

1.1. BRIEF HISTORY OF CHILDREN’S LITERATURE

Once I have defined literature and children’s literature, let us now have a look at
the history of children’s literature giving some examples of works. It is important to note
that it is difficult to find a starting point for children’s literature, as the first productions
considered as children’s literature were initially addressed to adults, being the case of
myths and legends.

Having said this, I will start by the genre of tales through different epochs in
History:

 In the Middle Ages, literature was intended to instruct children. In this period, we can
highlight Geoffrey Chaucer and his work The Canterbury Tales, a collection of 24
tales which are presented as part of a storytelling competition of a group of pilgrims
during a trip from London to Canterbury.

 In the 15th century, William Caxton published the Fables of the Greek Aesop.
Fables are always starring animals and all of them present a moral, which is a lesson
or teaching that the stories provides the reader. Some examples are The Fox and
the Grapes, The Ant and the Grasshopper or The Tortoise and the Hare.

 In the 16th century, we must highlight William Shakespeare’s works. Some

examples of his plays are the comedy of A Midsummer Night’s Dream and tragedies
like Romeo and Juliet or Macbeth.

 In the 17th century, the writer Comenius published his Orbis Pictus, which is the
considered the first illustrated book for children. It is a kind of encyclopaedia which
comprises a wide range of subjects from social and natural sciences. Another author,
La Fontaine, adapted others’ fables like Aesop’s into French, like the The Fox and
the Grapes and many others. Last, but not least, in this century we must mention
Charles Perrault, famous for his fairy tales like Cinderella, Little Red Riding Hood,
Puss in Boots or The Sleeping Beauty, which were initially meant for adults.

3
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

 In the 18th century, we must highlight the publisher John Newbery, who was
considered the “Father of Children’s Literature” as he made children’s literature
profitable.

 In the 19th century the most famous writers of tales emerged. The Grimm Brothers
wrote and adapted fairy tales such as Snow White, Hansel and Gretel or Tom
Thumb. Also, Hans Christian Andersen wrote more melodramatic tales, such as the
Little Mermaid, The Tin Soldier, the Ugly Duckling or The Wild Swans. More
modern tales appeared with Lewis Carrol and his Alice in Wonderland or Beatrix
Potter and her famous tale Peter Rabbit.

After mentioning the main writers of tales through History, I will now mention the
main authors of children’s novels:

 The genre of novels started in the 18th century during the English Enlightment with
authors like Daniel Defoe and his Robinson Crusoe or Jonathan Swift and his
Gulliver’s Travels.

 In the 19th century, we must highlight the American author Mark Twain and his
novels The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and its sequel The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn; the British authors Robert Louis Stevenson with his novel
Treasure Island and Rudyard Kipling with his novel The Jungle Book.

 In the 20th century, I will mention Barrie and his work Peter Pan, although one of
the most famous authors is the British Roald Dahl, whose books and short stories
for children have become references in children’s literature. Some of his famous
works are Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Matilda or James and the Giant
Peach. We must also mention a book series that encouraged many children and
youngsters to read, J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter. We can also mention some books
which have been very popular among children and schools, such as Diary of a
Wimpy Kid by Jeff Kinney, Percy Jackson by Rick Riordan, or The Chronicles
of Narnia by C. S. Lewis.

1.2. OTHER GENRES

Once I have named the main tales and novel writers and works, I will now mention
some other genres that we can use with our students, such as comics, nursery rhymes,
tongue twisters, plays and riddles.

4
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

 First, comics are stories which combine both visual art and written text in the form of
speech bubbles and strips. Some examples are Garfield, Snoopy, Calvin and
Hobbes among many others.

 Second, nursery rhymes, which are short chants or rhymes with a marked rhythm
and musicality, and that can be accompanied by actions or games. Some famous
ones are Humpty Dumpty, Mary had a little lamb or The three blind mice.

 Third, riddles are statements, questions or phrases that have a double our hidden
meaning, put forth as a puzzle to be solved. The most famous one is “Which
creature has one voice and yet becomes four-footed and two-footed and three-
footed?” by the Sphinx of Thebes in Greece.

 Fourth, Tongue twisters are complicated phrases were pronunciation, rhythm and
stress are put into practice. One famous tongue twister is Betty Botter bought a bit
of butter.

 Fifth, plays, which consist of dialogues between characters and are intended for
theatrical performance rather than just reading. Examples are Shakespeare’s works I
mentioned before although there are novels and other stories which can be turned
into plays.

 And finally, poems, which are literary works written in the form of verses mostly
characterized for the rhyme and the expression of feelings and emotions.

2. DIDACTIC APPLICATION TECHNIQUES TO ACCESS ORAL COMPREHENSION,

TO INITIATE AND ENCOURAGE READING HABITS AND MAKE STUDENTS
AWARE OF THE POETIC FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE

Once I have described the main works in children’s literature through History, in
the second section of my essay, I will examine three main uses of literature: listening to
stories, reading stories and working on their poetic function.

2.1. DIDACTIC APPLICATION TECHNIQUES TO ACCESS ORAL COMPREHENSION

Starting with the techniques to access oral comprehension when telling stories, I
will mention three techniques that we can use in the classroom:

5
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

1. LISTENING STAGES: according to Wilson (2008), we should divide each lesson into
three stages. First, the pre-listening stage, in which we will introduce the vocabulary
that students will need and where we will check their prior knowledge, and during
which we can use flashcards or PPT presentations with this vocabulary. After this, we
can use WordWall to integrate this vocabulary through an interactive game on the
PDI). Next, the while-listening stage, in which students should develop listening
strategies like general and specific comprehension, and during which we can do
sequencing and ordering activities, play Kahoot with questions about what they have
read, or use worksheets. And finally, the post-listening stage, in which students will
connect what they have heard with their experience integrating other skills, like for
example, doing a role-play integrating the speaking skill. Here they can do role-plays
fostering the speaking skill too.
2. USING SUPPORTING TECHNIQUES: while the teacher is reading, some visual
support can be used, such as puppets, gestures, and mime, as well as oral support
such as making sounds and noises according to what is happening in the story.

3. USING SOME OTHER STORYTELLING TECHNIQUES: apart from using visual

support and sounds, we can also use eye-contact in order to check that students are
paying attention to the story; make pauses to check comprehension and to ask
questions about the story and what they think may happen later; and finally,
encourage students’ participation.

2.2. DIDACTIC APPLICATION TECHNIQUES TO INITIATE AND ENCOURAGE

READING HABITS

Continuing with the techniques to initiate and encourage reading habits, we can
use two techniques:

1. READING STAGES: like before, we should divide the reading lesson into three
stages: let us set an example with the Peter Pan book: the pre-reading stage (in which
we will introduce the vocabulary students will need for the reading activity and check
their prior knowledge like “shadow, fairy, sewing, ship, island…etc), and during which
we can do guessing from the title activities and play memory games with flashcards
using that vocabulary), the while-reading stage (in which students will perform tasks
for global and specific comprehension of the text. An example could be creating an
interactive page using Genially. Over a background showing the island of
Neverland, students will have to follow a path through the island by clicking on
different interactive spots. In each of these spots, they will have to answer some global

6
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

and specific questions about the story. For example, when clicking on Captain Hook’s
pirate’s ship, they could ask some global and specific comprehension questions about
the pirates. We can also add videos from the movies, links to other pages, etc.), and
the post-reading stage (in this stage students will assess what they know and what
they have learned. For instance, we could play a Kahoot or Quizizz about questions
from the Peter Pan book, individually or in cooperative groups in which they will
compete for reaching the first place in the ranking. Also, an interesting activity is using
the application called Padlet, where the teacher will create and share a wall with
students in which they will have to comment the teacher’s posts (writing what they like
or dislike about a specific chapter, describing their favourite character from that
chapter, etc.) using their tablets or computers).

2. READING COMPETITION: we can use techniques like the “Reading Worm”, which
is a worm for each student placed in the reading corner that will grow each time a
student reads a book in English. Once they have read a book, they will add a piece of
the worm to the head in which they will write the title of the book. At the end of the
term, they student whose worm is longer will be the winner. We can also use other
items like a “Reading Train”, by adding wagons in the same way as before.

3. READING CORNER: that is, to use one of our corners in the class to place a
collection of books adapted to students’ age. Students will borrow books as if it were
a small library. This corner can also be used with fast-finishers, where they will go
read after finishing activities.

4. AT LEVEL SCHOOL: we can organise different activities to promote reading habits

such as visiting the public library and the school’s library, organising activities with
authors and illustrators, do storytelling or celebrate a book’s day.

2.3. DIDACTIC APPLICATION TECHNIQUES TO MAKE STUDENTS AWARE OF THE

POETIC FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE

Finally, I will mention the different techniques that we can use to make students
aware of the poetic function of language in stories, that is, the messages that recall
emotions and feelings which focus more on the addressee than on the content. I will
mention three techniques:

1. USING SONGS: as songs are a way in which poetry is used.

7
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

2. PRACTISING SOME LINGUISTIC FEATURES: through games, such as rhythm by

means of listening to nursery rhymes like The Three Blind Mice during which students
will clap in the strongest syllable; and rhyme, by looking for syllables and words that
rhyme.

3. PRACTISING SOME STYLISTIC FEATURES: also playing games, such as

alliteration by saying words out loud that begin by the same sound (e.g., butter, boots,
black, basket, etc.); anaphora, by using the same sentence structure but changing
the beginning and the end (e.g., the museum is on the left, the supermarket is on the
right, the cinema is behind the museum, etc.) and parallelism, by making students
finish incomplete sentences that begin in the same way that will be put together later.

3. CONCLUSIONS

To come to an end, we can conclude that literature has a great potential for its
application into the English classroom if we know how to use it, not only for fostering
reading habits, but also for language teaching, as it provides students with plenty of
language in context that will increase their command of language, helping them develop
the communicative competence. In order to do so, we must consider different criteria
when choosing a book, such as students’ age, level and interests, as well as its relation
to the syllabus, the length or the vocabulary and structures that are used in it. Moreover,
we must develop enjoyable and motivating activities so that students remain motivated
and active and do not see books and literature in general as something boring and
tedious. I would like to finish with a quote by the American writer Raymond Chandler
who said that:

“All reading for pleasure is entertainment”

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Finally, I will refer to the bibliography used for the development of this topic:

Brown (2014). Using Children's Literature with Young Learners.

Ellis, G. and Brewster, J. (1991). The Storytelling Handbook for Primary Teachers.

Ellis, R. (1986). Understanding Second Language Acquisition.

Harmer, J. (1997). How to Teach English.

Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of Teaching English.

8
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

Hadley, A. (2001). Teaching language in context.

House, S. (2004). An Introduction to Teaching English to Children.

Wright, A. (1995). Storytelling with Children.

LOMLOE 3/2020 passed on the 29th of December, which regulates education in Spain.

Royal Decree 157/2022 passed on the 1st of March, which establishes the basic
curriculum for Primary Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022 passed on the 29th of September, which establishes the curriculum fo
Primary Education in Castile and Leon.

9
 TOPIC 17: SONGS AS POETIC VEHICLE AND LITERARY CREATION IN THE ENGLISH CLASS. TYPOLOGY OF SONGS. TECHNIQUES FOR
USING SONGS TO LEARN PHONETIC, LEXICAL AND CULTURAL ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE.
0. INTRODUCTION 4. Other types:
- Topics 15, 16, 18 &19 + Adapted songs – YouTube
- Great number of resources – Super Simple Songs
- Songs – great potential – Dream English Kids
- Legislation – use of songs and poems
– Familiarization with sounds of the language + TV/movie songs – “Sponge Bob Square Pants”
- 3 sections – “Arthur”
– “Paw Patrol”
1. SONGS AS POETIC VEHICLE AND LITERARY CREATION IN THE – “Let it go” – Frozen
ENGLISH CLASS – “You’ve got a friend in me” – T. Story
- Songs & relation to literature? – “The cycle of life” – Lion King
- Definition songs – Oxford Dictionary (2023)
- Definition Poetry – Oxford Dictionary (2023) 3. TECHNIQUES FOR USING SONGS TO LEARN PHONETIC,
- Songs, rhymes, lullabies & sayings LEXICAL & CULTURAL ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE
1.1. Reasons to use songs in the English classroom
- Reasons - Murphey (2000) 3.1. When to use songs
1. The pedagogical reasons - Murphey (2000)
2. The linguistic reasons - beginning, middle, end.
3. The cultural reasons 3.2. How to use songs
- To work on:
1.2. Criteria when choosing songs for the English classroom - Vocabulary
1. Student’s characteristics - Grammar
2. Catchy melodies - Phonetics
3. Contents of curriculum - Sociocultural aspects
4. Too difficult or too easy – Krashen (1970s)
5. Normal stress & rhythm - 3 STAGES: - Wilson (2008)
6. Follow up activities
1. Pre-listening stage:
2. TYPOLOGY OF SONGS + Flashcards – Canva / Spark Adobe
+ Guessing from title
- Not all are appropriate + Brainstorming – WordArt wordcloud
1. TPR songs – 1st & 2nd grade + Ex.: “Walking in the forest” – Super Simple Songs
2. Traditional songs – 3rd & 4th grade 2. While-listening stage:
3. Hip hop, rap, pop songs – 5th & 6th grade + Vocabulary – act out (TPR) – point / flashcards up
– Lyricstraining.com
- Classification of songs – Brewster (2002): + Grammar – fill in the blank
– multiple-choice
1. Action songs: – cut out & order
+ “If you’re happy & you know it clap your hands” – spot the mistake
+ TPR – James Asher (1977). – Lyricstraining.com
+ “One little finger” – Liveworksheets.com
+ “The Hokey Pokey” + Phonetics – rhyming words
– finding stress
2. Traditional songs: – Phonics – Teachyourmonstertoread
+ Nursery rhymes – “Mary had a little lamb” + Sociocultural aspects – YouTube
– “Incy wincy spider" – Xmas carols, St. Patrick…
– “Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star” 3. Post-listening stage:
+ change lyrics
+ Songs for special occasions – “Happy Birthday” + reading activity
– “Halloween Night”
– Christmas carols 4. CONCLUSIONS
-“Silent Night”
- “12 days of Xmas” - Songs are among…
- “Jingle Bells” - With one single song…
+ Popular songs – “Old McDonald has a farm” - Source of motivation
– “I can sing a rainbow” - In short, if used properly…
– “Yo Ho, Yo Ho”, a Pirate’s Life for me”
3. Pop songs: English teacher and philosopher Alisa Pejic (2016)
+ Born in Britain
+ Careful selection “Music and songs are essential parts of growing and learning”
+ “Yesterday” – The Beatles
+ “7 years” – Lukas Graham (past simple).
 TOPIC 17

SONGS AS POETIC VEHICLE AND LITERARY CREATION IN THE ENGLISH

CLASS. TYPOLOGY OF SONGS. TECHNIQUES FOR USING SONGS TO LEARN
PHONETIC, LEXICAL AND CULTURAL ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE

0. INTRODUCTION

1. SONGS AS POETIC VEHICLE AND LITERARY CREATION IN THE ENGLISH

CLASS.

1.1. REASONS TO USE SONGS IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM

1.2. CRITERIA WHEN CHOOSING SONGS FOR THE ENGLISH

CLASSROOM

2. TYPOLOGY OF SONGS.

3. TECHNIQUES FOR USING SONGS TO LEARN PHONETIC, LEXICAL AND

CULTURAL ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE

3.1. WHEN TO USE SONGS

3.2. HOW TO USE SONGS

4. CONCLUSIONS

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the title of this topic, the present essay focuses on the use of songs
in the English classroom. This topic is related to topics 15, 16, 18 and 19, as they all deal
with resources for the teaching of English such as literature, songs, games and
dramatization.

Let us begin by considering that there are a great number of resources that we
can use in our classroom to support the learning-teaching process among which songs
are one of them. It is important to note that songs are one of the most used resources in
the classroom as they have a great potential if we know how to use them, not only for
entertainment, but also for language teaching, as they provide students with phonetic,
lexical and cultural aspects that will increase their command of language, helping them
develop the communicative competence.

In fact, one of the stage objectives that students must have achieved by the end
of Primary Education is a basic communicative competence in the foreign language as
stated both in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree 157/2022. Moreover, the
Decree 38/2022 from Castile and Leon, in its methodological orientations, suggests the
use of songs and poems to approach the cultural diversity of English-speaking countries
and to familiarize with the sounds of the language.

Having said this, in order to develop this topic, I will divide it into three sections:
in the first section, I will deal with songs as poetic vehicle and literary creation; in the
second section, I will talk about the different types of songs and, in the third section, I will
mention different techniques for using songs in the classroom. Finally, I will present the
conclusions and the bibliography used for the development of this topic.

1. SONGS AS POETIC VEHICLE AND LITERARY CREATION IN THE ENGLISH

CLASS

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of my topic which
deals with songs as poetic vehicle and literary creation in the English classroom. But
what are songs and how are they related to literature?

Songs are defined by the Oxford Dictionary (2023) as short poems or other set
of words set to music or meant to be sung. As we can see, songs are considered poetical
creations, so what is poetry?

Poetry is also defined by the Oxford Dictionary (2023) as literary work in which
the expression of feelings and ideas is given intensity using distinctive style and rhythm.
 Moreover, poetry is also considered a genre of literature, so we could say that
songs are a kind of poetry, and therefore, of literature too.

Thus, literature is not only the written works, but also the oral tradition that
includes not only songs, but also rhymes, lullabies and sayings.

1.1. REASONS TO USE SONGS IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM

Now that we know the relation of songs to literature, the next question I would
like to answer is: why are songs so suitable for the English classroom? There are
plenty of reasons to use songs in our class, so I will mention some of them according
to Murphey (2000):

 For pedagogical reasons, songs are a way to motivate all type of students to
use the foreign language in the classroom, developing a positive attitude towards
the language.
 For linguistic reasons, they are a clear example of authentic language, because
for example, a lot of songs make use of colloquial English. Also, songs allow
students to unconsciously learn vocabulary, structures and pronunciation while
they improve their receptive skills.
 And for cultural reasons they are important, as they reflect the foreign culture.

1.2. CRITERIA WHEN CHOOSING SONGS FOR THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM

Finally, to finish with this first section, I will answer one last question, which is the
following: how do we choose a good song for our English classroom? Well, we can
consider the following criteria when choosing songs:

 We must consider student’s characteristics, that is, age, interest, likes, dislikes
and the knowledge of the language they are learning.

 We should choose songs with catchy melodies to increase student’s motivation

and participation.

 We must consider the contents of the curriculum when choosing a song in terms
of vocabulary, structures and functions.

 We should not choose a song that is too difficult or too easy, but a step beyond
their current level, as Krashen(1970s)’s “input hypothesis” states.

 We must also choose songs that have a normal stress and rhythm.

 And finally, the songs we chose must allow us to create related follow-up
activities.
2. TYPOLOGY OF SONGS

Now that I have developed the first section of my topic, that is, songs as a poetic
vehicle and literary creation in the classroom, in the second section, I will deal with the
different types of songs that we can use. As I mentioned before, we should follow some
criteria when selecting songs, but we should also consider that the same songs are not
appropriate for all grades in Primary Education. For example:

• Using Total Physical Response songs works well with 1st and 2nd grade
students.
• With 3rd and 4th grade we can use any type of traditional song.
• While with 5th 1.and 6th grade, we should opt for hip hop, rap or pop songs.

Having said this, I will now classify songs according to Brewster (2002), who
distinguished three main types: actions songs, traditional songs and pop songs.

⚫ ACTION SONGS: involve performing actions in accordance with the lyrics of the
songs, as for example in ‘If you’re happy and you know it clap your hands’. These
songs are closely related to the Total Physical Response technique (TPR),
developed by James Asher (1977), which is based on the idea of learning
language more efficiently through actions and commands. More examples could
be “One little finger” or “The Hokey Pokey”.

⚫ TRADITIONAL SONGS: convey foreign customs in an authentic way as they are

sung by native speakers, helping our pupils appreciate the English speaking-
countries’ culture, and discover useful details of lifestyle, eating habits, sports,
past times or festivals. They include:
o Nursery Rhymes: such as Mary Had a Little Lamb, Incy wincy spider or
Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star.
o Songs for special occasions: such as Happy Birthday, Halloween Night,
or Christmas carols (like Silent Night, Twelve Days of Christmas and
Jingle Bells).
o Popular songs: Old McDonald has a Farm, Oh Susanna or Yo Ho, Yo
Ho!, a Pirate’s Life for me.

⚫ POP SONGS: were born in Great Britain and include many styles and
representative singers. Nevertheless, they have spread all over the world and
these days we can use commercial pop songs from all English-speaking
countries and others that have adopted this language due to its musicality.
 However, they need a careful selection because we need to know if its suitable
in terms of level, content, appropriateness or register. Some examples are
“Yesterday” by The Beatles or “7 years” by Lukas Graham that can be used to
study the Past Simple.

⚫ OTHER TYPES: are adapted songs, which are those specially written for
teaching like for example the songs we can find on the YouTube Channels
“Super Simple Songs” or “Dream English Kids”; and also TV and movie
theme songs, that is, openings and endings from cartoon TV series for kids such
as “Sponge Bob Square Pants”, “Arthur” or the “Paw Patrol”, and original
soundtracks from movies, like for example and “Let it go” from Frozen, “You’ve
got a friend in me” from Toy Story or “The cycle of life” from the Lion King among
many others.

3. TECHNIQUES FOR USING SONGS TO LEARN PHONETIC, LEXICAL AND

CULTURAL ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE

Once we know the criteria for choosing songs for our students and the different
types of songs we can choose, the next question we may ask ourselves is the following:
when and how do we use them?

3.1. WHEN TO USE SONGS

On the one hand, as for when to use songs, according to Murphey (2000),
songs should be used in class in small doses and while working, at the beginning or at
the end of the session.

3.2. HOW TO USE SONGS

On the other hand, as for how to use songs, we should work on them in three
different stages, as they are listening exercises and to work on different aspects, namely:
vocabulary, grammar, phonetics and sociocultural aspects.

As regards the different stages, as it was explained in topics 3 and 7, we should

work the listening skill in three stages, the pre-listening, the while-listening and the post-
listening stage, which can be done both in a more traditional way or by making a
meaningful use of the ICTs.

 The PRE-LISTENING STAGE: is where we will introduce the vocabulary that

students will need to work on the song and understand it. In order to do so, we
can make use of flashcards; we can do guessing from the title activities like
 showing some keywords from the song and asking students what the they think
the song is about; we can do brainstorming, etc. For example, while working on
the song “Walking in the forest” by Super Simple Songs on YouTube, we can
introduce vocabulary such as animals by means of flashcards or we can
brainstorm to elicit vocabulary from students by means of a word cloud using
tools like ABCya.com where we will create a word cloud with different shapes
and colours. Students will create the word cloud with the different animals they
can find in a forest and a jungle, which is what the song is about.

 The WHILE-LISTENING STAGE: is where students will work on what they hear
and the song itself either in vocabulary, grammar or sociocultural aspects.

 For working on vocabulary, students can act out the lyrics as they are
singing them making use of the TPR method, pointing at objects or
pictures or putting flashcards up. Another interesting activity that
students love is using the online tool called Lyricstraining.com, where
students will listen to a song while they watch the music video on the
screen. They will have to complete the lyrics of the song by filling the
blanks.
 For working on grammar, we can make use of fill in the blank activities
or multiple-choice activities (the use of Lyricstraining.com is a good
idea). We can also cut out the lyrics of the song into different stripes and
challenge students to reorder them, which can be done in teams to foster
the collaborative work. Moreover, we can use spot the mistake activities
where students will have to pay attention the song while they read the
lyrics that is not correct, indicating where the mistakes are.
 For working on phonetics, students will practice segmental and
suprasegmental features by looking for words that rhyme and by
finding stress in the sentence by finding the words pronounced with
major intensity. Younger learners can work on phonics with platforms like
“Teachyourmonstertoread” through songs.
 And for working on sociocultural aspects and learn about history,
culture, traditions, ways of life and beliefs reflected in the song, we can
use songs for special occasions, like Christmas carols, Halloween
songs, the 4th of July song, songs about St. Patricks’ Day, etc, which can
be done by making use of the YouTube platform and worked on in the
same way as before.
  The POST-LISTENING STAGE: is when students will integrate what they have
heard with their experience integrating other skills. In order to do so, we can make
students change the lyrics of the song and write new verses, integrating the
writing skill, adding different animals to the song of “Walking in the forest” orally,
integrating the speaking skill, or treating the lyrics as reading activity in the
form of a poem and ask questions about it, integrating the reading skill.

4. CONCLUSIONS

To come to an end, we can conclude that songs are among the best ways of
teaching a foreign language, as singing can help students learn pronunciation, stress
and intonation patterns, and also vocabulary, structures and sociocultural aspects
integrating the four skills, as with just one single song we can create plenty of follow-up
activities. Moreover, they are a source of motivation and enjoyment, although they should
be used in small doses and always considering some criteria like students’ age, linguistic
level and interests. In short, if used properly by the teacher, songs are excellent means
whereby children have fun and at the same time acquire language. I would like to finish
this essay with the following quote by Alisa Pejic (2016) who said that:

“Music and songs are essential parts of growing and learning”

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Finally, I will refer to the bibliography consulted for the elaboration of this topic,
which is the following:

Brewster, J. (2002). The Primary English Teacher’s Guide..

Graham, C. (2006). Creating Chants and Songs.

Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English.

Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching.

Murphey, T. (2000). Music & song.

LOMLOE 3/2020 passed on the 29th of December.

Royal Decree 157/2022 passed on the 1st of March, which establishes the basic
curriculum for Primary Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022 passed on the 29th of September, which establishes the curriculum for
Primary Education in Castile and Leon.
 TOPIC 18: FUNCTIONS OF GAMES AND CREATIVITY IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. DEFINITION AND TYPOLOGY OF GAMES
FOR LINGUISTIC LEARNING AND IMPROVEMENT. GAMES AS ENTERTAINING AND CREATIVE TECHNIQUES TO ACCESS
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE
0. INTRODUCTION 4. According to the skill
- Topic 15, 16, 17 &19 + Speaking games – “Headbands”
- Great number of resources + Listening games – “Four corners” or “Lyricstraining.com”
- Games – great potential + Writing games – “Back writing”
- Legislation – communicative exchanges + Reading games – “Order the story”
– increase motivation 5. According to the medium
- 3 sections + Body games – “What am I?”
+ Verbal games – “Picture dictation”
1. FUNCTIONS OF GAMES AND CREATIVITY IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE + Interactive games – “Kahoot”, “Quizlet” or “Genially”
LEARNING. + Table or board games – “Trivia”
1.1. General functions of games
- Having fun 3. GAMES AS ENTERTAINING AND CREATIVE TECHNIQUES TO
- General functions: ACCESS COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN THE FOREIGN
1. Psychological functions LANGUAGE
2. Social functions
3. Cognitive functions 3.1. How to use games (criteria)
4. Linguistic functions - Communicative games
5. Pedagogical functions - Tyson (2000) – Criteria:
1. Express themselves
1.2. Functions of creativity in relation to games 2. Short instructions
- Flexible 3. Short games
1. Language in different ways 4. Time limits
2. Creativity: 5. Friendly competition
3. Understand reality 6. Involved and interested
4. Breaks the routine 7. Learn, practice & review
5. Participation & motivation
6. Originality 3.2. When to use games
7. Fluency
8. Fantasy 1. Warm-up stage
9. Exploration & curiosity 2. Presentation stage
10. Learning easier 3. Practice stage – “guess who?”
4. Production stage – “role-plays”
2. DEFINITION AND TYPOLOGY OF GAMES FOR LINGUISTIC 5. Revision & diagnosis – “Kahoot” or “Plickers”
LEARNING AND IMPROVEMENT 6. Coold down activity – “Brain box”
2.1. Definition and general typology of games
- Definition of games – Wright (2000) 3.3. Methodologies based on games
- General typology of games – Hadfield (1999)
1. Competitive games A) GAMIFICATION
2. Cooperative games - Definition of gamification – Nick Pelling (2002)
3. Communicative games - Example: “Superheroes”
2.2. Other classifications of games
1. Linguistic games B) GAME-BASED LEARNING
+ Vocabulary games – “Table tennis” - Definition of game-based learning
+ Spelling games – “Hangman” & “Scrabble”
+ Grammar games – “Finding the 7 differences” 4. CONCLUSIONS
+ Pronunciation games – “Chinese whispers”
– “englishclub.com” - Games are among
– gamestolearnenglish.com - Different aspects & imagination & socialization
2. According to the grouping - Source of motivation
+ pair games - In short, if used properly
+ group & team games
+ whole class games Mr. Rogers
3. According to the techniques
+ Guessing games – “Guess who?” “Play is often talked about as if it were a relief from serious
+ Board games – “Brain box” learning. But for children, play is serious learning”
+ Mime & role-play games.
+ Matching games
+ Puzzle solving games
+ Creativity games – “Story Cubes”
+ Searching games – “Gymkhanas”
+ Computer games
 TOPIC 18

FUNCTIONS OF GAMES AND CREATIVITY IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING.

DEFINITION AND TYPOLOGY OF GAMES FOR LINGUISTIC LEARNING AND
IMPROVEMENT. GAMES AS ENTERTAINING AND CREATIVE TECHNIQUES TO
ACCESS COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE

0. INTRODUCTION

1. FUNCTIONS OF GAMES AND CREATIVITY IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING.

1.1. GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF GAMES

1.2. FUNCTIONS OF CREATIVITY IN RELATION TO GAMES

2. DEFINITION AND TYPOLOGY OF GAMES FOR LINGUISTIC LEARNING AND

IMPROVEMENT.

2.1. DEFINITION AND GENERAL TYPOLOGY OF GAMES

2.2. OTHER CLASSIFICATION OF GAMES

3. GAMES AS ENTERTAINING AND CREATIVE TECHNIQUES TO ACCESS

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE

3.1. HOW TO USE GAMES

3.2. WHEN TO USE GAMES

3.3. METHODOLOGIES BASED ON GAMES

4. CONCLUSIONS

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the title of this topic, the present essay focuses on the use of games
in the English classroom. This topic is related to topics 15, 16, 17 and 19 as they deal
with resources for the teaching of English such as literature, songs, games and
dramatization.

Let us begin by considering that there are a great number of resources that we
can use in our classroom to support the learning-teaching process among which games
are one of them. It is important to note that games are one of the most used resources
in the classroom as they have a great potential if we know how to use them, not only for
entertainment, but also for language learning, as they provide students with phonetic,
lexical, grammatical and cultural aspects that will increase their command of language,
helping them develop the communicative competence.

In fact, one of the stage objectives that students must have achieved by the end
of Primary Education is a basic communicative competence in the foreign language as
stated both in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree 157/2022. Moreover, the
Decree 38/2022 from Castile and Leon, in its methodological orientations, suggests the
use of games to facilitate communicative exchanges and for increasing motivation in
students.

Having said this, in order to develop this topic, I will divide it into three sections:
in the first section, I will deal with the functions of games and creativity in foreign
language learning; in the second section, I will talk about the definition and typology of
games and, in the third section, I will deal with how to use games to access the
communicative competence. Finally, I will present the conclusions and the bibliography
used for the development of this topic.

1. FUNCTIONS OF GAMES AND CREATIVITY IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of my topic which
deals with the functions of games and creativity in foreign language learning.

1.1. FUNCTIONS OF GAMES

Let us begin by considering that when we think of games, having fun is the first function
we think about, but do games have other functions apart from having fun?

On the one hand, I will deal with some general functions divided into
psychological, social, cognitive, linguistic and pedagogical:
  First, games have psychological functions as they are an innate necessity in
children and foster creativity and imagination.
 Second, games have social functions, as they foster social integration in the
classroom and the learning of values, attitudes and conventions.
 Third, games also have cognitive functions, as they help reinforce review,
extend and reinforce contents.
 Fourth, games have linguistic functions, as for example, students learn
language unconsciously, practicing the four skills within a natural communicative
practice.
 And fifth, games also have pedagogical functions, as they can be used by the
teacher to assess the students and they create a relaxed atmosphere for
language practice developing a positive attitude towards the foreign language
and increasing motivation in students.

On the other hand, as the title of this section suggests, I will deal with the
functions of creativity in relation to the use of games in the classroom, as games are
always creative because they are flexible and also because we use language in different
ways. Thus, creativity:

 First, it enables students to understand reality in other ways.

 Second, it also breaks the routine, fostering students’ participation and
motivation.
 Third, it fosters originality, fluency, fantasy, exploration and curiosity.
 And fourth, it makes learning easier.

2. DEFINITION AND TYPOLOGY OF GAMES FOR LINGUISTIC LEARNING AND

IMPROVEMENT

2.1. DEFINITION AND GENERAL TYPOLOGY OF GAMES

Now that I have developed the first section of my topic, in the second section, I
will deal with the definition and typology of games for linguistic learning and
improvement. So, first, what is a game? Games are defined by Wright (2020) as a form
of competitive activity played according to rules and that one engages in for amusement
or fun individually, with a partner or in groups or teams. Once we have defined games,
let us now have a look at the typology of games for linguistic learning and improvement,
for which I will follow Hadfield (1999) although her classification is not fixed.

On the one hand, we can classify games in three main types that in turn, include
other types of games. These are:
  COMPETITIVE GAMES: in which students try to be the first in reaching a goal.

 COOPERATIVE GAMES: in which students work together towards a common

goal.
 COMMUNICATIVE GAMES: in which the focus is on achieving something
through the use of language.

2.2. OTHER CLASSIFICATION OF GAMES

As aforesaid, we can distinguish more types of games within these, like for
example:

 LINGUISTIC GAMES: in which students will work on vocabulary, spelling,

grammar or pronunciation, helping them achieve the communicative
competence.
▪ Vocabulary games: such as, “Table tennis”, where the teacher says
one topic (animals) and students, in two groups, have to say one word
at a time containing a certain letter.
▪ Spelling games: like the “Hangman” or “Scrabble” where students will
have to create words with some letters given.
▪ Grammar games: like, “finding the differences” in two similar pictures.
Students will ask each other questions about the other’s picture in order
to know the differences.

In order work on vocabulary, spelling and grammar, we can make a meaningful

use of the ICTs through online resources like gamestolearnenglish.com where we will
find interactive spelling games like the Hangman, “click and drag” vocabulary games,
grammar games, among many others.

▪ Pronunciation games: like, “Chinese whispers” in which the teacher,

dividing the class into two, will whisper a message to two students (one
from each team), that will in turn pass the same message to another
student. The team that passes the message correctly until the end will
win. In order to work on pronunciation, we can use interactive games like
the ones available at englishclub.com, where we can work on
homophones, rhyming sounds, etc.

 ACCORDING TO THE GROUPING: they can be pair, group, team or whole

class games.
  ACCORDING TO THE TECHNIQUES USED: among others, they can be:
▪ Guessing games like “Guess who” or “Headbands” where students
will ask each other questions to guess the character or picture.
▪ Board games like “Scrabble” to practice spelling or “Brain box” which
is a memory game to practice vocabulary and cross-curricular contents
like Science, Geography or History.
▪ Mime and role-play games.
▪ Matching games like matching the pieces of a story to complete it.
▪ Puzzle solving games.
▪ Creativity games like “Story Cubes” where students will have to create
a story according to the icons on the sides of the dice.
▪ Searching games: like “find someone who…” where students will
have to find someone in the classroom with a certain feature.
▪ And computer games, using the resources mentioned before.

 ACCORDING TO THE SKILL USED: they can be:

▪ Speaking games, like “Picture dictation”, where students describe a
picture that other classmates have to write. At the end, they will check
whose drawing resembles the original drawing most.
▪ Listening games, like “Four corners” or using “Lyricstraining.com” to
complete lyrics while watching a music video.
▪ Writing games, like “Back writing” using their fingers to practice spelling.
▪ And reading games, like “Order the story”.

 And ACCORDING TO THE MEDIUM: they can be:

▪ Body games: like “what am I?”, where students use miming and gestures
to describe something
▪ Verbal games: like “Guess Who” or “What’s up”, which are both guessing
games where they need to guess a character, object, animal or food.
▪ Interactive games: using the computer or tablets, like Kahoot or Quizizz
online tools for creating quizzes and Wordwall or Genial.ly, two platforms
for creating digital content and games.
▪ Table games: like Trivial or Brain Box game I mentioned before.

3. GAMES AS ENTERTAINING AND CREATIVE TECHNIQUES TO ACCESS

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE
 Once we know all the types of games we can choose from, the next question we
may ask ourselves is the following: when and how do we use them in a way to develop
the communicative competence?

3.1. HOW TO USE GAMES

Well, first of all, if we want our students to achieve a basic communicative

competence (which is developed in topic 3) we will have to use commlnicative games in
the classroom like the ones I mentioned before, that is, guessing games, picture
dictation, creativity games like story cubes, information gathering games, etc., which
work on each linguistic skill and different areas like - lexicon, grammar, phonetics or
pronunciation and sociocultural aspects.

Having said this, when selecting games from all the types we have already seen,
it is important to follow some criteria, like the following suggested by Tyson (2000):

• Choose games in which students can express themselves in the foreign

language.
• Choose games with short instructions that all students can understand and
follow.
• Choose short games that can be played several rounds and with time limits to
prevent students from getting bored.
• Choose games that foster friendly competition and that keep all students
involved and interested.
• Choose games that enable students learn, practice or review language
contents.

3.2. WHEN TO USE GAMES

Having said this, when introducing a game, the moment when we do it is also
important, as they can be used at:

• Warm-up stage, that is as a warm-up activity to prepare students for what is

coming next.
• Presentation stage, that is, the teacher introduces the new language with
games.
• Practice stage: that is, games are used to practice certain structures, like
“Guess who” or “Headbanz”.
• Production stage: that is, games are used to focus on fluency, like “role-
plays”.
 • As revision and diagnosis to know students’ weaknesses. We can use again
tools such as Kahoot, Quizizz or Plickers.
• As cool down activity: that is, to make students relax at the end of the
session.

3.3. METHODOLOGIES BASED ON GAMES

Also, before finishing this section I would like to mention two methodologies that
we can implement in our classroom with games as a basis, which are Gamification and
Game-based Learning.

A) GAMIFICATION

On the one hand, Gamification, according to Nick Pelling (2002), is the

introduction of game mechanics like awards, scores, ranking, points, badges, a narrative,
etc., in completely different contexts to enhance students’ attitudes, motivation and
interest, that can be used with individual students or in cooperative groups to foster
socialization and avoid demotivation of slow learners. For example, we can create a
classroom ranking and students’ main objective will be to reach the top. In order to do
so, they will have to win points by completing different activities, tasks or games. They
will also win badges through the completion of challenges that will differentiate them from
other students, meaning they have reached a certain level (e.g. if our narrative or
common theme is “Superheroes”, the different levels can be “human”, “hero”,
“superhero” and “legend”). Moreover, they could win reward cards that will give them
advantage over other students, like having extra marks, being able to change seats for
a session, going to the toilet whenever they want during a session, etc.

B) GAME-BASED LEARNING

On the other hand, Game-based learning, as its name suggests, it is based on

games, and we should differentiate it from gamification as this methodology implies the
learning through games and what it involves but without that mechanics used in
gamification. Thus, we could say, that in game-based learning, games are used
occasionally to learn or practice some contents.

4. CONCLUSIONS

To come to an end, we can conclude that games are among the best ways of
teaching a foreign language, as playing can not only help students learn pronunciation,
vocabulary, grammar and sociocultural aspects integrating the four skills, but also foster
creativity, imagination and socialization. Moreover, they are a source of motivation and
enjoyment, although they should be used in small doses and always considering some
criteria like students’ age, linguistic level and interests. In short, if used properly by the
teacher, games are excellent means whereby children have fun and at the same time
acquire language. I would like to finish this essay with the following quote by the educator
and TV host, Mr. Rogers:

“Play is often talked about as if it were a relief from serious learning. But for children,
play is serious learning”

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Finally, I will refer to the bibliography consulted for the elaboration of this topic,
which is the following:

Brewster, J. (2002). The Primary English Teacher’s Guide: New Edition.

Buttner, A. (2007). Activities, Games and Assessment Strategies for the Foreign
Language Classroom.

Hadley, A. (2001). Teaching language in context.

Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice English Language Teaching.

House, S. (2004). An introduction to Teaching English to Children.

Richards, J.C., Platt, J. & Platt, H. (2010). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching
and Applied Linguistics.

Wise, D. (2003). Great Big Book of Children's Games.

Wright, A., Betteridge, D., & Buckby, M. (2005). Games for language learning.

LOMLOE 3/2020 passed on the 29th of December.

Royal Decree 157/2022 passed on the 1st of March, which establishes the basic
curriculum for Primary Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022 passed on the 29th of September, which establishes the curriculum for
Primary Education in Castile and Leon.
 TOPIC 19: ENCOURAGEMENT AND EXPRESSION TECHNIQUES AS RESOURCES FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGE
LEARNING. DRAMATIZATION OF DAILY LIFE SITUATIONS AND PERFORMANCE OF TALES, CHARACTERS,
JOKES, ETC. GROUP WORK IN CREATIVE ACTIVITIES. TEACHER’S ROLE
0. INTRODUCTION 2.1. Dramatization of daily life situations
- Topic 15, 16, 17 & 18
- Plenty of resources - dramatization 1. ROLE-PLAYS – Richards (1985)
- Legislation – participate in communicative situations + Examples of role-plays
- 4 sections + Act out a script
+ “Toontastic”
1. ENCOURAGEMENT AND EXPRESSION TECHNIQUES + “Madlipz”
AS RESOURCES FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING 2. SIMULATIONS
+ Problem solving activities – examples
1.1. Encouragement techniques
2.2. Performance of tales
1. Games and interactive activities – “Charades”
2. Set realistic expectations 1. ACTING OUT STORIES – dramaresource.com
3. Positive feedback – dramanotebook.com
4. Vary the teaching methods – “Madlipz”
5. Make topics practical 2. READER’S THEATER – “Storytelling”
6. Communicative situations – “Role-play”, “Social
Interaction & “problem- 2.3. Performance of characters
solving activities”.
1.2. Expression techniques 1. GIVE VOICE TO OBJECTS
2. DUBBING – “Madlipz”
A) PHYSICAL EXPRESSION TECHNIQUES 3. CHANGE PERSONALITY

1. Use body language – “Charades”, “Sculptures”. 2.4. Performance of jokes

2. Respond physically – TPR method – James Asher
(1977) 1. Telling & repeating
– “Simon says” & variations 2. Representing in pairs
3. Action stories – “Pantomimes”.
4. Use sounds – “Sound collage”. 3. GROUP WORK IN CREATIVE ACTIVITIES
- Definition of group work
B) VERBAL TECHNIQUES
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1. Role-play activities – “Role-plays”. - Social skills & self-- Behaviour
2. Intonation activities – “Wheel decide” – Mr. Men / steem problems
Dwarfs / Colorful monster – - Interaction - Uneven
Wheeldecide.com / Flucky participation
3. Puppet shows - Roles: speaker, manager, writer, facilitator.
4. Stories (different points of view).
4. TEACHER’S ROLE
2. DRAMATIZATION OF DAILY LIFE SITUATIONS AND - Art. 91 LOMLOE 3/2020
PERFORMANCE OF TALES, CHARACTERS, JOKES, ETC. - Harmer (2007)

1. Organizer 5. Evaluator
- Definition of dramatization 2. Participant 6. Monitor
- Reasons to use dramatization: 3. Encourager 7. Assessor
1. Vocabulary, structures, fluency & pronunciation. 4. Resource
2. Social integration & socialization
3. Imagination & creativity Gail Goldwin
4. Positive atmosphere “Good teaching is 25% preparation and 75%
theatre”
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 19

ENCOURAGEMENT AND EXPRESSION TECHNIQUES AS RESOURCES FOR

FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING. DRAMATIZATION OF DAILY LIFE
SITUATIONS AND PERFORMANCE OF TALES, CHARACTERS, JOKES, ETC.
GROUP WORK IN CREATIVE ACTIVITIES. TEACHER’S ROLE.

0. INTRODUCTION

1. ENCOURAGEMENT AND EXPRESSION TECHNIQUES AS RESOURCES FOR

FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

1.1. ENCOURANGEMENT TECHNIQUES

1.2. EXPRESSION TECHNIQUES

2. DRAMATIZATION OF DAILY LIFE SITUATIONS AND PERFORMANCE OF TALES,

CHARACTERS, JOKES, ETC.

2.1. DRAMATIZATION OF DAILY LIFE SITUATIONS

2.2. PERFORMANCE OF TALES

2.3. PERFORMANCE OF CHARACTERS

2.4. PERFORMANCE OF JOKES

3. GROUP WORK IN CREATIVE ACTIVITIES

4. TEACHER’S ROLE

5. CONCLUSIONS

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the title of this topic, the present essay focuses on the use of
dramatization in the English classroom. This topic is related to topics 15, 16, 17 and 18
as they deal with resources for the teaching of English such as literature, songs, games
and dramatization.

Let us begin by considering that there are a great number of resources that we
can use in our classroom to support the learning-teaching process among which
dramatization is one of them. It is important to note that dramatization is one of the most
used resources in the classroom as it has a great potential if we know how to use it, not
only for entertainment, but also for language learning, as it provides students with
phonetic, lexical, grammatical and cultural aspects that will increase their command of
language, helping them develop the communicative competence.

In fact, one of the stage objectives that students must have achieved by the end
of Primary Education is a basic communicative competence in the foreign language as
stated both in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree 157/2022. Moreover, the
Decree 38/2022 from Castile and Leon, in its methodological orientations, suggests the
use dramatization to make students participate in different communicative situations that
favours the use of the target language.

Having said this, in order to develop this topic, I will divide it into four sections: in
the first section, I will deal with the encouragement and expression techniques; in the
second section, I will talk about dramatization of daily life situations, tales, characters
and jokes; in the third section, I will deal with group work techniques in creative activities,
and in the fourth section I will talk about the teacher’s role. Finally, I will present the
conclusions and the bibliography used for the development of this topic.

1. ENCOURAGEMENT AND EXPRESSION TECHNIQUES AS RESOURCES FOR

FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of my essay
which deals with the encouragement and expression techniques as resources for foreign
language learning.

1.1. ENCOURAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

On the one hand, I will give some examples of TECHNIQUES TO ENCOURAGE

the implication of students by means of creativity, friendly competition, games, etc.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

 The first technique I will mention is the use games and interactive activities, such
as “charades”, where one student will describe a word in front of the class using
non-verbal language.

 Second, we should set realistic expectations which will make students’ stress
decrease, gaining a sense of safety and security. They will also be more
confident, as they will know and understand what’s expected of them.

 Third, is to give positive feedback, that is, enhancing students’ motivation by

focusing on successes and not on mistakes, which may end in demotivation and
insecurity.

 Fourth, we should vary the teaching methods, that is, using a specific
methodology as a base that can be complemented with others, for example: Task
Based Learning with Communicative Approach, gamification or cooperative
learning.

 Fifth, we must make topics practical, that is, making them relevant for students,
considering their age, interests and level.

 And the final technique would be to encourage pupils to use language in

communicative situations, by creating role plays for example.

1.2. EXPRESSION TECHNIQUES

On the other hand, I will also give some examples of EXPRESSION

TECHNIQUES, which can be divided into physical expression or body language
techniques and verbal techniques.

First, starting with PHYSICAL EXPRESSION TECHNIQUES, I will give some

examples of activities where students use physical movement or mime.

 First, we can use activities where students will use their bodies to represent
words or actions. E.g.: playing “Charades”, a mime game where one student will
describe a word using non-verbal language in front of the class; or playing
“Sculptures”, where one student will move another student in order to represent
a word as if this second student was a sculpture, which can also be done in
groups. For example, a group of students must represent “car”.
 Second, we can use activities where students respond physically to instructions
making use of the Total Physical Response method, that is, students will use their
bodies to do what the teacher says (pointing, jumping, dancing, etc.). E.g.: playing
“Simon Says” where students will do what the teacher says and those students
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

who do not perform as said will be eliminated until there is just one student
playing. We can also play a variant where we will divide the class into two teams.
Two representative students will stand at the back of the class looking at the
teacher that will tell an instruction like “cry” or “jump three times”. The student
who gives the correct response gets to take a step forward towards the “finish
line”. The first team in reaching the “finish line” will win the game.
 Third, we can use action stories, that is, the teacher tells a story and children act
it out using body language and movement.
 And fourth, using sounds to represent words or actions. Students can play
“sound collage”, where a student stands in front of the class and uses sounds
to describe a word. For example, if the word is “fireman”, they can make the
sound of the water coming out of the hose, the siren sound from the fire truck,
etc.

Now, as regards VERBAL TECHNIQUES, I will give some examples of activities

where students verbally express words and structures in context:

 First, we can use any kind of role-plays-

 Second, we can use activities to practice different intonations, that is, saying a
sentence with different intonations. We can play “Wheel decide” using online
tools like “WHEELDECIDE.COM” or “FLUCKY”, where we will spin a roulette
where we have introduced some of Mr.Men characters like “Mr. Sneeze, Mr.
Happy, Mr. Noisy or Mr. Grumpy among others. If a student gets for example Mr.
Sneeze, he/she will have to say the sentence as if he or she was going to sneeze.
Another possibility is to use Snow White’s dwarfs, as they have similar names or
even the Colorful Monster.
 Third, puppet shows are another example. Here students can choose a story they
like and represent it with puppets.
 And fourth, we can tell a story from different points of view, that is, in pairs or
groups, the story is retold in the voice of characters so as to see how it might
change according to viewpoint.

2. DRAMATIZATION OF DAILY LIFE SITUATIONS AND PERFORMANCE OF TALES,

CHARACTERS, JOKES, ETC.

After developing the first section of my essay, I will now start developing the
second section which deals with examples of dramatization and performances in the
English classroom. But first, what is dramatization?
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

Dramatization involves the reconstruction of an event, a book,

novel, story, poem, etc. that has been written in a form that can be performed, that is,
suitable for theatre. And why should it be used in the English classroom? Mainly for the
following reasons:

 Because it provides practice for contextualized vocabulary, structures and it

improves pronunciation and fluency.
 Because it fosters social integration, socialization and improves the relationship
between teacher and students.
 Because it develops students’ imagination and creativity.
 And because it creates a positive atmosphere that helps remove students’
inhibitions.

2.1. DRAMATIZATION OF DAILY LIFE SITUATIONS

Once we know what dramatization is and what it is good for, let us know talk
about two types of dramatization that help students represent daily life situation, which
are role-plays and simulations.

On the one hand ROLE-PLAYS, according to Richards (1985), involve a

situation in which a setting, participants and a goal problem are described.

There are many role-plays that can be carried out in our classroom to represent
daily life situations, for example, we can make students act out as if they were shopping
at the mall or going to a foreign country and ask a local for directions.

Among the ways we can do this, we can opt for the traditional way, that is, making
students act out using a script or making use of the ICTs and use applications such as
TOONTASTIC, which allows us to choose a setting (like a school or a camp in a forest),
the characters we want to appear in our movie (we can even draw our own characters
or put a photo of our face in their bodies), and record our voice and give it to our
characters. In short, it allows students to create their own animated movie. Another
application that we can use is MADLIPZ, where students can give voice to characters
from existing videos from movies, TV series, etc.

Apart from role-plays, we can also use SIMULATONS to represent daily life
situations in the classroom, which are often problem-solving activities to which students
bring their own personality, experiences and opinions.

As examples of simulations, we can present students a specific situation, and in

pairs or small groups, they will have to give their opinion and decide what’s the best
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

solutions. For example, the teacher will act out as a is really stressed person because of
his/her job and wants to try different activities to relax. Students’ will have to talk to the
teacher and give her examples of activities he/she could try and why. Another classic
example is deciding where to go on a trip or what activities to do during a Friday evening.

2.2. PERFORMANCE OF TALES

Now that I have given some examples on how to work on daily situations with
dramatization, I will now deal with performances of tales in the classroom.

On the one hand, we can opt for ACTING OUT STORIES, that is, interpreting the
text of an existing or invented story by the students in the form of speech.

 If we opt for giving students a script to perform a story, there are many
resources online from which we can download them, such as
DRAMARESOURCE.COM or DRAMANOTEBOOK.COM. Then, the
teacher will assign a character to each student. Then, they will rehearse
to perform it in front of the class, family or school.
 If we opt for letting students make their own plays instead, we can use
again the MADLIPZ application in order to let students put their voice to
videos from tales that have been turned into movies or TV series. Also,
we can give them scripts that they can modify by changing the characters
and what they do.
 We can also use TOONTASTIC, app that allows students create a story
with certain characters and different stages or set-ups. They will be able
to move the characters around the screen and give their voice to them.

On the other hand, we can opt for READER’S THEATRE, where students will
read a graded-level text from a book or story by making use of their own expressive
resources in order to make the audience understand the text (making gestures, moving,
raising or lowering the voice, etc.). In short, students will become storytellers.

2.3. PERFORMANCE OF CHARACTERS

Now, the next example I will give is how to PERFORM CHARACTERS in the
classroom.

For example, we can give “voice” to an inanimate object, like for example, a
“pencil”. We will ask students the following question: “what would a pencil say if it could
talk? And students will have to imagine and perform this situation. Students can perform
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

it in the traditional way, or they can record it and then watch all videos an decide who did
better, having a little acting contest.

Another example is using again the MADLIPZ application and give voice to
different characters as if they were professional dubbers.

Finally, another possibility is to ask students to perform a famous character but

with a completely different personality.

2.4. PERFORMANCE OF JOKES

Finally, to finish with this section, another way of doing drama in the classroom is by
TELLING JOKES, through which students will not only use body language and facial
expression, but also, they will learn about culture.

There are different ways of doing it, such as the teacher telling a joke and the
students imitating, or representing in pairs a different joke previously provided by the
teacher, etc.

3. GROUP WORK IN CREATIVE ACTIVITIES

Now that I have given some examples on how to work with drama, I will talk now
about group work in these kinds of activities. But what is it? Well, GROUP WORK is a
teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability,
use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. It has both
advantages and disadvantages like the following:

 It develops social skills and self-steem

 It promotes student learning and academic achievement.
 However, there may be uneven participation of students.

In order to solve deal with this disadvantage, we must teach students work in
groups, and in order to do so, we can give each group of students a different role. For
example, the speaker (or the one who talks with the teacher, asks doubts and explains
the work done), the material manager (or the one who collects supplies for the team,
cares for them and organizes the clean-up), the writer (or the one who takes notes,
checks others’ work and makes sure everyone is working) and the facilitator (or the one
who organizes the teamwork, makes sure everyone understands and encourages
teamwork).
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

4. TEACHER’S ROLE

After dealing with group work, I will briefly develop the last section of my essay
which is about the TEACHER’S ROLE while the drama activity takes place. Thus, the
teacher has the following role:

▪ Organiser: the teacher sets up the task and decides the size of the group, time,
etc.
▪ Participant: enthusiasm on the part of the teacher is very important.
▪ Encourager: makes sure that everyone is involved.
▪ Resource: the teacher gives information or materials when asked.
▪ Evaluator: the teacher evaluates the work or performance of the group.
▪ Monitor: suggests solutions.
▪ Assessor: the teacher clarifies grammatical difficulties and so on.

5. CONCLUSIONS

To come to an end, we can conclude that drama is one the best ways of learning
a foreign language, as it can not only help students learn pronunciation, vocabulary,
grammar and sociocultural aspects integrating the four skills, but also foster creativity,
imagination and socialization. Moreover, they are a source of motivation and enjoyment,
although they should be used in small doses and always considering some criteria like
students’ age, linguistic level and interests. In short, if used properly by the teacher,
drama is an excellent means whereby children have fun and at the same time acquire
language. I would like to finish this topic with the following quote by Gail Goldwin:

“Good teaching is 25% preparation and 75% theatre”

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Finally, I will refer to the bibliography consulted for the elaboration of this topic,
which is the following:

Brewster, J. (2002). The Primary English Teacher’s Guide: New Edition.

Hadley, A. (2001). Teaching language in context.

Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice English Language Teaching.

House, S. (2004). An introduction to Teaching English to Children.

Woolland, B. (1993). The Teaching of Drama in the Primary School.

LOMLOE 3/2020 passed on the 29th of December.

TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

Royal Decree 157/2022 passed on the 1st of March, which establishes the basic
curriculum for Primary Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022 passed on the 29th of September, which establishes the curriculum for
Primary Education in Castile and Leon.

.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 20. THE AREA OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE CURRICULUM. CRITERIA TO BE REFLECTED IN THE EDUCATIONAL PROJECT OF THE
SCHOOL AND IN THE CURRICULAR PROJECT OF THE SCHOOL
0. INTRODUCTION + Varied groupings
- Topic 21 + Flexible timing & space distribution
- Increasing number of people + DUA (Universal Design for Learning)
- Legislation – multicultural & multilingual 8. Learning situations
- 2 sections - Definition of learning situation
1. THE AREA OF FOREIGH LANGUAGES IN THE CURRICULUM 9. Assessment
- Definition of curriculum – Iglesias (2010) – R. Decree 157/2022 Art. 14.1 – global, continuous & formative
1.1. Reasons that justify the inclusion of this area in the - CyL – criterial & guiding
curriculum - Development of key competences & progress
- Core subject 10. Assessment criteria
- Reasons - Definition of assessment criteria
1. Sociological & educational reasons 11. Achievement indicators
2. Cognitive reasons - Definition of achievement indicators
3. Linguistic reasons
4. Affective reasons 12. Attention to diversity
1.2. Curricular elements of the first foreign language (English) - Educational actions & measures
1. Objectives – LOMLOE 3/2020 Art. 17.
+ Objective d) 2. CRITERIA TO BE REFLECTED IN THE EDUCATIONAL PROJECT OF THE
+ Objective f) SCHOOL AND IN THE CURRICULAR PROJECT OF THE SCHOOL
+ Objective i) 2.1. Levels of curricular specification
- Communicative Competence – Hymes (1996). + Level 1.
– Canale & Swain (1980) - LOMLOE 3/2020
2. Contents (Basic knowledge) – D38/2022 CyL - R. Decree 157/2022
+ Block A: Communication - D.38/2022 CyL
+ Block B: Multilingualism + Level 2.
+ Block C: Interculturality - General Annual Programming (D.P + C.P + others)
3. Cross-curricular or transversal elements + Level 3.
- Transversal elements – R. Decree 157/2022 Art. 6 - Didactic Units
+ Reading comprehension + Level 4.
+ Spoken & Written expression - Individualized Working Plan
+ Audio-visual communication 2.2. Educational Project of the School
+ Digital competency - Definition of Educational Project – Art 121. LOMLOE
+ Creativity & scientific spirit - Elements:
+ Entrepreneurship + The school values
– Decree 38/2022 Art. 10 + The Annual Programming
+ ICTs & communication + The Curricular Project
+ Respect for diversity + The didactic programming
+ Proactive school coexistence + The School Policies and Internal Rules
+ Conflict prevention & peaceful resolution + The Attention to diversity Plan
+ Values: liberty, justice, equality, peace, democracy, human + The Tutoring Plan
rights… + The Coexistence Plan
4. Key competences + The Evaluation Plan
- Key competences – Art. 9. RD 157/2022 + The Autonomy Project
1. Linguistic Communication Competence + The Memoir
2. Multilingual Competence + Other plans, agreements, or measures.
3. Mathematical Competence and competence in science,
technology & engineering 2.3. Curricular Project of the School
4. Digital Competence. - Definition of Curricular Project
5. Personal, social & learning to learn Competence. + Objectives, contents, and evaluation criteria.
6. Citizen Competence. + Key competences.
7. Entrepreneurial Competence. + Methodology, groupings, time, and space organization.
8. Cultural Awareness & Expression Competence. + Didactic and material resources.
5. Exit profile + Attention to pupils with different needs.
– Art. 9.2 RD 157/2022 + Complementary and reinforcement activities.
- Operational descriptors + Tutorial Action Plan.
6. Specific competences
- Definition of specific competences 3. CONCLUSION
7. Methodological principles Chomsky
- Multiplicity principle
- Methodological orientations – Decree 38/2022 CyL “When organization and education interact with each other, they
+ Attention to students’ needs & interests, strengthen each other. They are mutually supportive”
+ Active methodologies & varied models/methods
+ Meaningful & motivating resources/materials.
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TOPIC 20

THE AREA OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE CURRICULUM. CRITERIA TO BE

REFLECTED IN THE EDUCATIONAL PROJECT OF THE SCHOOL AND IN THE
CURRICULAR PROPOSAL OF THE SCHOOL

0. INTRODUCTION

1. THE AREA OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE CURRICULUM

1.1. REASONS THAT JUSTIFY THE INCLUSION OF THIS AREA IN THE

CURRICULUM

1.2. CURRICULAR ELEMENTS OF THE FIRST FOREIGN LANGUAGE AREA

(ENGLISH)

2. CRITERIA TO BE REFLECTED IN THE EDUCATIONAL PROJECT OF THE

SCHOOL AND IN THE CURRICULAR PROJECT OF THE SCHOOL

2.1. LEVELS OF CURRICULAR SPECIFICATION

2.2. EDUCATIONAL PROJECT

2.3. CURRICULAR PROPOSAL

3. CONCLUSIONS

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the title of this topic, the present essay focuses on the area of Foreign
Languages, specifically English, in the curriculum of Primary Education as well as the
different criteria to be included in the school’s projects. This topic is specifically related
to topic 21, which deals with the elaboration of Didactic Units, but it can also be related
to most of the topics, as we must always consider the curriculum when teaching an area.

Let us begin by considering that there is an increasing number of people who

want to learn English for different reasons such as getting more job opportunities,
traveling, understanding foreign music, books or films or just for the desire of learning
something new and as part of a personal enrichment. Due to all these reasons, the
Spanish legislation emphasizes the importance including Foreign Languages in the
curriculum for everyone to be communicatively competent in that second language.

In fact, achieving the communicative competence in the foreign language is one

of the stage objectives (objective “f”) that students must have achieved by the end of
Primary Education, as stated both in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree
157/2022. Moreover, the previous law and royal decree as well as the Decree 38/2022
from Castile and Leon all highlight the importance of the First Foreign Language in a
multicultural and multilingual world where the European Union even fosters the
acquisition of a Second Foreign Language, being this second foreign language
introduced in the last two years of Primary Education.

Having said this, in order to develop this topic, I will divide it into two sections. On
the one hand, I will deal with the area of foreign languages in the curriculum in the first
section of this topic, while on the other hand, I will deal with the school projects in the
second section. Finally, I will present the conclusions and the bibliography used for the
development of this topic.

1. THE AREA OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE CURRICULUM.

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of this topic,
which deals with the area of foreign languages in the curriculum. But before doing so, it
could be appropriate to define the concept of curriculum. So, what is the curriculum in
education?

According to Iglesias (2010), the curriculum refers to the elements that

determine the teaching and learning processes of each area and stage of education
regulated by the current law. These elements would include the objectives, contents or
basic knowledge, key competences, methodology, assessment criteria and achievement
indicators, etc.).
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1.1. REASONS THAT JUSTIFY THE INCLUSION OF THIS AREA IN THE

CURRICULUM

Once we know what the curriculum is, let us now see the reasons that justify
the inclusion of the First Foreign Language area in the curriculum. We know that
the First Foreign Language is included in the curriculum as a core subject and not a
specific or selective one, so what are the reasons for this?

1. SOCIOLOGICAL AND EDUCATIONAL REASONS because it allows students

to learn about life, have more job opportunities, get information from other media
and different from the ones in their own language and establish relationships with
people from other countries, among others.
2. COGNITIVE REASONS because it helps overcome children’s egocentrism in
this stage, as they realise there are other ways of living and thinking. Also,
learning a foreign language is associated to an improvement in learning in other
areas such as mathematics, artistic expression and literacy.
3. LINGUISTIC REASONS because children’s brain plasticity allows them to learn
languages at auditory and phonological levels in a different way than adults.
4. And AFFECTIVE REASONS because children have that spontaneity that
teenagers or adults lack because of inhibiting factors such as embarrassment,
shyness and fear of sounding ridiculous.

1.2. CURRICULAR ELEMENTS OF THE FIRST FOREIGN LANGUAGE (ENGLISH)

Once we know what the curriculum is and the reasons that justify the inclusion of
the First Foreign Language area in it, it is time to see now the role of this area in the
curriculum, and this is where the curricular elements come into play. So, what are these
curricular elements? Let’s have a look at them.

1. OBJECTIVES

As regards contents, the LOMLOE 3/2020 does not include specific objectives
for the area of the First Foreign Language, although we can find some stage objectives
in its article 17 that this are contributes the most:

▪ Objective d), to know, understand and respect cultural differences and

differences among people.
▪ Objective i), to get initiated in the use of ICT developing a critical spirit.
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▪ Objective f), to acquire in, at least one foreign language, the basic
communicative competence that allows the students to produce and understand
easy messages, as well as deal with daily-life situations.

In fact, the communicative competence, which is studied in topic 3, is the main

goal of English teaching, which, according to Hymes (1966) refers to the ability that
individuals’ have to use language for effective communication in a variety of contexts.
Moreover, in order to be communicatively competent, we must develop four sub-
competences of this communicative competence, which according to Canale and Swain
(1980) are the grammatical, sociolinguistic and sociocultural, discourse and strategic
competences.

2. CONTENTS
In order to achieve the objectives, some contents or basic knowledge need to
be taught. The Decree 38/2022 from our Autonomous Community establishes three
blocks of contents for each grade:
▪ Block A: Communication, which comprises the confidence when using the
foreign language, communicative functions, basic comprehension and
expression strategies, basic lexicon or sound and stress patters among others.
▪ Block B: Multilingualism, which comprises the comparison between the target
language and the mother tongue when using lexicon, morphosyntax, sound
patterns, etc.
▪ Block C: Interculturality, which comprises contents such as the target language
as a means of communication and sociocultural and sociolinguistic contents.
3. TRANSVERSAL ELEMENTS

Transversal elements are stablished in the Royal Decree 157/2022 in its article
6 and refer contents that must be taught and included in every area. These are, among
others:

• Reading comprehension
• Spoken and written expression
• Audio-visual communication
• Digital competence
• Creativity and scientific spirit
• Entrepreneurship

Apart from these, the Decree 38/2022 from Castile and León, establishes the following:

• ICTs and communication.

• Respect for diversity.
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• Proactive school coexistence.

• Conflict prevention and peaceful resolution.
• And values such as liberty, justice, equality, peace, democracy or human rights.
4. KEY COMPETENCES

Continuing with the Key Competences, they are 8 and they are gathered in the
Royal Decree 157/2022 and the Decree 38/2022 and refer to the ability to acquire in an
integrated way the contents corresponding to every subject and educational stage. As
regards how the First Foreign Language area contributes to the development of these
competences, it is as follows:

▪ The Linguistic communication competence will be developed while studying

a foreign language because English is used all the time as a means to understand
and express yourself.
▪ The Multilingual competence will be developed as students will have to
communicate in two languages, Spanish, their mother tongue, and the target
language, that is, English.
▪ The Mathematical Competence and competences in Science, Technology
and Engineering will be developed thanks to the ability of deduction in the
creation of new structures and by reflecting on the solution of problems.
▪ The Digital Competence will be developed because most of the information on
the Internet is provided in English. Also, we must introduce the use of the ICTs in
the classroom in order to foster meaningful learning of the target language.
▪ The Personal, social, and learning to learn Competence will be mainly
developed due to the reflection on the steps that lead to the command of English.
▪ The Citizen Competence will be developed as languages are used to
communicate with other people, promoting social relationships.
▪ The Entrepreneurial Competence will be developed as students analyse
problems and make decisions about what they want to say and how to say it.
▪ Finally, the Cultural Awareness and Expression Competence will also be
developed thanks to literature, songs and traditions, where children will learn to
respect the cultural heritage.
5. EXIT PROFILE.

The exit profile, according to the Royal Decree 157/2022, identifies the key
competences that students must have developed by the end of the basic education.
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This profile is determined by a series of operational descriptors that specify and

contextualize the acquisition of each key competence and which connect the specific
competences with them.

6. SPECIFIC COMPETENCES

The aforementioned specific competences reflect, for each of the areas, the
concretion of the operational descriptors of the exit profile, which connect them
to the key competences.

7. METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

As regards the methodological principles, although the multiplicity principle

says there is not just one valid methodology or approach, as it may vary according to the
contents, students, the teacher, objectives or context, there are some guidelines that
should be followed according to the Decree 38/2022 from Castile and Leon:

▪ To consider students’ needs and interests.

▪ To use active methodologies and varied models and methods.
▪ To use meaningful and motivating resources and materials.
▪ To use varied groupings.
▪ To use flexible timing and space distributions.
▪ And to teach according to the DUA or Universal Design for Learning to allow all
students access the contents, achieve the objectives and, in general, the key
competences.
8. LEARNING SITUATIONS.

According to our Decree, this new concept of learning situations in the

curriculum refers to the set of moments, circumstances or scenarios aligned with
the key competences and specific competences that require students to solve
sequenced activities and tasks through the teaching of contents, that contribute
to the acquisition and development of the key competences.

9. ASSESSMENT

This being said, let us now talk about the assessment. In general terms, the
assessment of students will be continuous, global and formative. In addition, in
Castile and Leon, the assessment will be guiding and criterial.

Moreover, the evaluation of students’ learning will consider the degree of

development of the key competences and their progress in the set of learning processes.

As the assessment must be criterial, we need to know what the assessment

criteria are.
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10. ASSESSMENT CRITERIA.

The assessment criteria describe what students must achieve both in terms of
knowledge and competences and are taken as referents for the evaluation. These must
be related to the specific competences of the area, and in order to do a more precise
and real evaluation, they should be broken down into achievement indicators.

11. ACHIEVEMENT INDICATORS.

These achievement indicators are specifications of the assessment criteria that

allow teachers to evaluate students’ achievements and that specify what students should
know, should understand and should be able to do in English subject. Thanks to these
indicators, teachers will be able to put a mark to each evaluation criteria, and therefore,
to the area itself.

12. ATTENTION TO DIVERSITY.

Finally, the last element is attention to diversity, which refers to all the
educational actions and measures which meet the demands and differences of all the
students. As each student is individual, we may find students with special educational
support needs or students with educational compensation needs, fast-finishers, slow-
learners, repeaters, unmotivated students, foreigner students, etc.

2. CRITERIA TO BE REFLECTED IN THE EDUCATIONAL PROJECT OF THE

SCHOOL AND IN THE CURRICULAR PROJECT OF THE SCHOOL

Once we have defined the curriculum and its elements, let us now turn our
attention towards the second section of this topic, which deals with two school
documents, the Education Project and the Curricular Proposal, as the curriculum goes
beyond the curricular elements.

2.1. LEVELS OF CURRICULAR SPECIFICATION

But before talking about these two documents, it could be appropriate to talk
about the different levels of curricular specification to see their place within the
Spanish Educational Legislation.

1. LEVEL 1:
Involves the educational laws, that is the LOMLOE, 29th of December, which is
specified by the Royal Decree 157/2022, 1st of March, which establishes the basic
curriculum for Primary Education nationwide and the Decree 38/2022, 29th of
September, which establishes the basic curriculum in the Autonomous Community of
Castile and Leon.
2. LEVEL 2
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Includes the Educational Project which includes, in turn, the Curricular

Proposal or Curricular Proposals among other documents, plans, etc.
3. LEVEL 3
Involves the Didactic Units.
4. LEVEL 4
Refers the Individualized Working Plan which includes the measures,
methodology and the specific aids that will be offered to students with special educational
needs.

2.2. EDUCATIONAL PROJECT OF THE SCHOOL

Having said this, let us now see what the Educational Project of the School
consists of.

According to article 121 from the LOMLOE 3/2020, this is a document where the
general training intentions and the organisational framework are established. It is
elaborated by the Management Team, approved by the school’s principal and evaluated
by the school’s council. It should be made public for the whole education community to
know about it and up to date.

As regards the criteria reflected in the Educational Project, it should have the
following elements:

• The school values • The Tutoring Plan

• The Annual Programming • The Coexistence Plan
• The Curricular Proposal • The Evaluation Plan
• The didactic programmings • The Autonomy Project
• The School Policies and • The Memoir
Internal Rules • Other plans, agreements or
• The Attention to diversity Plan measures.

2.3. CURRICULAR PROJECT OF THE SCHOOL

Now that we know what the School Project is, and the elements it consists of, let
us now focus on one of it elements, that is, the Curricular Proposal.

The Curricular Proposal is a pedagogical planning document that establishes

the common academic elements and decisions that affect the entire stage and all areas.
It is developed by the Teaching Team the stage following the guidelines of the
Pedagogical Coordination Commission and is approved by the Teachers' Council.

As regards the criteria reflected in the Educational Project, it should have the
following elements:
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• Attention to pupils with different

• Objectives, contents and
needs.
evaluation criteria for each
cycle and area (in Primary • Complementary and

Education we have grades and reinforcement activities.

not cycles like before). • Tutorial Action Plan.

• Key competences. • Assessment criteria

• Methodology, groupings, time

and space organization.
• Didactic and material
resources.

3. CONCLUSIONS

To come to an end, and once the sections of the topic have been explained, we
can conclude that the foreign language has an important role in the educative system
because of the benefits it brings to students, communicatively, linguistically, cognitively
and culturally.

As we have seen throughout topic, the teacher needs to be aware of the

legislation that regulates education as this has been designed to provide all the students
with the best education. As one of the main characteristics of the curriculum is that it is
open and flexible, we as teachers must provide a coherent and cohesive framework to
the teaching-learning process designed to aid our students to cover all of the main
aspects laid out in the curriculum. I would like to finish with a quote by Noam Chomsky
who said:

“When organization and education interact with each other, they strengthen each other.
They are mutually supportive”

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Finally, I will mention the bibliography used for the development of this topic:

Iglesias, A. (2010). Design of Programming and Didactic Units by competences.

LOMLOE 3/2020 passed on the 29th of December.

Royal Decree 157/2022 passed on the 1st of March, which establishes the basic
curriculum for Primary Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022 passed on the 29th of September, which establishes the curriculum for
Primary Education in Castile and Leon.
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TOPIC 21. FOREIGN LANGUAGE AREA PLANNING: DIDACTIC UNITS. CRITERIA FOR SEQUENCING AND SCHEDULING
CONTENTS AND OBJECTIVES. SELECTION OF THE METHODOLOGY TO BE USED IN LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT
ACTIVITIES.
0. INTRODUCTION 2. CRITERIA FOR SEQUENCING AND SCHEDULING
CONTENTS AND OBJECTIVES
- Topic 20, 22, 23, 24
- Increasing number of people 2.1. Criteria for sequencing contents and objectives
- Legislation – multicultural & multilingual - Bruner – “Spiral curriculum”
- 3 sections - Cognitivism
- Simple / common
1. FOREIGN LANGUAGE AREA PLANNING: DIDACTIC - Learners
UNITS. - Oral skills
- Definition of planning
2.2. Criteria for scheduling contents and objectives
1.1. Levels of curricular specification - Communicative Approach
+ Level 1. 1. Warm-up routine
- LOMLOE 3/2020 2. Presentation Stage.
- RD 157/2022 3. Practice Stage
- D.38/2022 CyL 4. Production Stage
+ Level 2.
- General Annual Programming (D.P + C.P + others) 3. SELECTION OF THE METHODOLOGY TO BE USED IN
+ Level 3. LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES.
- Didactic Units
+ Level 4. 3.1. Classification of activities
- Individualized Working Plan 1. Previous knowledge
2. Presentation, Practice & Production activities
1.2. Conditions for planning 3. Motivation activities
- Conditions 4. Synthesis-summary
1. Adapted 5. Reinforcement
2. Flexible 6. Evaluation
3. Legislation 7. Review
4. Feasible 8. Extension

1.3. Planning Didactic Units in the Foreign Language 3.2. Methodology to be used in learning activities
Area 1. Variety
- Definition of Didactic Units 2. Structures/organized
- Components 3. Real contexts
1. Introduction 4. Foster interaction
2. What to teach 5. Positive atmosphere
+ Objectives 6. Communicative approach
+ Contents 7. Student-centred
+ Cross-curricular elements 8. Materials
+ Key competences (T20)
+ Exit profile and operational descriptors 3.3. Methodology to be used in assessment activities1.
+ Specific competences 1. Assessment of students’ performance
3. How to teach + Hetero-evaluation
+ Methodology (T13) + Peer-assessment
+ Learning Situations + Self-assessment
+ Materials (T23) 2. Assessment of teacher’s performance
+ Grouping (T22)
+ Attention to diversity 3. CONCLUSIONS
4. What, how and when to evaluate
+ Evaluation criteria Chomsky
+ Achievement indicators
“When organization and education interact with each
other, they strengthen each other. They are mutually
supportive”
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TOPIC 21

FOREIGN LANGUAGE AREA PLANNING: DIDACTIC UNITS. CRITERIA FOR

SEQUENCING AND SCHEDULING CONTENTS AND OBJECTIVES. SELECTION
OF THE METHODOLOGY TO BE USED IN LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT
ACTIVITIES.

0. INTRODUCTION

1. FOREIGN LANGUAGE AREA PLANNING: DIDACTIC UNITS.

1.1. LEVELS OF CURRICULAR SPECIFICATION

1.2. CONDITIONS FOR PLANNING

1.3. PLANNING DIDACTIC UNITS IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE AREA

2. CRITERIA FOR SEQUENCING AND SCHEDULING CONTENTS AND

OBJECTIVES.

2.1. CRITERIA FOR SEQUENCING CONTENTS AND OBJECTIVES.

2.2. CRITERIA FOR SQUEDULING CONTENTS AND OBJECTIVES.

3. SELECTION OF THE METHODOLOGY TO BE USED IN LEARNING AND

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES.

3.1. CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVITIES

3.2. METHODOLOGY TO BE USED IN LEARNING ACTIVITIES.

3.3. METHODOLOGY TO BE USED IN ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES.

4. CONCLULSIONS

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the title of this topic, the present essay focuses on the planning in
the Foreign Language Area, and specifically, on the planning of Didactic Units. This topic
is specifically related to topic 20, but also to other topics such as topics 22, 23 or 24 and
as they all deal with the school documents, curriculum, organization and planning in the
foreign language area.

Let us begin by considering that in order to guide the teaching and learning
process, teachers need to consider certain variables when organizing and planning their
classes and lessons. Among these variables, we find the use of different methodologies,
the use of different resources and materials, different types of grouping, flexible timing
and space distribution or the attention to students’ needs and interests among others.
Not only is important for us to consider all these variables, but also to organize the
teaching process according to the curriculum and certain elements in it that will shape
our Didactic Units, allowing our students to achieve our goals and access the
communicative competence.

In fact, achieving the communicative competence in the foreign language is one

of the stage objectives (objective “f”) that students must have achieved by the end of
Primary Education, as stated both in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree
157/2022. Moreover, the previous royal decree as well as the Decree 38/2022 from
Castile and Leon have introduced several new concepts and curricular elements that will
affect the way our students learn and that will be reflected in our Didactic Units.

Having said this, in order to develop this topic, I will divide it into three sections.
In the first section, I will deal with the planning in the foreign language area. In the second
section I will talk about the criteria for sequencing and scheduling contents and
objectives, and, in the third section, I will deal with the methodology in learning and
assessment activities. Finally, I will present the conclusions and the bibliography used
for the development of this topic.

1. FOREIGN LANGUAGE AREA PLANNING: DIDACTIC UNITS

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of this topic which
deals with planning in the foreign language, in this case, the English classroom. But
what does planning mean?

Well, according to Iglesias (2010), planning implies “deciding what we want to

teach, how and when to do it, and how to assess the whole process. In other words, it
prevents improvisation”.
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1.1. LEVELS OF CURRICULAR SPECIFICATION

But before talking about planning in the English classroom through Didactic Units,
it could be appropriate to talk about the different levels of curricular specification to
see the place of Didactic Units within the Spanish educational legislation.

1. LEVEL 1
Involves the educational laws, that is the LOMLOE 3/2020, which is specified by
the Royal Decree 157/2022 and the Decree 38/2022, 29th of September from Castile
and Leon.
2. LEVEL 2
Includes the Educational Project which includes, in turn, the Curricular Proposal
among other documents, plans, agreements and measures.
3. LEVEL 3
Involves the Didactic Units we are going to deal with in this topic.
4. LEVEL 4
Refers the Individualized Working Plan which includes the measures,
methodology and the specific aids that will be offered to students with special
educational needs.

1.2. CONDITIONS FOR PLANNING

Now that we know where Didactic Units are placed within the legislation, let us
now briefly see the conditions that must be achieved so that planning and our Didactic
Units are successful. These are basically three:

1. It must be adapted to the cultural and environmental characteristics of the school.

2. It must be flexible and in line with the current legislation.
3. And it must be feasible in terms of space, timing and materials used.

1.3. PLANNING DIDACTIC UNITS IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE AREA

So far, we have seen what planning is, where Didactic Units are placed within
legislation and the conditions for planning successfully, but we have not explained what
a Didactic Unit is. So, what are Didactic Units?

Didactic Units are teaching plans within the syllabus design that sequence and
schedule the learning and assessment activities that work on some contents in order to
develop some key competences in a specific class group. These are elaborated by the
teachers of each area as part of their Didactic Programming.

Once we know what a Didactic Unit is, what are its components or elements?

1. INTRODUCTION
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First, an introduction, which includes the title of the Didactic Unit, its justification,
characteristics of pupils and the place of the didactic unit within the whole syllabus.

2. WHAT TO TEACH

Second, we will refer to what to teach, which comprises the following didactic
elements:

• Objectives: that is the specific learning results expected to be learnt by the

end of the unit.
• Contents or basic knowledge: which are the combination of knowledge,
skills, abilities and attitudes. They are divided into 3 blocks in the curriculum:
Block A: communication; Block B: multilingualism; and Block C:
Interculturality.
• Transversal elements: which are contents to be worked on from every area.
In the law we can find written comprehension, spoken expression and writing,
audio-visual communication, ICT skills, among the teaching of other values
such as equality, peace, human rights, etc.
• Key competences: which refer the ability to apply in an integrated way the
contents corresponding to every subject and educational stage. They are:
1. Linguistic Communication Competence
2. Multilingual Competence
3. Mathematical Competence and competence in science,
technology & engineering
4. Digital Competence.
5. Personal, social & learning to learn Competence.
6. Citizen Competence.
7. Entrepreneurial Competence.
8. Cultural Awareness & Expression Competence.
• Exit profile: which identifies the key competences that students must have
developed by the end of the basic education. This profile is determined by a
series of operational descriptors that specify and contextualize the
acquisition of each key competence and which connect the specific
competences with them. For example, we may find that the Linguistic
Comunication Competence (CCL) has 5 different descriptors (CCL1, CCL2,
CCL3, etc.)
• Specific competences: reflect, for each of the areas, the concretion of the
operational descriptors of the exit profile, which connect them to the key
competences. E.g.: the area of Foreign Language has 6 specific
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competences which are common for all 6 grades and each of them is related
to specific evaluation criteria and operational descriptors.

3. HOW TO TEACH

In the third place, I will talk about how to teach, which refers to the following
elements:

• Methodology: which is a set of planned and organized strategies,

procedures and actions by the teacher with the aim of making it possible for
the students to learn the contents and achieve the objectives. For instance,
we can use active methodologies such as gamification, using dynamics such
as points, rewards, badges, characters and a plot, challenges, etc.
• Materials: which must be varied and motivating such as authentic materials,
computers, tablets, interactive board, worksheets, books…
• Grouping: might be varied, that is, students may work individually, in groups
in pairs or whole group.
• Attention to diversity: when programming we have to consider fast finishers,
slow learners, students with special support needs and in general, all
students’ needs.
• Learning situations: which refer to the set of moments, circumstances or
scenarios aligned with the key competences and specific competences that
require students to solve sequenced activities and tasks through the teaching
of contents, that contribute to the acquisition and development of the key
competences. E.g: we could make students develop in cooperative groups a
final task where they will create a Lapbook or brochure to work on cultural
aspects. They could do a presentation of a specific English-speaking country
where they talk about the food, the monuments, main cities, etc. In order to
do this, we should have sequenced activities where students had previously
learned the contents they needed to do the final task.

4. WHAT, HOW AND WHEN TO EVALUATE

In the fourth place, I will deal with what, how and when to evaluate, which refers to
the assessment, and not only of students, but also of teachers, as we evaluate both the
learning process and the teaching process. To do so we use the following elements:

• Evaluation criteria: which describe what the student must achieve, both in
terms of knowledge and competences. In the curriculum, we will find the
different evaluation criteria to assess our students, which are already related
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to certain specific competences and operational descriptors. As these are

two general, we need to break them down into achievement indicators.
• Achievement indicators: are the specifications of the assessment criteria
and specify what pupils should know, understand and know how to do. Eg.:
“The student is able to express the possession in English using the
vocabulary about toys”. Thanks to these indicators, teachers will be able to
put a mark to each evaluation criteria.

2. CRITERIA FOR SEQUENCING AND SCHEDULING CONTENTS AND

OBJECTIVES

Once I have dealt with the first section of the topic, let us now turn our attention
towards the second section, which deals with the criteria for sequencing and scheduling
contents and objectives.

2.1. CRITERIA FOR SEQUENCING CONTENTS AND OBJECTIVES

On the one hand, as regards the criteria for sequencing contents and
objectives, I will present some of them in the following paragraphs:

1. First, according to Bruner, the curriculum must be cyclical, instead of lineal, that
is what he calls “spiral curriculum”. This means that the curriculum should revisit
previous learned ideas and expand them.

2. Second, contents must be related to already-acquired structures in the mother

tongue because according to cognitivism, when learning a foreign language,
students compare it with their first one.

3. Third, they should go from simple to complex, common to uncommon, concrete

to abstract, etc.

4. The learners’ psychological development must be considered, as well as their

previous knowledge, attitude, aptitude, interests and motivations.

5. And priority will be given to oral skills, starting with receptive skills during the first
years to the integration of the four skills in the last years of Primary Education.

2.2. CRITERIA FOR SCHEDULING CONTENTS AND OBJECTIVES

On the other hand, as regards the criteria for scheduling these contents and
objectives, according to the communicative approach and Harmer (2007), we should
divide didactic units into 6 or 7 sessions in the following way::

1. All sessions should start with a 5’ warm-up routine. E.g.: we can elaborate
wordclouds using tools like WordArt to brainstorm at the beginning of the session.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

2. Session 1 corresponds to the presentation stage where we introduce the new

contents. E.g.: we can do it through reading exercises, ppt presentations, videos,
songs, and after that, play an interactive game on WordWall or Kahoot to
integrate that new language.
3. Sessions 2, 3 and 4 corresponds to the practice stage where students practice
the new language. E.g.: use communicative activities like guessing games,
interviews, social interaction activities, dialogues, etc.
4. And the last sessions correspond to the production stage, where students will
use the language in an autonomous and creative way, without the teachers’
control and using linguistic and non-linguistic resources. E.g: a final task where
students create a supermarket with different food where they will have to use
there is/there are and the vocabulary of the food to specify what they can or
cannot find at their supermarket.

3. SELECTION OF THE METHODOLOGY TO BE USED IN LEARNING AND

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES.

Once the first section and the second section have been developed, let us know
move onto the last section of this topic, which deals with the selection of the methodology
to be used in learning and assessment activities.

3.1. CLASIFFICATION OF ACTIVITIES

But before that, let us see a brief classification of activities, which can be classified
according to the purpose, the role of participants, the groupings, and so on. Thus, we
can find:

• Activities to check previous • Synthesis-summary activities.

knowledge
• Reinforcement activities.
• Presentation, practice and
• Extension activities.
production activities.
• Evaluation activities.
• Motivation activities.

• Review activities

3.2. METHODOLOGY TO BE USED IN LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Having said this, what methodology should we use in learning activities?

Well, should consider some criteria such as the following:

• Use a variety of activities according to different learning styles, interests and

needs.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

• Activities must be structured and organized in terms of timing, materials and

groupings, adapting them to our needs.
• They must foster the use of language in real contexts and foster interaction within
a positive classroom atmosphere.
• Activities should follow the communicative approach as main methodology.
• They should also be student-centred, where the role of the teacher is that of a
facilitator and guide.
• Finally, the materials used to carry them out should also be varied, from
traditional ones to the use of the ICTs.

3.3. METHODOLOGY TO BE USED IN ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

Now that we have seen the methodology to be used in learning activities, let us
now finish this last section with the methodology to be used in assessment activities.
When carrying out the assessment, we saw before that there are two main types of
evaluation, the one addressed to the students’ performance and the one addressed to
the teacher’s practice.

1. ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT’S PERFORMANCE.

On the one hand, as regards the assessment of the students’ performance, we

can use the following techniques:

• Hetero-evaluation: done by the teacher by means of:

o Direct observation

o Direct questions

o Ratings scales, rubrics and checklists to assess activities, which

can be done with applications such as IDOCEO.

• Peer-assessment done by classmates, which can be done through

target evaluations, where students will give points to their classmates by
colouring different parts of a target and summing all points at the end.

• And self-assessment: which involves the focus of individuals on their

own learning process and which can be done with rubrics with
emoticons or using the Language Portfolio.

2. ASSESSMENT OF THE TEACHER’S PERFORMANCE.

Evaluation in this sense is used to check the efficiency of the syllabus design and
to assess it activities are working and why. In order to do so, we may use:
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

• Rubrics with achievement indicators which can be done using apps like IDOCEO.
• And finally, anonymous surveys addressed to students by means of Microsoft
Forms, Google Forms, Kahoot, etc.

4. CONCLUSIONS

To come to an end, and once the sections of the topic have been explained, we
can conclude that the foreign language has an important role in the educative system
because of the benefits it brings to students.

As we have seen throughout the present topic, the teacher needs to be aware of
the legislation that regulates education as this has been designed to provide all the
students with the best education. As one of the main characteristics of the Didactic Unit
is that it is flexible, we as teachers must provide a coherent and cohesive framework to
the teaching-learning process through each Didactic Unit to aid our students to cover all
the main aspects laid out in the curriculum. I would like to finish with a quote by Noam
Chomsky who said:

“When organization and education interact with each other, they strengthen each other.
They are mutually supportive”

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brewster, J. (2002). The Primary English Teacher’s Guide.

Bruner, J. S. (1960). The process of education.

Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English.

Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching.

Iglesias, A. (2010). Design of Programming and Didactic Units by competences.

LOMLOE 3/2020 passed on the 29th of December.

Royal Decree 157/2022 passed on the 1st of March, which establishes the basic
curriculum for Primary Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022 passed on the 29th of September, which establishes the curriculum for
Primary Education in Castile and Leon.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 22. VARIABLES TO CONSIDER IN THE ORGANIZATION OF THE FL CLASSROOM: STUDENT GROUPING, SPACE
AND TIME MANAGEMENT, SELECTION OF METHODOLOGIES, THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER, ETC.
0. INTRODUCTION 2. Position of the teacher

- Topic 21, 13, 14, 25 3. Distribution of other spaces – Brewster (2002)

- Increasing number of people
- Legislation – alternative methods - Time management
– importance of organization
- 5 sections - Traditional time distribution

1. VARIABLES TO CONSIDER IN THE ORGANIZATION OF 1. Diachronic time distribution

THE FL CLASSROOM
2. Synchronic time distribution – Harmer (2007)
- Definition of classroom – Tudor (2000) + Warm-up 5’
- Variables – D.38/2022 CyL + Presentation Stage 10’
+ Practice Stage 15’
1. Active & participative role of students. + Production Stage 20’
2. Flexibility in timing and space management. + Finishing the lesson 5’
3. Active methodologies / ICTs
4. Role of the teacher. 4. SELECTION OF METHODOLOGIES
5. Meaningful learning.
6. Integration of skills. - Multiplicity principle
7. Errors.
8. Positive atmosphere. - Guidelines – Decree 38/2022 CyL
9. Varied didactic materials & resources. + Contextualized & multidisciplinary
10. Topics & activities. + Varied methods
11. Language in context. + Cooperative work
12. Diversity & inclusion. + Active methodologies
13. Evaluation + Initial problem/question & final product
14. Application of DUA. + Motivation & self-steem

2. STUDENT GROUPING - Topic 13 – Eclectic Approach

+ Communicative Approach
- Teacher-led groups + TBL
1. Whole-class + Project-Based Learning
2. Small group + CLIL
3. Individual instruction + Cooperative Learning
- Student-led groups + Gamification
1. Pair work + Flipped Classroom
2. Group work
- Guidelines 5. THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER
1. Number of students – Zariquiey (2015).
2. Division of students. - Art. 91 LOMLOE 3/2020
+ Randomly. - Harmer (2007)
+ Abilities
- Homogenous 1. Organizer
- Heterogenous – Zariquiey (2015) 2. Participant
3. Encourager
3. Learning to work in groups – Moon (2000) – 5 4. Resource
Tips: 5. Evaluator
+ Prepare them 6. Monitor
+ Make sure 7. Assessor
+ Show them
+ Be positive 6. CONCLUSIONS
+ Loosen control
Chomsky
3. SPACE AND TIME MANAGEMENT
- Space management “When organization and education interact with each
1. Distribution of students other, they strengthen each other. They are mutually
supportive”
+ Streams + Collaborative groups
+ Pairs + Learning stations
+ Horseshoe shape + Mixed & mingle
+ Circular + Rows
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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 22

VARIABLES TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT IN THE ORGANIZATION OF THE

FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOM: STUDENT GROUPING, SPACE AND TIME
MANAGEMENT, SELECTION OF METHODOLOGIES, THE ROLE OF THE
TEACHER.

0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the title of this topic, the present essay focuses on the organization
of the Foreign Language Area, and specifically, on the groupings, space and time
management, methodologies, and the role of the teacher. This topic is related to topics
21, 13, 14, and 25, as they all belong to the same block of topics that deal with,
organization, planning and selection of methodologies in the foreign language area.

Let us begin by considering that there are different variables that teachers need
to consider when organizing their classes such as time and space distribution, grouping,
different methodologies, materials and resources, etc., which are vital in order to make
the teaching and learning process develop in the best way possible and make our
students achieve the communicative competence.

In fact, achieving the communicative competence in the foreign language is one

of the stage objectives (objective “f”) that students must have achieved by the end of
Primary Education, as stated both in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree
157/2022. The previous law also states that a multicultural and multilingual society
requires alternative methods of organization and management where collaboration and
group work prevail. Moreover, the Decree 38/2022 from Castile and Leon also highlights
the importance of organization in what comprises the methodology in the English
classroom.

Having said this, in order to develop this topic, I will divide it into five sections.
First, I will deal with the variables for organization according to the legislation. Second, I
will deal with the different types of student grouping. The third section will be about the
space and time management in the classroom. In the fourth section I will talk about the
methodology in the foreign language classroom and the last section will deal briefly about
the role of the teacher. Finally, I will present the conclusions and the bibliography used
for the development of this topic.

1. VARIABLES TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT IN THE ORGANIZATION OF THE

FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOM
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of my topic where
I will talk, in general terms, about the variables that we must consider when organizing
the foreign language classroom and that will be developed in the following sections. But
before mentioning these variables and as we are dealing with the foreign language
classroom along the entire topic, it could be appropriate to know what the word
“classroom” refers to, as it seems to have different meanings. So, what is a classroom?

Whenever we think about a classroom we think about the space where we have
classes. However, both “classroom” and “classes” are usually confused because the
former refers to the physical space and the latter is more abstract, referring, according
to Tudor (2000), to a particular lesson in a curricular sequence, the implementation of a
teaching method, a routinized social event, or an encounter between human
personalities.

As we can see, it does not seem clear what classroom is. So, taking this
“definition” of classroom and considering both as the space and implementation of the
teaching method, let us now have a look at those different variables that we must
consider in the foreign language area and that will be developed along the topic. The
DECREE 38/2022 outlines the following pedagogical guidelines that have to do with
organization in the foreign language area:

- Use of cooperative work and active and - Errors are part of the learning process.
participative role of students. - Positive learning atmosphere.
- Flexibility of the didactic syllabus and in - Use of materials that arise curiosity
space distribution. - Use of topics and activities that
- Use of active methodologies and ICTs. motivate pupils.
- The role of the teacher as provider of - Use of language in context.
meaningful input. - Attention to diversity promoting
- Promotion of meaningful learning. inclusion and different types of
- Integration of skills and competences. evaluation.
- Application of DUA (Universal Design
for Learning).

2. STUDENT GROUPING

After developing this first section where I have defined the concept of classroom
and where the main variables or principles to consider in the foreign language classroom
were outlined, I will start developing the second section of this essay which deals with
the student grouping. Although the LOMLOE mentions cooperative work as one of the
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

principles, there are other types of students that we should also consider. So, what
types of groupings can we use in the foreign language classroom?

On the one hand we have TEACHER-LED GROUPS, which are the groupings
that mostly generate communication between the teacher and the students. These can
be divided into:

1. Whole class grouping, where the students work with the teacher in the same
activity. It is useful in the presentation stage, where the students learn the
language, and when giving instructions or explanations to children. However,
students do not use much language in this kind of grouping.
2. Small group, which can provide opportunities for working with students who
have common needs, such as reinforcement or enrichment.
3. And individual instruction, where the teacher allows the students to work at
their own pace, but language is not used communicatively.

On the other hand, we have STUDENT-LED GROUPS, where students control

the group dynamics and take responsibility for their own learning. These can be divided
into:

1. Pair work, where the class is fully divided in pairs in order to carry out
communicative activities such as role-plays, dialogues or guessing games where
students ask and answer each other questions. However, it has some
disadvantages such as the use by students of their L1, the incorrect use of
language or difficulty to monitor all pairs.
2. Group work, which is more dynamic than pair work, and it is more relaxing too.
They consist of groups of around four students and are a good way of working
on projects, final tasks, communicative activities or board games as it fosters
cooperation and increases language use. However, it has some disadvantages
too, as it may be noisy, a member of the group may be left-out or behaviour
problems may appear.

Now that we know the different groupings that we can use in our classes, it is
important to mention some GUIDELINES that we should follow when organizing student
groups:

1. The number of students in each group. It is clear that pair work consists of two
students, but what about group work? Authors such as Zariquiey (2015) consider
that four is ideal number.
2. Regarding the division of students into groups, it can be done in two ways:
o Randomly.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

o Or based on the abilities, which can be done, in turn, through

homogenous groups (i.e. students with similar abilities) or
heterogeneous groups (i.e. students with different abilities). This way,
following Zariquiey’s (2015) indications again, pair work can be done
between a high-performance and a medium-performance student or
between a medium-performance student and a low-performance student.
Group work, instead, can be done with two medium-performance, one
low-performance and one high-performance student if the group is made
of four students.
3. Last, but not least, there is the difficult part of learning to work in groups, which
according to Moon (2000) must be transitional in order to be successful. Thus,
we have to:
o Prepare students for the activity.
o Make sure that students know what they have to do and the objective of
the task.
o Show them how to do the activities and involve them in it.
o Be positive about their efforts.
o Loosen control of the activities gradually until they have more autonomy.

3. SPACE AND TIME MANAGEMENT

After developing the second section of this topic where I have explained the main
groupings, the second variable that will mention in this third section is how space and
time are organized. So, how is the space and time organized in the English
classroom?

On the one hand, as regards SPACE MANAGEMENT, it refers to the distribution

of students, the position of the teacher and the distribution of other spaces in the
classroom.

1. Regarding the distribution of students, there are different types that we can
use in our classroom:
o Streams, which consist of two rows of lines, one placed in front of the
other and that is good for debates.
o In pairs, where students sit down in pairs facing the teacher. It favours
eye contact with the teacher at the same time as communication with their
partner.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

o Horseshoe shape, which consist of arranging the desks in a semi-circle

shape. It is suitable for all kinds of activities, particularly communicative
activities, although it does not favor small group work.
o Circular with the teacher inside or outside, which is good for all kinds of
activities, especially communicative ones. Like the horseshoe shape, it
does not favour small group work.
o In collaborative groups, where students sit down in groups of four: two
students facing the other two. This distribution is good for developing
projects or final tasks.
o Learning stations, which consist of arranging different groups of desks
so that students can work on them moving from one to another. It is very
useful for the practice stage where students can practice the new
language. E.g.: a corner for practicing spelling, a corner to practice writing
sentences, a corner for asking each other questions, and so on.
o Mixed and mingle, which is the distribution where students can move
freely around the classroom to do the activity although committing to pay
attention to the teacher. It is suitable for information gathering activities
for example.
o And finally, rows, or the traditional distribution, where students are placed
one after the other, looking at the teacher and playing a passive role,
which is not good for fostering communication, but it is for the
development of formal tests.

2. As regards the position of the teacher, the teacher has his/her own desk at the
front of the class, as well as the blackboard, computer or digital board space.
However, the teacher can have continuous walks around the classroom to
approach the students.

3. Finally, concerning the distribution of other spaces, according to Brewster

(2002), the classroom should have particular areas or corners for different uses,
such as book corner, quite spaces, information corner, classroom display, etc.

Once we have seen the space distribution, on the other hand, as regards TIME
MANAGEMENT, we still follow the traditional distribution where the school day is
divided into six different lessons of 30 to 60 minutes. Also, every class has two types of
time distribution:
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

1. Diachronic timing distribution, i.e. the teacher establishes the duration of the
didactic unit and the number of lessons it contains.
2. Synchronic timing distribution, i.e. the teacher distributes the timing in each
lesson according to the Communicative Approach, which establishes the
following stages:
o Warm-up: usually 5 minutes. Here we can do activities such as creating
mind maps or brainstorming with word clouds using tools such as Popplet
of WordArt.
o Presentation stage: around 10 minutes. Here students will be introduced
the new language in context. We can do this through reading exercises,
songs, videos using YouTube, flashcards and worcards, or even through
visual presentations using PowerPoint or PowToon, which is a platform
for creating animated presentations. Then, after presenting the new
language, we can play a game using interactive platforms such as
WordWall where students will do matching, dragging or fill the gap
activities.
o Practice stage: around 15 minutes. Here students will practice this new
language through communicative activities. Some examples are
dialogues, guessing games, interviews, simulations, social interaction
activities or even information gathering activities where they need to move
around the classroom and ask each other questions to fill a chart.
o Production stage: around 20 minutes. Here, students will put into
practice what they have learned before through the elaboration of a final
product that will be presented to the class individually or in cooperative
groups. For example, creating a jungle mock-up with different wild
animals and describe them using the new language they have learned.
o And finishing the lesson: around 5 minutes, where we can play a
cooperative game to review the lesson. These can be done with Kahoot,
for example.

4. SELECTION OF METHODOLOGIES

Once I have explained the students grouping and the space and time distribution,
let’s now move on the fourth section of my topic, which deals with the selection of
methodologies.

Although the multiplicity principle says there is not just one valid methodology
or approach, as it may vary according to the contents, students, the teacher, objectives
or context, there are some guidelines that should be followed such as:
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

▪ To develop languages in an contextualized and multidisciplinary way.

▪ To use varied methods in each classroom.
▪ To use of cooperative work to foster communication.
▪ The use of the active methodologies to foster learning.
▪ The start with an initial problem or question and finish with a final product.
▪ And to promote motivation and self-steem in students among others.

Regarding the methodologies and approaches we can use, and which are
developed in topic 13, we should not be a slave of just one method or approach. Instead,
we should opt for an eclectic approach, that is, using techniques and activities from a
range of language teaching approaches and methodologies. Anyway, even if we opt for
an eclectic approach, which must also be based on the communicative approach, the
methods or approaches that we use must always foster communication and the
achievement of the communicative competence. Thus, among these methodologies or
approaches mentioned in topic 13 that foster communication, we can highlight:

• Task-Based Learning.
• Project-Based Learning.
• Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL).
• Cooperative Learning.
• Gamification.
• Flipped Classroom.

5. THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER.

After having a look at some guidelines that we should follow in our classroom, as
well as the methodologies that we can choose from, let’s now see the role of the teacher
in the foreign language classroom.

The role of the teacher is no longer that of an authoritarian figure who has all the
knowledge. Based on the LOMLOE 3/2020, article 91, and Harmer (2007), we have the
following teacher roles:

1. Organiser, i.e., the teacher sets up the task and decides the size of the group,
time, etc.
2. Participant, i.e., as enthusiasm on the part of the teacher is very important.
3. Encourager, i.e., the teacher must make sure that everyone is involved.
4. Resource, because the teacher gives information or materials when asked.
5. Evaluator, as the teacher evaluates the work or performance of students.
6. Monitor, as the teacher suggests solutions and controls the class.
7. And finally, assessor, because the teacher clarifies grammatical difficulties.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

6. CONCLUSION

Once all the sections of the topic have been developed, to come to an end, we
can conclude that teachers need to know the factors that influence the teaching-learning
process and as a consequence they need to know how to organise them coherently at
the same time they take into account all the elements laid out in the curriculum and
implement a methodology which is suitable for the group as in the 21st century, they
must be permanently updated about new methods and techniques to make the most out
of the teaching process. In addition, teachers must know that times have changed, and
unlike the past, they must assume different roles depending on each situation and use
different classroom dynamics, adapting our methodology, organization and activities
when necessary. I would like to finish with a quote by Noam Chomsky who said:

“When organization and education interact with each other, they strengthen each other.
They are mutually supportive”

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Hadley, A. (2001). Teaching language in context.

Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching.

Moon, J. (2000). Children learning English.

Zariquiey, F. (2015). Guide to designing and implementing a cooperative learning

network.

Cummings, C. (2000). Winning strategies for classroom management.

Tudor, I. (2000). The dynamics of the language classroom.

LOMLOE 3/2020 passed on the 29th of December.

Royal Decree 157/2022 passed on the 1st of March, which establishes the basic
curriculum for Primary Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022 passed on the 29th of September, which establishes the curriculum for
Primary Education in Castile and Leon.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 23: ELABORATION OF CURRICULAR MATERIALS FOR THE ENGLISH CLASS. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING AND
USING A TEXTBOOK. AUTHENTIC DOCUMENTS AND ADAPTED MATERIALS: LIMITATIONS OF THEIR USE. THE
COLLABORATION OF STUDENTS IN MATERIAL DESIGN.
0. INTRODUCTION 2.2. Criteria for using a textbook
1. Only material resource
- Topic 17, 18, 19 & 24. 2. Not use the textbook
- Legislation – coordinators of each didactic team 3. Complement our textbook
– materials and resources 4. Change activities
- 4 sections 5. Omit
6. Realign contents
1. ELABORATION OF CURRICULAR MATERIALS FOR THE 2.3. Advantages and disadvantages of using the
ENGLISH CLASS textbook
- Definition of curricular materials – Nunan (2000) ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1.3. Variables to consider when elaborating curricular - Structure & a syllabus - Students’ needs.
materials - On their own - Repetitive & permanent
- Variables: - Progress & security use.
1. Legislation - Independent & - Distort content
2. Students autonomous learning
3. Outer appearance - Range of attractive
4. Language materials
5. Methodology
1.2. Teacher-produced materials 3. AUTHENTIC DOCUMENTS AND ADAPTED MATERIALS:
1. Flashcards LIMITATIONS OF THEIR USE
– Spark Adobe 3.1. Authentic materials
– Canva - Nunan (1991) – Def. of authentic material
2. Word cards 1. Stories 6. Games
3. Worksheets 2. Rhymes 7. Jokes
– worksheetmaker.com 3. TV or radio 8. Songs
– Microsoft Word 4. Maps & charts 9. Newspaper/magazines
– Liveworksheets.com 5. Pictures 10. Realia
4. Posters ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
– Canva / Spark Adobe - Motivation - Age & level
5. Boardgames - Real language - Variety of language
– Microsoft Word 3.2. Adapted materials.
– Power Point - Def. of adapted materials – Harmer (2007)
– toolsforeducators.com ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
6. Picture dictionaries - Motivate - Expressions
– opdome.com - Language & topics - Labelled
7. Computer produced materials - Unreal use of language
– Genially 3.3. Simulated-authentic materials
– Quizizz or Kahoot - Def. of simulated-authentic materials
– Wordwall
– Educaplay.com 4. THE COLLABORATION OF STUDENTS IN MATERIAL
– classtools.net DESIGN
– Liveworksheets.com 4.1. Student-produced materials
1.3. Advantages and disadvantages of elaborating our 1. Decoration 6. Interactive notebooks
own curricular material. 2. Flashcards 7. Presentations with ICTs
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES 3. Lapbooks - Powtoon
- Adapt - Time & effort 4. Flipbooks - PowerPoint
- Communicative - Students’ real needs 5. Mock-ups - Venngage
- Motivating 8. Portfolios
4.2. Advantages and disadvantages of students
2. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING AND USING A TEXTBOOK elaborating materials
2.1. Criteria for selecting a textbook ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
- Harmer (2007) & Cunningsworth (1995) - Motivation - Craft lesson
1. Legislation - Responsibility & self-
2. Students steem
3. Outer appearance - Multidisciplinary
4. Price
5. Content 5. CONCLUSIONS
6. Language Writer Ken Robinson
7. Methodology “Creativity is as important now in education as literacy,
and we should treat it with the same status”
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 23: ELABORATION OF CURRICULAR MATERIALS FOR THE ENGLISH CLASS. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING AND
USING A TEXTBOOK. AUTHENTIC DOCUMENTS AND ADAPTED MATERIALS: LIMITATIONS OF THEIR USE. THE
COLLABORATION OF STUDENTS IN MATERIAL DESIGN.
0. INTRODUCTION 2.2. Criteria for using a textbook
1. Only material resource
- Topic 17, 18, 19 & 24. 2. Not use the textbook
- Legislation – coordinators of each didactic team 3. Complement our textbook
– materials and resources 4. Change activities
- 4 sections 5. Omit
6. Realign contents
1. ELABORATION OF CURRICULAR MATERIALS FOR THE 2.3. Advantages and disadvantages of using the
ENGLISH CLASS textbook
- Definition of curricular materials – Nunan (2000) ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1.3. Variables to consider when elaborating curricular - Structure & a syllabus - Students’ needs.
materials - On their own - Repetitive & permanent
- Variables: - Progress & security use.
1. Legislation - Independent & - Distort content
2. Students autonomous learning
3. Outer appearance - Range of attractive
4. Language materials
5. Methodology
1.2. Teacher-produced materials 3. AUTHENTIC DOCUMENTS AND ADAPTED MATERIALS:
1. Flashcards LIMITATIONS OF THEIR USE
– Spark Adobe 3.1. Authentic materials
– Canva - Nunan (1991) – Def. of authentic material
2. Word cards 1. Stories 6. Games
3. Worksheets 2. Rhymes 7. Jokes
– worksheetmaker.com 3. TV or radio 8. Songs
– Microsoft Word 4. Maps & charts 9. Newspaper/magazines
– Liveworksheets.com 5. Pictures 10. Realia
4. Posters ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
– Canva / Spark Adobe - Motivation - Age & level
5. Boardgames - Real language - Variety of language
– Microsoft Word 3.2. Adapted materials.
– Power Point - Def. of adapted materials – Harmer (2007)
– toolsforeducators.com ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
6. Picture dictionaries - Motivate - Expressions
– opdome.com - Language & topics - Labelled
7. Computer produced materials - Unreal use of language
– Genially 3.3. Simulated-authentic materials
– Quizizz or Kahoot - Def. of simulated-authentic materials
– Wordwall
– Educaplay.com 4. THE COLLABORATION OF STUDENTS IN MATERIAL
– classtools.net DESIGN
– Liveworksheets.com 4.1. Student-produced materials
1.3. Advantages and disadvantages of elaborating our 1. Decoration 6. Interactive notebooks
own curricular material. 2. Flashcards 7. Presentations with ICTs
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES 3. Lapbooks - Powtoon
- Adapt - Time & effort 4. Flipbooks - PowerPoint
- Communicative - Students’ real needs 5. Mock-ups - Venngage
- Motivating 8. Portfolios
4.2. Advantages and disadvantages of students
2. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING AND USING A TEXTBOOK elaborating materials
2.1. Criteria for selecting a textbook ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
- Harmer (2007) & Cunningsworth (1995) - Motivation - Craft lesson
1. Legislation - Responsibility & self-
2. Students steem
3. Outer appearance - Multidisciplinary
4. Price
5. Content 5. CONCLUSIONS
6. Language Writer Ken Robinson
7. Methodology “Creativity is as important now in education as literacy,
and we should treat it with the same status”
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TOPIC 23

ELABORATION OF CURRICULAR MATERIALS FOR THE ENGLISH CLASS.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING AND USING A TEXTBOOK. AUTHENTIC
DOCUMENTS AND ADAPTED MATERIALS: LIMITATIONS OF THEIR USE. THE
COLLABORATION OF STUDENTS IN MATERIAL DESIGN.

0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the title of this topic, the present essay focuses on the elaboration
and use of curricular material in the English class, and specifically, on the criteria for
selecting textbooks, the use of authentic and adapted materials as well as the
collaboration of students in their elaboration. This topic is related to topics 17, 18, 19, 23
and 24, as they all belong to the same block of topics that deal with resources and
materials to be used in the English classroom such as songs, literature, drama, audio-
visual materials and ICTs, etc.

Let us begin by considering that there are a great number of resources and
materials we can use in our classroom in order to teach the English language in order to
make our students achieve the communicative competence.

In fact, achieving the communicative competence in the foreign language is one

of the stage objectives (objective “f”) that students must have achieved by the end of
Primary Education, as stated both in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree
157/2022. Regarding the curricular materials, which are used to develop this
competence, the LOMLOE states that the coordinators of each didactic team will have
the autonomy to choose textbooks and other curricular materials, which cannot be
substituted by others in a minimum period of four years. In addition, the Decree 38/2022
from Castile and Leon states that the materials and resources needed in every area
might be varied, including traditional and more innovative ones. This Decree also makes
a difference between the resources provided by the publishing houses, whose decision
relies on the teachers, and the materials created by the teacher, which are of great
importance to complement the previous ones.

Having said this, in order to develop this topic, I will divide it into four sections.
First, I will deal, with the elaboration of curricular materials for the English class. Second,
I will talk about the criteria for selecting and using textbooks. The third section will deal
with authentic and adapted materials and the limitations of their use. In the fourth section
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

I will talk about students’ collaboration in the material design. Finally, I will present the
conclusions and the bibliography used for the development of this topic.

1. ELABORATION OF CURRICULAR MATERIALS FOR THE ENGLISH CLASS

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of this essay
which deals with the elaboration of curricular materials for the English class. But before
doing so, it could be appropriate to define curricular materials.

Curricular materials, according to Nunan (2000), are resources of different

types (textbooks, audio-visuals, hand-made, worksheets, technological resources, etc.)
that are elaborated and used to facilitate and guide the teaching-learning process always
considering the curriculum of Primary Education.

1.3. VARIABLES TO CONSIDER WHEN ELABORATING CURRICULAR MATERIALS

Now that we know what curricular materials refer to, let’s know see the variables
that we should consider if we want to elaborate our own materials.

1. Variables related to legislation, that is, our materials must agree with the
current legislation.
2. Variables related to students, that is, our materials must be in students’ age,
level and interests, making them feel comfortable and confident at the same time
that they are challenging for them.
3. Variables related to outer appearance, that is, they must be attractive and
colourful.
4. Variables related to the language, as our materials need to expose students to
authentic language and use as well as to provide them with the opportunities to
use the target language for communicative purposes.
5. And variables related to the methodology, as our materials must be in line with
the Communicative Approach, as well as considering the different learning styles
and needs of our students. Also, we must consider that the requirement of the
current society implies creating digital resources for motivating students.

1.2. TEACHER-PRODUCED MATERIALS

Taking these variables into account, what kind of curricular materials can we
elaborate? Well, there are plenty of materials and the list could be endless, but I will
mention some of them that can be adapted to different contents, areas and grades.

1. Flashcards, which are very useful for teaching vocabulary and consist of large
pieces of paper with a picture, whose design will depend on the students’ age.
We can create them online with Quizlet.com or using Canva.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

2. Word cards, which are the same but instead of a picture, they contain large and
clear words using the tools previously mentioned.
3. Worksheets, which are extremely useful to cater students’ needs as we can
make some for reinforcing, extending or revising contents and that can be created
using Canva, myworksheetmaker.com, or even Microsoft Word.
4. Posters, as they enhance students’ peripheral learning and are very suitable for
visual learners, which can be created with Canva again or Spark Adobe.
5. Board games which can be used to revise contents easily in a playful way which
can be done with Microsoft Word, Power Point or using templates that we can
find online and change according to our needs in toolsforeducators.com, for
example.
6. Picture dictionaries. They can make students learn or revise words they have
already seen in their textbooks or other supplementary activities. We can use
online resources such as opdome.com that shows different word categories,
including a picture and the pronunciation, or we can make student create their
own picture dictionary with the vocabulary from each unit.
7. And finally, computer-produced materials. There are lots of different sites that
allow teachers create their own online activities such as Educaplay.com,
Classtools.net, Toolsforeducators.com, or interactive tools such as Kahoot,
Wordwall, Quizizz or Genial.ly.

1.3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ELABORATING OUR OWN

CURRICULAR MATERIAL.

Having seen the variables to consider when elaborating materials and some of
the materials we can choose from, it could be appropriate to finish this first section of the
topic by briefly mentioning some advantages and disadvantages of elaborating our own
curricular materials.

On the one hand, what are the advantages of creating our own materials?

1. It allows to adapt our teaching to a specific group.

2. They make lessons more communicative.
3. And they make our lessons more motivating as they involve students’
participation.

On the other hand, what are the disadvantages?

1. We need a lot of time and effort to prepare them.

2. And they will be useless if we do not organize them according to our students’
real needs.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

2. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING AND USING A TEXTBOOK

Once the first section of the topic has been developed, let’s move on to the
second section of the topic which deals with one of the curricular materials used by
teachers, the textbook, and specifically, the criteria for selecting it.

2.1. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A TEXTBOOK

As it was done previously with the curricular materials, let’s know see the
variables or criteria to be considered with textbooks according to Harmer (2007) and
Cunnigsworth (1995):

1. Criteria related to legislation, that is, our textbooks must agree with the current
legislation.
2. Criteria related to students, that is, our textbooks must be in line with students’
age, level and needs.
3. Criteria related to outer appearance, that is, they must be attractive and
colourful as well as have the appropriate size and weight in order to be
transported easily.
4. Criteria related to the price, as textbooks must have an affordable price.
5. Criteria related to the content, as textbooks must have realistic, varied and
updated contents which are presented gradually according to students’ cognitive
stage and revised cyclically. Textbooks should also include additional materials
such as flashcards, CDs, teacher’s guide or a digital version of the own textbook
to be projected on the digital board so that it is more interactive.
6. Criteria related to the language, which must be authentic or simulated authentic
language.
7. And variables related to the methodology, that is, be in line with the
Communicative Approach and do not impose a rigid method; have motivating,
active and interactive activities at the same time that all skills are integrated and
worked on equally.

2.2. CRITERIA FOR USING A TEXTBOOK

After mentioning the criteria for selecting a textbook, we should now have a look
at the criteria for using the textbook:

1. We can decide to use it as the only material resource.

2. We may not use the book and instead use our own curricular materials.
3. We can use our book as well as other curricular material created by ourselves
or even other publications that complement our textbook.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

4. Some activities from the textbook may not be appropriate, so we can turn
activities into different ones or adapt them to our needs.
5. We can also omit something if it’s irrelevant or unsuitable.
6. And we can realign the contents of the book if we consider that the order they
are presented in is not logical.

2.3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF USING THE TEXTBOOK

Having seen these criteria to consider when selecting and using textbooks, it
could be appropriate to finish this second section of the topic by briefly mentioning some
advantages and disadvantages of using textbooks.

On the one hand, there are some advantages such as:

1. They provide a clear structure and a syllabus for a programme in accordance

with the curriculum.
2. They provide work that students can do on their own.
3. They give a sense of progress and security.
4. They allow independent and autonomous learning to some extent.
5. And they provide a wider range of attractive materials than an individual teacher
may be able to collect.

On the other hand, there are also some disadvantages such as:

1. They do not consider students’ needs.

2. Students may get bored if there is a repetitive and permanent use of it.
3. And they may distort content.

3. AUTHENTIC DOCUMENTS AND ADAPTED MATERIALS: LIMITATIONS OF

THEIR USE

After developing the second section of the topic, I will now start developing the
third section which deals with authentic documents and adapted materials.

3.1. AUTHENTIC MATERIALS

Firstly, according to Nunan (2000), authentic materials refer to “any material

which has not been specifically produced for the purpose of language teaching”. For
example:

- Stories - Games
- Rhymes - Jokes
- Stories - Songs
- TV or radio shows - Newspapers and magazines
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

- Maps, charts, pictures… - Or realia (tickets, postcards, money…)

Authentic materials also have some advantages as:

1. They a positive effect on students’ motivation.

2. And they provide exposure to real language.

However, they also have some limitations of use or disadvantages:

1. Some of them are not suitable for students in terms of age and level.
2. And the variety of language used may not be the one students are used to.

3.2. ADAPTED MATERIALS.

Secondly, according to Harmer (2007), adapted materials refer to those which

“has been especially designed for language learners”. For example, textbooks and all
the materials they include.

Adapted materials have the following advantages:

1. They motivate students by creating a sense of achievement in them.

2. And they are adapted in terms of language and topics they are learning.

As regards the disadvantages or limitations of use:

1. Students miss out some expressions.

2. Students might feel labelled as having low reading skills.
3. Some adapted materials show an unreal use of language.

3.3. SIMULATED-AUTHENTIC MATERIALS

However, if authentic materials are too difficult and adapted materials are more
artificial, what do we do? The answer is using simulated-authentic materials (also
called graded materials), which are authentic materials slightly adapted to a lower level.
For example: grader readers.

4.THE COLLABORATION OF STUDENTS IN MATERIAL DESIGN

After developing the third section, I will finish by talking about the collaboration of
students in material design, as the teacher is not the one who does all the work.

4.1. STUDENT-PRODUCED MATERIALS

But what kind of materials can students produce? Well, there are plenty of them,
but here are some that I use the most:

1. Decoration of the classroom with students’ work.

TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

2.Flashcards, by drawing a picture themselves or by cutting out previously

existing pictures.
3. Lapbooks, which are triptychs where students present a topic in a creative
and visual way.
4. Flipbooks to review grammar and vocabulary, which can have different
shapes and that open and close revealing the content.
5. Interactive notebooks, where students organize their notes with drawings,
foldables, vocabulary flaps, etc.
6. Presentations using the ICTs with tools such as PowToon, Power Point, or
Venngage for creating infographics.
8. Digital portfolios with tools such as mybulbapp.com where they can create
digital portfolios writing text, adding photos from a library or the web, uploading
videos or even add voice recordings.
9. Mock-ups such as making a city in order to practice the vocabulary about
buildings, city places and also directions, or a mock-up of a jungle with animals
in order to practice the vocabulary about wild animals.

4.2. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STUDENTS ELABORATING

MATERIALS.

As regards the advantages of students creating materials:

1. They increase motivation and respect towards the target language.

2. It develops students’ responsibility and self-steem.
3. And they learn the language in a multidisciplinary way.

However, there is one main disadvantage:

1. If we do not plan the time we are going to need, the activity could be a waste of
time and the English class just a craft lesson.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Once all the sections of the topic have been developed, to come to an end, we
can conclude that teachers need to be aware of the great variety of materials and
resources they can use in their classes to improve the teaching-learning process and as
a consequence they need to consider the elements of the curriculum while creating them
and also the limitations of their use, as organization is crucial in order to maximize the
chance of using the target language, not only when using our own material, but also
while making students’ elaborate their own materials. I would like to finish with a quote
by the writer Ken Robinson who said:
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

“Creativity is as important now in education as literacy, and we should treat it with the
same status”

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brewster, J. (2002). The Primary English Teacher’s Guide: New Edition.

Hadley, A. (2001). Teaching language in context.

Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching.

Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English.

Harwood, N. (2010). English language teaching materials: theory and practice.

Tomlinson, B. (2013). Developing materials for language teaching.

LOMLOE 3/2020 passed on the 29th of December.

Royal Decree 157/2022 passed on the 1st of March, which establishes the basic
curriculum for Primary Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022 passed on the 29th of September, which establishes the curriculum for
Primary Education in Castile and Leon.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 24. TECHNOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL ASPECTS OF USING AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS (NEWSPAPERS, TV, TAPE
RECORDER, VIDEO, ETC.). THE COMPUTER AS AN AUXILIARY RESOURCE FOR LEARNING AND IMPROVING FOREIGN
LANGUAGES.
0. INTRODUCTION 2. THE COMPUTER AS AN AUXILIARY RESOURCE FOR
LEARNING AND IMPROVING FOREIGN LANGUAGES
- Topic 17, 18, 19 & 23 - The computer
- Increasing number of people
- Legislation – materials and resources 2.1. Call and m-learning
– objective I / cross-curricular A) Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
- 2 sections B) Mobile Learning (M-Learning) – Duolingo
– LingoDeer
1. TECHNOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL ASPECTS OF USING – Learn English Grammar
AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM
2.2. Specific computer programs for language learning
1.1. What are audio-visual materials? 1. Listening skill – YouTube
- Definition audio-visual materials – Merriam-Webster – Lyricstraining.com
dictionary (2021) 2. Speaking skill – Wespeke
- Why use them? (reasons) 3. Reading skill – Storyline.net
1. Visually (80%) & verbally (20%). – N. Geographic Kids online
2. Gardner – multiple intelligences 4. Writing skill – Madmagz
3. Real English – Pixton
– Padlet
1.2. Technological and pedagogical aspects to take into 5. Review vocabulary – WordArt
account – Popplet
- Aspects – Brinton (2001) 6. Final tasks & projects – Power Point
A) Technological aspects – PowToon
1. Installation – Prezi
2. Use them correctly – My.bulbapp.com
3. Take care of them 7. Self-access activities – Learn English Kids
B) Pedagogical aspects 8. Quizzes – Kahoot / Quizizz / Quizlet / WordWall
1. Consider students’
2. Varied & attractive 2.3. When and how to introduce the ICTs
3. Meaningful leaning 1. Presentation stage - YouTube
4. Suitable 2. Practice stage – Liveworksheets.com / WordWall
1.3. Audio-visual materials in the English classroom 3. Production stage – My.bulbapp.com
- Types - Brinton (2001), Smith (2005) & Harmer (2007) 4. Cool down activity - Kahoot
A) Visual materials
1. Blackboards & magnetic boards 2.4. Advantages and disadvantages of ICTs
2. Flashcards – Canva / PowerPoint / Spark Adobe ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
3. Posters & wall charts - Motivate - Need training
4. Newspapers, magazines & comics – Graded comics - Autonomous - Take effort and time
– N. Geographic Kids - Language in context - Tiring
– High Five - Automatically corrected
5. Realia – Kim’s game
6. Presentations – P. Point / Prezi / PowToon / Genially 3. CONCLUSIONS
B) Auditory materials - be aware of materials & resources
1. Radio – Fun Kids / Vaughan Radio - ICTs dominate
2. CDs – tape recorder - consider curriculum
3. Recording devices – tablets / computers / phone - medium to foster
4. Podcasts - Anchor Bill Gates
C) Audio-visual materials
1. TV (DVD player) or computer – Magic English “Technology is just a tool. In terms of getting the kids
– Films / series working together and motivating them, the teacher is the
– YouTube most important”
+ Dream English Kids
+ LingoKids
+ Super Simple Songs
2. Videocamera – dialogues, projects, F. Tasks, Tutorials
3. SmartBoards & projectors – presentations
– movies & videos
– interactive games
– digital textbook
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 24

TECHNOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL ASPECTS OF USING AUDIO-VISUAL

MATERIALS (NEWSPAPERS, TV, TAPE RECORDER, VIDEO, ETC.). THE
COMPUTER AS AN AUXILIARY RESOURCE FOR LEARNING AND IMPROVING
FOREIGN LANGUAGES.

0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the title of this topic, the current essay focuses on use of audio-visual
materials and the computer in the English class. This topic is related to topics, 17, 18,
19, and as they all belong to the same block of topics that deal with materials and
resources in the foreign language area such as songs, literature, drama, audiovisual
materials and curricular materials in general.

Let us begin by considering that there are a great number of resources that we
can use in our classroom to support the learning-teaching process among which
audiovisual materials are some of them. It is important to note that audiovisual
materials are one of the most used resources in the classroom as they have a great
potential if we know how to use them, not only for entertainment, but also for language
learning, as they provide students with phonetic, lexical, grammatical and cultural
aspects that will increase their command of language, helping them develop the
communicative competence

In fact, achieving the communicative competence in the foreign language is one

of the stage objectives (objective “f”) that students must have achieved by the end of
Primary Education, as stated both in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree
157/2022. Regarding materials and resources, the Decree 38/2022 from Castile and
León states that the materials and resources needed in every area might be varied,
including traditional and more innovative ones, and this is where the ICTs come into play.
Actually, another stage objective (objective “i”) is to get initiated in the use of the ICTs
developing a critical spirit. Moreover, developing ICTs skills is one of the cross-curricular
elements included in the Royal Decree 157/2022 along with audio-visual communication.

Having said this, in order to develop this topic, I will divide it into 2 sections. First,
I will deal, with the technological and pedagogical aspects of using audio-visual materials
in the English classroom. In the second section, I will talk about computer as an auxiliary
resource for learning and improving foreign languages. Finally, I will present the
conclusions and the bibliography used for the development of this topic.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

1. TECHNOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL ASPECTS OF USING AUDIO-VISUAL

MATERIALS IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM

After introducing the topic, I will start developing the first section of this topic,
which deals with the technological and pedagogical aspects of using audio-visual
materials in the English classroom.

1.1. WHAT ARE AUDIOVISUAL MATERIALS?

As this first section deals with audio-visual materials, the first question we may
ask ourselves is, what are audio-visual materials?

Well, according to the Merriam-Webster dictionary (2021), audio-visual

materials are defined as “educational or training materials aimed at both the sense of
sight and the sense of hearing”. Thus, audio-visual refers to both pictures and images or
videos and sound.

Knowing what audio-visual materials are, why would we use them in our
classroom?

1. Because 80% of the information learned during a class is learnt visually, and the
other 20% is learnt verbally.
2. Because we learn better when the learning process implies Gardner’s multiple
intelligences. Auditory and visual learners are included here.
3. Because the use of audio-visual materials and resources will help students
familiarize with real English pronunciation, stress, intonation and sociocultural
aspects.

1.2. THECNOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL ASPECTS TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT

Having said this and before explaining each type of audio-visual material, I would
like to highlight the technological and pedagogical aspects we should consider when
using audio-visual materials.

On the one hand, we should consider some TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS such

as:

1. An adequate installation (e.g. computers, digital boards, internet connection…).

2. Teachers must know how to use them correctly.
3. Both teachers and students must take care of them.

On the other hand, we should consider some PEDAGOGICAL ASPECTS such

as:

1. Consider students’ level, previous knowledge, interests, etc.

TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

2. They must be varied, attractive and foster meaningful learning.

3. Their use must be suitable with our objectives, contents, methodology, etc.

1.3. AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM

Considering these aspects, the next question to answer is: what types of audio-
visual materials are there? Let’s have a look at them.

On the one hand, I will start talking about VISUAL MATERIALS. Here is a list of
the main visual materials we can use in the classroom:

1. Blackboards and magnetic boards: which is the oldest resource and the most
used as well. It can be used to present the new language, to do exercises, to play
games such as the hangman or a variant of scrabble, drawing with picture
dictations, among others. However, if used all time, it may be boring.
2. Flashcards: which are only used to work on vocabulary, and which are
accompanied with a picture and the written form, to practice the pronunciation
and spelling of these words, to play memory games, etc. It is very easy to create
our own flashcards with PowerPoint, Word or tools like Canva.
3. Posters and wall charts: which are similar to flashcards but even bigger and
more visual. They can be used as part of the classroom display and students can
elaborate their own as part of Final Tasks that they will present to the rest of the
classroom integrating the 4 language skills. We can use Canva again, which will
allow us to create posters and infographics easily.
4. Newspapers, magazines and comics: which are printed resources that give
students the chance to see language used in real contexts. However, as they
may be difficult for students, we can use special magazines for kids such as
National Geographic Kids, High Five or graded comics. They can be used for
reading activities and writing activities such as changing titles, writing alternative
endings, creating alternative news for the same newspapers, etc.
5. Realia: which are real objects brought to the classroom (school objects, coins,
tickets, clothes, food, Halloween or Christmas ornaments, etc.). They can be
used for presenting vocabulary in an attractive way, to practice descriptions,
to use them in role-plays or as part of the Kim’s game to work on memory and
remember details of each object.
6. Presentations: which are mainly used to introduce new language or stories. We
can use Power Point, or online presentation tools such as Prezi, PowToon or
the platform for creating content, Genially.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

On the other hand, let’s see the AUDITORY MATERIALS, among which we can
use the following:

1. Radio: we can use Fun Kids, which is a UK’s children’s radio station that we can
listen to online, or Vaughan radio for kids. Both will allow students to listen to
native accents, but it may be too difficult sometimes.
2. CDs: although the tape recorder is mentioned in the title of the topic, we do not
use it anymore. Instead, we use CDs for listening exercises or for listening to
songs. However, they are less and less used, as we can use other resources to
listen to music and textbooks now come with a digital version that we can use on
our computers without using CDs.
3. Recording devices: such as tablets or computers using a microphone. The
teacher’s phone can also be used sometimes for some activities. Recording will
help students listen to their pronunciation and correct it. Also, we can use them
to record interviews with dialogues between students as if they were journalists.
4. Podcasts: which are digital audio, video files or recordings, usually part of a
themed series that can be downloaded from a website to a media player or
computer. They can also be recorded by our students using apps such as
Anchor where students can create their own channel to work on different topics.

Finally, let’s finish this first section with the different types of AUDIO-VISUAL
MATERIALS that we can use, that is, a mixture of both visual and auditory materials:

1. TVs with DVD player or computers: which can be used to watch films, series
or YouTube videos, as there are many didactic collection of DVDs that we can
use to teach contents to our students such as Magic English, as well as
YouTube channels that are entirely dedicated to English Learning, such as
Dream English Kids, LingoKids, Super Simple Songs, etc.
2. Videocamera: which can be used by students to produce their own material by
recording it in video. They could record a tutorial, dialogues, group
discussions, projects, final tasks, etc.
3. SmartBoards and projectors: can be used to promote learning in an interactive
way, such as presenting the new language through presentations, to project
videos and films, show worksheets, project the digital version of the textbook,
to play interactive games online using WordWall or Kahoot, etc.

2. THE COMPUTER AS AN AUXILIARY RESOURCE FOR LEARNING AND

IMPROVING FOREIGN LANGUAGES
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

Once we have seen the different audio-visual materials, let’s now turn our
attention towards the second section of the topic, which deals with the computer as an
auxiliary resource. We have seen before that it can be used for watching films, series
and YouTube videos, but it has many other possibilities to foster learning.

2.1. CALL AND M-LEARNING

Let’s begin by talking first about Computer Assisted Language Learning (or
CALL) and Mobile Learning (or M-Learning).

On the one hand, Computer Assisted Language Learning is an approach

where computers and resources such as Internet are used for the presentation,
reinforcement and assessment of contents which usually includes interactive content.

On the other hand, Mobile Learning is the next step in the evolution of
educational technology and refers to online education through mobile devices such as
smartphones, tablets, laptops, etc. Some examples are apps like Duolingo or
LingoDeer to learn basic vocabulary and structures in a language by means of
interactivity; or Learn English Grammar by the British Council.

2.2. SPECIFIC COMPUTER PROGRAMS FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING

The next thing I would like to talk about in this section is about specific computer
programs for language learning. We know that nowadays most children use or have used
a computer, tablet or smartphone and know how to use it. However, most of them use it
for leisure and not for leaning, and our mission is to use them to foster learning. So how
do we do it?

1. To practice the listening skill using YouTube or platforms such as

lyricstraining.com, where students will complete song lyrics while watching the
music videos and get points.
2. To practice the speaking skill using platforms such as Wespeke to converse
with students from other schools. Teachers can organize online meetings
between students from different Autonomous Communities or even native
speakers.
3. To foster reading habits using storyonline.net where students can listen to
stories read by famous native speakers; or National Geographic Kids, where
students will read about science and history, which is perfect for CLIL classes.
4. To practice writing, using platforms such as Madmagz to create our own digital
magazine and print it; or tools like Pixton to create comics.
5. To review vocabulary by creating wordclouds or concept maps using tools such
as WordArt or Popplet.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

6. To make final tasks or projects and present them, using PowerPoint, Genially,
PowToon or Prezi.
7. To do self-access activities such as crosswords, wordsearch, fill in the blank,
etc. on webpages such as Learn English Kids by the British Council.
8. To do quizzes where students can answer multiple-choice questions in a playful
way such as Kahoot, Quizizz, Plickers, Quizlet, Hot Potatoes, WordWall,
Genially, etc. In general, platforms or tools to create interactive content.

2.3. WHEN AND HOW TO INTRODUCE THE ICTS

After seen all these resources, we may ask ourselves the following question:
when can we use them?

1. In the presentation stage, such as songs or stories to introduce the new

language in context. We can do it using YouTube.
2. In the practice stage we can use interactive activities and games to practice this
new language in a more autonomous way. We can do this using WordWall,
Liveworksheets.com
3. In the production stage students will use different resources to put into practice
what they have learned in a creative way. We can do this using PowToon, for
example.
4. As cool down activities to review each lesson in a playful way using Kahoot,
or WordWall.

2.4. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ICTS

Finally, to finish with this last section, I will mention some advantages and
disadvantages of using these ICTs and resources.

Regarding the advantages, we can highlight the following ones:

1. They motivate students.

2. Students are more autonomous and control their own learning.
3. Language is authentic and taught in context.
4. Students can be automatically corrected by a machine and see the mistake.

As for the disadvantages, we can highlight the following ones:

1. Teachers may need training with some resources and applications.

2. Creating digital resources take a lot of time.
3. Working with technologies for a long time can be tiring.

3. CONCLUSIONS
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Once all the sections of the topic have been developed, to come to an end, we
can conclude that teachers need to be aware of the great variety of materials and
resources they can be used in their classes to improve the teaching-learning process,
especially nowadays, when the ICTs dominate the world end education too. As a
consequence, teachers need to consider the elements of the curriculum while using and
creating them, as well as considering these as just a tool or medium to foster learning
and not a target themselves. I would like to finish with a quote by Bill Gates who said:

“Technology is just a tool. In terms of getting the kids working together and motivating
them, the teacher is the most important”

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brinton, D. (2001). The Use of Media in Language Teaching.

Hadley, A. (2001). Teaching language in context.

Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching.

Smith David (2005). Teaching English with Information Technology.

LOMLOE 3/2020 passed on the 29th of December.

Royal Decree 157/2022 passed on the 1st of March, which establishes the basic
curriculum for Primary Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022 passed on the 29th of September, which establishes the curriculum for
Primary Education in Castile and Leon.
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 25. FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS BASED ON THE STUDENT-CENTRED APPROACH:
FOUNDATIONS AND APPLICATIONS. IDENTIFICATION OF MOTIVATIONS AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE. DIDACTIC APPLICATION
0. INTRODUCTION 2.1. Affective variables: motivation and attitudes
A) MOTIVATION
- Topics 6-13-14 Definition of motivation – Huitt (2011) – Gardner (1985)
- Increasing number of people - Harmer (2007) & Arnold (2000) – Types of motivation:
- Legislation – role of the teacher 1. Extrinsic motivation
– students active role 2. Intrinsic motivation
- 3 sections - The most common situation
1. FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS
BASED ON THE STUDENT-CENTRED APPROACH: B) ATTITUDES
FOUNDATIONS AND APPLICATIONS - Definition of attitudes – Gardner (1985)
- Attitudes towards: – Del Río (2014, 2019)
- Definition student-centred approach – Campbell (1992) 1. Foreign languages.
2. Second language.
1.1. Principles of the student-centred approach 3. Teacher, group & grade.
4. Target language community
- 5 principles 5. Target language culture
6. Learning environment
1. The autonomous principle 7. Oneself
2. The negotiation principle – Rogers (1983) 2.2. Individual variables
3. The motivation principle 1. Age
4. The effectiveness principle 2. Aptitude
5. The diversity principle 3. Personality

1.2. Techniques to implement the student-centred approach 3. DIDACTIC APPLICATION

1. (+) & supportive atmosphere - Van Roy & Zaman (2018) – curvilinear
2. Meaningful learning - Strategies:
3. Aware of what & why 1. Learning English is important
4. Pair & group work + favourite singers / actors
5. Learning styles + favourite films / songs
- concrete + borrowed words / customs
- analytical 2. Teacher, group & grade.
- communicative 3. Target language community.
- authoritarian + Personalities
6. Learning to learn strategies + E-pals
7. Materials + E-twinning project
8. Self-assessment & co-evaluation 4. Target language culture
+ CLIL sessions
1.3. Advantages and disadvantages of the student-centred + Visits
approach + A cultural week
5. Learning environment
A) ADVANTAGES + English corner
1. Interest, motivation & self-steem. + Decoration
2. Learning styles & learn how to learn. + Materials & resources
3. Meaningful learning. + Methodology
4. Improvement, not competition. 6. Themselves

B) DISADVANTAGES - The reason

1. External restrains - Anonymous surveys / questionnaires – Google Forms
2. A lot of work / a longer time
4. Too much independence 4. CONCLUSIONS

2. IDENTIFICATION OF MOTIVATIONS AND ATTITUDES - Although teachers - the learners

TOWARDS THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE - crucial to improve
- positive attitude
- Minera Reyna (2010) – pedagogical variables - The more the better
- Gardner (1985) – individual variables Lou Holtz
– affective variables
“Ability is what you’re capable of doing. Motivation
determines what you do. Attitude determines how will you
do it”
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TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

TOPIC 25

FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS BASED ON

THE STUDENT-CENTRED APPROACH: FOUNDATIONS AND
APPLICATIONS. IDENTIFICATION OF MOTIVATIONS AND ATTITUDES
TOWARDS THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. DIDACTIC APPLICATION

0. INTRODUCTION

1. FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS BASED ON

THE STUDENT-CENTRED APPROACH: FOUNDATIONS AND
APPLICATIONS.

1.1. PRINCIPLES OF THE STUDENT-CENTRED APPROACH

1.2. TECHNIQUES TO IMPLEMENT THE STUDENT-CENTRED

APPROACH

1.3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE STUDENT-

CENTRED APPROACH

2. IDENTIFICATION OF MOTIVATIONS AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

2.1. AFFECTIVE VARIABLES: MOTIVATION AND ATTITUDES

2.2. INDIVIDUAL VARIABLES

3. DIDACTIC APPLICATION

4. CONCLUSIONS

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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0. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the title of this topic, the current essay focuses on the student-
centered approach and the motivations and attitudes towards the English language. This
topic is related to topics 6, 13 and 14, as they all belong to the same block of topics that
deal methods, approaches, models and techniques for teaching English.

Let us begin by considering that when starting to teach a second language,

teachers must try to find the best way to make their students learn the language. During
this process, teachers must select the method, approach or technique that best fits the
learning process in each moment. However, teaching a second language does not mean
teachers must stick to a certain method, approach or technique during the whole
teaching process. Instead, we tend to select several of these to create an eclectic
approach to cover all the aspects of the teaching-learning process.

In fact, achieving a basic communicative competence in the foreign language is

one of the stage objectives (objective “f”) that students must have achieved by the end
of Primary Education, as stated both in the LOMLOE 3/2020 and the Royal Decree
157/2022. Moreover, the Decree 38/2022 state that the role of the teacher is to prepare
tasks and learning situations for the individual students to have a more active role, that
is, they must be student-centred activities.

Having said this, in order to develop this topic, I will divide it into 3 sections. First,
I will deal, with the foundations and applications of the student-centered approach in
foreign language teaching and learning. In the second section, I will talk about the
motivation and attitudes towards the English language. The third section will deal with
some didactic applications. Finally, I will present the conclusions and the bibliography
used for the development of this topic.

1. FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS BASED ON

THE STUDENT-CENTRED APPROACH: FOUNDATIONS AND
APPLICATIONS

After introducing the topic, I will star developing the first section of this
essay which deals with the student-centred approach in foreign language
teaching and learning and its foundations and applications. But what is the
student-centred approach?

According to Campbell (1992), the student-centred approach believes

that every single activity can be based on the knowledge, experience and skills
of pupils. In other words, it focuses on the needs of students, rather than those
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of others involved in the educational process, such as teachers and

administrators.

1.1. PRINCIPLES OF THE SUTDENT-CENTRED APPROACH

Once we have defined the student-centred approach, it could be

appropriate to have a look at its principles in order to understand it better. There
are 5 main principles:

1. The autonomous principle, i.e. with the teacher as facilitator, students

are responsible for their learning and results, moving from dependence to
independence.
2. The negotiation principle, i.e. students, according to Rogers (1983),
choose not only what to study, but also how and why that topic might be
of interest.
3. The motivation principle: i.e. teachers must design activities and
materials that motivate and engage students to learn. Thus, adding
creativity and elements of surprise to each class is essential.
4. The effectiveness principle: i.e. effective learning happens as students
are motivated and engaged in activities that work on topics relevant to their
needs, lives and interests.
5. The diversity principle: i.e. each student is unique, so we must consider
their characteristics (pace, level, style or learning, etc.). Also, all students’
contributions must be taken into account.

1.2. TECHNIQUES TO IMPLEMENT THE STUDENT-CENTRED APPROACH

After mentioning these principles of the student-centred approach, I would

like to talk now about the techniques to implement the student-centred
approach. They can be summarized as the following:

1. Create a positive and supportive atmosphere where students feel

confident and involved.
2. Foster meaningful learning, i.e. starting from students’ previous
knowledge and establish connections with the new information.
3. Make students more aware of what they are doing and why they are
doing it.
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4. Use pair and group work through projects, final tasks, pair work, role
plays, etc.
5. Activities will depend on the learning styles: i.e. concrete (do they prefer
to learn by games?); analytical (do they prefer to learn by grammar?);
communicative (do they prefer to listen and talk in English?); or
authoritarian (do they prefer to listen to the teacher?). However, we
should move from one to another.
6. Develop learning to learn strategies where students reflect on their own
learning. E.g. using the Language Portfolio.
7. Use materials that reflect the outside world, that is, that allow students to
do outside the classroom what they do inside it.
8. Do self-assessment and co-evaluation activities where students
assess their own performance and the other students’ work. Students can
also assess the teacher’s methodology, topics and activities used by
means of anonymous surveys, rubrics, questionnaires, evaluation
bullseyes…

1.3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE STUDENT-CENTRED

APPROACH

Finally, after explaining the techniques to implement the student-centred

approach, I would like to finish this first section by mentioning some advantages
and disadvantages of this approach:

On the one hand, as regards advantages:

1. It increases interest, motivation and self-steem in students.

2. They discover their own learning styles and learn how to learn.
3. It fosters meaningful learning.
4. What matters is the improvement, not the competition.

On the other hand, disadvantages can be summarized as follows:

1. It may be difficult to be implemented if there are external restraints with

a very set syllabus approved by the School Board.
2. It requires a lot of work by the teacher and a longer time for students, so
it may be difficult to achieve curriculum goals.
3. Too much independence of students may have negative outcomes.
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2. IDENTIFICATION OF MOTIVATIONS AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

After developing the first section, let’s turn our attention towards the
second section of the topic, which deals with the motivations and attitudes
towards the English language.

Let’s begin by considering that in foreign language learning, some

variables or factors play an important role. On the one hand, according to Minera-
Reina (2010) there are pedagogical variables such as the methodology,
materials, the teachers and the teaching context, and, on the other hand, authors
like Gardner (1985), the pioneer in the field, distinguished between two types of
variables directly related to the learner, i.e. individual variables and affective
variables, which will be the focus of this section.

2.1. AFFECTIVE VARIABLES: MOTIVATION AND ATTITUDES

The affective variables refer to both the students’ motivation and attitudes
towards learning, and not only foreign languages, but other areas too.

Focusing on foreign language learning, we should start defining the

concept of motivation. So, what does motivation mean?

MOTIVATION can be defined, according to Huitt (2011) paraphrasing

Gardner (1985), as the combination of effort plus the desire to achieve mastery
of language learning plus favorable attitudes towards language learning.
Moreover, according to Harmer (2007) and Arnold (2000), motivation can be
understood in two ways: as extrinsic or intrinsic.

1. Extrinsic motivation: is produced by external factors, such as the

compensation or reward you obtain when you get something: a good mark,
a positive comment of the teacher, or even social acceptance.
2. Intrinsic motivation: means that the learning experience is the only
reward.

The most common situation is that students in Primary Education are

extrinsically motivated, as they only learn languages because they are obliged to
do so as part of the curriculum. However, as they grow older, intrinsic motivation
TEACHERSGEEK OPOSICIONES

develops. This is why we should foster intrinsic motivation as much as possible

in students.

Having said this, the next affective variable are the ATTITUDES.
According to Gardner (1985) the motivation to learn a foreign language is given
by the attitudes that learners have towards the different aspects of foreign
language learning. But what are these attitudes? According to Del Río (2014)
and (2019) we can distinguish attitudes:

1. Towards foreign languages in general.

2. Towards the second language that is being learned.
3. Towards the teacher, group and grade.
4. Towards the target language community, i.e. the people that speak that
language.
5. Towards the target language culture, i.e. customs, folklore, music,
literature, cinema…
6. Towards the learning environment, i.e. the classroom, resources and
materials, the school, etc.
7. And towards oneself, which includes other factors such as anxiety, self-
steem or risk-taking.

2.2. INDIVIDUAL VARIABLES

After explaining what the affective variables are, i.e. motivation and
attitudes towards foreign language learning, I cannot finish this section without
talking briefly about the individual variables that I mentioned before. What are
these individual variables, then?

1. Age: as children are usually better at learning languages than adults,

especially at an auditory and phonological level.
2. Aptitude: as it is commonly believed that some people have a better skill
for learning a second language than others.
3. Personality: as it has been suggested that an outgoing and sociable
person learns a second language better and faster than a shy student.

3. DIDACTIC APPLICATION
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Once I have explained the variables or factors that affect foreign language
learning, in the last section of this topic, I will deal with some didactic or practical
applications to keep our students motivated.

The first thing we should consider is that what motivates our students now,
may not motivate them later, because as authors such as Van Roy and Zaman
(2018) say, motivation is curvilinear, so after a while it decreases again. How can
we motivate students to learn English and foreign languages in general?

Well, as I explained before, motivation comes from attitudes, so our

mission is to make students have positive attitudes towards the different aspects
of English learning, fostering this way the development of the intrinsic motivation
and their wish to learn, and this can be done using the following strategies:

1. Making students realize that learning English is important and useful for
them both now and the future, as it will allow them to have more job
opportunities; understand music, books or films from other countries as
well as to understand most of the information from the Internet, which is in
fact in English; travel and communicate with people all around the world,
etc. This can be done by working on students’ favorite singers, actors,
films, as well as words or customs our country has borrowed from English-
speaking countries.
2. To make students have a positive attitude towards the teacher, group and
grade, there must be a good teacher-student rapport reducing the
distance between teacher and student; a positive and supportive
classroom atmosphere where everyone feels involved and confident; and
a cohesive group characterized by group norms.
3. To make students have a positive attitude towards the target language
community, we can talk about English-speaking personalities they like; or
communicate through mail or email with students from schools in English-
speaking countries…
4. To appreciate the target language culture, we can plan CLIL sessions
where we work on specific customs, food, geography, folklore, etc.; doing
educational visits abroad if possible; develop a cultural week in our school
about English-speaking countries…
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5. Students need to like the learning environment, that is why we should

create an English corner with pictures of English-speaking cities, posters,
students’ work, etc. or if we have a specific languages room, decorate the
whole classroom in the same way. This also includes activities, materials,
resources, which must be varied, motivating, interesting and adapted for
all students; and the methodology, which must be active and where
students are the protagonist of their own learning, e.g.: project-based
learning, task-based learning, gamification, etc.
6. And we should increase students’ positive attitude towards themselves,
fostering their self-steem by making them realize that mistakes are part of
the learning process and that risk-taking is a good thing and nothing to be
anxious or afraid of.

Finally, if all this does not work to motivate students, we can always ask
them the reason. Also, we can make use of anonymous surveys or
questionnaires at the beginning of each academic year using tools such as
Google Forms or Microsoft Forms to know our students’ interests and see how
motivated they are since the beginning.

4. CONCLUSIONS

With this practical application I finish the last section of the topic. To come
to an end, we can conclude that although teachers are an important element in
the English classroom due to the multiples roles they play, the process of
teaching and learning must be focused on the learners and their needs, interests,
characteristics as well as learning styles. This will be crucial in order to improve
their motivation in the English classroom, which will be achieved if we manage to
make students have a positive attitude and not only towards the English language
per se, but towards the rest of the factors that affect learning. Because the more
a student is motivated, the better they learn. I would like to finish this topic with a
quote by the American couch and motivator Lou Holtz who said:

“Ability is what you’re capable of doing. Motivation determines what you do.
Attitudes determine how you will do it.”
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5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Finally, I will present the bibliography used for the development of this
topic:

Brown, H. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching.

Campbell, C. (1992). Learner-based teaching.

Ellis, R. (1997). Second language acquisition.

Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: the role
of attitudes and motivation.

Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching.

Richards, J.C., Platt, J. & Platt, H. (2010). Longman dictionary of Language

Teaching and Applied Linguistics.

LOMLOE 3/2020, 29th of December which regulates education in Spain.

Royal Decree 157/2022, 1st of March, which establishes the basic curriculum for

Primary Education nationwide.

Decree 38/2022, 29th of September which establishes the curriculum for Primary

Education in Castile and Leon.