‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﺻﻨﻒ ﺩﻫﻢ‬

‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ‬
‫ﻌﺎﺭﺭﻑ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎ‬
‫ﺭﺕ ﻣﻌ‬
‫ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺕ‬
‫ﻭﺯﺯﺍﺭ‬
‫ﻣﻌﻴﻨﻴﺖﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑﻧﺼﺎﺏﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻲ‪،‬ﺗﺮﺑﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻢ ﻭ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺳﺎﻳﻨﺲ‬
‫ﺭﻳﺎﺳﺖ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻲ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﻧﺼﺎﺏ‬
‫ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻰ ﻭ ﺗﺄﻟﻴﻒ ﻛﺘﺐ ﺩﺭﺳﻰ‬

‫ﺻﻨﻒ ﺩﻫﻢ‬

‫ﻛﺘﺎﺏ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺭﺳﻰ ﻣﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺕ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺧﺮﻳﺪ ﻭ ﻓﺮﻭﺵ ﺁﻥ ﺟﺪﺍ ً‬
‫ﻣﻤﻨﻮﻉ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺑﺎ ﻣﺘﺨﻠﻔﻴﻦ ﺑﺮﺧﻮﺭﺩ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﻰ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ‪.‬‬

‫ﺳﺎﻝ ﭼﺎپ‪ 1390 :‬ﻫـ ‪ .‬ﺵ‪.‬‬

 ‫ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ‬
‫ﻌﺎﺭﺭﻑ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎ‬
‫ﺭﺕ ﻣﻌ‬
‫ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺕ‬
‫ﻭﺯﺯﺍﺭ‬
‫ﻣﻌﻴﻨﻴﺖ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﻧﺼﺎﺏ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻲ‪،‬‬
‫ﺗﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻣﻌﻠﻢ ﻭ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺳﺎﻳﻨﺲ‬
‫ﺭﻳﺎﺳﺖ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻲ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﻧﺼﺎﺏ‬
‫ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻰ ﻭ ﺗﺄﻟﻴﻒ ﻛﺘﺐ ﺩﺭﺳﻰ‬
‫ﻛﻴــﻤـﻴﺎ‬
‫ﺻﻨﻒ ﺩﻫﻢ‬
‫ﺳﺎﻝ ﭼﺎپ‪ 1390 :‬ﻫـ ‪ .‬ﺵ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ‬
 ‫ﻣﺆﻟﻔﻴﻦ‪:‬‬
‫ﭘﻮﻫﻨﺪﻭﻯ ﺩﻳﭙﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻧﺠﻴﻨﻴﺮ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻤﺤﻤﺪ »ﻋﺰﻳﺰ« ﺍﺳﺘﺎﺩ ﭘﻮﻫﻨﺘﻮﻥ ﻛﺎﺑﻞ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺆﻟﻒ ﻋﺘﻴﻖ ﺍﺣﻤﺪ ﺷﻴﻨﻮﺍﺭﻯ ﻋﻀﻮ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﺩﻳﭙﺎﺭﺗﻤﻨﺖ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻳﺪﻳﺖ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ‪:‬‬
‫ﭘﻮﻫﻨﺪﻭﻯ ﺩﻳﭙﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻧﺠﻴﻨﻴﺮ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻤﺤﻤﺪ »ﻋﺰﻳﺰ« ﺍﺳﺘﺎﺩ ﭘﻮﻫﻨﺘﻮﻥ ﻛﺎﺑﻞ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﺪﻳﺖ ﺯﺑﺎﻥ‪:‬‬
‫ﻣﺆﻟﻒ ﺳﻴﺪ ﻣﺤﻤﻮﺩ ﭘﺎﻳﻤﻨﺎﺭﻯ‬
‫ﻛﻤﻴﺘﺔ ﺩﻳﻨﻰ‪ ،‬ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻰ ﻭ ﻓﺮﻫﻨﮕﻰ‪:‬‬
‫ﺩﺍﻛﺘﺮ ﻋﻄﺎء ﺍﷲ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﻳﺎﺭ ﻣﺸﺎﻭﺭ ﺍﺭﺷﺪ ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺕ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﻧﺸﺮﺍﺕ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﺒﻴﺐ ﺍﷲ ﺭﺍﺣﻞ ﻣﺸﺎﻭﺭ ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺕ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺩﺭ ﺭﻳﺎﺳﺖ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﻧﺼﺎﺏ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻰ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺆﻟﻒ ﻗﺎﺭﻯ ﻣﺎﻳﻞ ﺁﻗﺎ» ﻣﺘﻘﻰ« ﻋﻀﻮﻯ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﺩﻳﭙﺎﺭﺗﻤﻨﺖ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﺳﻼﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻛﻤﻴﺘﺔ ﻧﻈﺎﺭﺕ‪:‬‬
‫ﺩﻛﺘﻮﺭ ﺍﺳﺪ ﺍﷲ ﻣﺤﻘﻖ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﻧﺼﺎﺏ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻰ‪ ،‬ﺗﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻣﻌﻠﻢ ﻭ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺳﺎﻳﻨﺲ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﻛﺘﻮﺭ ﺷﻴﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻇﺮﻳﻔﻰ ﻣﺴﺆﻭﻝ ﭘﺮﻭژﺓ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﻧﺼﺎﺏ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻰ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺳﺮﻣﺆﻟﻒ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻈﺎﻫﺮ ﮔﻠﺴﺘﺎﻧﻰ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﻧﺼﺎﺏ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻰ ﻭ ﺗﺄﻟﻴﻒ ﻛﺘﺐ ﺩﺭﺳﻰ‬
‫ﻃﺮﺡ ﻭ ﺩﻳﺰﺍﻳﻦ‪:‬‬
‫ﺣﻤﻴﺪ ﻛﺮﻳﻤﻰ )ﺳﻨﺠﺪ ﺩﺭﻩ ﻳﻰ(‬
‫ﺏ‬
‫ﺝ‬
 ‫ﺳﺮود ﻣﻠﯽ‬
‫دا ﻋﺰت د ﻫـــﺮ اﻓـــﻐﺎن دى‬ ‫دا وﻃﻦ اﻓﻐﺎﻧﺴﺘـــﺎن دى‬
‫ﻫﺮ ﺑﭽﯽ ﻳ‪ ３‬ﻗﻬﺮﻣـــــﺎن دى‬ ‫ﮐﻮر د ﺳﻮﻟ‪ ３‬ﮐﻮر د ﺗﻮرې‬
‫د ﺑـــــــﻠﻮ＇ــــﻮ د ازﺑﮑـــــﻮ‬ ‫دا وﻃﻦ د ！ﻮﻟﻮ ﮐـﻮر دى‬
‫د ﺗــــــﺮﮐﻤﻨــــﻮ د ﺗﺎﺟﮑــــﻮ‬ ‫د ﭘ‪＋‬ﺘــــﻮن او ﻫﺰاره وو‬
‫ﭘـــﺎﻣﻴــﺮﻳﺎن‪ ،‬ﻧﻮرﺳﺘﺎﻧﻴــــﺎن‬ ‫ورﺳﺮه ﻋﺮب‪－ ،‬ﻮﺟــﺮ دي‬
‫ﻫـــﻢ اﻳﻤـــﺎق‪ ،‬ﻫﻢ ﭘﺸـﻪ ‪４‬ﺎن‬ ‫ﺑﺮاﻫﻮي دي‪ ،‬ﻗﺰﻟﺒﺎش دي‬
‫ﻟـــﮑــﻪ ﻟﻤــﺮ ﭘﺮ ﺷﻨﻪ آﺳﻤـﺎن‬ ‫دا ﻫﻴـــﻮاد ﺑﻪ ﺗﻞ ‪＄‬ﻠﻴ‪８‬ي‬
‫ﻟـــﮑـــﻪ زړه وي ﺟــﺎوﻳﺪان‬ ‫ﭘﻪ ﺳﻴﻨــﻪ ﮐ‪ ３‬د آﺳﻴـــﺎ ﺑﻪ‬
‫واﻳﻮ اﷲ اﮐﺒﺮ واﻳﻮ اﷲ اﮐﺒﺮ‬ ‫ﻧﻮم د ﺣﻖ ﻣﻮ دى رﻫﺒـــﺮ‬
‫ﺩ‬
 ‫ﺑﺴﻢ ﺍﷲ ﺍﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺣﻴﻢ‬
‫ﭘﻴﺎﻡ ﻭﺯﻳﺮ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻤﺎﻥ ﻭ ﺷﺎﮔﺮﺩﺍﻥ ﻋﺰﻳﺰ‪،‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻭ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺳﻌﺔ ﻫﺮ ﻛﺸﻮﺭ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺩﻫﺪ‪ ،‬ﻧﺼﺎﺏ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻰ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﻬﻢ‬
‫ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻭ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻓﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﻣﻌﺎﺻﺮ ﻭ ﻧﻴﺎﺯﻣﻨﺪﻯﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﻪ ﻭﺿﻊ ﻣﻰﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﺿﺢ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻓﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﻭ ﻧﻴﺎﺯﻣﻨﺪﻯﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﻪ ﻫﻤﻮﺍﺭﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺗَ َﻄ ﱡﻮﺭ ﻣﻰﺑﺎﺷﺪ؛ ﺑﻨﺎ ًء ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻧﺼﺎﺏ‬
‫ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻰ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﻭ ﺩﻗﻴﻖ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﺒﺘﻪ ﻧﺒﺎﻳﺪ ﻧﺼﺎﺏ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻰ ﺗﺎﺑﻊ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻰ‪ ،‬ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻭ ﺗﻤﺎﻳﻼﺕ ﺍﺷﺨﺎﺹ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﺎﺑﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻣﺮﻭﺯ ﺩﺭ ﺩﺳﺘﺮﺱ ﺷﻤﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﺗﻬﻴﻪ ﻭ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﻣﻔﻴﺪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ‪ ،‬ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﻧﮕﻪ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻦ ﺷﺎﮔﺮﺩﺍﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺟﺰء ﭘﻼﻥ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻣﻴﺪﻭﺍﺭﻡ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﺘﺎﺏ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﺯ ﺭﻭﺵﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺭﻫﻨﻤﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﭘﻼﻥ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻰ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻩ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ‪ ،‬ﻭ ﺍﻭﻟﻴﺎﻯ ﺷﺎﮔﺮﺩﺍﻥ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻭ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺑﺎ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺖ ﺩﺧﺘﺮﺍﻥ ﻭ ﭘﺴﺮﺍﻥ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻫﻤﻜﺎﺭﻯ ﻣﺘﺪﺍﻭﻡ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﺗﺎ ﺍﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﻭ ﺁﺭﻭﺯﻫﺎﻯ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺑﺮﺁﻭﺭﺩﻩ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‪ ،‬ﻧﺘﺎﻳﺞ ﻭ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﻮﺑﻰ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺷﺎﮔﺮﺩﺍﻥ ﻭ‬
‫ﻛﺸﻮﺭ ﻣﺎ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﻭﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻡ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻌﻠﻤﺎﻥ ﮔﺮﺍﻧﻘﺪﺭ ﻣﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻣﺆﺛﺮ ﻧﺼﺎﺏ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻰ ﻣﺴﺆﻭﻟﻴﺖ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺻﺎﺩﻗﺎﻧﻪ ﺍﺩﺍ ﻣﻰﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺕ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻫﻤﻮﺍﺭﻩ ﺗﻼﺵ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﺗﺎ ﻧﺼﺎﺏ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻰ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺍﺳﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺩﻳﻦ ﻣﺒﻴﻦ ﺍﺳﻼﻡ‪ ،‬ﺣﺲ‬
‫ﻭﻃﻦ ﺩﻭﺳﺘﻰ ﻭ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﻧﻴﺎﺯﻣﻨﺪﻯ ﻫﺎﻯ ُﻣﺒﺮﻡ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻣﺎ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﺮﺻﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺷﺨﺼﻴﺖﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﻭ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﻤﻨﺪﺍﻥ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻭ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻛﺸﻮﺭ ﻭ ﺍﻭﻟﻴﺎﻯ ﻣﺤﺘﺮﻡ ﺷﺎﮔﺮﺩﺍﻥ ﺗﻤﻨﺎ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﻡ‪ ،‬ﺗﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺭﺍﺋﺔ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﻭ ﭘﻴﺸﻨﻬﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺳﺎﻟﻢ ﻭ ﻣﻔﻴﺪ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﻣﺆﻟﻔﺎﻥ ﻣﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺑﻬﺒﻮﺩ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺗﺄﻟﻴﻒ ﻛﺘﺐ ﺩﺭﺳﻰ‬
‫ﻳﺎﺭﻯ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﻫﻤﺔ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﻤﻨﺪﺍﻧﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻬﻴﻪ ﻭ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﺘﺎﺏ ﺳﻬﻢ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺍﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﻭ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺎﺕ ﻣﺤﺘﺮﻡ ﻣﻠﻰ ﻭ ﺑﻴﻦﺍﻟﻤﻠﻠﻰ‬
‫ﻭ ﺳﺎﻳﺮ ﻛﺸﻮﺭ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻭﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻬﻴﻪ ﻭ ﺗﺪﻭﻳﻦ ﻧﺼﺎﺏ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻰ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻭ ﻃﺒﻊ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻊ ﻛﺘﺐ ﺩﺭﺳﻰ ﻫﻤﻜﺎﺭﻯ‬
‫ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺻﻤﻴﻤﺎﻧﻪ ﺍﻇﻬﺎﺭ ﺍﻣﺘﻨﺎﻥ ﻭ ﻗﺪﺭﺩﺍﻧﻰ ﻣﻰﻧﻤﺎﻳﻢ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭ ﻣﻦ ﺍﷲ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﻓﻴﻖ‬
‫ﻓﺎﺭﻭﻕ ﻭﺭﺩگ‬
‫ﻭﺯﻳﺮ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺟﻤﻬﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺳﻼﻣﻰ ﺍﻓﻐﺎﻧﺴﺘﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻫـ‬
 ‫ﻓﻬﺮﺳﺖ ﻋﻨﺎﻭﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ‬ ‫ﻋﻨﻮﺍﻥ‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﻭﻝ‬
‫ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ‪2 ......................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ :1- 1‬ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﭽﺔ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‪3 ...............................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 2 – 1‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‪4 .......................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 3 – 1‬ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ‪9 .......................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 4 -1‬ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻣﺤﻮﺭ‪12...........................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪: 5- 1‬ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻣﻌﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‪18..............................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ 6-1‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ‪25 ........................................................................‬‬
‫ﺧﻼﺻﻪ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﻭﻝ ‪29 ..........................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ‪31..........................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﻓﺼـــــــﻞ ﺩﻭﻡ‬
‫ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻭ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﻳﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‪34.....................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 1 – 2‬ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﭽﺔ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ‪35 .................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 2 – 2‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‪40 ..................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ 3 – 2‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻭ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﻳﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ‪43 ...............................................‬‬
‫‪ : 3 – 2‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ ) ‪52 ........................................................................ ( d-Elements‬‬
‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﻓﺼﻞ‪56 .................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ‪57 ................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﺳﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ )‪60......................................................................................( Chemical Bonds‬‬
‫‪ : 1 - 3‬ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻭﺳﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻟﻴﻮﻳﺲ‪61..................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 2-3‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻭﻛﺘﻴﺖ ﻭﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻟﻴﻮﻳﺲ‪62 ..........................................................................................‬‬
‫‪3-3:‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺭﻭﺍﺑـﻂ ﻛﻴـﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ‪66 ........................................................................................................ :‬‬
‫‪ :-1 3-3‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ‪66 .................................................................... Electro Volant bond ) :‬‬
‫‪ : 3-3- 2‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ) ‪72 ..........................................................................( Covalent bond‬‬
‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺳﻮﻡ ‪86 .......................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺳﻮﻡ ‪87 .........................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﻓــﺼﻞ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻗﻄﺒﻴﺖ ﺁﻥ ﻫﺎ‪90..............................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 1 – 4‬ﻗﺸﺮ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪91.................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 2- 4‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﻄﻰ ) ﻳﻚ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ (‪94............................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 3- 4‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺴﻄﺢ ) ﺳﻪ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ( ‪95..........................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 4- 4‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺳﻄﺤﻰ ) ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ( ‪96 ............................................................‬‬
‫ﻭ‬
 ‫ﻓﻬﺮﺳﺖ ﻋﻨﺎﻭﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ‬ ‫ﻋﻨﻮﺍﻥ‬
‫‪ : 5- 4‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ‪102 .......................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ‪104 ................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ)ﻗﻄﺒﻰ‪ ،‬ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ‪ ،‬ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ( ‪105 ...................................................................................‬‬
‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﻓﺼﻞ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ‪108 ....................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ ‪109 ....................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﭘﻨﺠـــــﻢ‬
‫ﻗﻮﺍﻯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ‪112 .......................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 1- 5‬ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻭﻗﻮﺓ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ‪113 ...............................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 2 – 5‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ‪114 ...........................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 3 – 5‬ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ‪125 .............................................................................‬‬
‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﻓﺼﻞ ﭘﻨﺠﻢ ‪130 ....................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﭘﻨﺠﻢ ‪131 .......................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﻓــﺼــﻞ ﺷﺸﻢ‬
‫ﺣﺎﻻﺕ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ‪134 .................................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 1 – 6‬ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﻭﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ‪135 ..............................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 1- 1- 6‬ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ‪136 ...................................................................................:‬‬
‫‪ : 2 – 1 – 6‬ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻫﺎ)‪136 .....................................................................................................(Crystal‬‬
‫‪ : 3 – 1 – 6‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ‪142 ...........................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 4 – 1 –6‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ‪146 .......................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 2– 6‬ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ‪147 .............................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 1 - 2- 6‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ‪147 .............................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 1- 1 – 2- 6‬ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺑﺎ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ‪148 ..............................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 2- 1- 2- 6‬ﺗﺒﺨﻴﺮ ﻭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ‪148 ......................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 3- 1- 2- 6‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ‪149 ..............................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 4-1 - 2– 6‬ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ‪150 ...........................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 5 - 1- 2- 6‬ﺍﻧﺠﻤﺎﺩ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ‪152 .....................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪: 3 -6‬ﮔـﺎﺯﺍﺕ ‪153 ..........................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 1 - 3 - 6‬ﺻﻔﺎﺕ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ‪153 ........................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 2- 3– 6‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺑﺎﻳﻞ )‪154 ...........................................................................................(Boyls Law‬‬
‫‪ : 3- 3 – 6‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﭼﺎﺭﻟﺲ )ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ( ‪156 .................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 4 - 3- 6‬ﺍﺻﻞ ﺍ ﻭﮔﺪ ﺭﻭ‪159 ...........................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 5- 3 -6‬ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ‪160 ....................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 6 – 3- 6‬ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻣﻮﻟﻲ ﻳﻚ ﮔﺎﺯﺁﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ ﺩﺭﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ‪163 .................................................. STP‬‬
‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺷﺸﻢ‪176 .......................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﺯ‬
 ‫ﻓﻬﺮﺳﺖ ﻋﻨﺎﻭﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ‬ ‫ﻋﻨﻮﺍﻥ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺷﺸﻢ ‪177.....................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﻫﻔﺘﻢ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ‪180........................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 1- 7‬ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ‪181 ......................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 2- 7‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‪184 ....................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻫﻔﺘﻢ ‪202.......................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻫﻔﺘﻢ ‪203.......................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﻫﺸﺘﻢ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ‪206....................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 1- 8‬ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻭﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ‪207...........................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 2 – 8‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ‪207 ....................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪: 3- 8‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ‪211 .................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 4 - 8‬ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺑﻴﻼﻧﺲ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ‪212 ......................................... Oxidation – Reduction‬‬
‫‪ : 5- 8‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ‪ Redox‬ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‪215 .......................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 6 -8‬ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺑﻴﻼﻧﺲ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻙ‪221......................................‬‬
‫‪ : 7 -8‬ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﺎﺹ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺭﻳﺪﻭﻛﺲ ‪223.........................................................‬‬
‫ﺧﻼﺻﻪ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻫﺸﺘﻢ‪226.......................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻫﺸﺘﻢ‪227.....................................................................................................................‬‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﻧﻬﻢ‬
‫ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﻭ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﺎﺕ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ‪230..........................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 1- 9‬ﭘﺎﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺴﺎﻳﻞ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ‪231........................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 2 - 9‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺑﻘﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺗﺤﻔﻆ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ‪233.....................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 3–9‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻫﺎ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ)‪235............................................................................: (Proust-1807‬‬
‫‪ : 4 -9‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩ ﻳﺎ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ)‪235................................................................(Dalton‬‬
‫‪ : 6 -9‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻫﺎ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ‪240.....................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 7– 9‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ‪241....................................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 8– 9‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ‪243............................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪: 9– 9‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ‪245........................................................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 10- 9‬ﻣﻮﻝ )ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‪ -‬ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‪ -‬ﮔﺮﺍﻡ(‪246...............................................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 11 – 9‬ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺘﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ‪248...................................................‬‬
‫‪ : 12 - 9‬ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻰ ﻭ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ‪249.................................................................................‬‬
‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻧﻬﻢ ‪252...................................................................................................................... :‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻧﻬﻢ ‪253..........................................................................................................................‬‬
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 ‫ﻣﻘﺪﻣﻪ‬
‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺳﺎﺣﺘﻤﺎﻥ ‪ ،‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻭﺗﺒﺪﻻﺕ ﻛﻴﻔﻰ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﺤﺚ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺑﺨﺸﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﻭﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﻗﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﺘﻤﺎﺩﻯ ﺍﻧﺴﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻣﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺭﺷﺘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﻪ ﻳﻜﻰ ﻫﻢ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻯ ﺻﻨﻒ ﺩﻫﻢ ﻓﺸﺮﺩﺓ ﻗﺴﻤﺘﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻯ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻋﻤﺪﺗﺎ"‬
‫ﻓﺼﻮﻝ ﻭﻋﻨﺎﻭﻳﻦ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﺘﺎﺏ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺑﺤﺚ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ‪،‬ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﭽﺔ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‪ ،‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‪ ،‬ﻃﻴﻒ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻴﺨﺎﻧﻴﻚ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻤﻰ ﻭﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻣﻌﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻓﺼﻞ ﺩﻭﻡ‬
‫ﺩﺭﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﭽﺔ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ‪ ،‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‪ ،‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﻭ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﻳﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻭ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ ﺑﺤﺚ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺁﻣﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺳﻮﻡ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ )‪( Chemical Bonds‬ﺑﺎ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ‬
‫ﺁﻥ ‪،‬ﻭﺳﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻟﻴﻮﻳﺲ ‪،‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻭﻛﺘﻴﺖ ﻭﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻟﻴﻮﻳﺲ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻓﺼﻞ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ ﺭﺍﺟﻊ ﺑﻪ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻗﻄﺒﻴﺖ ﺁﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻓﺼﻞ ﭘﻨﺠﻢ ﻗﻮﺍﻯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻭ ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﺢ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻗﻮﺓ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺩﺍﻳﭙﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ ‪ ،‬ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ ‪ -‬ﻭﺍﻟﺲ )‪( Vander – Walls Forces‬‬
‫ﻭﻟﻨﺪﻭﻥ ‪،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﻭ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺷﺸﻢ ﺣﺎﻻﺕ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ) ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﻭ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ( ﻭ ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺗﺤﺖ‬
‫ﺑﺤﺚ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺩﺭﻓﺼﻞ ﻫﻔﺘﻢ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪،‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ‪،‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﺎﺕ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﺪ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﻓﺼﻞ ﻫﺸﺘﻢ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ – ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﺔ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻭﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ‪ ،‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ‪،‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﻭ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺑﻴﻼﻧﺲ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ‬
‫‪ Oxidation – Reduction‬ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﻧﻬﻢ ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﻭ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﺎﺕ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭ ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﻋﻤﺪﺓ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ‬
‫ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﭘﺎﻳﺎﻥ ﻫﺮ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﻫﺮ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻭ ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﻧﺎﺣﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻏﺮﺽ ﻣﺸﻖ ﻭﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﺷﺎﮔﺮﺩﺍﻥ‬
‫ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺗﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺣﻞ ﺁﻥ ﺷﺎﮔﺮﺩﺍﻥ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﻭﺑﻬﺘﺮ ﺑﻴﺎﻣﻮﺯﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﺘﺎﺏ ﻛﻮﺷﺶ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺗﺎ‬
‫ﺷﺎﮔﺮﺩﺍﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺩﺧﻴﻞ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺳﻬﻮﻟﺖ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﻭﻝ‬
‫ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﭼﻴﺴــﺖ ؟ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻯ ﺳــﺎﻳﻨﺲ ﺩﺭﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ‬
‫ﭼــــﮕﻮﻧﻪ ﮔﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ‪ ،‬ﻓﻌﻞ ﻭﺍﻧﻔﻌﺎﻝ ﻭﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ؟ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﺳﺎﺳــﻲ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ؟ ﻭﺿﻌﻴﺖ ﻭﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ‬
‫ﻫﺴــﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟ ﻣﺸــﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻫﺴﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻛﺮﺩ ؟‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺔ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻴﺪ ﺩﺭ ﺑﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻭﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻭ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺣﻞ ﺳﺆﺍﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻧﺎﻳﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ :1- 1‬ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﭽﺔ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﺪﻳﻢ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﺣﺎﻛﻰ ﺍﺯﺁﻥ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ :‬ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﺎ ﺣﺪﻭﺩﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻛﻮﭼﻜﺘﺮﻯ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 400‬ﻕ‪،‬ﻡ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻓﻴﻠﺴﻮﻑ ﻳﻮﻧﺎﻧﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺩﻳﻤﻮﻛﺮﺍﺗﺲ )‪(Democritus‬‬
‫ﭘﻴﺸﻨﻬﺎﺩ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ‪ .‬ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ )‪ 1(Atoms‬ﻣﺴﻤﻰ ﺳﺎﺧﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺩﻣﻮﻛﺮﺍﺗﺲ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻗﺒﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻯ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻧﻪ ﮔﺮﻓﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻻﺧﺮﻩ ﺩﺭ ﻗﺮﻥ‬
‫‪ 18‬ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﺩﺍﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺩﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﻋﻠﻤﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠــﻮﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻤﺪﻳﮕﺮ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻰ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺍﺳــﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ‬
‫ﺑــﻪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺁﻭﺭﺩﻧﺪ ﻭ ﻃﺒﻖ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻫــﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 1803‬ﻡ ﻛﻴﻤﻴــﺎﺩﺍﻥ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴــﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺩﺍ ﻟﺘﻦ )‪ (Dalton‬ﺗﻴــﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻨﻴﺎﻥ‬
‫ﮔﺬﺍﺭﻯ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﻃﺒﻖ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﺯ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﺴــﻴﺎﺭ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ﺧﻠﻖ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ﺑﻪ ﻛﻠﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺑﺮﻭﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﻧﻜﺎﺕ ﻋﻤﺪﺓ‬
‫ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﺯ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪..‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺗﻤﺎﻣﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﻭ ﻳﻚ ﺳﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻧﻪ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻧﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﻰ ﺭﻭﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﻠﺤﻖ ﺷﺪﻩ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 6‬ﺩﺭ ﻫﺮ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻭ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺘﺸــﻜﻠﻪ ﺁﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺳــﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣــﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴــﺎﻭﻯ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺳــﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫــﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻧﻤﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﻻﺧﺮﻩ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﺩﺍﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻰ ﻗﺮﻥ ‪ 19‬ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﺎﻭﺟﻮﺩﻳﻜﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻧﻜﺎﺕ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﺗﻘﺴــﻴﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻭ ﻳﻚ ﺳــﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺑــﻮﺩﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺼــﺮ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺪﻟﻞ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺍﻣﺮﻭﺯ ﻣــﻮﺭﺩ ﺗﺎﻳﻴﺪ ﻋﻠﻤﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻧﻪ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺁﻥ ﻫﻢ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﻣﻔﻴﺪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻳﻚ ﮔﺎﻡ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﺩﺭ ﻋﺮﺻﻪ‬
‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻴــﻮﺭﻯ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﻋﻠﻤــﺎﻯ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻣﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -1‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﻠﻤﻪ ﻳﻮﻧﺎﻧﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ‪) tom‬ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ( ﻭ ‪) A‬ﻧﻔﻰ( ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
 ‫‪ - 1‬ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﺯ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻛﻮﭼﻜﻰ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻭﺳﺎﻳﻞ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﻧﮕﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻜﻰ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﻴﻤﻴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺩﺍﻳﻤﺎً ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎ ﺍﺯ ﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺳــﺮﻋﺖ‬
‫ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﺯ ﻟﺤﺎﻅ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ‪ ،‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﻭ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﺓ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻗﺮﻥ ‪ 20‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺗﺸﻌﺸــﻌﺎﺕ ﺭﻭﻧﺘﮕﻴــﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﮔﺮﻓﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ‬
‫‪−10‬‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻗﻄﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﻰ ‪ (0.2nm) 2 ⋅10m‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠــﻪ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ 10−22 − 10−24 g‬ﻭ ﻳــﺎ ‪ 10 −25 − 10 −27 kg‬ﻗــﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ .‬ﭼﻮﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳــﺒﺐ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ (amu = 1.661 ⋅10 − 27 kg )a m u‬ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 2 – 1‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 1900‬ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻯ ﻓﺰﻳﻚ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺭﺳــﺎﻧﻴﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺯ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻛﻮﭼﻜﺘﺮ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﺗﺎﻣﺴﻦ‬
‫ﻓﺰﻳﻜﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴــﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺗﺎﻣﺴــﻦ‬
‫)‪ (J.J. Tomson‬ﺍﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﺷــﻌﻪ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﺣﺔ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﻭ ﻣﻘﻨﺎﻃﺴﻰ‬
‫ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌــﻪ ﻧﻤــﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺷــﻜﻞ)‪(1-1‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ) ‪ ( 1 – 1‬ﺩﺳﺘﮕﺎﻩ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺗﻰ ﺗﺎﻣﺴﻦ‬ ‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺩﺳــﺘﮕﺎﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺗﺎﻣﺴﻦ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﺑﺮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﺩﺳﺘﮕﺎﻩ ﺗﺎﻣﺴﻦ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﻛﺘﻮﺩ )ﻣﻨﺒﻊ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ( ‪ - 2 ،‬ﺍﻧﻮﺩ ‪ - 3 ،‬ﺗﺸﻌﺸﻌﺎﺕ ﻛﺘﻮﺩ ‪ - 4 ،‬ﻣﺒﻨﻊ ﺑﺮﻕ )ﻭﻟﺘﺎژ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ(‪،،‬‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﻣﻨﺒﻊ ﺳﺎﺣﻪ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺳﻤﺖ ﺗﺸﻌﺸﻌﺎﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪ ،‬ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﺷﺪﺕ ﺳﺎﺣﺔﺔ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪﻪ‬
‫ﺸﻌﺸﻊ ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺘﻮﺩ)‪ (1‬ﺑﺎﺯﮔﺸﺖ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ - 6 ،‬ﻣﻘﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺗﺸﻌﺸﻌﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺕ‬ ‫ﺗﺸﻌﺸﻊ‬
‫ﺗﺗﺸ‬
‫ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺭﺳﺪ ﻭ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥﻥ‬ ‫ﻛﻛﺘﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻨﺤﺮﻑ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﻧﺪ‪ - 7 ،‬ﻟﻜﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺭﻭﺷﻨﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻼ‬
‫ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺗﺸﻌﺸﻌﺎﺕ ﻛﺘﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺴﺮ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺣ‬
‫‪4‬‬
 ‫‪e‬‬
‫‪ 1.7 ⋅10 Cb‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ‬
‫‪11‬‬
‫ﺗﺎﻣﺴــﻦ ﺩﺭﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ) ( ﺭﺍ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ‬
‫‪kg‬‬ ‫‪m‬‬
‫ﺁﻭﺭﺩ ‪.‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺎ )‪ (cb‬ﻛﻮﻟﻤﺐ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻠﻰ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺎﻣﺴــﻦ ﻫﻤﭽﻨﺎﻥ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺳــﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺩﺭ ﺩﺳﺘﮕﺎﻩ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﺩ ﻫﺎ )ﺍﻧﻮﺩ ﻭ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻮﺩ( ﻧﻤﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺗﺎﻣﺴــﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺭﺳﻴﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺩﺍﺭ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﺤﺴﻮﺱ ﺑﻮﺩ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ )‪ (Electrons‬ﻣﺴﻤﻰ ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﺯ ﻛﻠﻤﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻳﻚ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﺫﺭﺍﺗﻰ ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻴﺘﺠﺔ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺑﺮﻕ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺍﺷــﻌﻪ ﻛــﻪ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺘﻮﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻴﻮﺏ ﺗﺨﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﺔ ﺗﺎﻣﺴــﻦ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺳــﻤﺖ‬
‫ﻣﻨﺤﺮﻑ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ؟‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺍﺷﻌﺔ ﻛﺘﻮﺩ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﺳﺖ؟‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﭼﺮﺍ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺩﺍﺭ ﻛﺸﻒ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻴﻮﺏ ﺗﺨﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﺗﺎﻣﺴﻦ ﺗﻜﻤﻴﻞ ﺑﻌﺪﻯ ﺩﺳﺘﮕﺎﻩ‬
‫ﺗﺎﻣﺴﻦ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻣﻮﺟﺐ ﺁﻥ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ ﺗﺎ ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮﻭﻣﺘﺮﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ )‪(Mass Spectrometer‬‬
‫‪e‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻣﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻳﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﻪ ) ( ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﺟﺪﺍ ﮔﺮﺩﻧﺪ؟‬
‫‪m‬‬
‫ﻧﻜﺘﺔ ﻣﻬﻢ‬
‫ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻣﺮﻳﻜﺎﻳﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻠﻴﻜﺎﻥ )‪ (Millikan‬ﻣﺸﺨﺺ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻑ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ 1909-1917‬ﺩﺭ ﻗﻄﺮﺍﺕ ﺗﻴﻞ ﻛﺸﻒ ﻛﺮﺩ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 1.602 ⋅10 −19 cb‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺍﻭﻟﻰ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺩﺍﺭ ﻗﺒﻮﻝ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺍﺯ‪:‬‬
‫‪e‬‬
‫= ‪1.76 ⋅ 1011 cb / kg‬‬
‫‪m‬‬
‫‪e‬‬ ‫‪1,602.10 −19 cb.kg‬‬
‫=‪m‬‬ ‫=‬
‫‪1.76 ⋅ 1011 cb / kg‬‬ ‫‪1.76 ⋅ 1011 cb‬‬
‫‪m = 9.11 ⋅10 −31 kg‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫ﭘــﺲ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑــﻪ ‪ 9.11⋅10 −31 kg‬ﻳﺎ ‪ 1‬ﺍﻡ ﺣﺼﻪ ﻛﺘﻠــﺔ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫‪1840‬‬ ‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ )ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ( ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 1898‬ﺗﺎﻣﺴــﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﺑﺮﺍﺯ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ‪ :‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺘﺸــﻜﻞ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﻫﺴﺘﺔ‬
‫ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺩﺍﺭ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫‪ .‬ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺗﺎﻣﺴﻦ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻛﻴﻚ ﻛﺸﻤﺶ ﺩﺍﺭ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻛﺸﻤﺶ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻴﻚ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻫﺎ ﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 2 - 1‬ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺗﺎﻣﺴﻦ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ‪ 1909‬ﻫﻤﻜﺎﺭﺍﻥ ﺭﺍﺩﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ‪ ،‬ﻛﺎﻳﮕﺮ)‪ (Geuger‬ﻭ ﻣﺮﺳﺪﻳﻦ)‪ (Merssden‬ﭘﻴﺸﻨﻬﺎﺩ‬
‫ﺗﺎﻣﺴﻦ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻭ ﻛﺸﻒ ﻛﺮﺩﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻭﺭﻗﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻧﺎﺯﻙ ﻃﻼ ﻋﺒﻮﺭ‬
‫ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ‪ 1‬ﺣﺼﻪ ﺁﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺑﺎﺯﮔﺸﺖ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪800‬‬
‫ﺭﺍﺩﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺍﺑﺮﺍﺯ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ»‪ ...‬ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﺑﺎﻭﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﮔﺮ ﻣﺎ ﻣﺮﻣﻰ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ‪ 4,5m‬ﺑﻪ ﻭﺭﻕ ﻛﺎﻏﺬ ﻗﻄﻰ ﺳــﮕﺮﺕ ﻓﻴﺮ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴــﻢ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺮﻣﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺯﮔﺸﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻤﺎ ﺑﺮﺧﻮﺭﺩ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪ «.‬ﺭﺍﺩﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻭ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﺣﺘﻤﺎً‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ )ﺷﻜﻞ‬
‫ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ(‬
‫ﺏ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ‬
‫( ﺍﻟﻒ‪ :‬ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ‪ A‬ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﺯ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ‪ ،‬ﺏ ‪ :‬ﺩﺳﺘﮕﺎﻩ ﮔﺎﻳﮕﺮ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺮﺳﺪﻳﻦ‬ ‫ﺷﻜﻞ)‪3-1‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
 ‫ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻒ‪ -1 :‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ‪ - 2 ،‬ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ‪ - 3 ،‬ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ‪ 4- ، A‬ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ‪A‬‬
‫ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺏ ‪ - 1 :‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺗﻰ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻯ ﻣﻨﺒﻊ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ‪ – 2 A‬ﺻﻨﺪﻭﻗﭽﻪ ﺗﺎﻟﻚ ﻛﻪ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ‪A‬‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﻋﺒﻮﺭ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪ 3- .‬ﻭﺭﻗﻪ ﻧﺎﺯﻙ ﻃﻼﻳﯽ‪ - 4‬ﭘﺮﺩﻩ ﺳﺮﺑﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ‪) Detector‬ﻛﺸﻒ‬
‫ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ‪ ( A‬ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ‪ A‬ﺣﻔﺎﻇﺖ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪ Detector - 5 ،‬ﺍﺯ ‪ZnS‬‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ‪ A‬ﺑﻪ ﺁﻥ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺷﻌﻠﻪ ﻭﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ‪ - 6 ،‬ﻣﺎﻳﻜﺮﻭﺳﻜﻮﭘﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺷﻌﻠﻪ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ‪ A‬ﺯﻣﺎﻧــﻰ ﺑﻌــﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺑﺎﺯﮔﺸــﺖ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﺍﺻﺎﺑﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ‪ .‬ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﻯ ﺍﺯ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ‪ A‬ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﻓﻀﺎﻯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﺴــﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻋﺒﻮﺭ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺷﻜﻞ‬
‫ﻓﻮﻕ ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﺷﻜﻞ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﻴﺴﺖ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﻫﺴﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ )⋅( ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻃﺎﻕ ﺩﺭﺳﻰ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻗﻄﺮ ﺁﻥ ‪10 −8 m‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺁﻥ ﻗﻄﺮ ‪ 10 −15 m‬ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺭﺍﺩﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ‪ 1911‬ﻣﻮﺩﻟﻰ ﺭﺍ ﭘﻴﺸﻨﻬﺎﺩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺷﻤﺲ ﺭﺍ ﺧﺎﻃﺮ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﺳــﺎﺯﺩ ؛ ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﺁﻓﺘﺎﺏ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﺳﻴﺎﺭﻩ ﮔﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺪﺍﺭ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻜﺮ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﺸﻌﺸﻌﺎﺕ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻭﺭﻗﺔ ﻧﺎﺯﻙ ﻃﻼ ﭼﻰ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻰ ﺍﻓﺘﻴﺪ ؟‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﭼﺮﺍ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﺎﺯﮔﺸﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ؟‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﭼﺮﺍ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺎ ﻣﻨﺤﺮﻑ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ؟‬
‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 1913‬ﻓﺰﻳﻚ ﺩﺍﻥ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﺯﻟﻰ )‪ (G. Moseley‬ﺍﺷﻌﻪ ﺭﻭﻧﺘﮕﻴﻦ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻴﻮﺏ ﻛﺘﻮﺩﻯ ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻑ ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘﮕﻰ‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ ﺟﺬﺭ ﻣﺮﺑﻊ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ ﺍﺷــﻌﻪ ﺭﻭﻧﺘﮕﻴﻦ ‪ L‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺒﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ‬
‫ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﺗﺮﺳــﻴﻢ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪ .‬ﺷﻜﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪ .‬ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﻣﻬﻢ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻨﻌﻜﺲ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻮﺯﻟــﻰ ﺍﺑﺮﺍﺯ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺭﺍ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺴــﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺛﺮ ﻋﺒﻮﺭ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﺎﺑﻌﺪ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻳﻚ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ )ﻣﺤﻮﺭ ﺍﻓﻘﻰ( ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺁﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﻮﺯﻟﻰ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺒﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻭﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ‬
‫‪7‬‬
‫ﺳــﻤﺒﻮﻝ )‪ (z‬ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺑﺎﻻﺧﺮﻩ ﺩﺍﻧﺴﺘﻪ ﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺒﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪Al P CI K Sc V Mn Co Cu‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 4 – 1‬ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘﮕﻰ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻭ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ ﺟﺬﺭ ﻣﺮﺑﻊ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ ﺁﻥ‪:‬‬
‫ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ‪ :‬ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻇﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﻮﺯﻟﻰ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻤﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪ ».‬ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻛﻠﻤﻪ ﻻﺗﻴﻦ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﺍﻭﻟﻰ ﻭ ﻳﺎ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺑﻘﻪ ﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻤﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ«‬
‫ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ً‬ ‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﺯ ﻟﺤﺎﻅ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛‬
‫ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺴﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺰﺭﮔﺘﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻏﺮﺽ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺩﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﭘﻴﺶ ﺑﻴﻨﻰ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪،‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ‬
‫ﻓﻰ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭ ﺍﺯ ﻟﺤﺎﻅ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻧﺎﻡ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ )‪) (Neutron‬ﺧﻨﺜﻰ( ﻳﺎﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﭼﺎﺩﻭﻳﻚ )‪ (Chadwick‬ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ‪1932‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻫﺴــﺘﻮﻯ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻛﺸــﻒ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻑ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﺑﻴﺮﻳﻠﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺫﺭﺓ‬
‫‪ A‬ﺑﻤﺒﺎﺭﺩﻣــﺎﻥ ﻛــﺮﺩ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴــــــﺠﻪ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳــﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ ‪ .‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ‬
‫‪12‬‬ ‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪Be + 24He‬‬
‫‪⎯→6 C +10 n‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺳــﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ‪ 24 He , 94 Be ،‬ﻭ ‪ 126 C‬ﻧﻮﻛﻠﻮﻳﻴﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻴﺮﻳﻠﻢ‪ ،‬ﻫﻠﻴﻢ‬
‫ﻭ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﺳﺎﺳﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‪ :‬ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻧﻮﻳﻜﻠﻮﻥ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻭ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪Σp + Σn = Nuclion‬‬
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 ‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺧﺼﻮﺻﻴﺎﺕ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﺳﺎﺳﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ (1-1‬ﺧﺼﻮﺻﻴﺎﺕ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﺳﺎﺳﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺫﺭﺍﺕ‬ ‫ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺑﻪ ﻛﻮﻟﻤﺐ‬ ‫ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ‬
‫‪1. 0073‬‬ ‫‪1.902⋅10−19‬‬ ‫‪+1‬‬ ‫‪1.6726⋅10−27‬‬ ‫ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ‬
‫‪1.0087‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1.657 ⋅10 −27‬‬ ‫ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫‪5.4858 ⋅10 −4‬‬ ‫‪− 1.902 ⋅10 −19‬‬ ‫‪-1‬‬ ‫‪9.1 ⋅10 −31‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﻧﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻳﺰﻭﺗﻮپ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻧﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻳﺪﻫﺎ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺁﻥ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻧﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻳﺪﻫــﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ‬
‫ﺳــﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﻭ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ )ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ( ﺭﺍ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﺳــﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﺩﺭ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﭘﺎﻳﺎﻧﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ‬
‫ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪:‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬ ‫‪Na‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﺰﻭﺗﻮپ ﻫﺎ )‪ :(Isotops‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻧﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻳﺪﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻋﻴﻦ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ‬
‫ﻫــﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑــﻮﺩ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻧﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺩﺍﺭﻧــﺪ‪ ،‬ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻳﺪﻫﺎ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﭼﻮﻥ ﺧــﻮﺍﺹ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ‬
‫ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻭ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺳــﺖ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﻳﺰﻭﺗﻮﭘﻬﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻳﻜﺴــﺎﻥ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺍﻳﺰﻭﺗﻮﭘﻬﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ‪ 17 Cl‬ﻭ ‪17 Cl‬‬
‫‪37‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ‪ 17‬ﻭ ﻧﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﺁﻥ ﺑﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ ‪ 35‬ﻭ ‪ 37‬ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ﻭ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ‪ 18‬ﻭ ‪ 20‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻫﺮ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻳﻚ ﺳﺎﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫‪ 22‬ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﭘﺮﺳﺶ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ‬ ‫‪21‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬
‫‪ 10 Ne, 10 Ne‬ﻭ ‪10 Ne‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻧﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﻧﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫ﺏ – ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺑﻪ ﭼﻰ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ ؟‬
‫‪ : 3 – 1‬ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬
‫ﭘﻴﺪﺍﻳﺶ ﻭ ﺍﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﺧﺼﻮﺻﻴﺎﺕ ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺗﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺣﻞ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻛﻤﻚ ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺩﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﺣﻞ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﭘﺬﻳﺮ ﻧﺒﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﻧﻮﺭ ﺁﻓﺘﺎﺏ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﭼﺮﺍﻍ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﺳﻮﺭﺍﺥ ﻋﺒﻮﺭ ﻭ ﺭﻭﺷﻨﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻣﻨﺸﻮﺭ ﺑﺘﺎﺑﺪ ﻭ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﻣﻨﺸﻮﺭ ﺑﻪ ﭘﺮﺩﻩ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﻚ ﻋﺒﻮﺭ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ؛ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺳﺎﺣﻪ ﺭﻧﮕﻴﻦ ﻛﻤﺎﻥ ﺁﺷﻜﺎﺭ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﻣﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﻣﺠﺰﺍ ﺭﻧﮕﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺳﺘﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﻧﮓ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺗﺸﻌﺸﻌﺎﺕ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﺩﻳﺪ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﻣﻮﺟﻰ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﻣﺴﻠﺴﻞ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ)‪ ( 5 – 1‬ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﻣﻨﺒﻊ ﻧﻮﺭ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻴﻮﺏ ﺗﺨﻠﻴﺔ ﻧﺎﺷــﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺳــﭙﻜﺘﺮﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﺭﻧﮕﻪ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﺠﺰﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺳــﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺧﺮﻭﺟﻰ) ‪ ( Emission‬ﻳﺎ ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺧﻄﻰ ﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ‪) ،‬ﺷــﻜﻞ‪ (6 - 1‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻭﺳــﻴﻠﻪ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﻚ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮ‬
‫ﺧﻄــﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻨﺸــﻮﺭ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺷــﻮﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜــﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺑﻪ ﻛﻤﻚ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺑــﺮﻕ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻴﻮﺏ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﺨﻠﻴﻪ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺷــﻌﻠﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﻚ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﺳــﭙﻜﺘﺮﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺧﻄﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﺣﻪ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﺩﻳﺪ ﻭ ﻣﺎ ﻭﺭﺍﻯ ﺑﻨﻔﺶ ﺳــﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺭﺳــﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺷــﻌﻠﻪ ﭼﺮﺍﻍ ﻓﻠﺰ ﺳــﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻥ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻧﻮﺭ ﺑﺎ ﺧﻄﻮﻁ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺟﻰ ‪ 590nm‬ﺗﺸﻌﺸــﻊ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺷــﻌﻠﻪ ﺁﻥ ﺯﺭﺩ ﺭﻧﮓ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻴﻮﺏ ﺗﺨﻠﻴﻪ ﮔﺎﺯ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺧﺘﻪ ﺷــﻮﺩ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻭﻟﺘﺎژ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﻚ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺭﻧﮓ ﺳﺮﺥ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻳﻞ ﺑﻪ ﮔﻼﺑﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻴﻢ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﺳــﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺟﺬﺑﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻋﺒﻮﺭ ﻧﻮﺭ ﺳﻔﻴﺪ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳــﺖ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻭﺭﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺷــﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﺣﻪ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﺩﻳﺪ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﻧﻮﺭﻯ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺎﺣﻪ ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﺳﻴﺎﻩ ﻇﺎﻫﺮ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺧﺎﻃﺮ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﺳــﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺟﺬﺑﻰ ﻭ ﺧﺮﻭﺟﻰ‪ ،‬ﺁﻟﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮﻭ ﻣﺘﺮ )‪ (Spectro meter‬ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻛﺎﺭ ﺑﺮﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺸــﺎﻫﺪﺍﺕ ﻭ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺗﻰ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺳــﭙﻜﺘﺮﻭﻣﺘﺮ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺳــﭙﻜﺘﺮ ‪Emission‬‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺍﺯ ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﻣﺴﻠﺴﻞ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
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‫ﻛﺎﺷﻔﻴﻦ ﺷﺎﻥ ﻣﺴﻤﻰ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:‬ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻴﺮ )‪ (Balmer ceriss‬ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻰ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ‪ Balmer‬ﻛﺸﻒ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﺣﻪ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﺩﻳﺪ ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺭﺳﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺳﻠﺴــﻠﻪ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺳــﻤﺖ ﻓﺮﻳﻜﻮﻧﺴﻰ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺳﺎﺣﺔ ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﻣﺠﺎﻭﺭ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻛﻞ ﺗﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﻳﺎﻓﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺑﺎﻻﺧﺮﻩ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻭﺻﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺳــﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﻣﺴﻠﺴﻞ )‪ (Cantinum‬ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪ .‬ﻓﺮﻳﻜﻮﻧﺴــﻰ ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺧﻄﻰ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ‪ Redberg‬ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫( ‪G = CRH‬‬ ‫) ‪−‬‬
‫‪n12 n22‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻓﻮﻕ ‪ G‬ﻓﺮﻳﻜﻮﻧﺴﻰ ‪ C‬ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﻧﻮﺭ ‪ RH‬ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺭﻳﺪﺑﺮگ‪ n1 ،‬ﻭ ‪ n2‬ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺗﺎﻡﻡ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻰ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﻛﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ)‪ (6-1‬ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺏ‪ -‬ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺮ ﺩﺭ ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ‪B-Balmer ، Pf-Pfond ، Br-Bracket ، Pa-Pachen ، L-Laeman :‬‬
‫ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ﺑﺮﻛﻴﺖ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ﭘﻔﻮﻧﺪ ﻭ ﭘﻮﺷﻦ ﭘﻮﺷﺎﻧﺪﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻃﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺝ ﻭ ﻓﺮﻳﻜﻮﻧﺴﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺑﻤﺒﺎﺭﺩﻣﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻮﺩ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﻣﺒﺪﻝ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻩ‪ ،‬ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﻚ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺧﻮﺩ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 7 – 1‬ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﻣﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻗﺸﺎﺭ )‪ (n = 2,3,4‬ﺑﻪ ﻗﺸﺮ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻣﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ‬
‫ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺍﺷﻌﻪ ‪ x‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﺣﻪ ﻣﺎﺅﺭﺍﻯ ﺑﻨﻔﺶ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺮﺳــﺪ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﺳﺘﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻟﻴﻤﻦ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ ﺍﺷﻌﻪ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ‪973 − 1216 Ao‬‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻗﺸــﺎﺭ )‪ (n = 3,4,5,6‬ﺑﻪ ﻗﺸــﺮ ﺩﻭﻡ ﻣﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻧﻮﺭﻯ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻧﻮﺭ ﻣﺮﺋﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﺳﺘﻪ ﺍﺷــﻌﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ‪ Balmyr‬ﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ ﺍﺷﻌﻪ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ 410 − 6563A o‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺯ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ )‪ (n=4,5,6‬ﺑﻪ ﺳــــﻮﻳﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺳﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻧﻮﺭﻯ ﻭ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮﺁﻥ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﺁﻥ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻣﺎ‬
‫ﺗﺤﺖ‪ -‬ﺳﺮﺥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻧﻮﺭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ‪ Poshen‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ﻭ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ‬
‫ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮﺓ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ 12820 − 17850 Ao‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﺑﺎﻻﺧﺮﻩ ﺍﮔﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺯ ﺳــﻮﻳﻪ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺗﺮﺍﺯ ‪ n = 4‬ﺑﻪ ﺳــﻮﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ‬
‫ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮﺓ ﺍﺷﻌﺔ ﻧﻮﺭﻯ ﺁﻥ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﺁﻥ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺗﺮ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺳﺎﺣﻪ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺳﺮﺥ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﺳﺘﻪ ﺗﺸﻌﺸﻌﺎﺕ ﻧﻮﺭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ‪Pfund‬‬
‫ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺩﺭ ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ (6 - 1‬ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 4-1‬ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺑﻮﺭ‬
‫ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻤﻰ ﭘﻼﻧﻚ ﺍﺳــﺘﻮﺍﺭ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪،‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺍﺑﺘﺪﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻮﻓﻘﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻧﺎﻳﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺩﻭﺍﺯﺩﻩ ﺳــﺎﻝ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺪﻟﻞ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ‬
‫؛ ﻻﻛــﻦ ﻣﻮﺯﻟــﻰ )‪ (1915-1889‬ﺩﺭ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﺍﺯ ﻓﺮﺿﻴﻪ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ ‪ .‬ﻧﻈﺮ ﻳﻪ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﻤﻚ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻄﺎﺑــﻖ ﺑــﻪ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﭘﻼﻧﻚ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ )‪ (Cuentization‬ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﺧﻄﻰ ﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮﻫﺎ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺩﻧﻤﺎﺭﻛﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺑﻮﺭ ‪ Boher‬ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ‪ 1913‬ﻣﻮﺩﻝ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺭﺍ ﭘﻴﺸــﻨﻬﺎﺩ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳــﻦ ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺑﻪ ﻓﺮﺿﻴﻪ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻰ ﭘﻼﻧــﻚ ﻣﺘﻜﻰ ﺑﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻃﺒﻖ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ‬
‫ﭘﻼﻧﻚ‪ :‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻣﻤﻜﻨﻪ ﻛﻪ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺗﺸﻌﺸــﻊ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﻗﻄﻌﺎﺕ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻣﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ )‪ (Cauantum‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻮﺭ ﺍﺑﺮﺍﺯ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ‪ :‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻤﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻗﺸﺮ )‪ (Orbite‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻗﺸﺮ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ‪).‬ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻛﻠﻤﻪ ﻻﺗﻴﻦ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ‬
‫‪12‬‬
 ‫ﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺭﺳﺎﻧﺪ‪(.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺍﻗﺸﺎﺭ ﺩﻭﺭ ﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﭼﻮﻥ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻤﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ‬
‫ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺖ ﺁﻥ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻤﻰ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ .‬ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺖ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ‬
‫‪n=5‬‬ ‫ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪n=4‬‬ ‫ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺖ ﻣﺸــﺨﺺ‬
‫‪n=3‬‬ ‫ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﻧﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ‬
‫‪n=2‬‬ ‫ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻤــﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺟــﺬﺏ ﻭ ﻧﻪ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺳــﺎﺯﺩ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ‬
‫‪n =1‬‬
‫ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺯ ﻗﺸــﺮ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻗﺸــﺮ ﺩﻭﺭ ﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻣﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪،‬ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺖ‬
‫ﺍﻧــﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺟــﺬﺏ ﻣــﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺑــﺮ ﻋﻜﺲ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻘــﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻗﺸــﺮ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻣﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ‬
‫ﺑــﻪ ﺯﻭﺩﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺖ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ‬
‫ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﺳﻴﻜﺘﺮﻯ‬
‫ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺟــﺬﺏ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪،‬‬
‫ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺟــﺬﺏ ﻓﻮﺗــﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻧﻮﺭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻗــﺪﺭ ﻛﺎﻓﻰ ﻭ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 8 – 1‬ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺑﻮﺭ ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻪ ﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺳــﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺟﺬﺑﻰ ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﺳﻴﺎﻩ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺭﺳﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﻃﺒﻖ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺖ ﻧﻮﺭ ﺑﺎ ﻓﺮﻳﻜﻮﻧﺴﻰ‪ v‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ‪ hv‬ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ‪E = hN :‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌــﺎﺩﻝ ﻓــﻮﻕ ‪ h‬ﺛﺎﺑــﺖ ﭘﻼﻧــﻚ ﺑــﻮﺩﻩ ﻛــﻪ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ‪h = 6.63 ⋅10 −34 joul ⋅ sec‬‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ .‬ﺍﮔــﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘــﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺍﻧــﺮژﻯ ‪ E1‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴــﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺍﻧــﺮژﻯ ‪ E 2‬ﻣﻨﺘﻘﻞ‬
‫ﮔــﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﻣﻘــﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺳــﺎﺯﺩ‪ .‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺍﺯ‪:‬‬
‫‪E 2 − E1 = hN‬‬ ‫‪E1 − E 2 = hN‬‬
‫ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺣﺮﻛﻰ ﻣﻤﻜﻨﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺣﺎﻟﺘﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣـــــﺮﻛﺖ‬
‫ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﻭﻯ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﻃﺒﻖ ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺩﻭﺭﺍﻧﻰ ﻳﺎ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﻭﻯ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﺩ‪ .‬ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺩﺍﻳﺮﻩ‬
‫ﻭﻯ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺿﺮﺏ ﺳــﺮﻋﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻭ ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺩﺍﻳﺮﻩ‬
‫) ‪ ( P = m v r‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻀﺮﻭﺏ ﺻﺤﻴﺢ‬
‫ﺗﺎﻡ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺎ ﻣﻀﺮﻭﺏ ﺻﺤﻴﺢ ﻭ ﺗﺎﻡ ‪ nh‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ )‪ (n‬ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫‪2P‬‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ 1,2,3,........‬ﻭ ﻏﻴﺮﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ‪:‬‬
‫‪13‬‬
 ‫‪nh‬‬
‫= ‪mvr‬‬ ‫‪− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −1‬‬
‫‪2P‬‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺑﻮﺭ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻫﺴﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺩﻭﻗﻮﻩ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻭﺁﻥ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻓﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﻭ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻳﺎ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﺳــﺘﺎﺗﻴﻜﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺩﺍﺭ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪ F = mv − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 2‬ﻗﻮﺓ ﻓﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ‬
‫‪r‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪ F = kze − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 3‬ﻗﻮﻩ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻛﻮﻟﻤﺐ‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪r‬‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ‪ 2‬ﻭ‪ 3‬ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﭘﺲ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳﺖ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻧﻴﺰﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪mv 2 kze 2‬‬
‫‪= 2 −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−4‬‬
‫‪r‬‬ ‫‪r‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻓﻮﻕ ‪ m‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻭ ‪ v‬ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ z،‬ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻭ ‪ e‬ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻭ ‪ r‬ﺷﻌﺎﻉ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﻛﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺩﻭ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻣﺠﻬﻮﻝ ‪ v‬ﻭ ‪ r‬ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺣﻞ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻭﻝ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺠﻬﻮﻟﻪ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻣﺠﻬﻮﻝ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﻗﻤﻴﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ‬
‫‪ 4‬ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ‪ 1‬ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻠﻪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ‪:‬‬
‫‪mv 2 kze 2‬‬
‫‪r2‬‬ ‫‪= 2 r2‬‬
‫‪r‬‬ ‫‪r‬‬
‫‪rmv 2 = .k ze 2‬‬
‫‪kze 2‬‬
‫=‪r‬‬ ‫‪− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −5‬‬
‫‪mv 2‬‬
‫‪kze 2‬‬ ‫‪nh‬‬
‫( ‪mv‬‬ ‫=)‬
‫‪mv 2‬‬ ‫‪2P‬‬
‫‪kze 2 2P‬‬
‫‪vnh = kze 2 .2P‬‬ ‫= ‪, V‬‬ ‫‪− − − − − − − −6‬‬
‫‪nh‬‬
‫ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ V‬ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ‪ 6‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ‪ 5‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻠﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ r ،‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻭﺭﻳﻢ‪.‬‬
‫‪Kze 2‬‬ ‫‪kze 2‬‬ ‫‪kze 2‬‬ ‫‪n2 ⋅ h2‬‬
‫=‪r‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫= ‪,r‬‬ ‫= ‪,r‬‬ ‫⋅‬
‫⎞ ‪⎛ kze 2 2π‬‬ ‫‪mk 2 z 2e 2e 2‬‬ ‫‪1 mk 2 z 2e 2e 2 4π 2‬‬
‫⎜⎜‪m‬‬ ‫⎟⎟‬ ‫‪n2 ⋅ h2‬‬
‫⎠ ‪⎝ nh‬‬
‫‪n 2h 2‬‬
‫=‪r‬‬ ‫‪− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −7‬‬
‫‪mkze 2 4π 2‬‬
‫‪14‬‬
 ‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ‪ 6‬ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺳــﺮﻋﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫)‪ (n=1‬ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ‪ 2200km/sec‬ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ‪ 7‬ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ‪ 0.053nm‬ﺍﺳﺖ )‪.(n=1‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺩﺭﺳــﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭﻳﺎ ﻏﻠﻂ؟ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻓﻜﺮ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ‬
‫ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺣﺮﻛﻰ ﻭ ﭘﻮﺗﻨﺸــﻴﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ‪ ،‬ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ‪ E0 = 1 mC 2‬ﻭ ‪ Ep = − kze‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪r‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫ﺟﻤﻊ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻢ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻳﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪kze 2‬‬
‫‪E = Eo + Ep = mv 2 + (−‬‬ ‫)‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪r‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪Kze 2‬‬
‫=‪E‬‬ ‫‪mv 2 −‬‬ ‫‪− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −8‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪r‬‬
‫ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺑﺮﻕ ﻳﻚ ﻛﻮﻟﻤﺐ ﻭ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺎ ‪ 1m‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻗﻮﺓ ‪ 9 ⋅10 9 N‬ﺟﺬﺏ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺩﻓﻊ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﻨﺎً ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ k‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫‪q ⋅q‬‬
‫‪F=K 1 2 2‬‬
‫‪r‬‬
‫‪F ⋅ r 2 9 ⋅10 9 N .m 2‬‬ ‫‪N ⋅ m2‬‬
‫=‪K‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪⇒ k = 9 ⋅10 9‬‬
‫‪q1 ⋅ q2‬‬ ‫‪CbCb‬‬ ‫‪Cb 2‬‬
‫ﺍﮔــﺮ ﺍﻃــﺮﺍﻑ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟــﻪ ‪ 4‬ﺭﺍ ﺿــﺮﺏ ﺩﺭ ‪ 1‬ﻧﻤﺎﻳــﻢ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳــﻦ ﺻــﻮﺭﺕ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺷــﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ‪:‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪mv2 kze2‬‬ ‫ﻳﺎ‬
‫‪= 2‬‬
‫‪r‬‬ ‫‪r‬‬
‫‪1 mv2 kze2 1‬‬
‫⋅ ‪= 2‬‬
‫‪2 r‬‬ ‫‪r 2‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪kze2‬‬
‫= ‪mv2‬‬ ‫‪−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−9‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2r‬‬
‫‪15‬‬
 ‫‪1‬‬
‫ﺣﺎﻝ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ mV 2‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ‪ 8‬ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻠﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩﻛﻪ‪:‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪kze2 kze2‬‬
‫=‪E‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬
‫‪2r‬‬ ‫‪r‬‬
‫‪kze2 − 2kze2 − kze2‬‬
‫=‪E‬‬ ‫=‬
‫‪2r‬‬ ‫‪2r‬‬
‫‪1 kze2‬‬
‫(⋅ ‪E = −‬‬ ‫‪) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −10‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪r‬‬
‫ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ r‬ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ‪ 5‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ‪ 10‬ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻠﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ‪:‬‬
‫‪1 kze2‬‬
‫‪E=−‬‬
‫‪2 n2h2‬‬
‫‪mkze2P 2‬‬
‫‪− 1(−kze 2 ) mkze 2 4P‬‬
‫=‪E‬‬ ‫⋅‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪n2h2‬‬
‫) ‪− (−k 2 z 2e 4 .2P 2‬‬
‫=‪E‬‬ ‫‪− − − − − − − − − − − − − −11‬‬
‫‪n2h2‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺎ ‪ n=1,2,3‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﺎﺕ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺑﻮﺭ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺳــﺮﻋﺖ ﺣﺮﻛﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﻩ ﺩﻭﻡ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻗﺸﺮ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺟﺬﺏ ﻭ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻣﻮﺟﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﮔﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﻮﺩ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﻗﺸــﺮ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻗﺸﺮ ﺩﻭﺭ ﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻣﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺍﮔﺮ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻛﻢ‬
‫ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﻮﺩ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻗﺸــﺮ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﻭ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻻﻛﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺷﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺪﺕ ‪ 10 −10 − 10 −8‬ﺛﺎﻧﻴﻪ ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺑﺎﺯﮔﺸﺖ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺪﺍﺭ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﻳﺮﻩ ﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ‬
‫ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪16‬‬
 ‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺑــﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺩﻗــﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺩﺭﺟﻤﻼﺕ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺩﺭ ﺯﻳﺮﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﻧﺎﻣﻨﺎﺳــﺐ‬
‫ﺧﻂ ﺑﻜﺸــﻴﺪ ﺗﺎ ﺟﻤﻼﺕ ﺩﺭﺳﺖ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻒ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﺎ‬
‫) ﮔﺮﻓﺘــﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ‪ /‬ﺍﺯ ﺩﺳــﺖ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺩﻥ ﺍﻧــﺮژﻯ ( ﺳــﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻧــﺮژﻯ‬
‫)ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ‪ /‬ﭘﺎﻳﻴــﻦ ( ﻣﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺏ ﺍﻟﻜﺘــﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ (9-1‬ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﮔﺮﻓﺘﻦ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ‬ ‫ﺑﺎ)ﮔﺮﻓﺘــﻦ ﺍﻧــﺮژﻯ ‪ /‬ﺍﺯ ﺩﺳــﺖ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺩﻥ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ( ﺳﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ )ﺑﻠﻨﺪ‬
‫‪ /‬ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ( ﻣﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻰ‬
‫ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺭﺍ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺯﻭﻣﻴﺮ ﻓﻴﻠﺪ ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 1916‬ﺍﻧﻜﺸــﺎﻑ ﺩﺍﺩ‪ .‬ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻑ‬
‫ﺍﺑﺮﺍﺯ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ‪ :‬ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺮﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻭ‬
‫ﻫﻢ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻗﺸــﺎﺭ ﺑﻴﻀﻮﻯ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻧﻤﺒﺮﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﻤﻰ‬
‫ﺳــﺎﺧﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﻑ ‪ n‬ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ‪ ،‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺩﻭﻣﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﺑﻴﻀﻮﻯ ﺍﻗﺸﺎﺭ )ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺰ( ﺭﺍ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﺩ ﻭ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ‪ l‬ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﺭﺍﺟﻊ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻧﻤﺒﺮﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺯﺳﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪ ،‬ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ؟‬
‫ﺏ – ﻛﻤﻴــﺖ ﺗﻐﻴﻴــﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺯ ﺳــﻮﻳﺔ ﺩﻭﻡ ﺑﻪ ﺳــﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻭﻝ‬
‫ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪ ،‬ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ ؟‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍﺟﻊ ﺑﻪ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻻﺯﻣﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻧﻤﻰ‬
‫ﻼ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬‫ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺴﺖ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺁﻣﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺫﻳ ً‬
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 ‫)ﻣﻴﺨﺎﻧﻴﻚ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻤﻰ(‬ ‫‪: 5 - 1‬ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻣﻌﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﺣﻴﺮﺕ ﺍﻧﮕﻴﺰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ‪) :‬ﻧﻈﺮ ﻳﻪ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺑﺎﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻮﻓﻘﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺩﻩ ﺳــﺎﻝ ﺍﻧﺘﺸــﺎﺭ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺩﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ( ﮔﺮﭼﻪ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺴﺖ ﺳــﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﺍﻣﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﺳــﭙﻜﺘﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻗﺎﺩﺭ ﻧﺒﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫‪ 1920-1930‬ﺩﺭ ﻓﺰﻳﻚ ﻧﻈﺮﻯ ﺩﻭ ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻣﺪ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺳﺆﺍﻝﺍﻭﻝﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁﺑﻪﺩﻭﻧﻈﺮﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒﺩﺭﻣﻮﺭﺩﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖﻧﻮﺭ)ﻧﻈﺮﻳﻪﻣﻮﺟﻰﻭﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﻰﻧﻮﺭ(ﺑﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﺩﻭﻡ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﭘﺪﻳﺪﻩ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻤﻰ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻧﻮﺭ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﻣﺴﺄﻟﻪ ﻓﺮﺍﻣﻮﺵ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﻴﺨﺎﻧﻴﻚ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﻦ ﺩﺧﻴﻞ ﺳﺎﺧﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻋﻠﺖ ﺑﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻣﻴﺨﺎﻧﻴﻚ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻭ ﻣﻌﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ :‬ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ‪:‬‬
‫ﻧﻮﺭ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻣﻮﺟﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺫﺭﻩ ﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ ﻣﻮﺟﻰ ﻭ ﺫﺭﻩ ﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺍﻭﻟﻴﻦ ﻛﺴﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻣﻴﺨﺎﻧﻴﻚ ﻣﻮﺟﻰ ﻣﻌﺎﺻﺮ ﻗﺪﻡ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻧﻬﺎﺩ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ‪1924‬ﻡ‬
‫ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺩﻯ ‪ -‬ﺑﺮﻭﮔﻠﻰ )‪ (De-Broglie‬ﺑﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺳــﺎﺑﻖ ﻋﻠﻤﺎ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺍﻧﺪ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺗﺸﻌﺸــﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭ ﻣﻘﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴــﻰ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﭘﺪﻳﺪﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺟﻰ ﻣﻄﻠﻖ ﺍﺳﺖ )ﺑﺎ ﻭﺟﻮﺩﻳﻜﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺸﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﺧﺎﻃﺮ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺑﻮﺩ » ﺩﺭ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻮﺝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻣﻘﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻰ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺫﺭﻩ ﻭﻯ ﻳﺎ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ«(‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺘﻮﺟﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﻴﺪ‬
‫ﭘﺪﻳــﺪﻩ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺟــﻰ ﻋﺒــﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻧﻜﺴــﺎﺭ ﻭ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻣﺎﻳﻜﺮﻭﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺗﺎ ﻃﻮﻝ ﺝ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺝ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮ ﺫﺭﻩ‬ ‫ﺧﺎﻃﺮﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵ ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﭘﺪﻳﺪﻩ ﻡ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺁﻣﻮﺧﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪( 10 – 1‬‬
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 ‫ﺩﻯ‪ -‬ﺑﺮﻭﮔﻠﻰ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﻧﺸﺘﺎﻳﻦ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺑﺪﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ‪E :‬‬
‫‪E = h. ν‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫=‪ν‬‬
‫‪h‬‬
‫ﻳﺎ‬
‫‪c‬‬ ‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬ ‫ﭘﺲ ‪E c‬‬
‫‪λν = C‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫=‪ν‬‬ ‫=‬
‫‪λ‬‬ ‫‪h L‬‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻧﺴﺒﻴﺖ ﺍﻧﺸﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻧﻮﺭ‪ ،‬ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍ ﻃﺒﻖ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫‪E‬‬
‫‪E = mC 2‬‬ ‫‪= mc‬‬
‫‪C‬‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺿﺮﺏ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻭ ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪،‬ﻳﻌﻨﻰ‪:‬‬
‫‪P = mc‬‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺎ ‪ p = E‬ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ‪:‬‬
‫‪C‬‬
‫‪h E‬‬
‫‪= =p‬‬
‫‪L c‬‬
‫ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻳﻚ ﺫﺭﻩ ﺑﺎ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ‪ m‬ﻭ ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ‪ v‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ‪ p=mv‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﭘﺲ‪:‬‬
‫‪h‬‬ ‫‪h‬‬
‫‪= mv‬‬ ‫=‪λ‬‬
‫‪λ‬‬ ‫‪mv‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﺧﻴﺮ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ ﻭ ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻤــﺎﻡ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ‪ p=mv‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ ﺷــﺎﻥ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ‬
‫‪ λ = h‬ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪mv‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺟــﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳــﻞ ﺑﻌﻀــﻰ ﻣﺸــﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﺋــﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳــﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻃــﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺝ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻭﺩﺭﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺩﺭﺝ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺷﻤﺎ‬
‫ﺑﻌﺪﺍﺯﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ‪،‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﺎ ﻧﺘﺎﻳﺞ ﺩﺭﺝ ﺷﺪﻩ‬
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 ‫ﺩﺭﺟﺪﻭﻝ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪cm‬‬
‫ﻧﺘﺎﻳﺞ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ‬ ‫ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ‬ ‫ﺳﺮﻋﺖ‬ ‫ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ‬ ‫ﺫﺭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻩ ﺷﺎﮔﺮﺩﺍﻥ‬ ‫‪sec‬‬
‫‪61o A‬‬ ‫‪1,2 ⋅107‬‬ ‫‪9,1 ⋅10 −28‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ‪300k‬‬
‫‪12 o A‬‬ ‫‪5,9 ⋅107‬‬ ‫‪9,1 ⋅10 − 28‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ‪1ev‬‬
‫‪1,2 o A‬‬ ‫‪5,9 ⋅107‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ‪9,1 ⋅10 − 28 100ev‬‬
‫‪6,6 ⋅10 − 24‬‬ ‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﻴﻠﻴﻮﻡ‪300k ،‬‬
‫‪0,1o A‬‬ ‫‪1,4 ⋅105‬‬
‫‪2,2 ⋅10 − 22‬‬ ‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ‪300k ،....‬‬
‫‪0,12 o A‬‬ ‫‪2,4 ⋅10 4‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻭ ﺳــﺮﻋﺖ ﺫﺭﻩ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ ﺁﻥ ﻛﻮﺗﺎﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﻳﻦ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺩﺳــﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺟﺴﻢ ﻛﺮﻳﺴــﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺑﺮﺧﻮﺭﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪ ،‬ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ‬
‫ﻣﻨﻜﺴﺮ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺑﺎﺯﮔﺸﺖ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺗﺎﺛﻴــﺮ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ )ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻫــﺎ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ‪ ...‬ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻩ( ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ‬
‫ﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺁﺯﻣﺎﻳﺸــﺎﺕ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺫﺭﻩ ﻭﻯ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺁﺯﻣﺎﻳﺸــﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻣﻮﺟﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺁﺷــﻜﺎﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﭘﺲ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻛﻮﭼــﻚ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺫﺭﻩ ﻭﻯ ﻭ‬
‫ﻰ ﺑﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ‪..‬‬
‫ﻭ« ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺟﻰ »ﻫﺮﺩﻭ«‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ (11 - 1‬ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ ﻣﻮﺟﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺷــﻜﺎﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﺴﻴﺮ ﺧﺎﺻﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻭﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﻣﺴﻴﺮ ﺧﺎﺻﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ؟‬
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 ‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 12 - 1‬ﻣﺴﻴﺮ ﺧﺎﺹ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻤﻰ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻳﻚ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺭﻳﺎﺿﻴﻜﻰ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺒﺎﺭﺯ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺿﻴﻌﺖ ﻭ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺸــﺨﺺ ﻣﻰ ﺳــﺎﺯﺩ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻤــﻰ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﻪ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﻪ ﺑﻮﺭ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻣﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻧﺎﻗﺺ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﺎ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﻮﺍﻗﺺ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﺢ ﻭ ﻭﺿﻌﻴﺖ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺩﻭﺭ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﻤﻚ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ )‪(The principl Cauantum Number‬‬
‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﺟﺴــﺎﻣﺖ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‪ ،‬ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺎﻣ ً‬
‫ﻼ‬
‫ﻣﻌﻴــﻦ ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺗﺎﻡ ﻃﺒﻴﻌــﻰ )‪ (…n=1,2,3,4,5,6,7‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ‪n‬‬
‫ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻫﺮ ﻗﺪﺭ ﻛﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ n‬ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻛﻤﺘﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻣﻬﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﻛﻤﻴــﺖ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻭﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ‪ n‬ﻧﻴﺰﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪− 2π 2me 4 z 2‬‬
‫=‪E‬‬
‫‪n 2h 2‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﻳــﻦ ﻓﻮﺭﻣــﻮﻝ ‪ m‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻭ ‪ e‬ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓــﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺍﺯ ﺣﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺷﺮﻭﺩﻳﻨﻜﺮ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻧﻤﺒـﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘـﻢ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ ﻳﺎ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻮﻯ‪ :‬ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑــﻪ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﻪ ﺑﻮﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﻳﺎ‬
‫ﻗﺸــﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﺩﺍﻳﺮﻩ ﻭﻯ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺍﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﻯ ﮔﺮﺩﺵ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﻭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺑﻴﻀﻮﻯ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺤﺮﺍﻕ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﻣﺪﺍﺭ ﺑﻴﻀﻪ ﻭﻯ ﺷﻜﻞ‪ ،‬ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻧﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺣﺮﻛﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻤﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺪﺍﺭﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻀﻪ ﻭﻯ ﺍﺳــﺘﺜﻨﺎﻳﻰ ﻣﺠﺎﺯ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪،‬ﺑﺪﻳﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺩﻭﻣﻴﻦ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻮﻯ ﻭ ﻳﺎ‬
‫ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ‪ l‬ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ ﻭ ﺿﺮﻳﺐ ﺑﻴﻀﻪ ﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﻣﺪﺍﺭ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘــﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺩﻭﺭﺍﻧﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‪،‬ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺁﻥ ﺣﺘﻤﺎً ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺣﺮﻛﻰ ﺣﺎﺻﻠﻪ‬
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‫ﺍﺯ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺩﻭﺭﺍﻧﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﭘﺲ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ )‪ (p=mv‬ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺣﻴﺮﺕ ﺍﻧﮕﻴﺰ ﻧﻪ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ‪ ،‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ‬
‫ﻣﻮﻣﻨــﺖ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﺎ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻟﻰ ‪ l‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﻨﺤﺼﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ‬
‫‪ n‬ﺩﺍﻧﺴﺘﻪ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻧﻈﺮﻯ ﻭ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻰ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ‪ l‬ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺗﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﺻﻔﺮ ﻭ ‪ n − 1‬ﺑﻪ ﺷﻤﻮﻝ ﺻﻔﺮ ﻭ ‪ n − 1‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪l = 0 − − − − − − − − − − − − − n −1‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ‪ n = 1‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ l ،‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻳﻚ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺁﻥ ﺻﻔﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ‪ n = 2‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪l ،‬‬
‫ﻧﻴﺰ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺩﻭ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺁﻥ ‪ 0‬ﻭ‪ 1‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .....‬ﻭ ﺍﮔﺮ ‪ n − 5‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﻧﻴﺰ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ‪ 5‬ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻭ ﺁﻥ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ‪ 0, 1,2,3,4,‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻣﻘﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻰ‪ :‬ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﻭﻯ ﻳﺎ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺩﻭﺭﺍﻧﻰ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻫﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺑﺮﻕ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﺩﺍﻳﺮﻩ ﻭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪ ،‬ﺗﺸﺒﻪ‬
‫ﻧﻤﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﭼﻮﻥ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺑﺮﻕ ﺩﺭ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺣﻠﻘﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺳــﺎﺣﻪ ﻣﻘﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴــﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ‬
‫ﺣﻠﻘﻪ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺪﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﻳﺮﻩ ﻭﻯ‬
‫ﻧﻴﺰ ﺳﺎﺣﻪ ﻣﻘﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻰ ﻛﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻣﻘﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻰ ‪ ml‬ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﻃــﺮﻑ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ‪ ml‬ﺍﺯ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻮﻣﻨــﺖ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﻭﻯ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻰ ﮔــﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﻟﺬﺍ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﻳﺎ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ‪ ،‬ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻭ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ‪ ml‬ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﺪﺩﻯ ﺗﺎﻡ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺻﻔﺮ ﻭ ‪ + l‬ﻭ ﺻﻔﺮ‪ − l ،‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻤﻮﻝ ﺻﻔﺮ ‪+ l‬‬
‫ﻭ ‪ − l‬ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ ml‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ml‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﻛﻨﺪ‪:‬‬
‫‪ml = +l − − − − − −0 − − − − −l‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺳــﭙﻴﻦ‪ :‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺑﺮ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﺳــﺎﺣﻪ ﻣﻘﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴــﻰ ﺣﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺩﻭﺭﺍﻧﻰ ﺧﻮﺩ‬
‫ﻣﺸــﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴــﻰ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘــﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ‪spin‬‬
‫ﺑــﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻛﻠﻤﻪ ‪ spin‬ﺑــﻪ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﭼﺮﺧﺶ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ﻭ‬
‫ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣﺮﻛــﺖ ﺩﻭﺭﺍﻧﻰ ﻳﻚ ﺫﺭﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻮﺭ ﺧﻮﺩﺵ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﺳﺎﺳﻰ‬
‫ﻼ ﻣﺸــﺨﺺ ﻭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‪ ،‬ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻭ‬ ‫ﻛﺎﻣ ً‬
‫ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ ± 1 spin‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ : ( 13- 1‬ﺷﻜﻞ ﺳﭙﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫‪22‬‬
 ‫ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ l‬ﺭﺍ ‪ ml‬ﻣﺸــﺨﺺ ﻣﻰ ﺳــﺎﺯﺩ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﻳﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺧﺎﺻﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ml ، l‬ﻭ ‪n‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﺳــﻮﻳﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺎﺳــﻰ ﻭ ﺛﺎﺑــﺖ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ‪ l = 0, ml = 0, n = 1 ،‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻳﻚ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺑــﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻼ ﻳﺎﺩ ﺁﻭﺭﻯ‬ ‫ﺗﻮﺍﻧــﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴــﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﺑــﻮﺩﻩ ﻃﻮﺭﻳﻜﻪ ﻗﺒ ً‬
‫‪ml = 2l + 1‬‬ ‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ ml = 2l + 1‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﻳﻌﻨﻰ‪:‬‬
‫‪l=0‬‬
‫‪ml = 2 ⋅ 0 + 1 = 1‬‬
‫‪ml = + l − − − − − 0 − − − − l‬‬
‫‪ml = +0 − − − 0 − − − − − − − 0‬‬
‫‪ml = 0‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﻻﺧﺮﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ ml , l , n‬ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ spin‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ‪ 1‬ﻭ ‪ 1‬ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫‪−‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪S =+‬‬ ‫‪, −‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ‪ l = 1‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ml‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺳﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ‪ 1- , 0 , 1+‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪l =1‬‬
‫‪ml = 2l + 1‬‬ ‫⇒‬ ‫‪ml = 2 ⋅ 1 + 1 = 3‬‬
‫‪ml = + l − − − − − 0 − − − − − l‬‬
‫‪ml = +1, 0 , − 1‬‬ ‫⇒‬
‫پ‬
‫ﺱ‬ ‫‪ml = +1 − − − − − 0 − − − −1‬‬
‫ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﺵ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺷﻤﺎ‬
‫‪ Orbital‬ﻛﻠﻤﻪ ﻻﺗﻴﻦ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﻻﻧﻪ ﻳﺎ ﺁﺷﻴﺎﻧﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻨﺤﺎ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻛﺎﺭ ﺭﻓﺘﻪ ﻭ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺣﺘﻤﺎﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ‪ 95%‬ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ .‬ﺍﺣﺘﻤﺎﻝ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻟﺤﻈﻪ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻰ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺎﺣﻪ ﻓﻀﺎﻯ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ ‪ 5%‬ﺭﺍ ﺍﺣﺘﻮﺍ ﻣﻰ ﻛﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻗﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﻭﻓﺮﻋﻰ‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﻫﺮ ﻧﻤﺒﺮﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺣﺮﻭﻑ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ )ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ( ‪.‬‬
‫=‪n‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪6 7‬‬
‫‪K‬‬ ‫‪L‬‬ ‫‪M‬‬ ‫‪N‬‬ ‫‪O‬‬ ‫‪P Q‬‬
‫‪23‬‬
 ‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻄﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ‬
‫= ‪ n‬ﺭﺍ ﺭﺳﻢ ﻭﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪6 7‬‬
‫‪K‬‬ ‫‪L‬‬ ‫‪M‬‬ ‫‪N‬‬ ‫‪O‬‬ ‫‪P Q‬‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﻫﺮ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﻭﻑ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﻛﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ‬ ‫‪0 1 2 3 4‬‬
‫ﺳﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ‬ ‫‪s p d f‬‬ ‫‪g‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺮ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ ml‬ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻃﺔ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺣﺪﺍﻋﻈﻤﻰ‬
‫ﮔﻨﺠﺎﻳﺶ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺻﺮﻑ ﺩﻭ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺑﺎ ﺳﭙﻴﻦ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﭼﺮﺧﺶ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻣﺤﻮﺭ ﺧﻮﺩﺵ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻘﺮ ﺑﺔ ﺳﺎﻋﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﺳﭙﻴﻦ‬
‫ﺁﻥ ‪ − 1‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﺑﺎ ﻋﻘﺮ ﺑﺔ ﺳــﺎﻋﺖ ﭼﺮﺧﺶ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪ ،‬ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﺳــﭙﻴﻦ ﺁﻥ‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪ + 1‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻨﺪﻭﻗﭽﻪ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪.‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻫﺮﺳﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ‪ n 2‬ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻋﻈﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ‪ 2n 2‬ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺟﺎ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﺎﻟﻰ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻜﻤﻴﻞ ﻧﻤﺎﺑﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻗﺸﺎﺭ‬ ‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ)‪(n‬‬ ‫‪2n 2‬‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫‪K‬‬ ‫‪n=1‬‬
‫‪2(1) 2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪L‬‬ ‫‪n=2‬‬ ‫‪------------‬‬ ‫‪-----------------‬‬
‫‪M‬‬ ‫‪n=3‬‬ ‫‪------------‬‬ ‫‪-----------------‬‬
‫‪N‬‬ ‫‪n=4‬‬ ‫‪------------‬‬ ‫‪-----------------‬‬
‫‪O‬‬ ‫‪n=5‬‬ ‫‪------------‬‬ ‫‪-----------------‬‬
‫ﺣﺎﻟــﺖ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﻭﺣﺮﻭﻑ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻃــﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ‬
‫ﺍﺻﻠــﻰ ﺁﻧﻬــﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺭﺍﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼــﭗ ﺣﺮﻓﻰ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺳــﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ 3p :‬ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺳــﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﺻﻠﻲ ﺳــﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ‪ p‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭ‬
‫‪24‬‬
‫ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺁﻥ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ » ﺩﻣﺒﻞ « ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ s‬ﻛﺮﻭﻯ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻭﺷــﻜﻞ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪ d‬ﻭ‪ f‬ﻣﻐﻠﻖ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﺑﺮگ ﻫﺎﻯ ﮔﻞ ﺻﺪ ﺑﺮگ ﻭﻳﺎ‬
‫ﻣﺮﺳﻞ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻫﻤﺪﻳﮕﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﻭﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﻛﻨﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 3 – 1‬ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﻭﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‪:‬‬
‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﮔﺎﻧﻪ‬ ‫ﺣﺎﻟﺖ‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ‬ ‫‪n+l‬‬
‫‪n‬‬ ‫‪l‬‬ ‫‪ml‬‬ ‫‪s‬‬ ‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ‬
‫‪1 1‬‬ ‫‪s‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪+ ,−‬‬
‫‪2 2‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪// //‬‬ ‫‪s‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪+1‬‬ ‫‪0 -1‬‬ ‫‪// //‬‬ ‫‪p‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪// //‬‬ ‫‪s‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪+ 1,0,−1‬‬ ‫‪// //‬‬ ‫‪p‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬
‫‪// //‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪+ 2,+1,0,−1,−2‬‬ ‫‪d‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪// //‬‬ ‫‪s‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪+ 1,0,−1‬‬ ‫‪// //‬‬ ‫‪p‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬
‫‪// //‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪+ 2,+1,0,−1,−2‬‬ ‫‪d‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪// //‬‬ ‫‪f‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬
‫‪+ 3,+2,+1,0,−1,−2,−3‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺍﮔــﺮ ‪ n = 5‬ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻤﻜﻨﺔ ‪، s ، ml ، l‬ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜــﻰ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻭ ‪ n + l‬ﻗﺸﺮ ‪ O‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 6- 1‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‬
‫ﭘﺮ ﺷﺪﻥ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻭﻻً ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻥ ﺳــﻮﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻄﺢ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭﺑﻪ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﻭﭘﺮﻧﺴﻴﺐ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﺑﺎ ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻃﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪25‬‬
 ‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ (7 -1‬ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﺳﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺳﻠﺴــﻠﺔ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺗﻘﺴــﻴﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺳــﻮﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻤﺎﺕ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫‪26‬‬
 ‫ﻗﺎﻋﺪﻩ ﻫﻮﻧﺪ ‪Hunds Rule‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻋﻴﻦ ﺳــﻮﻳﻪ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ ﺭﺍ ﻃﻮﺭﻱ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨــﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻱ‬
‫ﻋﺪﺩﻱ ‪ Spin‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﻋﻈﻤﻲ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ﻳﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﻩ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻭﻻً ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺳــﻮﻳﻪ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻃﺎﻓﻪ ﺑﺎ ‪ Spin‬ﻫﻢ ﺟﻬﺖ ﭘﺮ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺗﻲ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻲ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺷﺪﻥ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺎ ‪ Spin‬ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺖ ﺁﻏﺎﺯﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺩﺭﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻄﻠﺐ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫↓↑‬ ‫↓↑‬ ‫↑ ↑ ↑‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪N‬‬ ‫‪±1‬‬ ‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺳﭙﻴﻦ‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪1s 2‬‬ ‫‪2s 2‬‬ ‫‪2 p3‬‬
‫‪O‬‬ ‫↓↑‬ ‫↓↑‬ ‫↓↑‬ ‫↑ ↑‬
‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺳﭙﻴﻦ ‪± 1‬‬
‫‪1s 2‬‬ ‫‪2s 2‬‬ ‫‪2p 4‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺳﭙﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪46‬‬ ‫‪Pd, 25 Mn,19 K, 26 Fe‬‬
‫ﻗﺎﻋﺪﻩ ﻛﻠﭽﻜﻮ ﻓﺴﻜﻲ) ‪( Klechkows Skyis Rule‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺑﻌﻀﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﭘﺮ ﺷــﺪﻥ ﺳــﻮﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻲ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻃﻮﺭﻱ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﻲ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻫﻨﻮﺯ ﭘﺮﺷــﺪﻥ ﺳــﻮﻳﻪ ﻗﺒﻠﻲ ﻭﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻧﻪ‬
‫ﮔﺮﻓﺘــﻪ ‪،‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺳــﻮﻳﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻲ ﺑﻌﺪﻱ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ 4S‬ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻲ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﭘﺮ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻫﻨﻮﺯ ‪ 3d‬ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻧﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ‪ 5S‬ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﺯ ‪ 4d‬ﻭ ‪ 4F‬ﻭ ﻫﻢ ‪ 6S‬ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﺯ ‪ 5d‬ﻭ ‪ 4F‬ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻛﻠﭽﻜﻮﻓﺴﻜﻲ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﻭﺿﻊ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻭﻷ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺁ ﻥ ﺳﻮ ﻳﺔ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ‬
‫ﻫــﺎﻱ ﻋﺪﺩﻱ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﺻﻠﻲ ‪ n‬ﻭ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ ‪ (n + l ) l‬ﺁﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺗﻲ ﻛﻪ‬
‫) ‪ (n + l‬ﺩﻭ ﺳــﻮﻳﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻭﻻً ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺁﻥ ﺳﻮ ﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻋﺪﺩﻱ ‪ n‬ﺁﻥ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ )‪ (l ≤ n − 1‬ﺭﻋﺎﻳﺖ‬ ‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻲ‬
‫ﻣﻲ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s‬‬ ‫‪4f 5d 6p‬‬ ‫ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪n+l‬‬
‫‪27‬‬
 ‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ ﺍﻭﻝ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻭ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﻛﻠﭽﻜﻮﻓﺴﻜﻲ‬
‫ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻭﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫‪90‬‬ ‫‪Th 3 Li , 4 Be ,5 B,‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪P‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ ﺩﻭﻡ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﺎ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﺎﻟﻰ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﭘﺮ ﻧﻤﺎ ﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻋﻨـــﺼﺮ‬ ‫ﺳــــــــــــﺎﺧــــــــــــﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‬
‫ﺳﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻭﻝ‬ ‫ﺳﻮﻳﺔ ﺩﻭﻡ‬ ‫ﺳﻮﻳﺔﺳﻮﻡ‬
‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫\\\\\\\\\\\‬ ‫\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\‬
‫‪He‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫\\\\\\\\\\\‬ ‫\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\‬
‫‪Li‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\‬
‫‪C‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\‬
‫‪Ne‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\‬
‫‪Mg‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪S‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪Ar‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪28‬‬
 ‫ﺧﻼﺻﻪ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﻭﻝ‬
‫* ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ 400‬ﻕ ﻡ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧــﺎﻡ ﺩﻳﻤﻮﻛﺮﺍﺗﺲ ﺍﺑﺮﺍﺯ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ‪ :‬ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﭼﻨﺎﻥ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺗﻘﺴــﻴﻢ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻑ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻳﺎﺩ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪.‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ﻳﻮﻧﺎﻧﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ‪) tom‬ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ( ﻭ‪) A‬ﻧﻔﻲ ( ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ُ‬
‫* ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 1808‬ﺩﺍﻟﺘــﻮﻥ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻨﻴﺎﻥ ﮔﺬﺍﺷــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻃﺒﻖ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻴــﻮﺭﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﺯ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﺭﺩ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ‪:‬‬
‫* ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻭﺳﺎﻳﻞ ﺳﺎﺩﺓ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﻧﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻋﻴﻦ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺍﻳﻤﺎً ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺳــﺮﻋﺖ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻭﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﺯ ﻟﺤﺎﻅ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﻭ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺩﻭﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻭﻗﺸﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬
‫ﺗﺎﻣﺴﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﺸﻒ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺭﺍﺩﺭ ﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻭﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻫﺴﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺭﺍﻣﺤﺎﺳــﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻩ ﻭﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻫﺴﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺩﺍﺭ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻑ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﭼﺎﺩﻭﻳﻚ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻫﺴﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﺸﻒ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻑ ﻃﺒﻖ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻫﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺫﻳﻞ ‪ ،‬ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
‫⎯ ‪Be+ 24He‬‬
‫‪⎯→126C + 01n‬‬
‫* ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻭﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻧﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫= ‪ V‬ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ‬ ‫* ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ‪Kze 2P‬‬
‫‪nh‬‬
‫‪nh‬‬
‫‪ r = mKze 2 4P 2‬ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫* ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺩﻯ – ﺑﺮﻭﮔﻠﻰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪h‬‬
‫=‪L‬‬
‫‪mv‬‬
‫* ﻭﺿﻌﻴﺖ ﻭﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ‪ :‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺟﺴﺎﻣﺖ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ‪ ،‬ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻭﺳﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻗﺸﺎﺭ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﻧﻤﺒــﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘــﻢ ﻓﺮﻋــﻰ ‪ :‬ﺍﻳــﻦ ﻧﻤﺒــﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻭﺿﻌﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘــﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻫﺴــﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﺎﺕ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺸﺴــﺨﺺ ﻣﻰ ﺳــﺎﺯﺩ ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺎﻣ ً‬
‫ﻼ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺍﻋــﺪﺍﺩ ﺗﺎﻡ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺻﻔﺮ ﻭ ‪n − 1‬‬
‫)‪ (l = 0 − − − − − − − − − n − 1‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻣﻘﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴــﻰ ‪ :‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻭﺿﻌﻴﺖ ﻭﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﻣﻘﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴــﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻫﺴــﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻰ ﺩﻫﺪ ﻭﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ ml = 2l + 1‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺗﺎﻡ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺻﻔﺮ ﻭ ‪ 0 − − − − − l , 0 − − − − + l‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺤﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺪﺍﺭ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﻳﺮﻩ ﻭﻯ ﺳــﺎﺣﺔ ﻣﻘﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴــﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ‬
‫ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻣﻘﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺳــﭙﻴﻦ ‪ :‬ﺳــﭙﻴﻦ )‪ (Spin‬ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ﻻﺗﻴﻦ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﭼﺮﺧﺶ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺟﺎ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﺭﻓﺘﻪ ﻭﭼﺮﺧﺶ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻣﺤﻮﺭ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺷــﺎﻥ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﭼﺮﺧﺶ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻣﺤﻮﺭ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺷــﺎﻥ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻤﻰ ﻣﺸــﺨﺺ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ‬
‫ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺳــﭙﻴﻦ ﻳﺎﺩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻣﺎﻳﻜﺮﻭ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ ms = + 1 , − 1‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ )‪ :( Orbital‬ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ﻻﺗﻴﻦ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﻯ ﻻﻧﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﺭﻓﺘﻪ ﻭ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﻓﻀﺎﻯ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺣﺘﻤﺎﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺁﻥ ‪ 95%‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﻗﺎﻋــﺪﺓ ﭘﺎﻭﻟــﻰ ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻧﻤــﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻳﻚ ﺳــﺎﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ‬
‫* ﻗﺎﻋــﺪﺓ ﻫﻮﻧﺪ ‪ :‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻴﻦ ﺳــﻮﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﺪﺩﻯ ﺳﭙﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﻋﻈﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪30‬‬
‫* ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﻛﻠﭽﻜﻮﻓﺴــﻜﻰ ‪ :‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﻭﻻً ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻥ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬
‫ﻛــﻪ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﺪﺩﻯ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ )‪ (n‬ﻭﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ ) ‪ (l‬ﺁﻥ ) ‪(n + l‬‬
‫ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ) ‪ (n + l‬ﺩﻭﻳﺎ ﭼﻨﺪ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻥ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ n‬ﺁﻥ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﻮﺍﻻﺕ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﻭﻝ‬
‫ﺳـﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺟﻮﺍﺑﻪ ‪ :‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻫﺮ ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭﺳﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺷﻤﺎ ﺩﺭﺳﺖ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺏ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﺫﺭﺓ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﻭﻟﻴﻦ ﺑﺎﺭ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻛﺮﺩ ؟‬
‫ﺩ – ﺭﺍﺩﺭ ﻓﻮﺭﺩ‬ ‫ﺏ – ﺩﻳﻤﻮﻛﺮﺍﺕ ﺝ – ﺍﺭﺳﻄﻮ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺷﺘﻘﺎﻕ ﻳﺎﻓﺘﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫ﺝ – ﺍﻟــﻒ ﻭ ﺏ ﻫــﺮﺩﻭ ﺩﺭﺳــﺖ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺩ –‬ ‫ﺍﻟــﻒ – ‪) Tom‬ﺗﻘﺴــﻴﻢ ( ﺏ – ‪) A‬ﻧﻔــﻰ (‬
‫ﻫﻴﭽﻜﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﺑﻨﻴﺎﻥ ﮔﺬﺍﺭ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻯ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫ﺝ – ﺭﺍﺩﺭ ﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﺩ – ﺗﺎﻣﺴﻦ‬ ‫ﺏ ‪ -‬ﺩﻳﻤﻮﻛﺮﺍﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺍﺭﺳﻄﻮ‬
‫‪ – 4‬ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻭﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﻫﺴﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﺏ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ؟‬
‫ﺩ – ﺳﻮﺩﻯ‬ ‫ﺏ – ﭼﺎﺩﻭﻳﻚ ﺝ – ﺭﺍﺩﺭ ﻓﻮﺭﺩ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻣﻮﺯﻟﻰ‬
‫‪ – 5‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻫﺴﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ ؟‬
‫‪nh‬‬ ‫‪h‬‬ ‫‪Kze 2P‬‬
‫= ‪ V‬ﺏ ‪ V = mv -‬ﺝ ‪ V = mKze 2 4P 2 -‬ﺩ – ﻫﻴﭽﻜﺪﺍﻡ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪-‬‬
‫‪nh‬‬
‫‪ – 6‬ﺍﮔﺮ ‪ n=3‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ l‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﻧﺪ ﺍﺯ‪:‬‬
‫ﺏ – ﺩﻭﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﺝ – ﻳﻚ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﺩ – ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎً ﻏﻠﻂ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﺳﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ‬
‫‪ – 7‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ‪ 26‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﺪﺩﻯ ﺳﭙﻴﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫ﺩ‪1 -‬‬ ‫ﺝ‪3 -‬‬ ‫‪+‬ﺏ – ‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪, − -‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ ml‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ‪ ------‬ﺍﺳﺖ‬ ‫‪l =3‬‬ ‫‪ - 8‬ﺍﮔﺮ‬
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 ‫ﺩ – ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﻧﺪﺍﺭﺩ‬ ‫ﺝ ‪ -‬ﻫﻔﺖ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ‬ ‫ﺏ ‪ -‬ﺩﻭﻗﻴﻤﺖ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺳﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ‬
‫‪ – 9‬ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ ﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺮﺩ ؟‬
‫= ‪ L‬ﺩ – ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎً‬ ‫‪nh‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫ﺝ‬ ‫‪h‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫ﺏ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪Kze 2P -‬‬
‫‪L‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪L‬‬ ‫=‬
‫‪mKze 2 4P 2‬‬ ‫‪mv‬‬ ‫‪nh‬‬
‫‪ – 10‬ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﻧﺪ ؟‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺫﺭﺓ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﺏ‪ -‬ﺫﺭﺓ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ‪ ،‬ﺝ – ﺫﺭﺓ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ‪ ،‬ﺩ‪ -‬ﺫﺭﺓ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺩﺍﺭﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻭﻣﻨﻔﻰ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﺻﺤﻴﺢ ﻭﻏﻠﻂ ‪:‬ﺟﻤﻼﺕ ﺻﺤﻴﺢ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻪ )ﺹ( ﻭﻏﻠﻂ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ )ﻍ ( ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻰ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫(‬ ‫‪ –1‬ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﺯ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪) .‬‬
‫‪e‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺗﺎﻣﺴــﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮ ﻛﺘﻠــﻪ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ) ( ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ‬
‫‪m‬‬
‫(‬ ‫‪ 1.76 Cb kg‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﺪﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ ‪).‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﭼﺎﺩﻳﻚ )‪ (Chadwick‬ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ‪ 1932‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻫﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻛﺸﻒ‬
‫(‬ ‫ﻛﺮﺩ‪) ،‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﻳﻚ ﺳﺎﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ) (‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﻃﺒﻖ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺖ ﻧﻮﺭ ﺑﺎ ﻓﺮﻳﻜﻮﻧﺴــﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ‪.‬‬
‫) (‬
‫(‬ ‫‪ - 6‬ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﭘﻼﻧﻚ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ )‪ (Cuentization‬ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪) .‬‬
‫(‬ ‫‪ - 7‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﺯ ﻟﺤﺎﻅ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﻭ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻓﺮﻕ ﻧﺪﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪).‬‬
‫‪ - 8‬ﺁﻥ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﻓﻀﺎﻯ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺣﺘﻤﺎﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ‪ 95%‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪( ) .‬‬
‫‪ - 9‬ﻧﻤﺒــﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘــﻢ ﺍﺻﻠــﻰ ﻭﺿﻌﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫــﺎﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻫﺴــﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﺎﺕ ﻣﺸــﺨﺺ‬
‫(‬ ‫ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ )‬
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 ‫ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﺤﻰ‪:‬‬
‫‪h‬‬
‫= ‪ L‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ – 1‬ﺛﺒﻮﺕ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ﻛﻪ‬
‫‪mv‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺨﺘﺼﺮﺍ ً ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‬
‫‪nh‬‬
‫= ‪ r‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ - 3‬ﺛﺒﻮﺕ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ﻛﻪ‬
‫‪mKze 2 4P 2‬‬
‫‪ – 4‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﻧﻤﺒﺮﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ‪ 82‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻭﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺑﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻭﮔﺮﻭپ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺳﺎﺯﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 5‬ﻃــﻮﻝ ﻣــﻮﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﺘــﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟــﻦ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺤﺎﺳــﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳــﺪ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺳــﺮﻋﺖ ﺁﻥ‬
‫‪ V = 2200km / sec‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪( n=1 ) .‬‬
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 ‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﺩﻭﻡ‬
‫ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻭ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﻳﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﺁﻳــﺎ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌــﺔ ﺧــﻮﺍﺹ ﻫﺮ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺟﺪﺍ ﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﻣﺸــﻜﻞ ﻧــﻪ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ ؟‬
‫ﭼﺮﺍ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻭﺑﻪ ﻣﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻣﺪ ؟ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫ﭘﺎﺭﺍﻣﺘﺮﻫــﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﮔﺮﻓﺖ ؟ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﭼﻪ‬
‫ﺭﻭﻝ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؟ ﺑﻼﻙ ﻫﺎ ‪ ،‬ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻓﻜﺘﻮﺭ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺳﺎﺳــﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻭﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﻭﮔﺮﻭﭘﻬﺎﻯ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ؟‬
‫ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﺣﻞ ﺳﺆﺍﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻭﺍﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﺭﺍﺟﻊ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ : 1 – 2‬ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﭽﺔ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻃﺒﻌﻴــﺖ ‪ 90‬ﻋﻨﺼــﺮ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻭ ﻣﺘﺒﺎﻗﻰ ﻣﺼﻨﻮﻋﻲ ﻛﺸــﻒ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻧﺴــﺘﻦ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ‬
‫ﻭﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭﺟﺪﺍﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﻣﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻱ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﺳﻌﻲ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺁﻭﺭﺩﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺪ ﺗﺎ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ ﻃﻮﺭﻱ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺍﻧﺴــﺘﻦ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻳﻜﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﺪﺓ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺩﺍﻧﺴﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 1865‬ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﺩﺍﻥ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴــﻲ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻧﻴﻮﻟﻴﻨﺪﺯ)‪ (Newlands‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﺸــﻒ ﺷﺪﺓ ﺯ ﻣﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺍﺯﺩ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻰ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻗﻄﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺍﻓﻘﻰ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻭ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺷــﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻫﺸــﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺍﻭﻝ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺁﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ‬
‫ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺷــﻤﺎﺭﻩ ﻧﻬﻢ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺷﻤﺎﺭﻩ ﺩﻭﻡ‪ ---‬ﻏﻴﺮﻩ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﮔﺮﻓﺖ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻼ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﻭﻛﺘﺎﻱ ﻧﻴﻮﻟﻨﺪﺯ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ(‪ .‬ﺟﺪﻭﻝ‬‫ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﻚ ﺳﺘﻮﻥ ﻋﻤﻮﺩﻱ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺩ )ﻛﻪ ﻓﻌ ً‬
‫ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ (1 – 2‬ﺍﻭﻛﺘﺎﻯ ﻧﻴﻮﻟﻴﻨﺪﺯ‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬
‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪Li‬‬ ‫‪Be‬‬ ‫‪B‬‬ ‫‪C‬‬ ‫‪N‬‬ ‫‪O‬‬
‫‪F Na‬‬ ‫‪Mg‬‬ ‫‪Al‬‬ ‫‪Si‬‬ ‫‪P‬‬ ‫‪S‬‬
‫‪Cl‬‬ ‫‪K‬‬ ‫‪Ca‬‬ ‫‪Cr‬‬ ‫‪Ti Mn‬‬ ‫‪Fe‬‬
‫ﻧﻴﻮﻟﻨــﺪﺯ ﺍﻭﻛﺘﺎﻱ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻭﻛﺘﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﻮﺯﻳﻚ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴــﻪ ﻧﻤــﻮﺩ ﻭ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﻤﻨﺪﻱ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ )‪ (Octave‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﺔ ﻧﻴﻮﻟﻨﺪﺯ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺪﻟﻞ ﻭ ﻧﺎ ﻣﻮﻓﻖ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻱ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺻﺮﻑ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ‪ 1869‬ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺭﻭﺳﻲ ‪ D. M. Mendelev‬ﻣﻔﻜﻮﺭﺓ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺭﺍ ﭘﻴﺸﻨﻬﺎ ﺩ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ ،1‬ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻑ‬
‫ﻧﻴﺰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﺸــﻒ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻲ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻗﻄﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﻱ‬
‫ﺍﻓﻘﻲ )‪ (Period‬ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻭ ﺩﺭﺳــﺘﻮﻧﻬﺎﻱ ﻋﻤﻮﺩﻱ ﻣﺘﺤﺪ ﺳــﺎﺧﺖ‪،‬ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻑ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ‬
‫‪ -١‬ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺟﺮﻣﻨﻲ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ‪ Moier .l‬ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ‪ 27، 1864‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻭ‬
‫ﺑﻌﺪﺍ ً ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺑﻪ ﭘﻨﺞ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﻛﻪ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ‪ 3‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺣﺘﻮﺍ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻭ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ‪ 1870‬ﺍﺩﻋﺎ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
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‫ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺧﻮﺩﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﻴﺴــﺘﻢ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺷﺪﺓ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻧﻴﻮﻟﻴﻨﺪﺯ ﺗﻜﻤﻴﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫)ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ‪ 1871‬ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ(‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 2 – 2‬ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﺑﺘﻜﺎﺭ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﻳﻰ‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﻣﻨــﺪ ﻟﻴﻒ ﺳﻠﺴــﻠﻪ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻃﻮﻳﻞ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑــﺰﺭگ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻱ‬
‫ﻼ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ )‪ (Transational‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﺷــﻮﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﺖ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺑﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺮﮔﺰﻳــﺪﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻓﻌ ً‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ‪ Fe، Mn , Ti‬ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ‪ Si, P, S‬ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻧﻤﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫)ﺷﻜﻞ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻭﻛﺘﺎﻱ ﻧﻴﻮﻟﻴﻨﺪﺯ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ(‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺷﺪﺓ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺧﺎﻟﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﺸﻒ ﻧﺎ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻗﻲ ﮔﺬﺍﺷــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﺘﻮﺟﻪ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺭﺳﻨﻴﻚ ‪ As‬ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺮﻭپ ‪ V‬ﺗﻌﻠﻖ‬
‫ﮔﺮﻓﺖ ‪ .‬ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﻣﺬ ﻛﻮﺭ ﺩﻭ ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﺧﺎﻟﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺟﺴﺖ ‪ Zn‬ﻭ ﺍﺭﺳﻨﻴﻚ ‪ As‬ﺑﺎﻗﻲ ﮔﺬﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻲ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻴﺴــﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﺷــﺎﻥ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﮔــﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻫﻢ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺷــﺎﻥ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﻧﻤﻲ ﻛــﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ‬
‫ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﻫﻤﭽﻮ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻲ ﺟﺪ ﻳﺪﻱ ﺭﺍ ﭘﻴﺸــﻨﻬﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ )‪Cr, In, Pt,‬‬
‫‪ (Au‬ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺟﺪ ﻳﺪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻲ ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺻﺤﺖ ﺍﺳــﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ‬
‫ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺗﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
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‫‪ - 4‬ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﻛﺸــﻒ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻱ ﺭﺍ ﭘﻴﺸــﮕﻮﻱ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺸــﻒ ﺑﻌﻀﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺟﺎﻫﺎﻱ‬
‫ﺧﺎﻟﻲ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻧﺪ ؛ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺍﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻨﺪ ﻟﻴﻒ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺁﻥ ﺻﺤﻪ ﮔﺬﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﭼﻄﻮﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺳﻪ ﺑﻌﺪﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ ؟‬
‫ﻣﺮﺣﻠــﻪ ﺍﻭﻝ ‪ :‬ﺍﺑﺘــﺪﺍ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺭﻭﻯ ﻛﺎﻏﺬ ﻣﻘﻮﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﺮ ﮔﺮﻭپ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻘﻮﺍ ﺟﺪﺍ ﺳﺎﺯﻳﺪ‬
‫‪IA‬‬ ‫‪VIIIA‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪IIA‬‬ ‫‪IIIA IVA VA‬‬ ‫‪VIA VIIA‬‬ ‫‪He‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪Li‬‬ ‫‪Be‬‬ ‫‪B‬‬ ‫‪C‬‬ ‫‪N‬‬ ‫‪O‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪Ne‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪Na‬‬ ‫‪Mg‬‬ ‫‪Al‬‬ ‫‪Si‬‬ ‫‪P‬‬ ‫‪S‬‬ ‫‪Cl‬‬ ‫‪Ar‬‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪K‬‬ ‫‪Ca‬‬ ‫‪Ga‬‬ ‫‪Ge‬‬ ‫‪As‬‬ ‫‪Se‬‬ ‫‪Br‬‬ ‫‪Kr‬‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪Rb‬‬ ‫‪Sr‬‬ ‫‪In‬‬ ‫‪Sn‬‬ ‫‪Sb‬‬ ‫‪Te‬‬ ‫‪I‬‬ ‫‪Xe‬‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪Cs‬‬ ‫‪Ba‬‬ ‫‪Ti‬‬ ‫‪Pb‬‬ ‫‪Bi‬‬ ‫‪Po‬‬ ‫‪At‬‬ ‫‪Rn‬‬
‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪Fr‬‬ ‫‪Ra‬‬
‫ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺩﻭﻡ‪ :‬ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﺣﺎﺷﻴﺔ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﺣﺎﺷﻴﺔ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺸﺘﻢ ﻭﺻﻞ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ﻭ ﻳﻚ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻫﺸﺖ ﺿﻠﻌﻰ ﺭﺍﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﻳﺪ ؛ﺣﺘﻰ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻴﺪ ﺧﺎﻧﺔ ﻫﺮ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﺭﻧﮓ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﺰﻳﻦ ﺳﺎﺯﻳﺪ‬
‫‪ .‬ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺳﻮﻡ‪ :‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺩﺭﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎ ﻭﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻘﻮﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ‬
‫ﻭﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺩﻭﻡ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺩﻭﺍﺯﺩﻩ ﺿﻠﻌﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻴﺪ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪IIIB‬‬ ‫‪IVB‬‬ ‫‪VB‬‬ ‫‪VIB‬‬ ‫‪VIIB‬‬ ‫‪VIIIB‬‬ ‫‪IB‬‬ ‫‪IIB‬‬
‫‪Sc‬‬ ‫‪Ti‬‬ ‫‪V‬‬ ‫‪Cr‬‬ ‫‪Mn‬‬ ‫‪Fe‬‬ ‫‪Co‬‬ ‫‪Ni‬‬ ‫‪Cu‬‬ ‫‪Zn‬‬
‫‪Y‬‬ ‫‪Zr‬‬ ‫‪Nb‬‬ ‫‪Mo‬‬ ‫‪Tc‬‬ ‫‪Ru‬‬ ‫‪Rh‬‬ ‫‪Pd‬‬ ‫‪Ag‬‬ ‫‪Cd‬‬
‫‪La‬‬ ‫‪Hf‬‬ ‫‪Ta‬‬ ‫‪W‬‬ ‫‪Re‬‬ ‫‪Os‬‬ ‫‪Ir‬‬ ‫‪Pt‬‬ ‫‪Au‬‬ ‫‪Hg‬‬
‫ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ ‪ :‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻟﻨﺘﻨﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ ﻭﺍﻛﺘﻴﻨﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻔﺤﺔ ﻣﻘﻮﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣــﻮﺍﺩ ﺁﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺷــﺪﺓ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺬ ﻛﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺨﺘﺔ ﺷﻴﺸــﻪ ﻳــﻰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺩﻫﻴﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ‬
‫ﺣﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻄﺎﺑــﻖ ﺑــﻪ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ‪ :‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﻨــﺎﺹ ﻭ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻫﺎ ﺗﻌﻴﻦ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺯﻣﺎﻧــﻲ ﻛﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺠﻴﺐ )ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ VIII‬ﺍﺻﻠﻲ ( ﻛﺸــﻒ ﮔﺮﺩﻳــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻭﻗﺖ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻑ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻴﺎﻥ ﺑﺮﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ‬
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‫ﺷــﺪ‪ .‬ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺠﻴﺒﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﻪ ﻛﺸﻔﻴﺎﺕ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ‬
‫‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﻠﻮﺟﻦ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ )ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻲ( ﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ I‬ﺍﺻﻠﻲ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻛﻪ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺟﺪﺍﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﺻﻔﺮﻱ )‪ VIII‬ﺍﺻﻠﻰ( ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪،‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻲ ‪ Ar‬ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﺑﻌﺪﻱ ﺁﻥ ﻛﻪ ﭘﻮﺗﺎﺷﻴﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ I‬ﺍﺻﻠﻲ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪ ،‬ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ (amuK=39, amu Ar = 40)،‬ﺑﻨﺎ ًء ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺍﺭﮔﻮﻥ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﭘﻮﺗﺎﺷــﻴﻢ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﺷﺖ ﻭ ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ‪ K‬ﺩﺭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺻﻔﺮﻱ ﺑﺎ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺠﻴﺒﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﻓﺖ ؛‬
‫ﺍﻣﺎ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻲ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻤﻞ‬
‫ﻧﻪ ﺁﻭﺭﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻠﻜﻪ ﺗﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ ﻭ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻋﻴﻦ ﮔﺮﻭپ‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﭼﻨﺎﻧﭽﻪ ‪ K‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺍﺻﻠﻲ ﻭ ‪ Ar‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺻﻔﺮ)‪ VIII‬ﺍﺻﻠﻲ ( ﺑﺎ‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺠﻴﺒــﻪ ﻗــﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻪ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ‪ ،‬ﻓﻠﺰ ﻓﻌــﺎﻝ ﻭ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻧﺠﻴﺒﻪ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ‬
‫ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺍﻳﻮﺩﻳﻦ ﻭ ﺗﻠﻮﺭﻳﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺩﺍﺩﻥ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳــﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺗﻠﻮﺭﻳﻢ ﺗﺤــﺖ ﺑﺮﻭﻣﻴﻦ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻠﻮﺟﻦ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻭﺁﻳﻮﺩﻳﻦ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺳﻠﻔﺮ ﻭﺳﻠﻴﻨﻴﻢ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﻓﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺗﻠﻮﺭﻳﻢ ﻭ ﺁﻳﻮﺩﻳﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺣﻜﻢ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﭘﺮﺍﺑﻠﻢ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﺯﻟﻲ ‪ Moseley‬ﺩﺭﺳﺎﻝ‬
‫‪ 1916‬ﺣﻞ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻑ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﻋﺎﻟﻲ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ )ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﻬﺎ( ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻲ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﻳــﻲ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ ﺟﺬﺭ ﻣﺮﺑﻊ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺝ ﺍﺷــﻌﺔ ﺭﻭﻧﺘﻴﮕﻴــﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺒﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺳﻴﺴــﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﺑﻪ ﺷﮕﻞ ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻭ ﺍﺑﺮﺍﺯ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺒﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻳﻜﻲ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﻣﻬﻢ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻨﻌﻜﺲ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺭﺍ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺴﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺗﺒﺎﺭﺯ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﺎ ﻋﺒﻮﺭ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﺓ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﻣﻴﻴﺎﺑﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﺸﻒ ﻣﻮﺯﻟﻲ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﺑﻌﺪﻱ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ‬
‫ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺳﻴﺴــﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺧﺪﻣﺖ ﺑﺰﺭﮔﻰ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻴﺴــﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﺯﺩ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﺷﺎﻥ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺮ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺳﻴﺴــﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻳﻜﻲ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻋﻤﻮﺩﻯ ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺘﻮﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺳــﺘﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻋﻤﻮﺩﻱ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻱ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ ﻣﺸــﺎﺑﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺳﺘﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻱ‬
‫ﻋﻤــﻮﺩﻱ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﮔﺮﻭپ )‪ (Group‬ﻭ ﻗﻄﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺍﻓﻘﻲ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ‬
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 ‫ﻫﺎ )‪ (Periods‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻃﻮﻳﻞ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ )‪ (Transitional Elements‬ﺷــﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺳﻠﺴــﻠﻪ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺘﺮﻭﺍﻝ ﺗﻜﺮﺍﺭ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺠﻴﺒﻪ ‪ 2 ,10 ,36 ,54‬ﻭ ‪ 86‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻨﺎً ﺧﻮﺍﺹ‬
‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺘﺮﻭﺍﻝ ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻲ ﺭﺳﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺠﻴﺒﻪ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ ) ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺍﻭﻝ ( ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ﻭ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺍﻟﻘﻠﻲ‬
‫) ‪ Cs, Rb, K, Na, Li‬ﻭ‪ (Fr‬ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﺯ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺠﻴﺒﻪ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﻱ‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻮﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻨﻬﺎ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ‪ (At, I 2 , Br2 , Cl 2 , F2‬ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﻫﻠﻮﺟﻨﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻲ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﺯﻣﻴﻨــﻲ)‪Sr, Ca, Mg, Be، Ra‬ﻭ ‪ (Ba‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ IIA‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻠﻮﺟﻦ ﻫﺎ )‪ (VIIA‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ VIA (Te, Se, S, O‬ﻭ ‪ ( Po‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ‪ 2‬ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ﻭ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺍﺯﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻲ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ )ﺍﺯ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ( ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎ ‪ IVA, IIIA‬ﻭ ‪ VA‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻜﺪ ﻳﮕﺮ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﻣﺸــﺨﺺ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﻭﭘﻲ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ‬
‫ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﻓﻠﺰﻱ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ ﻭ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻔﺖ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻳﺎ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ) ‪(Period‬‬
‫ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺩﻭ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‪ ،‬ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺩﻭﻡ ﻭ ﺳﻮﻡ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ‪ 8،8‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ‬
‫ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﻭ ﭘﻨﺠﻢ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ‪ 18‬ﻭ ‪ 18‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺷﺸــﻢ ‪ 32‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﻔﺘﻢ ‪ 17‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺑﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺗﺎ ﺣﺎﻝ ﻧﺎ ﻣﻜﻤﻞ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺠﻴﺒﻪ )ﺑﻌﺪ ﻯ ﻣﻨﻔﻲ ﻗﺒﻠﻲ( ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫)‪ = (n + 1‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻃﺎﻕ‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫)‪ = (n + 2‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺟﻔﺖ‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳــﻮﺩ ﭼﻬــﺎﺭﻡ ﻭ ﭘﻨﺠــﻢ ﺑﻴﻦ ﮔــﺮﻭپ ‪ IIA‬ﻭ ‪) IIIA‬ﺑﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑــﻼﻙ ‪ S‬ﻭ ‪ (P‬ﺩﺭ ﻫﺮ‬
‫ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﺩﻩ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻣﺸــﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ )‪ (Transational‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﺷــﻮﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺷﺸــﻢ ﻭ ﻫﻔﺘﻢ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‪ f‬ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺳﻠﺴــﻠﻪ ﺧﺎﺻﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺳﻠﺴــﻠﻪ ‪ Lanthanides‬ﻭ‬
‫‪ Actinoides‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ‪ 14 ، 14‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 2-3‬ﺁﺧﺮﻳﻦ ﻭ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﺋﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‪:‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﻱ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 2 – 2‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‪ ،‬ﻫﻴﻠﻴﻢ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ﺩﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ‬
‫ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺳﻮﻳﺔ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻲ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪﻛﻪ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪1S 1‬‬
‫‪He‬‬ ‫‪1S 2‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳﻨﺠﺎ ﺭﻗﻢ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻲ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺍﺻﻠﻲ ﻭ ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﻓﻮﻗﺎﻧﻲ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻲ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻲ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻟﻴﺘﻴﻢ )‪ ( Li‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ﺳﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﺮﻳﻠﻴﻮﻡ) ‪ (Be‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ‪ 4‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻭ ﺑﻮﺭﻭﻥ) ‪( B‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ‬
‫‪ 5‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪Li‬‬ ‫‪1S 2 2 S 1‬‬
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‫ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ‪ 6‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﭘﻨﺠﻢ ﻭ ﺷﺸﻢ ﺁﻥ ﻃﺒﻖ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﻩ ﻫﻮﻧﺪ ﺩﻭ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ‬
‫‪ p‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻃﺎﻗﻪ ﺑﺎﺳﭙﻴﻦ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻫﻢ ﺟﻬﺖ )ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺳﭙﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ‪ ( ± 1‬ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪Be‬‬ ‫‪1S 2 2S 2‬‬
‫‪B‬‬ ‫‪1S 2 2S 2 2 P1‬‬ ‫‪C‬‬ ‫‪1S 2 2 S 2 2 P 2‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ )‪ ، (Z=8‬ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ )‪ (Z=9‬ﻭ ﻧﻴﻮﻥ )‪ (Z=10‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ‬
‫ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪O‬‬ ‫‪1S 2 2 S 2 2 P 4‬‬
‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪1S 2 2 S 2 2 P 5‬‬
‫‪Ne 1S 2 2 S 2 2 P 6‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ‪ Ne‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ﻗﺸﺮ ﻣﺸﺒﻮﻉ ‪ (L (L-Shel‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻌﺪﻱ ‪ Ne‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ‪ Na‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺍﻭﻝ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺳﻮﻡ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻭ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪Na‬‬ ‫‪1S 2 2 S 2 2 P 6 3S 1‬‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭﻱ ﻛﻪ ﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻣﻲ ﺷــﻮﺩ ﺳــﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﺣﺘﻤﺎً ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ‪ M‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﺑﺮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ ‪ 3S‬ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﺷــﺮﻭﻉ ﺑﻪ ﭘﺮﺷﺪﻥ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ :‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻌﺪﻱ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ )‪ Z=12) Mg‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻲ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫)‪Mg ( Z = 12‬‬ ‫‪1S 2 2 S 22 P 6 3S 2‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺷــﺶ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺩﺭ ﻗﺸــﺮ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ )‪ 3p – Sub Shel) 3p‬ﻇﺎﻫﺮ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻲ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪S ( Z = 16)( Ne)3S 2 3P 4‬‬ ‫)‪( Ne) 3S 2 3 p 1 Al ( Z = 13‬‬
‫‪Cl ( z = 17) Ne) 3S 2 3P 5‬‬ ‫)‪( Ne) 3S 2 3 p 2 Si ( Z = 14‬‬
‫‪Ar ( Z = 18) Ne) 3S 2 3P 6‬‬ ‫‪( Ne) 3S 2 3 p 3‬‬ ‫)‪P ( Z = 15‬‬
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‫ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻓﻮﻕ ‪ ،‬ﭼﻮﻥ ‪ 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ‪ Ne‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺑﻪ ‪ Ne‬ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫ﭘﺮﻳــﻮﺩ ﭼﻬــﺎﺭ ﺑﺎ )‪ Z=20) Ca‬ﻭ )‪ Z=19) K‬ﺁﻏﺎﺯ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ‪ (Kr (Z=36‬ﺧﺘﻢ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻲ ‪ K‬ﻭ ‪ Ca‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪K(Z = 19 (Ar) 4S1‬‬
‫‪Ca(Z = 20) (Ar) 4S2‬‬
‫ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ‪ (4S (4S-Sub Shel‬ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﭘﺮﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ‪ ،‬ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺳــﻮﻳﺔ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ ‪ 3d‬ﺍﻏﺎﺯ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻭ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺳــﻮﻳﻪ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ ‪ 3d‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‪( Z=21) Sc‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭ‬
‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺩﻩ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‪) 3d‬ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻤﻮﻝ ‪ ( Sc‬ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‬
‫ﺁﺧﺮﻱ ﺁﻥ ‪( Z=30) Zn‬ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻲ ﻛﻪ ﭘﺮ ﺷﺪﻥ ﺳﻮﻳﺔ ‪ 3d‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻭﻗﻮﻉ ﻣﻲ ﭘﻴﻮﻧﺪﺩ‬
‫ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ ﻫﻤﭽﻮ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻧﻤﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﻩ ﮔﺎﻧﺔ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺳﻮﻳﺔ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ ‪ 3d‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﭘﺮ ﺷﺪﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ‬
‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ ﻣﺸــﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﺷــﻮﻧﺪ ‪ 6 .‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺍﺯ ﮔﺎﻟﻴﻢ‬
‫)‪ (Z=31‬ﺍﻟﻲ ‪( Z=36) Kr‬ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺳﻮﻳﺔ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ ‪ P‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ‬
‫ﭘﺮﺷﺪﻥ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻗﺸﺮ ﺍﺻﻠﻲ ‪ M‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﭘﺮ ﺷﺪﻥ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎ ﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﭘﺮﻳــﻮﺩ ﭘﻨﺠــﻢ ﻋﺒــﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﭘﺮﻳــﻮﺩ ﺩﻭﻡ ﻃﻮﻳﻞ ﺑــﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ‪ ( Z = 37) Rb‬ﺍﻏــﺎﺯ ﻭ ﺑﺎ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‬
‫‪( Z=45) Xe‬ﺧﺘﻢ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ﺩﻭﻣﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻲ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﭘﺮﻳــﻮﺩ ﺷﺸــﻢ ﺑــﺎ ‪ Z=55 Cs‬ﺍﻏﺎﺯ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺑﺎ ﻋﻨﺼــﺮ ‪( Z=86) Rn‬ﺧﺘﻢ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳــﻦ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ‪ 14‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‪ f‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ‪( Z=58) Ce‬ﺁﻏــﺎﺯ ﻭ ﺗﺎ ‪( Z=71) Lu‬ﺍﺩﺍﻣﻪ‬
‫ﭘﻴﺪﺍ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻨﻬﺎ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻯ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺳــﻮﻳﻪ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ ‪ 4F‬ﺷــﺎﻥ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﭘﺮ ﺷــﺪﻥ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﺔﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻧﺎﺩﺭﺓ ﺯﻣﻴﻦ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ‪،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻟﺤﺎﻅ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ‬
‫ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﺸــﺎﺑﻪ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ‪ d‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﭼﻮﻥ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ‪ La‬ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ‬ ‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳــﺒﺐ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ‪ Lanthanoides‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻱ ﺍﺯ )‪Z=71‬‬
‫‪( Lu‬ﺍﻟﻲ ‪( Z=80) Hg‬ﺳﻠﺴــﻠﻪ ﺳــﻮﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ‬
‫ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ ‪ 5d‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﭘﺮ ﺷﺪﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻼ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺍﺧﺮﻱ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﻱ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺑﺎ ‪ (Z = 78) Fr‬ﺁﻏﺎﺯ ﻣﻲ‬ ‫ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﻔﺘﻢ ﻛﻪ ﺗﺎ ﻓﻌ ً‬
‫ﻳﺎﺑــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮﺁﺧــﺮﻱ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻳﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻢ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴــﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ 14.‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‪ f‬ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ‬
‫ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺳﻮﺑﻪ ﻓﺮﻋﻲ ‪ 5F‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﭘﺮ ﺷﺪﻥ‬
‫ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﺎ ‪( Z=90) Th‬ﺁﻏﺎﺯ ﻭ ﺑﺎ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﺼﻨﻮﻋﻲ ‪( Z=103) Lr‬ﺧﺘﻢ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
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‫ﭼــﻮﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺩﺍﻣﻪ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‪( Z=89) Ac‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳــﺒﺐ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﺧﻮﺻﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ‪ Actinoides‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻧﻮﺕ‪ :‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻢ ﻣﺼﻨﻮﻋﻲ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺭﺍﺩﻳﻮ ﺍﻛﺘﻴﻒ ﻣﻴﺒﺒﺎﺷﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ 3 – 2‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻭ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﻳﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﺑﻌﻀــﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺧــﻮﺍﺹ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﻬﻢ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫــﺎ ﻭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺑــﺎً ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣــﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻭﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺗﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺧــﻮﺍﺹ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺫﻳ ً‬
‫ﻼ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 1 – 3 - 2‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﻭ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ‬
‫ﺍﻧـﺮژﻱ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸـﻦ‪ :‬ﻋﺒــﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑــﺮﺍﻱ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻥ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺑﻪ ﻓﻀﺎﻱ ﻻﻳﺘﻨﻬﺎﻳﻲ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁﻳﻮﺗﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺟﺪﺍ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ )ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ‬
‫ﺻﻔﺮ ﻓﺮﺽ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ (.‬ﺩﺭ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺶ ﺍﺻﻄﻼﺡ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻭﻟﻲ ﺩﻭﻣﻲ ﺳﻮﻣﻲ‬
‫ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺮﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﻃﻮﺭﻱ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻭﻟﻲ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺟﺪﺍ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻭﻟﻲ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻄﺢ‬
‫ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺩﻭﻣﻲ‬
‫ﻭ ﺩﻭﻣﻲ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺳــﻮﻣﻲ ‪ ...‬ﺑﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺟﺪﺍ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﭘﺲ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﺁﻥ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ؛ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺍﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﻭﻟﻲ ﺩﻭﻣﻲ ‪ ----‬ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ (4– 2‬ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﺓﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺍﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﺁ ﻳﻮﻥ ﺍﻭﻟﻰ ‪ ،‬ﺩﻭﻣﻰ‪ ....‬ﺍﺗﻢ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺍﻭﻝ‪:‬‬
‫‪ 11 Na‬ﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ I‬ﺍﺻﻠﻲ‬ ‫‪5.1 ev‬‬ ‫‪47 ev‬‬ ‫‪72 ev‬‬ ‫‪99 ev‬‬
‫‪ 12 Mg‬ﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ II‬ﺍﺻﻠﻲ‬ ‫‪7.6 ev‬‬ ‫‪15 ev‬‬ ‫‪80 ev‬‬ ‫‪109 ev‬‬
‫ﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ III‬ﺍﺻﻠﻲ‬ ‫‪13 Al‬‬ ‫‪6.0 ev‬‬ ‫‪18.8 ev‬‬ ‫‪2814 ev‬‬ ‫‪120 ev‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻭﻟﻲ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻭﻟﻲ ﻭ ﺩﻭﻣﻲ ‪ Mg‬ﻭ ﺳﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻣﻨﻴﻢ ﺑﻪ ﺁﺳﺎﻧﻰ ﺟﺪﺍ ﻣﻲ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻱ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ‪ 13,6ev‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺑﻪ ﺧﺎﻃﺮ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﺄ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻧﺰﺩ ﻳﻚ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻗﻮﻩ ﻛﺸﺶ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﺁﻥ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ﺍﺯ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﻛﻢ ﺷــﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﺷــﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﻋﻠﺖ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ‪ :‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻋﻴﻦ‬
‫ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺍﺯ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻨﺄ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻫﺴﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺟﺪﺍ ﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻣﺒﺪﻝ‬
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 ‫ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺍﺻﻠﻲ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺍﻳﻮﺗﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﺯ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ‬
‫ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻛﻢ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﺯﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 5– 2‬ﺗﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﮔﺮﻭ‪ -‬ﺍﻭﻝ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺳﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‬ ‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺍﻳﻮﺗﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ‪Ev‬‬
‫‪1H‬‬ ‫‪13.6 ev‬‬
‫‪3 Li‬‬ ‫‪5.4 ev‬‬
‫ﻃﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 5– 2‬ﺗﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﮔﺮﻭ‪ -‬ﺍﻭﻝ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ‪:‬‬
‫‪11 Na‬‬ ‫‪5.1 ev‬‬
‫‪19 K‬‬ ‫‪4.3 ev‬‬
‫‪37 Rb‬‬ ‫‪4.2 ev‬‬
‫‪55Cs‬‬ ‫‪ev 3.9‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺯﺩ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﺗﺰﺍﻳﺪ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ؛‬
‫ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻗﺸــﺎﺭ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻧﻪ ﺷــﺪﻩ ؛ ﺑﻠﻜﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺑﺰﺭگ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻛﺶ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ‬
‫ﻭ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺗﺮ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭﺁﻥ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻣﻴﻜﺸﺎﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁﻳﻮﺗﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ‬
‫ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﺯ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻣﺠﺰﺍ ﺳﺎﺧﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪⎯ H + + e−‬‬
‫→⎯⎯ )‪H + EI (13,6‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‪:‬‬
‫ﺮ‪:‬‬
‫ﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫ﻳﺰ ﺸ‬
‫ﻳﻮﻧﺎ ﺰ‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 6 - 2‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁ ﻮ‬
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‫ﻃﻮﺭﻱ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﻫﺮ ﻗﺪﺭ ﻛﻪ ﻗﺸــﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻲ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻲ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻱ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺗﺮ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﻭ ﭘﺎﻳﺪﺍﺭﻱ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‬
‫ﺑﻴﺸــﺘﺮ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‪ .‬ﺍﺯ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻟﺤﺎﻅ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺠﻴﺒﻪ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ‬
‫ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺗﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻴﺸــﺘﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﻧــﺮژﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؟ ﻭﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺩ؟‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻯ‬
‫ﭘﻴﺶ ﮔﻮﻯ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻭﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻮﺍﻟﻰ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﻟﻰ ﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻛﻴﻠﻮژﻭﻝ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻮﻝ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ‪ 7 – 2‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﻟﻰ ﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻛﻴﻠﻮژﻭﻝ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻮﻝ‪:‬‬
‫‪E1‬‬ ‫‪E2‬‬ ‫‪E3‬‬ ‫‪E4‬‬ ‫‪E5‬‬ ‫‪E6‬‬ ‫‪E7‬‬
‫‪1402‬‬ ‫‪2856‬‬ ‫‪4578‬‬ ‫‪7475 9444‬‬ ‫‪53266 64359‬‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺍﺯ ‪ E5‬ﺑﻪ ‪ E6‬ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺟﻬﺶ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ؛ ﭘﺲ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ + 1‬ﺟﻬﺶ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﻰ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ = ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‬
‫‪ = 1+1= 2‬ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ‪X‬‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﺟﻬﺶ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺩﺭ ﺷﺸﻤﻴﻦ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻗﺸــﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺻﺮﻑ ﭘﻨﺞ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﭘﻨﺠﻢ‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪.‬ﭘﺲ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺁﻥ ‪7‬ﻭﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫‪7 N 1S 2 2 S 2 2P 3‬‬
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 ‫‪ : 2 – 3 - 2‬ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻲ) ‪ (Electron Affinity‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻭ ﺗﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﻳﻜﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻲ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ‬
‫ﻼ ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﺷــﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺟﺪﺍ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻥ ﻳﻚ‬ ‫ﺍﺯ ﻣﻴــﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﮔﻴﺮﻱ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ .‬ﻃﻮﺭﻱ ﻛﻪ ﻗﺒ ً‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷــﻮﺩ ﺗﺎ ﺍﺯ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺟﺪﺍ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻲ‬
‫ﻛــﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺗﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻮﻥ ﻣﻨﻔﻲ )‪ (Anions‬ﺗﺒﺪ ﻳﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪،‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺟﺬﺏ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﻫﻤﻴﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻧــﺮژﻱ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻰ ) ‪ ( Electron Affainity‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻭﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺟﺪﺍ ﺷﺪﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻣﻨﻔﻲ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻰ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪ Exothermic‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﺑﻨﺎً ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﮔﺮﻣﺎﻱ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻣﻨﻔﻲ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﺒﺘﻪ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻲ ﻧﺒﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪:‬‬
‫ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻲ ﻛــﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﻳﮕﺮﻱ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﺗﺎﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ‬
‫ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺗﺎ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻠﺤﻖ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻭﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻱ ﺑﻪ ‪ 6.5ev‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ 4ev‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ‪ Electron Affinity‬ﺑﻌﻀﻲ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 8 - 2‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻰ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ‪Electron Affinity‬‬ ‫ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‬
‫⎯ ‪F + 1e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ F −‬‬ ‫‪-344 KJ/mol‬‬ ‫ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ‬
‫⎯ ‪Cl + 1e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Cl −‬‬ ‫‪-349 KJ/mol‬‬ ‫ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ‬
‫⎯ ‪Br + 1e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Br −‬‬ ‫‪-325 KJ/mol‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮﻭﻣﻴﻦ‬
‫⎯ ‪O + 1e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ O −‬‬ ‫‪-142 KJ/mol‬‬ ‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ‬
‫‪+844 KJ/mol‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﻮﻥ ‪O1−‬‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪O1− + 1e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ O 2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪H + 1e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ H −‬‬ ‫‪-72 KJ/mol‬‬ ‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫⎯ ‪Na + 1e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Na −‬‬ ‫‪-50 KJ/mol‬‬ ‫ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻃﻮﺭﻱ ﻛﻪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﻳﻚ ﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ Electric Affinity‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﻛﻢ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺩﺭ‬
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‫ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﻭ ﻣﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﮔﻴﺮﻧﺪﻩ ﮔﻲ ﺍﺯ ﭼﭗ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫ﻭ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 3 – 3 - 2‬ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﭘﻮﺯﻳﺘﻴﻮﺗﻰ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻــﺮﻱ ﻛــﻪ ﻣﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﮔﻴﺮﻧﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺟﺬ ﺏ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﺑــﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ ‪ Electro Negative‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻣﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﺘــﺮﻭﻥ ﮔﻴﺮﻧﺪﻩ ﮔﻲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺑــﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗــﻰ )‪ ( Electro Negative‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨــﺪ ﻭ ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻱ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻴﻞ ﺍﺯ ﺩﺳــﺖ ﺩﺍﺩﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﻩ ‪ Electro Positive‬ﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺸــﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﭘﻮﺯﻳﺘﻴﻒ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﺭﻯ‬
‫ﻛﻪ‪ :‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﻛﻢ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﭘﻮﺯﻳﺘﻴﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﮔﺮ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ‬
‫ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﺁﻥ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﭘﻮﺯﻳﺘﻴﻮﺗﻰ ﺁﻥ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻛﻢ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤــﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﻳــﻚ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﭘﻮﺯﻳﺘﻮﻳﺘﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺯ ﭼﭗ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻢ ﺷــﺪﻩ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﺯ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺑــﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﻳﻚ ﮔﺮﻭپ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﭘﻮﺯﻳﺘﻮﺗﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﺯ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻻﻛﻢ ﻣﻲ‬
‫ﺷﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ‬
‫ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﺭﻳﻜﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﻳﻚ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ‪ EN‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺯ ﭼﭗ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺑﺎً‬
‫ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﺯ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﻛﻢ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﺓ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺑﺎً ﻛﻢ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻻ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺑﺎً ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﺷــﻮﺩ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺎ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ‪ EN‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﺎ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﻳﻦ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳــﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ ﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ‪ Cs‬ﻭ ‪ Fr‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﭘﻮﺯﻳﺘﻴﻒ ﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 1939‬ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﭘﺎﻭﻟﻴﻨﮓ )‪ (Linus Cart Paiuling‬ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺳﻴﺰﻳﻢ ﻭ ﻓﺮﺍﻧﺸﻴﻨﻴﻢ ‪ EN=0.7 ev‬ﻭ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ‬
‫ﻓـﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ‪ EN = 4.1ev‬ﺗﻌﻴﻦ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺻــﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻡ ﺍﮔــﺮ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ﺑــﺎ ﺍﻧــﺮژﻱ ‪ Electro Affinity‬ﺟﻤﻊ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻲ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻲ ﺷــﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ (9 - 2‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻲ ﭘﺎﻭﻟﻴﻨﮓ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪ .‬ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﻳﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺻﺮﻑ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺠﻴﺒﻪ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﺒﻮﺩﻩ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺻﻔﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﺭﻱ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻣﻲ ﺷــﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﻓﻮﻗﺎﻧﻲ ﺁﻥ ﻣﺴــﺘﻘﺮ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‬
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‫ﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻــﺮ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ )‪ (Non metals‬ﻧﺎﻣﻴﺪﻩ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﻧﺪ ﻭ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺘﺒﺎﻗﻲ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺷــﺒﻪ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ‬
‫ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺧﻴﻠﻲ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﭘﻮﺯﻳﺘﻒ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ (9– 2‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﻧﺎﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﻧﺒﺎﻳﺪ ﮔﺬﺍﺷﺖ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻲ ﺑﻪ ﺳﻪ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﻪ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺳﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﺍﻭﻟﻲ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻧﺘﺎﻳﺞ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻳﺎﻭﻟﻨﻚ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 4 – 3 – 2‬ﺗﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻭ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻳﻮﻧﻲ )‪(Atomic & Ionic Radius‬‬
‫ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻭ ﺁﺧﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻗﺸﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻲ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻳﻜﻲ ﺍﺯ ﭘﺎﺭﺍﻣﺘﺮ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻫﻨﺪﺳﻲ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑــﻮﺭ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﻭﻟﻴﻦ ﺑﺎﺭ ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﻓﺮﺽ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻥ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻗﺸــﺮ‬
‫ﺩﺍﻳﺮﻩ ﻭﻯ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺑﺎ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺭﻳﺎﺿﻴﻜﻰ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ‪ 52,9‬ﭘﻴﻜﺎﻣﺘﺮ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ )‪ ( Orbital‬ﺑﻪ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﻻﻧﻪ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﻴﺰ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﻓﻀﺎﻯ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺣﺘﻤﺎﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ‪ 95%‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﺮﻭﻯ ) ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ ( s‬ﺩﻣﺒﻞ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ) ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ‪( p‬‬
‫‪ ---‬ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﭘﺲ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪ .‬ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭﻫﺴﺘﺔ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺠﺎﻭﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪48‬‬
 ‫ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺪﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺲ= ﻧﺼﻒ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﭘﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻣﺠﺎﻭﺭ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ ،‬ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺠﺎﻭﺭ ﺁﻫﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺷــﺒﻜﺔ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬
‫‪ 2.480 A‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺁﻫﻦ‬
‫‪= 1.24 0 A‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ) ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﻛﻮﻻﻧﺴﻰ ( ﺑﺮ ﺩﻭ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺪﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺲ= ﻧﺼﻒ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻣﺠﺎﻭﺭ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﺩﻳﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﻥ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 2.660 A‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻛﻮﻻﻧﺲ ﻳﺎ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2.66 0 A‬‬ ‫ﺣﻞ ‪:‬‬
‫= ‪rco‬‬ ‫=‪d‬‬ ‫‪= 1,330 A‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﻛﻮﻻﻧﺴــﻰ= ﻧﺼﻒ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ‬
‫ﺩﻭﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻦ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻲ ﺧﺎﺹ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ‬
‫ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﺭﻱ ﻛﻪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﻳﻜﻲ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﺯ‬
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‫ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻻ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺑﺎً ﻛﻮ ﭼﻚ ﻣﻲ ﺷــﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﺖ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻭ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻗﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻲ‬
‫ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻳﻚ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ‬
‫ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﺯ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﻣﻲ ﺷــﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﻋﻠﺖ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ‬
‫ﺩﺭﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﻗﺸــﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻲ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩ ﻭﺭ‬
‫ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻭﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺁﻥ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺟﺪﻭﻝ‬
‫)‪ ( 10 - 2‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﻩ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ﺗﺎ ﺗﻨﻘﻴﺺ ﻭﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﻭﮔﺮﻭپ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﺑﺪﺍﻧﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ‪ 13 Al ,11 Na‬ﻭ ‪ 15 p‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﻳﺪ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 10 - 2‬ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧــﻰ ﭼﻬــﺎﺭ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﺫﻳــﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻭﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺁﻧﻬــﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯﺟﺪﻭﻝ‬
‫)‪ ( 10 - 2‬ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﺁﻥ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪37‬‬
‫‪p‬‬
‫‪Rb ,19 k ,11 Na,3 Li‬‬
‫‪15‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ) ‪ ( 10– 2‬ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ‪:‬‬
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 ‫ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻭﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﻴﻞ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ﺗﺎ ﺍﻛﺘﻴﺖ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻜﻤﻴﻞ ﻭﻣﺪﺍﺭ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺸــﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﻎ ﮔﺮﺩﺍﻧﻨﺪ ﻭﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺑﺎﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺠﻴﺒﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﺸﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺧﺬ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﻣﺒﺪﻝ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻣﻬﻤﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ؛ ﻃﻮﺭﻱ ﻛﻪ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﺰﺭﮔﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻴﺴــﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﻩ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻭ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ) ‪ ( 11 – 2‬ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻧﻰ ﻭﻛﺘﻴﻮﻧﻰ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ‬ ‫ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬ ‫ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ‬ ‫ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫‪Li +‬‬ ‫‪0,80 A‬‬ ‫‪Li‬‬ ‫‪1.50 A‬‬ ‫‪Cl −‬‬ ‫‪1,80 A‬‬ ‫‪Cl‬‬ ‫‪10 A‬‬
‫‪Na +‬‬ ‫‪10 A‬‬ ‫‪Na‬‬ ‫‪1,90 A‬‬ ‫‪O 2−‬‬ ‫‪1,40 A‬‬ ‫‪O‬‬ ‫‪o, 78‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫‪A‬‬
‫‪K+‬‬ ‫‪1,30 A‬‬ ‫‪K‬‬ ‫‪2,30 A‬‬ ‫‪S 2−‬‬ ‫‪1,84 0 A‬‬ ‫‪S‬‬ ‫‪1, 27 0 A‬‬
‫‪Rb +‬‬ ‫‪1,50 A‬‬ ‫‪Rb 2,40 A‬‬ ‫‪S‬‬ ‫‪1,2 7 0 A‬‬
‫‪Cs +‬‬ ‫‪1,60 A‬‬ ‫‪Cs‬‬ ‫‪2,60 A‬‬ ‫‪N 3−‬‬ ‫‪1,7 0 A‬‬ ‫‪N‬‬ ‫‪0,92 0 A‬‬
‫‪Ca 2+‬‬ ‫‪1,00 A‬‬ ‫‪Ca‬‬ ‫‪1,7 0 A‬‬ ‫‪N 5+‬‬ ‫‪0,110 A‬‬ ‫‪O‬‬ ‫‪o, 920 A‬‬
‫‪Fe 2+‬‬ ‫‪0,7 0 A‬‬ ‫‪Fe‬‬ ‫‪1,20 A‬‬
‫‪Fe3+‬‬ ‫‪0,60 A‬‬ ‫‪Fe‬‬ ‫‪1,20 A‬‬
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 ‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺟــﺪﻭﻝ )‪ (11– 2‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻗﺖ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﮔﺮﻭﭘﻰ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺻﻨﻒ ﻣﺒﺎﺣﺜﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﭼﺮﺍ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺷﺎﻥ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﭼﺮﺍ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻃﺔ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻭ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎ ﻭﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻰ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﺳﺖ؟‬
‫‪ – 4‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻــﺮﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴــﻒ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺩﻳﻴﺎﮔﻮﻧﺎﻝ ) ﻛﻨﺠــﻰ ﻳﺎ ﺯﺍﻳﻮﻯ ( ﻗﺮﺍﺭ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪،‬ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؟‬
‫ﺑﻴﺎﻣﻮﺯﻳﺪ‬
‫ﺫﺭﺍﺗــﻰ ﻛــﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬــﺎﻯ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﻧــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑــﻪ ﻧــﺎﻡ ﺍﻳﺰﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴــﻚ‬
‫)‪ (isoelectronic‬ﻳﺎﺩﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻳﻜﻪ ﺩﺭﺟــﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺩﻳﺎﮔﻮﻧﺎﻝ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ‬
‫ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻨﻰ ﻭﺍﺭﺟﺎﻋﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﺻﻨﻒ ﺑﺤﺚ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﭼﺎﺭﺕ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﻭﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 3 – 2‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ ) ‪( d-Elements‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ ﺍﻛﺜﺮﺍ"ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺳــﺨﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺍﺳــﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺩﺭﻛﺎﺭﻫﺎﻯ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻧﻰ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺁﻫﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ‪ ،‬ﻣﺲ ‪ ،‬ﻭﻧﺎﺩﻳﻢ ‪ ،‬ﻧﻜﻞ ﻭ ﻣﻨﮕﺎﻧﻴﻢ ﺩﺭﺗﻬﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻴﺎژ ﻫﺎ ﺭﻭﻝ ﺍﺳﺎﺳــﻰ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧــﺪ‪ .‬ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭﺗﻤﺪﻥ ﺍﻣﺮﻭﺯﻯ ﺑﺸــﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺑﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ‬
‫ﻓﻠــﺰﺍﺕ ﺩﻳﮕﺮﻯ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺻﻨﺎﻳــﻊ ﻣﺪﺭﻥ ﺍﻣﺮﻭﺯﻯ ﺭﻭﻝ ﺍﺳﺎﺳــﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﺯﻯ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ؛‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺍﺯﻓﻠﺰ ﺗﻴﺘﺎﻥ )‪ (Ti‬ﺩﺭﺻﻨﻌﺖ ﻃﻴﺎﺭﻩ ﺳــﺎﺯﻯ ﻭ ﻭ ﻧﺎﺩﻳﻢ )‪ (V‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻛﺘﻠﺴــﺖ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻭﻫﻢ ﺩﺭﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﻗﻴﻤﺘﻰ ﻛﻪ ﭘﺸﺘﻴﺒﺎﻧﺔ‬
‫ﭘﻮﻝ ﺍﻛﺜﺮﻣﻤﺎﻟﻚ ﺟﻬﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯﭘﻼﺗﻴﻦ ﻃﻼ ﻭﻧﻘﺮﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻠﺖ ﺯﻳﺒﺎﻳﻰ ﺳــﻄﺢ ﻭﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺖ ﺩﺭﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻓﺮﺳــﺎﻳﺶ ﺍﺯﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑــﻪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺯﻳﻨﺘﻰ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻳﺪ‪ .‬ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻫﺎﺩﻯ ﺑﺮﻕ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﻧﻘﺮﻩ ﺩﺭﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﻋﺎﺩﻯ‬
‫ﻫــﺎﺩﻯ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺑﺮﻕ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳــﻦ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺟﻼ ﺩﺍﺭﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺖ ﭼﻜــﺶ ﺧﻮﺭﺩﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻭﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻭﺭﺍﻕ ﻧﺎﺯﻙ ﻣﺒﺪﻝ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭﺳﻴﻢ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺯﺁﻥ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺭﻧﮓ ﺍﻛﺜﺮﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺳﻔﻴﺪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺩﺭﺟﺔ‬
‫ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺯﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺍﻭﻝ ﻭﺩﻭﻡ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﺍﻣﺎ ﺍﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﻯ ﻧﻴﺰﺩﺭ ﺭﻧﮓ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻣﺲ ﺭﻧﮓ ﺳﺮﺥ ﻣﺎﻳﻞ ﺑﻪ ﻗﻬﻮﻩ ﻳﻰ ‪ ،‬ﻃﻼﻯ ﺯﺭﺩ ﻭﺳﻴﻤﺎﺏ ﺩﺭﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ‪STP‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ : 1 – 3 – 2‬ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ d‬ﺩﺭﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﻭﻝ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ‪ ،‬ﭘﺮﺷﺪﻥ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻃﺒﻖ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ‬
‫ﻧﻈﺮﻯ ﺑﺮﺣﺴــﺐ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺻﻌﻮﺩﻯ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻭﻻ ٌ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﺳــﻮﻳﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺳــﻄﺢ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ‬
‫‪ d‬ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺗﺎ" ﺑﺎﻻﺗﺮﺍﺯﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ S‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻭﻻًٌِ ﺩﺭﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ S‬ﺍﺧﺬ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻰ ﺩﺭﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ d‬ﺟﺎﮔﺰﻳﻦ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺩﺭﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ d‬ﺑﻰ ﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺗﺮﺍﺯ‪ S‬ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺩﺭﻋﻤﻞ ﭼﻨﻴﻦ ﻧﺒﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ d‬ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ S‬ﺑﻌﺪﻯ ﻣﺴﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺗﺮﭘﻴﻮﺳﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﺷﺪﻥ‬
‫ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮﺧﻼﻑ ﭘﻴﺸــﺒﻴﻨﻰ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻧﻈــﺮﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ s‬ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺍﻭﻟﺘﺮﺍﺯﺩﺳــﺖ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻭﺩﺭﺻــﻮﺭﺕ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ d‬ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻌﺪﺍﺯ‪ s‬ﺍﺯﺩﺳــﺖ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺁﻫﻦ ‪ (Ar )3d 4s‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪ Fe 2+‬ﺁﻥ ‪ (Ar)3d6 4so‬ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ ‪ Fe 3+‬ﺁﻥ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ‪ (Ar)3d 4S‬ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﺘﻨﻮﻉ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ‪ d‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻟﻴﻞ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻓﻀﺎﻯ ﺟﻬﺖ‬
‫ﻳﺎﺑــﻰ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘــﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ d‬ﺩﺭﺁﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﻙ ﻛــﺮﺩ ؛ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘــﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ‪d‬‬
‫ﻼ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻓﻀﺎﻯ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﺧــﻮﺩ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﺍﻓﻌﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴــﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺎﻣ ً‬
‫ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﻢ ﺑﺴــﻴﺎﺭﻛﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮﺩﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ‪ d‬ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮﺩﺭﻋﻴﻦ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻛﻤﺘﺮﺍﺯﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ‬
‫ﺩﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺭﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ s‬ﻭ‪ p‬ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮﺍﺳــﺖ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﺻﻠﺔ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ d، 20‬ﻣﺮﺍﺗﺒﻪ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺗﺮ‬
‫ﺍﺯﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ p‬ﺑﺎﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻄﻠﺐ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻰ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷــﻜﻞ )‪ (1 - 2‬ﺩﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘــﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘــﺎﻝ ‪ d‬ﺑــﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻰ ﺍﺯﻫﻢ‬
‫ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﻭﻋﻤــﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻛﻤﺘﺮﺑﻮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ p‬ﺑﺎﻫﻢ‬
‫ﻧﺰﺩﻳــﻚ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺗﺎﺛﻴــﺮ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ (1 - 2‬ﺩﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪d‬‬ ‫ﺩﺭﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺗﺮﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﺘﻨﻮﻉ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؟ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺪﻛﻮﺭ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺩﻻﻳﻞ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﮔﺮﻭﭘﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻫﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺻﻨﻒ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 2 - 2‬ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ ﺩﺭﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ ‪ ،‬ﭘﻨﺠﻢ ﻭ ﺷﺸﻢ‪.‬‬
‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ‬
‫ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯﻣﺸــﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﻣﻬﻢ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ ﻫﻤﺎﻧﺎ ﺗﻤﺎﻳﻞ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﺎﻣﭙﻠﻜﺲ‬
‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻧﻤﺒﺮﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻭﻣﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ) ‪ ( 12 – 2‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻋــﺎﺩﻯ ﻣﺲ ‪ +1‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑــﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺩﺭﻣﺮﻛﺐ) ‪ (CuCl‬ﻭ ‪ +2‬ﺩﺭ‬
‫‪ CuCl 2‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﻭﻗﺎﺕ ﻧﻤﺒﺮﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ‪ +3‬ﺭﺍ ﻧﻴﺰﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻭﺳﻂ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻃﻮﻳﻞ ﻧﻤﺒﺮﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻣﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﺍﻧﺪﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ‪ +1‬ﺍﻟﻰ‬
‫‪ + 8‬ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﻨﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ : Mn‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ‬
‫ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﮔﺮﻭپ ﻓﺮﻋــﻰ ﭘﻼﺗﻴﻦ )‪ pd ، Os ، Ir ( Ru.Rh‬ﻭ ‪ ( pt‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻧﻤﺒﺮﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻣﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‪ d‬ﺁﻥ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺖ‬
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 ‫ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﺓ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺁﻥ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﻃــﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ Mn :‬ﺑﺎﻧﻤﺒﺮﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ‪، +7‬‬
‫‪1−‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﺓ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﻗﻮﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪Mn O 4 (aq ) + 8 H 3 O(aq ) + 5e → Mn 2+ (aq ) + 12 H 2O ,‬‬ ‫∑‬ ‫‪o‬‬
‫‪= +1,5v‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‪ d‬ﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﻧﻤﺒﺮﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪ ﻳﺸــﻦ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭﻳﻜﻪ ﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺑﺎ ﻧﻤﺒﺮﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ‬
‫ﺍﻣﻔﻮﺗﺮﻳــﻚ ﻭﺑﺰﺭگ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳــﺖ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜــﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ‬
‫ﻛﺮﻭﻣﻴﻢ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ CrO‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﻳﺸﻦ ﻛﺮﻭﻣﻴﻢ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪+2‬ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻘﻠــﻰ ‪ ، Cr O‬ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺍﻣﻔﻮﺗﺮﻳــﻚ ﻭ ‪ CrO 3‬ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺗﻴﺰﺁﺑﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯﺧﻮﺩ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻰ‬‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫ﺩﻫﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‪ d‬ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ S‬ﺷﺒﺎﻫﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﭘﻮﺯﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺳــﺘﺨﺮﺍﺝ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺍﺯﻣﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺸﻜﻞ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ ﺍﻭﻝ‬
‫ﺳــﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﮔﺮﻭﭘﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺒﺎﺣﺜﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﻢ ﺩﺭ ﺻﻨﻒ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪﻩء‬
‫ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺑﺪﻫﻴﺪ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﭼــﺮﺍ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﺁﻫﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ 4s‬ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ‪ 3d‬ﺍﻭﻝ ﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺩﺳــﺖ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻭﺟﻮﺩﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ S‬ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ 3d‬ﺩﺭ ﺳــﻄﺢ ﭘﺎﻳﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؟‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺧــﻮﺍﺹ ﻣﺘﻨــﻮﻉ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ‪ d‬ﺭﺍ ﭼﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻴﺪ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ؟ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﮔﺮﻭﭘﻰ ﺑﺤﺚ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪﺓ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺻﻨﻒ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﺔ ﺩﻻﻳﻞ ﻗﻨﺎﻋﺖ ﺑﺨﺶ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ ﺩﻭﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ MnO2 , MnO3 , Mn2 O7‬ﻭ ‪ MnO‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻨﻰ ﺷــﺎﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺩﻻﻳﻞ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‬
‫ﻣﻨﮕﺎﻥ ﺭﺍﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﻓﺼﻞ‬
‫* ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻱ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﺳــﻌﻲ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺁﻭﺭﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﺗﺎ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﺸــﻒ ﺷﺪﺓ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﺭﺍ ﻃﻮﺭﻱ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺍﻧﺴــﺘﻦ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻳﻜﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﺪﺓ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺩﺍﻧﺴــﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ‪ 1865‬ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﺩﺍﻥ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴﻲ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻧﻴﻮﻟﻴﻨﺪﺯ)‪ (Newlands‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﻛﺸــﻒ ﺷﺪﺓ ﺯ ﻣﺎﻥ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺍﺯﺩ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻗﻄﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﻱ‬
‫ﺍﻓﻘﻰ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻛﺮﺩ‬
‫*ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 1869‬ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺭﻭﺳــﻲ ‪ D. M. Mendelev‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﺸﻒ ﺷــﺪﺓ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻧﺒﺴــﺘﻲ ﺷــﺎﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻗﻄﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺍﻓﻘﻲ )‪ (Period‬ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻭ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺳــﺘﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻋﻤﻮﺩﻱ ﻣﺘﺤﺪ ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﻭ ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻑ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻛﺮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻭ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻛﺘﻠﺔﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﻧﺴﺘﻪ ﻭ‬
‫ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻫﺎ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺠﻴﺒﻪ )ﺑﻌﺪ ﻯ ﻣﻨﻔﻲ ﻗﺒﻠﻲ( ﻭ ﻳﺎ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ‪:‬‬
‫)‪ = (n + 1‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻃﺎﻕ‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫)‪ = (n + 2‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺟﻔﺖ‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫*ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺍﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ‪ :‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ‪2‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻥ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺑﻪ ﻓﻀﺎﻱ ﻻﻳﺘﻨﻬﺎﻳﻲ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫*ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﻩ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﺯ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﻛﻢ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﺯ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫*ﺋﺪﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺯﺩ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﺗﺰﺍﻳﺪ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ؛ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻗﺸــﺎﺭ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻧﻪ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺑﻠﻜﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻛﺶ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺩ ﻭﺭ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻭ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺗﺮ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ‬
‫ﺧﻮﺩ ﻣﻴﻜﺸﺎﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
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‫ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜــﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺗﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻣﻨﻔﻲ )‪ (Anions‬ﺗﺒﺪ ﻳﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺟﺬﺏ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺍﻧــﺮژﻱ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺧﻮﺍﻫــﻰ) ‪ ( Electron Affainity‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻣﺤــﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﻳﻚ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻳﻮﺯﻳﺘﻮﺗﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺯ ﭼﭗ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻢ ﺷــﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺳﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﻳﻚ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﭘﻮﺯﻳﺘﻮﺗﻲ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﺯ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻻﻛﻢ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﻳﻚ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ‪ EN‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺯ ﭼﭗ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳﺖ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﺑﺎً ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺮﻋﻜــﺲ ﺍﺯ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﻛﻢ ﻣﻲ ﺷــﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴــﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤــﺪﻭﺩ ﻳﻚ ﮔﺮﻭپ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺑﺎً ﻛﻢ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﺯ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻻ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺑﺎً ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺎ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ‪ EN‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﺎ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﻳﻦ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ ﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻃﺒﻌﻴﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ‪ Cs‬ﻭ ‪ Fr‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﭘﻮﺯﻳﺘﻴﻒ‬
‫ﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﺴﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻭ ﺁﺧﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻗﺸﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻲ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻭ ﻳﻜﻲ ﺍﺯ ﭘﺎﺭﺍﻣﺘﺮ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻫﻨﺪﺳﻲ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﻳﻚ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻻ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺑﺎً ﻛﻮ ﭼﻚ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭ‬
‫ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﺯ ﺭﺍﺳﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‪ d‬ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻧﻤﺒﺮﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﻳﺸﻦ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻــﺮ‪ d‬ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﺟــﺪﻭﻝ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ S‬ﺷــﺒﺎﻫﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﭘﻮﺯﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺯﻳﺎ ﺩ ﺭﺍﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺳــﺘﺨﺮﺍﺝ‬
‫ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺯﻣﻌﺎ ﺩﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺸــﻜﻞ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ‪.‬ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ‪ d‬ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻫﺎ ﺩﻯ ﺑﺮﻕ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﻧﻘﺮﻩ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺷــﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﻋﺎﺩﻯ ﻫﺎﺩﻯ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺑﺮﻕ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺟﻼ ﺩﺍﺭﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺖ ﭼﻜﺶ ﺧﻮﺭﺩﻥ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺍﻭﺭﺍﻕ ﻧﺎﺯﻙ ﻣﺒﺪﻝ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭﺳﻴﻢ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺯﺁﻥ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺩﻭﻡ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﻰ‪ :‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻫﺮ ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺷﻤﺎ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺩﺭﺳﺖ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻭﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺏ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﻋﻨﺼــﺮ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ ﻭﮔﺮﻭپ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺁﻥ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺑﻪ‪ ......‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ‪ 31‬ﺏ – ‪ 32‬ﺝ – ‪ 33‬ﺩ – ‪14‬‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﻛــﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﻯ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻴﺸــﺘﺮﻳﻦ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ 13 -‬ﺏ – ‪ 14‬ﺝ ‪ 15 -‬ﺩ – ‪19‬‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﺍﺭﺍﻳﺔ ﺩﺭﺳﺖ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻫﺮﮔﺎﻩ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﺮﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ‪-------‬‬
‫ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﮔﺮﺩﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﻭﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ‪-----‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ‪ -‬ﺗﻜﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺏ – ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ – ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﻰ ﻛﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺝ – ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ – ﺗﻜﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺩ – ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ – ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 4‬ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﻳﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺻﻞ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻣﺒﺬﻭﻝ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻗــﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺩﻥ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺠﻰ ‪ -----‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻫــﺮ ‪------‬ﺩﺭ ﭘﻬﻠﻮﻯ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻭﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻦ ﺗﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻫﺮ ‪------‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ – ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎ ‪ -‬ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻫﺎ ﺏ – ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ – ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ‪ -‬ﮔﺮﻭپ‬
‫ﺝ – ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ – ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ‪ -‬ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺩ – ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ – ﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ -‬ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ‬
‫‪ – 5‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺑﺘﻜﺎﺭ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﻧﻴﺴﺖ ؟‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺩﺍﺩﻥ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺳﻨﮕﻴﻦ ﺗﺮ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺳﺒﻚ ﺗﺮ‬
‫ﺏ ‪ -‬ﺧﺎﻟﻰ ﮔﺬﺍﺷــﺘﻦ ﺑﺮﺧﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺧﺎﻧﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ‪ .‬ﺝ – ﺗﻘﺴــﻴﻢ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻭﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺩ – ﭘﻴﺸﮕﻮﻳﻰ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻧﺎﺷﻨﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 6‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺷــﺎﻣﻞ ﻳﻚ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺸﺎ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ؟‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺏ ـ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻗﺸﺮ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺝ ‪ -‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩ – ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺳﻮﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‬
‫‪ 7-‬ﻧﻤﺒــﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ‪ 21‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﻣﺬﻛــﻮﺭﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻭ ﮔﺮﻭپ‬
‫ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺳــﻮﻡ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ‪ 4‬ﺏ – ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺳــﻮﻡ ﻓﺮﻋﻰ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ‪ 4‬ﺝ – ﮔﺮﻭپ‬
‫ﺍﻭﻝ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ‪ 3‬ﺩ – ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺩﻭﻡ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ‪4‬‬
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 ‫‪ – 8‬ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻗﺸﺮ ﺁﺧﺮﻯ ﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ‪ 3s 2 3 p 4‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪،‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺩﺭ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫ﻳﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ؟‬
‫ﺩ ‪ -‬ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺳﻮﻡ ﺏ – ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺩﻭﻡ ﺝ – ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺷﺸﻢ‬
‫‪ – 9‬ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫ﺩ ‪ -‬ﺳﻠﻔﺮ‬ ‫ﺝ – ﺭﻭﺑﻴﺪﻳﻢ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺳﺘﺮﺍﻧﻴﺸﻴﻢ ﺏ – ﺍﻟﻮﻣﻴﻨﻴﻢ‬
‫‪ – 10‬ﺍﻛﺘﻴﻨﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؟‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺧﺎﻧﺔ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ‪ 64‬ﺏ – ﺧﺎﻧﺔ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ‪ 57‬ﺝ – ﺧﺎﻧﺔ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ‪ 89‬ﺩ – ﺧﺎﻧﺔ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ‪72‬‬
‫‪ – 11‬ﺩﺍﻧﺴﺘﻦ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺒﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺩﻗﻴﻖ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺩﻫﺪ ؟‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺏ – ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﺝ ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻒ ﻭﺏ ﻫﺮﺩﻭ ﺩ ‪ -‬ﻫﻴﭽﻜﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﺤﻰ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﭼﺮﺍ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ؟‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﻃﻮﻳــﻞ ﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻭﻛﻮﺗــﺎﻩ ﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻫــﺎ ﺍﻧﺪ ؟ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ‪ M‬ﺩﺭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﻭ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺷﺸــﻢ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﻳﺪ‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﭼﺮﺍ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻋﻴﻦ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪ ؟ ﺩﺭ ﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﻳﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﭼﻨﺪ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻭﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﭼﻨﺪ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫‪ - 6‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 7‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﭼﻴﺴﺖ ﻭﺗﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻨﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫‪ - 8‬ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﭼﻴﺴﺖ ؟ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﺮﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﭼﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫‪ - 9‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻭﺗﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﭼﻰ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ؟‬
‫‪ - 10‬ﺗﺮﺗﻴــﺐ ﻭﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻨﺪﻟﻴﻒ ﺍﺯ ﻟﺤــﺎﻅ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﻭﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫ﻣﻨﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟ ﺩﺭ ﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﺳﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ )‪( Chemical Bonds‬‬
‫ﺁﻳﺎ ﮔﺎﻫﻰ ﻫﻢ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻄﻠﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﺟﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﻳﺪ ﻛﻪ ﭼﺮﺍ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻭﺻﻞ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺟﺴــﺎﻡ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺩﻫﻨﺪ ؟ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﭼﻄﻮﺭﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ ؟‬
‫ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﭼﻄﻮﺭ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻳﻚ ﺩﺭ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺣﻞ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﻧﺪ ؟ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫ﭼﻴﺴﺖ ؟ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻝ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ؟ ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺪ ؟ ﭼﺮﺍ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ؟ ﻃﺮﺯ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫ﻣﻨﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؟ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺭﺍﺟﻊ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺸــﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎ ‪ ،‬ﻃﺮﺯ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑــﻂ ﻭﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺧﺼﻮﺻﻴﺎﺕ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻓﻌــﻞ ﻭﺍﻧﻔﻌﺎﻝ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ : 1 - 3‬ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻭﺳﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻟﻴﻮﻳﺲ‬
‫ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ) ‪ ( Chemical bond‬ﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﻣﻼ ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ‬
‫ﻳــﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺗــﺄ ﺛﻴﺮﺍﻧﺪﺍﺧﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺭﺍﺑﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ‬
‫ﺳـــــــﻄﺢ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺻـﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻘـــﺪﺍﺭﻣﻘــــﺎﻭﻣﺖ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺑﻴـــﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻭﻣــﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ‪ 10 Calory/ mo1‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻮﺿــﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄــﺔ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﺨــﺶ ﻋﻤﺪﺓ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻯ ﻧﻈﺮﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫــﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﻐﻠﻖ ﺍﺯ ﻗﺒﻴﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺩﻳﻜﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪،‬ﻛﺮﻳﺴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ‬
‫ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻩ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺩﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺩﻭ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭﺗﻮﺃﻡ ﺑﺎ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷﺪﻥ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﺒــﻞ ﺍﺯﺍﻳﺠــﺎﺩ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺖ ‪،‬ﺩﺭﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴــﺎﻭﻯ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﻪ ﻟﻴﻮﻳﺲ‬
‫ﺣﻜﻢ ﻓﺮﻣﺎﻳﻰ ﺩﺍﺷــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 1916‬ﻋﺎﻟﻤــﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻟﻴﻮﻳﺲ )‪ ( Liwes‬ﻧﻈﺮﻳﻪ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﺩﺍﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻃﺒﻖ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﻪ » ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ «ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻙ‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺩﺍﺩﻥ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﺯﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﺷﺮﻳﻚ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﻧﺪﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺲ‬
‫ﻼ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫــﺎ ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎﻯ ‪ NH 3 ، F2 ، H‬ﻭ ‪ CH 4‬ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ﻳــﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺫﻳ ً‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻪ ) × ( ﻭﻳﺎ ) • ( ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻡ‬
‫‪H:H‬‬
‫‪..‬‬ ‫‪..‬‬
‫‪:F : F:‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬
‫‪..‬‬ ‫‪..‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺍﺳــﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛــﺐ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎ ﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧــﻰ ﺑﺎﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻭﻗﺸــﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﺧﻮﺩﺭﺍ ﺑــﻪ ‪ 2‬ﻭ ‪ 8‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﻎ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺧﺎﻃﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻗﺎﻋﺪﻩ ﺍﻛﺘﻴﺖ ﻳﺎ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﻫﺸﺘﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺷــﺪﺓ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﻣﺸــﺒﻮﻉ ﺷــﺪﻥ ﻗﺸﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‬
‫ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻫﺸﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
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‫ﺩﺭ ﺍﺑﺘــﺪﺍ ﻟﻴﻮﻳــﺲ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺶ ﭼﮕﻮﻧﻪ ﮔﻰ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺘﻴﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﻫﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺭﺃﺱ ﻫﺮ ﻣﻜﻌﺐ ﺗﺼﻮﺭ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻫﺴــﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛــﺰ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﻭﺗﺎﺯﻣﺎﻧﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺍﻳــﻦ ﺭﺃﺱ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻜﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻧﮕﻴﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 1 - 3‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻟﻴﻮﻳﺲ‬
‫‪ : 2-3‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻭﻛﺘﻴﺖ ﻭﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻟﻴﻮﻳﺲ‬
‫ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺶ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﺸﺮ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺑﺎ ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺭﻩ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺸــﺘﺮﻙ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﻫﺎ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻂ )‪ ( -‬ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎﺭ ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﻳﻰ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻟﻴﻮﻳﺲ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 1 – 2- 3‬ﺭﻭﺵ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ – ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﻳﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﺭﻭﺵ ﺍﻣﺘﺤﺎﻥ ﻭﺧﻄﺎ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﻭﺵ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻫﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﺳــﺎﺧﺘﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﻳﻰ ﺩﺭﺑﻴﻦ ﺳﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﻫﺮﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪.‬؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪:‬‬
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 ‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 2 - 3‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﻳﻰ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺏ – ﺭﻭﺵ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻤﺎﺗﻴﻚ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﻭﺵ ﻣﻨﺸــﺄ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻧﺸــﺪﻩ ؛ﺑﻠﻜﻪ ﭼﮕﻮﻧﮕــﻰ ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ ‪ .‬ﻣﺮﺍﺣــﻞ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﻭﺵ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ‪ CO 2−‬ﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪NO‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ ﺍﻭﻝ ‪ :‬ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﻭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ)‪N(V‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳــﺖ ﻣﻴﺂﻭﺭﻳﻢ ﻭ‬
‫ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺗﺜﺒﻴﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻳﻜﺠﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻴﻢ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﻫﺮ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻛﻢ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣــﻮﺭﺩ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ) ‪ N (v‬ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﻛــﻢ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻛﻢ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ ﻭﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺍﻭﻟﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺳﮕﻤﺎ ) ‪ (S‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺩﻭﻣﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﭘﺎﻯ ) ‪ (P‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪CO 32−‬‬
‫)‪) + 3 ⋅ 6e − (O) + 2e − (Cathion‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ‪N (v) = 4e − (C‬‬
‫‪N (v) = 24e −‬‬
‫‪O −−− N −−−O‬‬ ‫‪ O − N − O‬ﻳﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﺑﺎﻗﻰ ﻣﺎﻧﺪﻩ‬
‫‪N (v) − 4e − = 17e − − 4e − = 13e −‬‬
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 ‫ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺩﻭﻡ ‪ :‬ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﻯ ﺑﺎﻗﻰ ﻣﺎﻧﺪﻩ ﺑﺮ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﻭﻛﺘﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺑﺎﻗﻰ ﻣﺎﻧﺪﻩ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻛﺘﻴﺖ ﻫﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺁﻥ ﺗﻜﻤﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺍﺑﺘﺪﺍ ﺍﻛﺘﻴﺖ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﺭﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ) ‪ ( 3 – 3‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺳﻮﻡ ‪ :‬ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﭘﺎﻯ ) ‪ (P‬ﻭﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﺍﻛﺘﻴﺖ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺗﻜﻤﻴﻞ ﻧﺸــﺪﻩ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﻤﺠﻮﺍﺭ ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﺟﺎﺑﺠﺎ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺷﺎﻥ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﻭﺍﻗﻊ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ) ‪(P‬‬
‫ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻫﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
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‫)ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ( =)ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ (‪ ) -‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ( ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﮔﺮﻭپ = ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺒﺮﻯ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺘﺸــﻜﻠﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻔﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻰ‬
‫ﻣﻤﻜــﻦ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ) ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭ ‪ ( NO2‬ﺍﻛﺘﻴﺖ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﭘﻮﺭﻩ ﻧﻜﺮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻳﻦ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺳــﺘﺜﻨﺎ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ NO2‬ﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺑﻪ ﺧﺎﻃﺮ ﻃﺎﻗﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﻫﻴﭻ ﺍﻣــﻜﺎﻥ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﺭﻩ ﻛﺮﺩﻥ ﺍﻛﺘﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﻴﺴﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻔﻜﻮﺭﻩ ﻟﻴﻮﻳﺲ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺣﻘﺎﻳﻖ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻣﺎ ﻋﻠﺖ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻧﻤﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺴــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺑﺎﺍﻧﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﻣﺨﺎﻧﻴﻚ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺖ ﻋﻠﺖ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺿﻴﺢ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻳﻚ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺍﺑﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻫﻤﭽﻮ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺟﻔﺖ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﺑﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺩﻭ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺗﺼﻮﺭﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪S – S Orbital‬‬
‫ﺷــﻜﻞ )‪ ( 4 - 3‬ﺷــﻴﻤﺎﻯ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻭﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﺑﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‪s – s‬‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 4 - 3‬ﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﺍﺑﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺩﺭﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
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 ‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻴﺸــﺘﺮ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﻋﻠﺖ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻳﻨﺴﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺎﺣﻪ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺗﺤﺖ‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻫﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻛﺶ ﻭﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺤﻞ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻨﺠﺎ ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ ‪ :‬ﻗﻮﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ‬
‫ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﺳﺘﺎﺗﻴﻜﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﻟﻴﻮﻳﺲ ﺩﺭﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﺩﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺭﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﺯ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻣﻴﺨﺎﻧﻴﻚ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﻣﻔﻬــﻮﻡ ﻋﻤﻮﻣــﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﭘﺮﻧﺴــﻴﭗ ﭘﺎﻭﻟﻰ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯﻧﻤﺒﺮ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻮﺍﻧﺘﻢ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﺍﺯﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ) ﻧﻤﺒﺮﺳﭙﻴﻦ ﺷﺎﻥ ( ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟــﻦ ﻭﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘــﺎﻝ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ S‬ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺟﻬﺖ ﺳــﭙﻴﻦ‬
‫)‪ ( Spin‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻃﺮﻳﻘــﻪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺁﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺸــﺘﺮﻙ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ ﻭﺳــﺒﺐ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ) ‪ ( MVB‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻤﻮﻣﺎً ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ) — ( ﺍﻓــﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻭﺩﺭﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺧﻂ ﺗﺼﻮﺭ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 2- 2- 3‬ﻭﻻﻧﺲ )‪( Valance‬‬
‫ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﺯ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮﺭﺍ ﻧﺼﺐ ﻭﻳﺎ‬
‫ﺗﻌﻮﻳــﺾ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ؛ ﻳﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﻩ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ‪ :‬ﻗﻮﻩ ﺍﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻧــﺎﻡ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨــﺪ ‪ .‬ﻛﻠﻤﻪ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺻﻄﻼﺡ ﻻﺗﻴﻦ )‪( Valantia‬‬
‫ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﻇﺮﻓﻴﺖ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﻮﺳــﻴﻞ )‪ (Kossel‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻭﻟﻴﻦ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤــﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﺒﺠﻪ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻛﺎﻣــﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫــﺎ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﺗﺎ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻗﺸــﺮ‬
‫ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺸــﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﻎ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻪ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻩ ﻫﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪3-3:‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺭﻭﺍﺑـﻂ ﻛﻴـﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ :1 -3-3‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ‪( Electro Volant bond ) :‬‬
‫ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺎﺕ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺧﺎﺻﺘﺎً ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ‪ns 2 np 6‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺠﻴﺒﻪ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ‪Rn,Xe,Kr,Ar, Ne ( 1S ) He‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭﺩﺭﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺳــﻬﻢ‬
‫ﻧﻤﻴﮕﻴﺮﻧﺪ ﻭﺑﺎﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺠﻴﺒﻪ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺸﺒﻮﻉ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﻗﺸﺮ ﺁﺧﺮﻯ‬
‫ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻫﺸﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺳﺎﻝ ‪ 1916‬ﻡ ﻋﻠﻤﺎ ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ‪ ) :‬ﻛﻮﺳﻴﻞ ‪ ( Kossel‬ﻭ) ﻟﻴﻮﻳﺲ ‪ (Liwes‬ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻞ ﺍﺯﻫﻢ‬
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 ‫ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺭﺍﻫﻤﺎﻧﺎ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻦ ﻭﮔﺮﻓﺘﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻏﺮﺽ ﺗﻜﻤﻴﻞ ﻫﺸﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﺪﺍﺭﺁﺧﺮﻯ ﺩﺍﻧﺴﺘﻪ ﺗﺎ ﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﻻﺯﻣﻪ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺴﻠﺴــﻞ ﻋﻨﺎﺻــﺮﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﺳﻴﺴــﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﻛــﻪ ﺍﺯ ﻧﻴــﻮﻥ ) ‪ ( Ne‬ﺁﻏﺎﺯ ﻳﺎﻓﺘﻪ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ‪.‬‬
‫) ﺩﺭﻗﻮﺱ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﺸﺮ ‪ L,K‬ﻭﻳﺎ ‪ M‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪(.‬‬
‫)‪N (2,5 )0(2,6) F (2,7) Ne(2,8), Na (2,8,1) Mg (2,8,2‬‬
‫ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ‪Na‬ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻦ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻧﺠﻴﺒــﻪ ‪ Ne‬ﺭﺍ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻭ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﺎﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫←⎯ )‪Na (2, 8,1‬‬
‫⎯‬‫‪⎯→ Na + (2,8 ) + 1e −‬‬
‫⎯⎯‬
‫ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ‪ 10‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻭ ‪ 11‬ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺳــﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺁﻥ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺗﺎﺳﻮﺩ ﻳﻢ‬
‫ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺫﺭﺓ ﭼﺎﺭﺟﺪﺍﺭ ‪ Na +‬ﻣﺒﺪﻝ ﺷــﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ ) ‪ ( Cathion‬ﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺩﺭﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ‪ Ne‬ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭﺑﺎ‬
‫ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻦ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﺎ ﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻧﺠﻴﺐ ‪ Ne‬ﺭﺍ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻭﺍﻛﺘﻴﺖ ﺧﻮﺩﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺗﻜﻤﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﺩ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪F (2,7) + 1e −‬‬
‫) ‪⎯→ F − (2,8‬‬
‫ﺫﺭﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺘﺸــﻜﻞ ﺍﺯ ‪ 10‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻭ ‪ 9‬ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﭼﺎﺭﺟﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ‬
‫ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ) ‪ ( F −‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺑﻴــﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﭼﺎﺭﺟﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ) ‪ ( Na +‬ﻭﺁﻳــﻮﻥ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ) ‪ ( F −‬ﻗﻮﻩ‬
‫ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﺳﺘﺎﺗﻴﻜﻰ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻭﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻳﺎ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ) ‪ ( Electro Valentebond‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬
‫‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪Na + + F −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ NaF‬‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﺯﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﻗﻮﻩ ﺟﺬ ﺏ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﺳﺘﺎﺗﻴﻜﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﭼﺎﺭﺟﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﺍﻟﻌﻼ ﻣﻪ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻲ ﺩﺭ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﺷــﺘﺮﺍﻛﻲ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ‪ ،‬ﺳــﺮﺣﺪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﺷــﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ) ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ( ﻭ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺪﻫــﺪ ؛ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻗﺴــﻤﺎ" ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻣﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﮔــﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺑــﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻣﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﮔﺮﺩ ﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻭ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
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‫ﺍﻟــﻒ – ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻭ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫‪100‬‬
‫‪LlF‬‬
‫‪KCl‬‬
‫‪KBr‬‬
‫‪Kl‬‬ ‫‪NaCl‬‬
‫‪75‬‬ ‫‪LiCl‬‬ ‫‪KF‬‬
‫‪IONIC‬‬ ‫‪LiBr‬‬
‫‪Lil‬‬
‫‪50‬‬ ‫ﺧﻂ ﻗﻄﻊ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭﻯ‬
‫‪HF‬‬
‫‪25‬‬ ‫‪COVALENT‬‬
‫‪lCl‬‬
‫‪Cl2 lBr Hl‬‬ ‫‪HCl‬‬
‫‪HBr‬‬
‫‪1.0‬‬ ‫‪2.0‬‬ ‫‪3.0‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 5 – 3‬ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻭ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﮔﻔﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄــﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻰ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻭﻟﻨﺖ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻔــﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗــﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ) ‪ ( 1.7‬ﻭﺑﺎﻻﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ‬
‫‪ .‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒــﺎﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻭﻳﺎﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻭﻟﻨﺖ ﻣﺘﺸــﻜﻞ ﺍﺯﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ) ‪ 1‬ﺍﻟﻰ ‪ ( 1,7‬ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ )‪ ( 50 %‬ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻭ‬
‫)‪ ( 50 %‬ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻲ ﻭ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺗﻰ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻃﻌﺎﻡ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺪﺍﻡﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬‫ﺁﻳــﺎ ﺭﺍﺟــﻊ ﺑﻪ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻃﻌــﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺩﺍﺭﻳﺪ ؟ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﻧﻴﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻤــﻚ ﻡ‬
‫ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫ﻧﻤﻚ ﻃﻌﺎﻡ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻭ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺁﻥ ‪NaCl‬‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻮﺭﻣــﻮﻝ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫــﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻤــﻚ ﻃﻌﺎﻡ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻭﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳــﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻧﺮﻡ ﻭﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﻛﻴﻤﻴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻭﮔﺎﺯ ﺯﻫﺮﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ‬
‫ﻢ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﻳﻢ‬
‫ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻳ‬
‫ﻳﻦ ﺑﺎﺑﺎ ﻮ‬
‫ﺳﻮ‬ ‫ﻮﺭﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻛﻠﻮﺭ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﮔﮔﺎﺯ ﻛﻠ‬
‫ﻜﻞ ) ‪ (6 -3‬ﺗﻌﺎ‬
‫ﺷﺷﻜﻞ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻃﻌﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺭﻧﮓ ﺳﻔﻴﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
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‫ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﻪ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻃﻌﺎﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﺯ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻭﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺳــﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺳــﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻭﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﺭﻳﻜﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺳــﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺯ ﺩﺳــﺖ ﺩﺍﺩﻥ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻳﻚ ﻭﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺑﺎ‬
‫ﮔﺮﻓﺘــﻦ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘــﺮﻭﻥ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﻳــﻚ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺍﺧﺘﻴــﺎﺭ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻗﻮﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﺳــﺘﺎﺗﻴﻚ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺳــﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻃﻌﺎﻡ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﻫﻴﺖ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺑﻠﻮﺭ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻃﻌﺎﻡ ﺳﺨﺖ‬
‫ﻭﺷﻜﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 8010 C‬ﺫﻭﺏ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 14130 C‬ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﺣﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻭﻳﺎ ﻣﺬﺍﺑﻪ ﻫﺎﺩﻯ ﺧﻮﺏ ﺑﺮﻕ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ‬ ‫ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ‬
‫‪17e‬‬ ‫‪18e −‬‬
‫ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬ ‫‪17P‬‬
‫‪17P‬‬
‫‪1IP +‬‬ ‫‪1IP‬‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺩﺍﺩﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫‪ 11e −‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ‬ ‫‪ 10e −‬ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 7 - 3‬ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺶ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻫﻨﮕﺎﻡ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺳــﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ ﺁﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﻦ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻭﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺳــﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﺔ ﻗﻮﻯ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺴﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻧﮕﺎﻩ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻗﻮﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺍﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻧــﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ ﺳــﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻭ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳــﺪ ﻧﺒﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻠﻜﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻭﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﻤﺠﻮﺍﺭ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻧﻈﻢ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺁﻭﺭﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻫﺮ ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﻭﻳﻚ ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﺣﺎﻃﻪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ)‪ ( 8 - 3‬ﺁﺭﺍﻳﺶ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻝ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻃﻌﺎﻡ‬
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‫ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻫﺮ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺳــﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺷــﺶ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﻭﻫﺮ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ‬
‫ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺷﺶ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﺍﺣﺎﻃﻪ ﻭﻧﻈﻢ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺁﻭﺭﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ‬
‫ﻛﻮﻟﻤﺐ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺩﺍﺭ ﻫﻢ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﻓﻊ ﻭﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻗﻮﻩ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺩﺍﺭ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﻋﻼﻣﻪ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻫﻢ ﻋﻼﻣﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻴﺸــﺘﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻭﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﺯﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺳﺒﺐ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻟﺤﺎﻅ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻠــﻮﻝ ﺁﺑــﻰ ﻭﻳﺎ ﻣﺬﺍﺑﺔ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻫﺎﺩﻯ ﺑﺮﻕ ﺑــﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺁﺯﺍﺩﺍﻧﻪ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺩﺭﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻫﺎﺩﻯ ﺑﺮﻕ ﻧﺒﻮﺩﻩ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻧﻤﻜﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺰ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺍﻫﺘﺰﺍﺯﻯ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺣﺮﻛﺎﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻛﺮﺳــﺘﺎﻝ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻃﻌﺎﻡ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﺧﺎﻟﺺ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺧﺘﻪ ﺷــﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻧﻤﻚ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻫــﺎﻯ ﺁﺏ ﭘﺮﺍﮔﻨﺪﻩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭﺁﺯﺍﺩﺍﻧﻪ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺑــﺮﻕ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻋﺒﻮﺭ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 9 – 3‬ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺑﺮﻕ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻃﻌﺎﻡ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺑﻴﺎﻣﻮﺯﻳﺪ‬
‫ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻫﺎ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻭﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻣﻨﻈﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﺎﺭ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻛﺮﺳــﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺴﻠﺴﻞ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻫﺮ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻣﺨﺎﻟــﻒ ﭼــﺎﺭﺝ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺍﺣﺎﻃﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻧﻈــﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﻭﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮ ﻗــﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎﺭ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻤﻰ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺴﺎﻣﺖ ﻧﺴﺒﻰ ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻭﻛﺘﻴﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ‬
‫ﺧﺎﺹ ﭘﻴﺮﻭﻯ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻭﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﻰ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺮﺳــﺘﺎﻝ ﺗﻜﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺛﺮ ﺍﻧﺒﺎﺭ ﺫﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺳﺎﺯﻧﺪﺓ ﻳﻚ ﺟﺴﻢ )ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻧﻬﺎ ( ﺩﺭ ﺳﻪ ﺑﻌﺪﻯ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻴﺂﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﺷــــــــﻜﻞ )‪ (8 - 3‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺗﻮﺃﻡ ﺑﺎ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷﺪﻥ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻫﻨﮕﺎﻡ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ‬
‫ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻭﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ ﺁﻥ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:‬‬
‫‪Na + ( g ) + Cl − ( g ) ⎯⎯⎯→ NaCl ( s ) + 787.5kj / mol‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ‪ kj / mol‬ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ) ‪ (1 - 3‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﻫﻼﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ‬
‫‪I−‬‬ ‫‪Br −‬‬ ‫‪Cl −‬‬ ‫‪F−‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫‪757‬‬ ‫‪807‬‬ ‫‪853‬‬ ‫‪1036‬‬ ‫‪Li +‬‬
‫‪704‬‬ ‫‪747‬‬ ‫‪787‬‬ ‫‪923‬‬ ‫‪Na +‬‬
‫‪649‬‬ ‫‪682‬‬ ‫‪715‬‬ ‫‪821‬‬ ‫‪K+‬‬
‫‪630‬‬ ‫‪660‬‬ ‫‪689‬‬ ‫‪785‬‬ ‫‪Rb +‬‬
‫‪604‬‬ ‫‪631‬‬ ‫‪659‬‬ ‫‪740‬‬ ‫‪Cr +‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ) ‪ ( 2 – 3‬ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﺔ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺳﺒﻜﺔ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪﻩ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ‪ +2‬ﻭ‪+3‬‬
‫ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ‬
‫‪F−‬‬ ‫‪F−‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ‬
‫‪2481‬‬ ‫‪923‬‬ ‫` ‪Na +‬‬
‫‪3791‬‬ ‫‪2957‬‬ ‫‪Mg 2+‬‬
‫‪15916‬‬ ‫‪5492‬‬ ‫‪Al 3+‬‬
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 ‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ‪ 1‬ﻭ‪ 2‬ﺑﻪ ﺩﻗﺖ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺍ ﻧﺪﺍﺯﻳﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺑﻪ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺷﻤﺎ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺩﺭﺳﺖ‬
‫ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ ﻭ ﭼﺮﺍ ؟‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﻫﺮﻗﺪﺭ ﻛﻪ ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﻫﺮ ﻗﺪﺭ ﻛﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﻫﺮ ﻗﺪﺭ ﻛﻪ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 4‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﺑﺎ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﻭ ﺑﺎ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺏ ‪ -‬ﭘﻴﺶ ﺑﻴﻨﻰ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ؟‬
‫‪ MgO‬ﻭﻳﺎ ‪CaO‬‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﻗﻮﻩ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻗﻮﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ ؛ ﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺸــﺎﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪.‬ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 3-3‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ‪C‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﺫﻭﺏ ‪C‬‬ ‫ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ‬
‫‪1413‬‬ ‫‪801‬‬ ‫‪NaCl‬‬
‫‪1390‬‬ ‫‪715‬‬ ‫‪RbCl‬‬
‫‪1505‬‬ ‫‪858‬‬ ‫‪KF‬‬
‫‪1435‬‬ ‫‪734‬‬ ‫‪KBr‬‬
‫ﺝ – ﺁﻳﺎ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻭﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻃﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮﮔﺮﻓﺖ ؟‬
‫‪ :2- 3-3‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ) ‪( Covalent bond‬‬
‫ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ ‪ :‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻳﮕﺎﻧﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻧﺒﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ Cl 2‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ‬
‫ﻛــﻪ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻟﻴﻮﻳﺲ ﭘﻴﺸــﻨﻬﺎﺩ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪ :‬ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻗﺸــﺮﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﺧﻮﺩﺭﺍ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪ .‬ﻏﺮﺽ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻫــﺎﻯ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺗﺎ ﺣﺪ ﺍﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻤﺪﻳﮕﺮ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻣﺸــﺘﺮﻙ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺻﺮﻑ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ‪Spin‬‬
‫ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺷﻜﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﺋﻴﺪ‪:‬‬
‫‪72‬‬
 ‫‪xx‬‬
‫ﻳﺎ‬ ‫‪x‬‬
‫‪x‬‬ ‫‪Cl‬‬ ‫‪x‬‬
‫‪Cl‬‬ ‫ﻳﺎ‬ ‫‪Cl Cl‬‬
‫‪Cl‬‬ ‫‪Cl‬‬ ‫‪xx‬‬
‫‪Cl‬‬ ‫‪Cl‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 10 - 3‬ﻃﺮﺯﺍﺭﺍﻳﺔ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺩﺭﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﺷــﺘﺮﺍﻙ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻴﺮﺳــﺪ ‪ .‬ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻒ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻛﺮﻛﺘﺮﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺣﻔﻆ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ؛ ﻻﻛﻦ ﻳﻚ ﻭﻳﺎﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻗﺸــﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻏﺮﺽ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﻗﺸﺮﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ‬
‫ﻧﻔﻮﺫ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﺍﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻜﻌﺐ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻃﻮﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ) ﻃﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺍﻭﻟﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺍﺯﻧﻈﺮ‪ Bhor‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ( .‬ﺑﻪ ﺩ ﺳﺖ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﺁﻭﺭﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﺩﺭ ﻟﻐﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﻣﺸــﺘﺮﻙ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭﺍﺷــﺎﺭﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺍﺳــﺖ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺯ ﻗﺸــﺮ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﺸﺮ‬
‫ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﺍﺳــﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻗﺸﺮ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻣﺴﺸﻮﺩ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﻛﻰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫ﭼﻄﻮﺭ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ؟‬
‫ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﺔ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳــﺆﺍﻝ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺳــﺎﺩﺓ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺁﻥ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻴﻢ ‪ .‬ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺷــﺪﻩ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻭﻫﺴــﺘﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﻳﮕﺮﺁﻥ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻗــﻮﻯ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ‬
‫ﺑﻴــﻦ ﻫﺮ ﻳــﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻣﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺷــﺎﻥ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﻓﻊ ﻋﻤﻞ‬
‫ﻧﻤــﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻭﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﺗﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻫــﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺠﺰﺍ ﺑﺎﺷــﻨﺪ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻃﻮﺭﻳﻜﻪ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﺳــﺖ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻗــﻮﺓ ﺩﺍﻓﻌﻪ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺬﻛــﺮ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮ ﻝ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﻭﺩﺍﻓﻌﻪ ﺑﺎ‬
‫ﻫﻢ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 11 - 3‬ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﺍﻓﻌﻪ ﻭﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﻥ‪.‬‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻳﻚ ﻓﻨﺮ ﺗﺼﻮﺭ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪ .‬ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺯﻣﺎﻧــﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺍﻭﻟﻰ ﺑﺮ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﺍﻓﻌﻪ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺯﻫــﻢ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻣﻴﺴــﺎﺯﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟــﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻣﺘﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺤﻮﺭ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻧﻮﺳــﺎﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻻﻛﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﺳﺎﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﺸﻪ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳــﻚ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﺩﻟــﻰ ﺍﺯﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻃــﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 12 - 3‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻓﻨﺮﻯ‬
‫ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ‬
‫ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺷــﻌﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺖ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ‬
‫ﺷــﻌﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﻩ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺷــﻌﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ‬
‫ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻭﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ (13 - 3‬ﻗﻮﺓﻛﺸﺶ ﻭﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﭼﻦ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﻗﻮﺓ ﻛﺸﺶ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺍﺑﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺩﺭﻓﻀﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻫﺎ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ‬
‫‪: 2- 2 – 3‬ﻃﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺍﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻃﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﻋﻤﻮﻣﺎً ﻃﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﺭﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺩﺭﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺩﺭﺣﺪﻭﺩ ‪ 1‬ﺍﻡ ﺣﺼﻪ ﻳﻚ ﻧﺎﻧﻮ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﺳــﺖ ‪.‬‬
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‫ﺑﺎ ﺗﺰﺍﻳﺪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻢ ﻭﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ N ≡ N, N = N, N − N‬ﻃــﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻴــﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ ‪ 125nm , 0.145nm,0‬ﻭ ‪ 0.109nm‬ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭﻃﻮﻝ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ‬
‫‪ C – C ، C = C ، C = C‬ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ ‪ 0.154nm ، 0.134 nm ، 0.126nm‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻃﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺗﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺭﺍ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺔ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺍﺷــﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﺑﺮﺭﺳــﻰ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎ ﻗﺒــﻞ ﺍﺯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻴﻢ ‪.‬‬
‫ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻄﻪ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪ ،‬ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻴﻢ ﺩﻳﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻣﻨﺤﻨﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻨﺎﺭ ﻫﻢ ﻛﻤﺘﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ؟ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺎﻥ ﮔﺮ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﺳــﻄﺢ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪.‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﺩﻟﻰ ﻭﻳﺎ ﻃﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﺔ‬
‫ﺩﻭﺭ ﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﺩﻟﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻴﻞ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪﺗﺎ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻓﺎﺻﻠﺔ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺗﻌﺎﺩﻟﻰ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﺍﻓﻌﻪ ﻗﻮﻯ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭﺗﻤﺎﻳﻞ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ﺗﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺗﻌﺎﺩﻟﻰ ﺑﺮﮔﺮﺩﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺘﻮﺻﻞ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺩﺍﻳﻢ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻝ ﻧﻮﺳﺎﻥ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺧﺎﻃﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻦ ﺳﻄﺢ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﻢ ﺑﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺯﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺎ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻣﺘﻮﺻﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺠﺰﺍ‬
‫ﭘﺎﻳﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ؛ ﻳﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭ ﺓ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻄﺢ‬
‫ﭘﺎﻳﻴــﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻴﻜﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻭﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻭ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻗﻄﻊ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﺍﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺁﻥ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 4 – 3‬ﻃﻮﻝ ﻭﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ‬
‫ﻃﻮﻝ )‪ (pm‬ﺍﻧﺮﺯﻯ‬ ‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬ ‫ﻃﻮﻝ )‪ (pm‬ﺍﻧﺮﺯﻯ‬ ‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫‪kj/mol‬‬ ‫‪kj/mol‬‬
‫‪298‬‬ ‫‪161‬‬ ‫‪H-I‬‬ ‫‪436‬‬ ‫‪75‬‬ ‫‪H-H‬‬
‫‪338‬‬ ‫‪177‬‬ ‫‪C - Cl‬‬ ‫‪412‬‬ ‫‪109‬‬ ‫‪H-C‬‬
‫‪276‬‬ ‫‪194‬‬ ‫‪H - Br‬‬ ‫‪432‬‬ ‫‪127‬‬ ‫‪H - Cl‬‬
‫‪243‬‬ ‫‪199‬‬ ‫‪Cl - Cl‬‬ ‫‪366‬‬ ‫‪142‬‬ ‫‪H - Br‬‬
‫‪193‬‬ ‫‪229‬‬ ‫‪Br - Br‬‬ ‫‪360‬‬ ‫‪143‬‬ ‫‪C-O‬‬
‫‪151‬‬ ‫‪266‬‬ ‫‪I-I‬‬ ‫‪348‬‬ ‫‪154‬‬ ‫‪C-C‬‬
‫‪75‬‬
 ‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ ﻭ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻭ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺭﻭﺍﺑــﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﻤﻨﻮﻉ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﻩ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎ‬
‫) ‪ ( D − 1 bonding‬ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻇﺮﻧﺴﺒﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪:‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ H 2‬ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 3 - 14‬ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ : ( 14 – 3‬ﺷﻴﻤﺎﻯ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺯﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ؛ ﺑﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪HF‬‬
‫ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺩﺭﺳﺎﺣﻪ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ؛ﺯﻳﺮﺍﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗــﻰ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮﺍﺳــﺖ )‪EN‬‬
‫ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳــﻦ ‪ 4‬ﻭﺍﺯﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ‪ 2.1‬ﺍﺳــﺖ (؛ ﺑﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴــﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﻭﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺛﻘﻞ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺛﻔﻞ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻨﻄﺒﻖ ﻧﻤﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺳﺮﺣﺪ ﺟﺪﺍﻳﻰ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ‬
‫ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﻭﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻧﻤﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ (15 - 3‬ﺷﻌﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺖ ﻭﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭﻭﺍ ﻟﺲ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻟــﻒ – ‪ rV‬ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺪﺭﻭﺍﻟﺲ ‪ rC o : H 2‬ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﻛﻮﻟﻨــﺖ) ‪ ( 0,017nm‬ﻃﻮﻝ ‪rC o‬‬
‫ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ) ‪ ( 2nm‬ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫‪76‬‬
 ‫ﺏ – ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪rv = 0.1nm, rco = 0.104nm : Cl 2 :‬‬
‫ﺝ – ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ : Cl 2‬ﻃﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 0.141nm‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺑﺪﺍﻧﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴـﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺻـﻔﺮ ﻭﻳﺎ ﻛﻤﺘﺮﺍﺯ ‪ 0.5‬ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺑـﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ )‪ ( Non polar bond‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﺎﻻﺗﺮﺍﺯ‪ 0.5‬ﺍﻟﻰ ﻳﻚ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺗــﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ) ‪ 1‬ﺍﻟﻰ ‪ ( 1.7‬ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً ) ‪ ( % 50‬ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻭ ) ‪ ( % 50‬ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﮔﺮ ﺑﺎﻻﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ ‪ 1.7‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺳﻴﺰﻳﻢ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ) ‪ ( CsF‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﻳﻢ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ‬
‫ﺳــﺰﻳﻢ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 0.7‬ﻭ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ‪ 4.0‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﺑﻪ‬
‫‪ 3.3‬ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﭘﺲ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺁﺯﻣﺎﻳﺶ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗــﻰ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ‪ 3.5‬ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗــﻰ ﺳــﻠﻴﻜﺎﻥ ‪ 1.8‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ‪ 1.7‬ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ .‬ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺳﻠﻴﻜﺎﻥ ﻭﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻠﻴﻜﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﻯ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺩﻻﻳﻞ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻰ ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺑﻌﻀــﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﺍﮔﺮ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻭ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ‪ 0.4‬ﻏﻴﺮ‬
‫ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ‪ C − H‬ﻛﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻣﻬﻢ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻋﻀﻮﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ :3 - 3 - 3‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸﻦ ) ‪( Coordination bond‬‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸــﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﺯﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺁﻥ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﺸــﺘﺮﻙ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺍﺯﻃﺮﻑ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺳــﻬﻢ ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﻩ ) )‪ Donar‬ﺗﺒﺎﺭﺯﻳﺎﻓﺘــﻪ ﻭﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺁﻥ ﮔﻴﺮﻧﺪﻩ ) ‪Acceptor‬‬
‫( ﺗﺒــﺎﺭﺯ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳــﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧــﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻌﻀﺎً ﺑﻪ ﻧــﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﻭﻧﺎﺭ – ﺍﻛﺴــﭙﺘﻮﺭ ) – ‪Donor‬‬
‫‪ ( Acceptor‬ﻧﻴﺰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﻩ )‪ (Donar‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻳﻜﺠﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺩﺭﻗﺸــﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ‬
‫ﺧﻮﺩ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ﻭﺍﻛﺴــﭙﺘﻮﺭﻫﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺧﺎﻟﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻗﺸــﺮﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻰ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻛﺴــﭙﺘﻮﺭ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ‬
‫ﺩﻭﺟــﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳــﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺧﻮﺩﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩ ﺳــﺘﺮﺱ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺧﻸ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻏﺮﺽ ﺗﻜﻤﻴﻞ ﺍﻛﺘﻴﺖ ﺷﺎﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ H + :‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺧﻼﻯ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ‪ s‬ﺁﻥ ﺧﺎﻟﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺧﺎﻟﻰ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
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 ‫ﺁﺯﺍﺩﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﻣﺸﺒﻮﻉ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﻳﻨﺖ ﺑﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫‪+‬‬
‫ﭘﺲ ﮔﻔﺘــﻪ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ ) ‪ ( H 3O‬ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸــﻦ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻭﭼﺎﺭﺝ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺒــﺖ ﭘﺮﻭﺗــﻮﻥ ﺩﺭﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻊ ﻣﻴﮕــﺮﺩﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺁﺏ ﺑــﺎ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸﻦ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ؛ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪[Cu( H 2O) 6 ]2+ :‬‬
‫ﺍﻧﺤﻼﻟﻴﺖ ﺍﻛﺜﺮﻳﺖ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺁﺏ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻗﻄﻊ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺼﺮﻑ ﺭﺳﻴﺪﻩ‬
‫ﻭﺩﺭﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﺩﺭﺍﺛﺮ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸــﻦ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﻭﺁﺏ ﺍﻧــﺮژﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭘﺮﻭﺳﺲ ﺣﻞ ﺷﺪﻥ ﺍﺩﺍﻣﻪ ﭘﻴﺪﺍﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻳـﺸﻦ )‪ ( Hydration‬ﮔﺮﺩﻧﺪ‪⎯→[Cu ( H 2O) 6 ] :‬‬
‫‪2+‬‬
‫⎯ ‪Cu 2+ + 6 H 2O‬‬
‫ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻧﻴﻢ‬ ‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ‬
‫ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ) ‪ ( AlF3‬ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺤﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﻧﻴﻢ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸﻦ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻳﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻗﺸــﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﺯﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﻧﻴﻢ ﺣﺎﻭﻯ ﻫﺸﺖ ‪-‬‬
‫ﻫﺸﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﺯﻣﺸﺒﻮﻋﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻗﺸﺮ ﺁﺧﺮﻯ ﺑﺮﺧﻮﺭﺩﺍﺭﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺧﻂ ﺗﻴﺮ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ) ( ﻛﻪ ﺳﻤﺖ ﺗﻴﺮ ﺍﺯﻃﺮﻑ ﺩﻭﻧﺎﺭ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺍﻛﺴـﭙﺘﻮﺭﻣﺘﻤﺎﻳﻞ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﺯﻳﺮ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻧﻮﺷﺎﺩﺭ ) ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ( ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ‬
‫ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﮔﺮﻭﭘﻰ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺻﻨﻒ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ‬
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 ‫ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 16 - 3‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺩﻭ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﺷــﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﺳــﺎﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺩﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺧﺎﻟﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸﻦ ﻭﻳﺎ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻳﻚ ﻃﺮﻓﻪ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 4 - 3 – 3‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﺎﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﺗﺼﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﺸﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ‬
‫ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﺎً ﺳﺴﺖ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ‬
‫ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺁﻥ ﺁﺯﺍﺩﺍﻧﻪ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻳﺎﺩ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﻴﺪ ﻛﻪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬــﺎﻯ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬
‫ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻭﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺩﺭ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﺓ ﻗﻮﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺁﻧﻬﺎﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭﺍﺯ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺳــﺒﺐ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺳﺨﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺖ‬
‫ﭼﻜﺶ ﺣﻮﺭﺩﻥ ﻭﺗﻮﺭﻕ ﺭﺍﺩﺍﺭﺍﻧﺪ ؛ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺳﻴﻢ ﻭﺗﺨﺘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺴﻰ ‪،‬ﺍﻟﻮﻣﻴﻨﻴﻤﻰ‬
‫ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻩ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺎﻧﮕﺮ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ :5- 3 - 3‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺻﻔﺎﺕ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺸــﺨﺺ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﺩ ‪ .‬ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻭﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻣﺴــﺘﻘﻴﻤﺎً ﺑﻪ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺳــﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪، F2‬‬
‫‪ HF‬ﻭ‪ NaF‬ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻭﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﺋﻴﻢ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ : ( 5 - 3‬ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻭﺫ ﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﺳﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ F2 ، HF‬ﻭ‪: NaF‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬ ‫ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ‬
‫‪F2‬‬ ‫‪− 187C °‬‬ ‫‪− 218C °‬‬
‫‪HF‬‬ ‫‪+ 20C °‬‬ ‫‪− 83C °‬‬
‫‪NaF‬‬ ‫‪1707C °‬‬ ‫‪995C °‬‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ ‪ NaF ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻪ ‪ HF‬ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻳﺎ ﻧﻴﻤﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻭﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﺧﻴﻠﻰ ﻫﺎ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭﺑﺎﻻﺧﺮﻩ ‪ F2‬ﻛﻪ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻏﻴﺮﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺁﻥ ﺑــﻪ ﻣﺮﺍﺗــﺐ ﻛﻮﭼﻜﺘــﺮ ﺍﺯﺩﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻗﺒﻠﻰ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻭﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺗﻔﻜﻴﻚ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺍﺯﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺁﻥ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻭﻣﻰ ﻭﻗﻮﺓ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 6- 3-3‬ﻗﻄﻊ ﻫﻮﻣﻮﻟﻴﺘﻜﻰ ﻭﻫﺘﺮﻭﻟﻴﺘﻜﻰ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻗﻄﻊ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻗﺪﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺍﺛﻨﺎﻯ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭ ﻣﻴﺨﺎﻧﻴﻜﻴﺖ ﻗﻄﻊ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻜﻰ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻗﻄﻊ‬
‫ﻫﻮﻣﻮﻟﺘﻴﻜــﻰ ) ‪ ( Hemolytic‬ﻭﺩﻳﮕــﺮ ﻗﻄﻊ ﻫﺘﺮﻭﻟﻴﺘﻜﻰ) ‪ ( Hetrolytic‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻗﻄﻊ‬
‫ﻫﻮﻣﻮﻟﺘﻴﻜﻰ ﻫﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺧﻮﺩﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺳــﻬﻴﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺍﺧﺬ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻭﻫــﺮﺫﺭﻩ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘــﺮﻭﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻫﻤﭽﻮ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧــﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺩﻳﻜﺎﻝ ) ‪ ( Radical‬ﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫⎯ ‪H −H‬‬
‫‪⎯→ H ⋅ + ⋅ H‬‬
‫ﻗﻄــﻊ ﺭﺍﺑﻄــﺔ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺁﻥ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑــﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ ﺗﻌﻠﻖ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻗﻄﻊ ﻫﺘﺮﻭﻟﻴﺘﻜﻰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:‬ﺍﻧﻔﻜﺎﻙ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪: HCl‬‬
‫⎯ ‪H − Cl‬‬
‫‪⎯→ H + + Cl −‬‬
‫ﻧﻮﺕ ‪ :‬ﻗﻄﻊ ﻫﻮﻣﻮﻟﺘﻴﻜﻰ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻧﻮﺭ ﻳﺎﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺗﺸﻌﺸﻊ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ :7- 3 – 3‬ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ‬
‫ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺩﻭﺷﻜﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺳﮕﻤﺎ ) ‪ : ( S‬ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﭘﻮﺷﺶ ﻭﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺍﮔﺮﭘﻮﺷــﺶ ﺍﺑﺮﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻣﺘﺪﺍﺩ ﺧﻄﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺭﺍ ﻭﺻﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺑﮕﻴﺮﺩ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﻋﻈﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻣﺴﺘﺤﻜﻢ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺳﮕﻤﺎ ) ‪ ( S‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺍﺯﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺩﻭﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ S‬ﻭﻳﺎ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ S‬ﻭﻳﻚ ‪ P‬ﻭﻳﺎ ﺩﻭﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ P‬ﺑﻄﻮﺭﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪. ( 17 - 3‬‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻳﻜﺠﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ‬
‫ﻳﮕﺎﻧﻪ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺻﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ) ‪ ( S‬ﺭﺍﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ‪ : P‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺳــﻪ ﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ؛ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ‪ O2‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﻭﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ) ‪ ( N 2‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺳﻪ ﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮﺗﺪﺍﺧــﻞ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﭘﻮﺷــﺶ ﺍﺑﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪p‬‬
‫ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻭﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻣﺤﻮﺭ ‪ X‬ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﮔﻴﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ‪ P‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻭﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺘﻘﺒﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄــﻪ ) ‪ ( S‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺪﺍﺧــﻞ ‪ Pz‬ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﭼﻮﻥ ﺍﻳــﻦ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺳــﺎﺣﻪ ﭘﻮﺷــﺶ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻳﺪ ﻭﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺳــﺎﺣﻪ ﺩﺭﺑﺎﻻﻭﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﻣﺤﻮﺭ ‪ x‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
‫ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸــــﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄــﺔ ﺩﻭﻣﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻧﺎ ﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺟﺎﻧﺒــﻰ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ Py‬ﺩﻭﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻧﺎﻳﺘـــﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺁﻣﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﺷــﺪ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄــﺔ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻰ ﻭﺳﺴــﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺳﺴــﺖ ﻭﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ) ‪ ( S‬ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺴﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻧﻮﻉ ‪p‬ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﻫﻢ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻫﻢ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ) ‪ ( S‬ﺭﺍﺗﺴــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻨﺪ‬
‫ﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﺣﺘﻤﺂﻳﻚ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ) ‪ ( S‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪.‬ﺍﺷــﻜﺎﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻭﭘﻮﺷــﺶ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻰ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻞ‬
‫ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ‬ ‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ PX‬ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ : ( 17 - 3‬ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻟﻬﺎ ﻭﭘﻮﺷﺶ ﺁﻧﻬﺎﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻭ‪HCl‬‬
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 ‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺮﺳﻴﻢ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺯﻳﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ‪ KNO3 -‬ﺏ ‪ H 2 SO4 -‬ﺝ ‪NaCl -‬‬
‫‪:1-4-3‬ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ) ‪ ( Hybridization‬ﻭﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ‬
‫‪ : Hybridization‬ﻛﻠﻤﻪ ‪ Hybrid‬ﺩﺭﻳﻮﻧﺎﻧﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻁ ﺧﻮﻥ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﻧﺴﻠﻰ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯﺩﻭﻧﺴــﻞ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻣﺘﺰﺍﺝ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻁ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺮﺳﺎﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻨﺠﺎ‬
‫ﻣﻨﻈــﻮﺭ ﺍﺯﺍﺧﺘﻼﻁ ﺩﻭﻭﻳﺎ ﭼﻨﺪﻳــﻦ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛــﻪ ﺩﻭ ﻭﻳﺎ ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪﻯ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺂﻭﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧــﺪ ﺩﺭﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ‪ f , d , p, s,‬ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻩ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻨﺼﻮﺭﺕ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺫﻛﺮﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺯ ﻟﺤﺎﻅ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻫﻢ ﺍﺭﺯﺵ ﻧﺒﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻭ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻫﻢ ﺍﺭﺯﺵ ﻧﻤﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‪ .‬ﻻﻛﻦ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺭﺳﺎﻧﻴﺪﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ )‪ ( ..... d , p , s‬ﺍﻧﺪ ﺍﺯﻟﺤﺎﻅ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫ﻫﻢ ﺍﺭﺯﺵ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻄﻠﺐ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻋﻠﻤﺎ ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ‪ Cleyster‬ﻭ ‪ Pamling‬ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻯ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯﻟﺤﺎﻅ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﻯ‬
‫ﻧﺪﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﻭﺩﺭﻋﻴﻦ ﻗﺸﺮ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﻭﺍﻗﺸــﺎﺭ ﺍﺧﻴﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻭﻟﻰ ﺷﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﻫــﻢ ‪ Hybridization‬ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻭﻟﻰ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﻳﻚ ﺳــﻄﺢ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ﻭﻋﻴﻦ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺳــﻤﺖ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﺶ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﻋﻈﻤﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺯﻣﻴﻨﺔﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳــﺪ ﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣــﻰ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧــﺮژﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺼﺮﻑ ﺭﺳــﻴﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻨﺎً ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴــــﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻰ ﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﻪ ﻧﻈﺮﻣﻴﺮﺳــﻨﺪ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺩﺭﺍﺛﻨﺎﻯ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯﺩﺳﺖ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﻻﺯﻣﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬
‫‪ SP‬ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳــﺪ ‪ :‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳــﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻭﺭﺑـــــﻴﺘــﺎﻝ ‪ S‬ﻭﻳﻚ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ P‬ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ‬
‫ﺍﻣﺘــــــﺰﺍﺝ ﻧﻤــﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ‪ ( SP ( SP – hybrid‬ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ‪180‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜــﺎﻝ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ‪ SP‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ‪Hg‬‬
‫‪ ,Cd ,Be‬ﺩﺭﻣﺮﻛﺒــﺎﺕ ﻫﻠﻮﺟﻨﻴــﺪ ﻫــﺎ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪ .‬ﻧﺘﺎﻳﺞ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻰ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ‪Hg‬‬
‫‪ ,Cd ,Zn ,Be‬ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ‪ SP‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻫﻠﻮﺟﻨﻴﺪ ﻫﺎﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻫﻨﺪﺳﻰ ﺧﻄﻰ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺳﻬﻢ ‪S‬ﻭ‪ P‬ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 18 - 3‬ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ‪: SP‬‬
‫‪ SP 2‬ﻫــﺎ ﻳﺒﺮﻳــﺪ ﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻫﺎ ﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘــﺎﻝ ‪ S‬ﻭﺩﻭ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎ ﻝ ‪ P‬ﺑﺎ‬
‫ﻫﻢ ﺍﻣﺘﺰﺍﺝ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺳــﻪ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﺷﺪﺓ ‪ SP 2‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻭﺭ ﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺳــﻄﺢ ﺑﻪ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ‪ 120‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺳــﻬﻢ ‪ S‬ﺩﺭﻫﺮﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ SP 2‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 1‬ﻭﺍﺯ‪ 2 , P‬ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ﻭ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺩﺭﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪ 120‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 19 - 3‬ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ‪: SP 2‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ‪ SP‬ﺭﺍ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺭﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻏﻴﺮﻣﺸﺒﻮﻉ ﻓﺎﻣﻴﻞ ﺍﻳﺘﻠﻴﻦ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ BF3‬ﺑﻮﺭﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ‪ SP 2‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ (20 - 3‬ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ‪: BF3 Sp 2‬‬
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 ‫‪ SP 3‬ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ‪ :‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺎ ﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺭﻫﺎ ﻳﺪ ﺭﻭﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﻯ ﻣﺸــﺒﻮﻉ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻭﺭ ﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ S‬ﺑﺎ ﺳﻪ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ P‬ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ‬
‫ﺟﺬﺏ ﺍﻧــﺮژﻯ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺨﺘﻠــﻂ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭﭼﻬﺎﺭﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﺷــﺪﻩ ‪ SP‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪﻛــﻪ ﻣﻮﺍﺟــﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺭﺃﺱ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﻭﺟﻬﻰ ﺑــﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ‪ 109.5‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ CF4 , CH 4‬ﻭﻏﻴــﺮﻩ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﺳﻬﻢ‪ P‬ﺩﺭﺁﻥ ‪ 3‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﻬﻢ ‪ S‬ﺩﺭ ‪ 1 SP 3‬ﻢ‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 21 - 3‬ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ‪: SP 3‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻧﻴﻤﻪ ﭘﺮﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭘﺮﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﻜﻤﻞ ﺳﻬﻢ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺭﺍﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ 2P‬ﺑﺎﺩﺍﺷﺘﻦ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻭ‪ 2S‬ﺑﺎ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺳﻬﻢ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ﻧﻪ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ S‬ﻭ ‪ P‬ﺳــﻬﻢ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ؛ ﺑﻠﻜﻪ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ f , d‬ﻧﻴﺰ‬
‫ﺳــﻬﻴﻢ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺧﺎﻟﺺ ﻭ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ (6 - 3‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻓﻀﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺩﺭﻧﻈﺮﺩﺍﺷــﺖ ﺳــﺎﺣﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟــﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺒــﺎﺕ ﻭﺗﺮﺳــﻴﻢ ﺁﻧﻬــﺎ ‪ ،‬ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ‬
‫ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﻭﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎﻯ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺷﻤﺎﺭﻩ‪ 4-1‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫‪ C4 H − C3 H = C2 = C1 H‬ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺳﺎﺯﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
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 ‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺳﻮﻡ‬
‫*ﻗــﻮﺓ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ) ‪( Chemical bond‬‬
‫ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫*ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﺯ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮﺭﺍ ﻧﺼﺐ ﻭﻳﺎ‬
‫ﺗﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﻳﺎﺑﻪ ﻋﺒــﺎﺭﺓ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ‪ :‬ﻗﻮﺓ ﺍﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻧﺎﻡ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫*ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻳﻚ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺍﺛﻨﺎﻯ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺍﺯﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫*ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺖ ﻛﺸــﺶ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻴﻰ‬
‫ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ) ‪ ( EN‬ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫*ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺻﻔﺎﺕ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﻣﺸــﺨﺺ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﺩ ‪ .‬ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻭﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻤﺎً ﺑﻪ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫*ﺩﺭﻗﻄﻊ ﻫﻮﻣﻮﻟﺘﻴﻜﻰ ﻫﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺧﻮﺩﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺳﻬﻴﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺍﺧﺬ‬
‫ﻧﻤــﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻫﺮﺫﺭﻩ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻫﻤﭽــﻮ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺩﻳﻜﺎﻝ ) ‪( Radical‬‬
‫ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﻄــﻊ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﻳﻜﻪ ﺩﺭﺁﻥ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ ﺗﻌﻠﻖ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ‬
‫ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻗﻄﻊ ﻫﺘﺮﻭﻟﻴﺘﻜﻰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺍﮔﺮﭘﻮﺷــﺶ ﺍﺑﺮﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻣﺘﺪﺍﺩ ﺧﻄﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺭﺍ ﻭﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﺩ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺑﮕﻴﺮﺩ ؛ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺴــﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﻋﻈﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻣﺴﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺳﮕﻤﺎ ) ‪ ( S‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ؛ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﭘﻮﺷــﺶ ﺍﺑﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪P‬‬
‫ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻭﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻣﺤﻮﺭ ‪ X‬ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﮔﻴﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ‪P‬‬
‫ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‬
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‫* ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪﻳﺰﻳﺸــﻦ ) ‪ :( Hybridization‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯﺍﺧﺘﻼﻁ ﺩﻭﻭﻳــﺎ ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﻭ ﻭﻳﺎ ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪﻯ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺂﻭﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫*ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ‪ :‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﺯﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻗﻮﻩ ﺟﺬ ﺏ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﺳﺘﺎﺗﻴﻜﻰ‬
‫ﺑﻴــﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﭼــﺎﺭﺝ ﺩﺍﺭ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﺍﻟﻌــﻼ ﻣﻪ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭﻣﻴﮕــﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻰ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﻳﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻭﻟﻨﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ )‪ (1.7‬ﻭﺑﺎﻻﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬
‫‪ .‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻭﻳﺎﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻭﻟﻨﺖ ﻣﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﺯﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫*ﺍﮔﺮ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴــــــــــﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺻــــــــﻔﺮ ﻭﻳﺎ ﻛـــــــﻤﺘﺮﺍﺯ ‪ 0,5‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑـﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ) ‪ ( Non polar bond‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﺎﻻﺗﺮﺍﺯ ‪ 0.5‬ﺍﻟﻰ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻴﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ‪ 1‬ﺍﻟﻰ ‪1.7‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً ‪ % 50‬ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻭ ‪ % 50‬ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﮔﺮ ﺑﺎﻻﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ ‪ 1.7‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺳﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺟﻮﺍﺑﻪ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻓﻜﺘﻮﺭ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ؟‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻗﻮﺓ ﻭﺍﻧﺪ ﺭ – ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﺏ ‪ -‬ﻗﻮﺓ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺝ – ﺑﻪ ﻭﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺩ – ﻫﻴﭽﻜﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﻗﻮﻩ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ‪ --------‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩ ‪ -‬ﺳﻤﺒﻮﻝ‬ ‫ﺝ ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﺏ ‪ -‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ‪ -------‬ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺝ ‪ -‬ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺩ – ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﺣﺘﻴﺎﺝ ﻧﺪﺍﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺟﺬﺏ ﺏ – ﺁﺯﺍﺩ‬
‫‪ – 4‬ﺍﺯ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻁ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ s‬ﻭ ﺩﻭﺍﻭﺭﺑﺘﺎﻝ ‪ p‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ؟‬
‫ﺩ ‪sdp 2 -‬‬ ‫‪sp 2‬‬ ‫ﺝ‪-‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ sp3 -‬ﺏ ‪sp -‬‬
‫‪ – 5‬ﺍﺯ ﻗﻄﻊ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻫﻮﻣﻮﻟﻴﺘﻜﻰ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ؟‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ ﺏ – ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﺝ – ﺭﺍﺩﻳﻜﺎﻝ ﺩ – ﺍﻟﻒ ﻭﺏ ﻫﺮﺩﻭ‬
‫‪ – 6‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭﺍﺗﻮﻡ ‪ 1.4‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ‪ ------‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ 50% -‬ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻭ‪ 50%‬ﺍﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺏ‪ -‬ﺍﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺝ – ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺩ – ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ‬
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‫‪ - 7‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﺯﻃﺮﻑ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺳﻬﻢ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺗﻬﻴﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ‪ ------‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸــﻦ ﺏ ‪ -‬ﺍﺷــﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﻳﻚ ﻃﺮﻓﻪ ﺝ – ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﺖ ﻛﻮﻟﻨﺖ ﺩ‪ -‬ﺗﻤﺎ ًﻡ‬
‫ﺻﺤﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 8‬ﺍﮔﺮﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﭘﻮﺷﺶ ﺍﺑﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫‪ P‬ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ﻭﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻣﺤﻮﺭ ‪ X‬ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﮔﻴﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‪ ----‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩ – ﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﻭﻳﺎ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﮔﺎﻧﻪ‬ ‫ﺝ – ﻳﮕﺎﻧﻪ‬ ‫ﺏ ‪ -‬ﭘﺎﻯ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺳﮕﻤﺎ‬
‫‪ - 9‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺗﻔــﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴــــــــــﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺻــــــــﻔﺮ ﻭﻳﺎ ﻛـــــــﻤﺘﺮﺍﺯ ‪0,5‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺑـﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ‪ -----‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩ – ﺍﻟﻒ ﻭ ﺏ‬ ‫ﺏ ‪ Non polar bond -‬ﺝ ‪ -‬ﺍﻳﻮﻧﻰ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ‬
‫‪ - 10‬ﺯﺍﻭﻳــﻪ ﺭﻭﺍﺑــﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻰ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺍﺯﺗﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﺩﻭﺧﻂ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺯﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ‪ -----‬ﺗﺮﺳﻴﻢ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫ﺝ ‪ -‬ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩ ‪ -‬ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺏ ‪ -‬ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ‬
‫‪ - 11‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻠﻤﺎ ﻯ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﺴــﺘﻘﻞ ﺍﺯﻫﻢ ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ‬
‫؟‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ ) -‬ﻛﻮﺳــﻴﻞ ‪ ( Kocell‬ﻭ) ﻟﻴﻮﻳﺲ ‪ ( Liwes‬ﺏ ‪ -‬ﺳــﻮﺩﻯ ﻭﻓﺎﻳﻨﺲ ﺝ – ﻧﻴﻮﺗﻦ‬
‫ﺩ – ﻫﺎﻳﺰﻧﺒﺮگ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻮﺍﻧﻨﻜﻪ‬ ‫ﻭﻓﺎﺭﺍﺩﻯ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻻ ﺕ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﺤﻰ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻳﻚ ﭘﺮﻭﺳــﻪ ﮔﺮﻣﺎ ﺯﺍ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﮔﺮﻣﺎ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ؟ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﺩﺭﻳﻚ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻜﻰ ﺩﻭ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ؟‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﭼــﺮﺍ ﺩﻭﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠــﺰ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻧﻤﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ؟ ﺩﺭ ﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 4‬ﺑــﺎﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷــﺖ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﻭﻛﺘﻴﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻮﺭﻣــﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺗﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭﺳﻠﻔﺮ ‪ ،‬ﺏ ‪ -‬ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭﻓﺎﺳﻔﻮﺭﺱ ‪ ،‬ﺝ ‪ -‬ﺳﻠﻔﺮ ﻭﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 5‬ﭼﺮﺍ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﺩﻭﻡ ﻧﻤﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ؟‬
‫‪ – 6‬ﻓﺮﻕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺳﮕﻤﺎ ﻭﭘﺎﻯ ﺭﺍ ﻭﺍﺿﻴﺢ ﺳﺎﺯﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 7‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﻧﺤﻼﻟﻴﺖ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫‪MgF2‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ MgF2 -‬ﻭﻳﺎ ‪ BaF2‬ﺏ ‪ MgCl 2 -‬ﻭﻳﺎ‬
‫‪ - 8‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄــﺔ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺑﻴﺸــﺘﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؟ ﺑﺎﺩﻻﻳﻞ ﻣﻘﻨــﻊ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎ ﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ ،‬ﺩ ‪Mg – N -‬‬ ‫‪ ،‬ﺝ ‪Si – F -‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ‪ ، Hg – I‬ﺏ ‪P – Cl -‬‬
‫‪ - 10‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺩﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫] ‪⎯→[H 2 F ] + [SbF6‬‬
‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 HF + SbF5‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﺑﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺏ ‪ -‬ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ‪ [H 2 F ]+‬ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ –11‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 12‬ﻫﺎﺑﻴﺮﻳﺪ ‪ SP 2‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 13‬ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻧﻴﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﺖ ﺁﻥ ﭼﻴﺴﺖ ؟‬
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 ‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻗﻄﺒﻴﺖ ﺁﻥ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺁﻳﺎ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﻧﻴﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﭼﻄﻮﺭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ؟ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺷــﺎﻥ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ؟ ﭼﺮﺍ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ‬
‫ﻣﺎ ﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪ ؟ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﭼﻴﺴــﺖ؟ ﺁﻳﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎ ﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺷــﺪﺓ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺯ ﻟﺤﺎﻅ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ﻳﺎ ﺧﻴﺮ؟ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻫﻨﺪﺳــﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﭼﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﻛﻨﻴﻢ ؟ ﭼﻪ ﻭﻗﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ؟ﺑﺎ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌــﺔ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻴﻢ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺴــﺖ ﺗﺎﺑﻪ ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻭ ﺭﺍﺟﻊ ﺑﻪ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻭﺷــﻜﻞ ﻫﻨﺪﺳــﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻛﺎﻓﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳــﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ ‪ ،‬ﭼﮕﻮﻧﻪ ﮔﻰ ﻋﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﻧﺴﺖ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ : 1 – 4‬ﻗﺸﺮ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﭼﻪ ﻓﻜﺮ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻴﺪ ؟ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﭼﻪ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻧﺪ ؟‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﻰ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺒــﺖ ﻭ ﻭﻻﻧــﺲ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻨــﺪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﺷــﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﻳﻚ ﻃﺮﻓﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ؛ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻫﻤﭽﻮﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ‬
‫ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻗﺸﺮ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ؛ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﻗﺸــﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬
‫‪.‬ﺩﺭ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺩﺍﺭ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻣﻪ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﺳــﺘﺎﺗﻴﻜﻰ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺳﺎﺣﺔ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺗﻨﺎﻇﺮ ﻛﺮﻭﻯ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﺯﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺟﻬﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻴﻜﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﺩﺍﺷﺘﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ‬
‫ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﭘﺎﻭﻟﻰ ﺳﭙﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺣﺘﻤﺎً ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺖ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﻭﻋﻤﻴﻖ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻛﺮﻛﺘﺮ ﻭﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻋﺎﻟﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻭ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﻭ ﭘﻮﺷﺶ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻟﻬﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﻢ ﺍﻋﻈﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺳــﻤﺖ ﻳﺎﺑﻰ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ ﻋﺎﻟﻰ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‬
‫‪ .‬ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪﺓ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ BCl3‬ﻭ ‪ NH 3‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﻠﺘﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺑﻴﺮﻳﻠﻴﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ) ‪ ( BeCl2‬ﺧﻄﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ‬
‫ﺁﻥ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻔﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ؟ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ SnCl3‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻮﻯ ﻣﺴﻄﺢ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺁﻥ ﺧﻼﻑ ﺻﻔﺮ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ .‬ﻋﻠﺘﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻫﺮ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﺳﻄﺢ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺭﺃﺱ ﻫﺮﻡ ﻭ ﺳﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻨﺞ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺮﻡ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻧﻰ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
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‫ﺏ‬
‫ﺍﺝ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 1 - 4‬ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺑﻴﺮﻳﻠﻴﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻮﺭﻭﻥ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ‬
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‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ SO3‬ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﭼﻨﺪ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺳﻠﻔﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺣﺎﻃﻪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ؟‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺮﺳﻴﻢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻫﻨﺪ ﺳﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻯ ﺳﺎﺩ ﻩ ﻭﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺩﻗﻴﻖ ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ‪ 1940‬ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺳﮋﻭﻳﻚ‬
‫ﻭﭘﺎﻭﻟﻰ ﭘﻴﺸﻨﻬﺎﺩ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺁﺷﻜﺎﺭ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻯ ﻃﺮﺡ ﻛﻨﻨﺪ ﺓ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻫﻨﺪﺳﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ٍﻭﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯﻗﺒﻴﻞ‬
‫‪ NH 4+ ، NH 3 ، BCl 3 ، BeCl2 :‬ﻭ ‪ CH 4‬ﺗﺤﻠﻴــﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻯ ﻣﺬﻛــﻮﺭ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻧﺪﻛﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳــﺖ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﺎ ﻋﺚ‬
‫ﺩﻓﻊ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﺳﺘﺎﺗﻴﻜﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻮﻩ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺎﺣﺪ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻭﺭ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻭ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧــﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳــﺪ ﻭﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻧﻴﺰ‬
‫ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺩﻓﻊ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻡ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺒﺎﺭﺯ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ CH 4‬ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪ NH 4+‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ : (2 - 4‬ﺭﺳﻢ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﻢ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﻴﺘﺎﻥ ‪.‬‬
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‫‪ - 1‬ﭼﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺯﻳﻨﻮﻥ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ XeF4‬ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭﻣﻴﺒﺮﺩ ؟ ﻭﭼﻨﺪ‬
‫ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺯﻳﻨﻮﻥ ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ ؟ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻫﻨﺪﺳﻰ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ ؟‬
‫‪ –2‬ﻃﺮﺯ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ XeF3 ، XeF2‬ﻭ ‪ XeF6‬ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻭﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 2- 4‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﻄﻰ ) ﻳﻚ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ (‬
‫ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﺧﻄﻰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ؟ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﻄﻰ ﭼﻪ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﺭﺩ ؟‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ ﺑﻴﺮﻳﻠﻴﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ) ‪ ( BeCl 2‬ﺧﻄﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺑﻴﺮﻳﻠﻴﻢ ﺩﺭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ ((II‬ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ‬
‫ﻭﺩﺭ ﻗﺸﺮ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺩﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺩﻭ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﺪ ‪.‬ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ‬
‫ﺧﻄــﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫــﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺗﺠﺮﻳﺪ ﺍﻋﻈﻤــﻰ ﺩﻭ ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻳــﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺗﺄﻣﻴﻦ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 3 - 4‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺧﻄﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺑﻴﺮﻳﻠﻴﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﻄﻰ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﺳﻴﺘﻠﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻭ ﻏﻴﺮﻩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 4 – 4‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺧﻄﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬
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‫)ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬ ‫ﺩﺭﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺳﮋﻭﻳﻚ ﻭﭘﺎﻭﻟﻰ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻣﻀﺮﻭﺏ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ( ﻧﻴﺰ ﻗﺴــﻤﺘﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻓﻀﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻓﻀﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻛﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺳــﻪ ﭘﻮﻗﺎﻧﻪ ﺭﺍ ﭘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻮﺍ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪،‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺧﻄﻰ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﻫﻴﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﻭﺍﻧﺘﻬﺎﻯ ﭘﻮﻗﺎﻧﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺮﻭﻯ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻛﺮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺸــﺎﻫﺪﻩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪،‬‬
‫ﭼﺸﻢ ﺩﻳﺪ ﺗﺎﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﭽﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﭘﻮﻗﺎﻧﺔ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻣﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻨﻮﺍﻝ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩ ؟‬
‫‪ : 3- 4‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺴﻄﺢ ) ﺳﻪ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ (‬
‫ﭼﻪ ﻓﻜﺮ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻴﺪ ؟ ﺁﻳﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺴﻄﺢ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎ ﺕ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ ؟‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺳــﻪ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺳــﻄﺢ ﻭﺍﻗﻊ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﺭﺃﺱ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺜﻠﺚ ﺳﻤﺖ‬
‫ﺩﻫﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺳــﻪ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺳــﻄﺢ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﻭﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ‪ 120‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺳﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺭﺃ ﺱ ﻣﺜﻠــﺚ ﺑــﻪ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﭼﻨﻴﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
‫ﻣﺴــﺘﻮﻯ ﻣﺜﻠﺜﺎﺗﻰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻳﻴ‬
‫ﻛﺮﺩ ‪ .‬ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﻞ‬
‫ﻳﻞ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 5 – 4‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺜﻠﺜﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺑﻮﺭﻭﻥ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
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‫ﺑﻮﺭﻭﻥ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ III‬ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ‬
‫ﺳﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺳﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ SnCl 2‬ﺧﻼﻑ ﺻﻔﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﻻﻟﺖ ﺑﺮ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺧﻄﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺁﻥ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﺖ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻗﻠﻌﻰ ) ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻗﻠﻌﻰ ﺩﺭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ IV‬ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩﻳﻚ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ( ﻏــﺮﺽ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺗﻨﻬــﺎ ﺩﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑــﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﻣﻴﺒﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺟﻮﺭﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻭ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻯ ﺍﺯﻫﻢ ﺩﻭﺭﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻣﺴﻄﺢ ﺳﻪ ﻛﻨﺠﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻨﻄﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‬
‫ﺍﻋﻈﻤﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺻﻐﺮﻯ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺏ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ‬
‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬
‫‪S‬‬
‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬
‫ﺩ‬ ‫ﺝ‬
‫‪S‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 6 - 4‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ SO2 ، SnCl 2 ، CH 2 = CH 2‬ﻭ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪NO − 3‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻫﻨﺪﺳــﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ BrF3‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺮﺳﻴﻢ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ‬
‫ﺑﮕﻮﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﺮﻭﻣﻴﻦ ﭼﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺼﺮﻑ‬
‫ﺭﺳﺎﻧﻴﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﭼﻨﺪ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﺮﻭﻣﻴﻦ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﺮﻭﻣﻴﻦ ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ ؟‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺗﺮﺳﻴﻢ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﮕﻮﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 4 - 4‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺳﻄﺤﻰ ) ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ (‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺑﺎﺭﺓ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﻄﻰ ﻭﻣﺴﻄﺢ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﭼﻪ ﻓﻜﺮ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻴﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺁﻳﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
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‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺳﻄﺤﻰ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ ؟ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ ؟‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎ ﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﻭﺟﻬﻰ ‪ ،‬ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺭﺃﺱ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺳــﻄﺤﻰ ﺳــﻤﺖ‬
‫ﺩﻫﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ H 2O ، NH 3 ، CH 4‬ﻭﺁﻳــﻮﻥ ‪ NH 4+‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺟــﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻣﺴــﺘﻘﻞ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻳﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ‬
‫ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﻓﻊ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؛ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺍﺻﻐﺮﻯ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻯ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﻫﻢ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻭ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺭﺃﺱ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺳﻄﺤﻰ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺷﻜﻞ ‪ 6 – 4‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺭﺃﺱ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺳﻄﺤﻰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻧﻤﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ‪ CH 4‬ﻭ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪NH 4+‬‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺳــﻄﺤﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻣﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ NH 3‬ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺗﺮﺍﻯ ﮔﻮﻧﺎﻝ ﭘﻴﺮﺍﻣﻴﺪ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻮﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ CH 4‬ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪ NH 4+‬ﺗﻤﺎﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺳﺎﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺍﺯ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ‪ ،‬ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺩﻳﮕﺮﻯ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸــﻦ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﺎ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﻓﺮﻗﻰ ﻧﺪﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﻭﻋﻴﻦ ﺍﺭﺯﺵ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸــﻦ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻫﻤﭽﻮ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺳــﻄﺤﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑــﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫــﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻫﻤﭽﻮ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬
‫‪ 109.5‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﺗﺘﺮﺍ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﺍﻝ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 107‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ‬
‫ﻭﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ‪ 104.5‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻧﺤﺮﺍﻓﺎﺕ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻧﺘﻈﺎﺭ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺯﻭﺍﻳﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ‪،‬‬
‫ﻋﻠﻤﺎ ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ژﻳﻠﻴﺴــﭙﻰ )‪ ( Jillespi‬ﻭ ﻧﺎﻳﻬﻮﻟــﻢ )‪ ( niholm‬ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‬
‫ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﺭﺍ ﭘﻴﺸــﻨﻬﺎﺩ ﻛــﺮﺩ ‪ .‬ﭼﻮﻥ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ ﺭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻗﻮﻯ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺩﻓﻊ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﻓﻊ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪:‬‬
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‫ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻯ ‪ /‬ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻯ > ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻯ ‪ /‬ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ > ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ‪/‬ﺟﻮﺭﺓﺁﺯﺍﺩ‬
‫ﻗــﻮﺓ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻭﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ‪ NH 3‬ﺳــﺒﺐ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺷــﻮﺩ ﺗﺎ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ‪ A‬ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺳﻄﺤﻰ )‪109.5‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ( ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﻛﻮﭼﻜﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺳﻄﺤﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 7 - 4‬ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ H 2O ، NH 3 ، CH 4‬ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪NH 4+‬‬
‫ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺩﺭ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺳﻄﺤﻰ‬
‫ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻮﺿﺤﺎﺕ ﻓﻮﻕ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ G‬ﻭ ‪ F‬ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ‪ 109.5‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺑﺰﺭگ‬
‫ﺗﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ‪ A‬ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ‪ H − O − H‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 104.50‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ SO32− ، SO42−‬ﻧﻴﺰ ﺗﺘﺮﺍﻫﺎﻳﺪ ﺭﺍ ﻝ )‪ ( Tetrahydral‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 8 - 4‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻯ‪ SO42− .‬ﻭ ‪. SO32−‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﺗﺮﺳﻴﻢ ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﺎﺕ ﻻﺯﻣﻪ ﻋﻤﻠﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ XeF2 -‬ﺏ ‪ XeF6 -‬ﺝ ‪XeO3 -‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻰ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪﺓ ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ) ‪ 6 ، 5‬ﻭ‪ ( 7‬ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﭘﺮﻳﻮﺩ ﻛﻮﺗﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺩﻭﻡ ﻭﺳﻮﻡ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺭﺍﺟﻊ ﺑﻪ ﭘﻮﺭﻩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻥ ﺍﻭﻛﺘﻴﺖ ﺳﺨﻦ ﺯﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ PCl 5‬ﺑﺎ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻦ ﭘﻨﺞ ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺗﺮﺍﻯ ﮔﻮﻧﺎﻝ‬
‫ﭘﻴﺮﺍﻣﻴﺪ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ .‬ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ‪ 90 0‬ﻭ ‪ 120 0‬ﺑــﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻴﺎﻧﺔ‬
‫ﭘﻴﺮﺍﻣﻴﺪ ﺍﺧﺬ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺳﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺍﺳﺘﻮﺍﻳﻰ ﺑﻰ ﭘﻴﺮﺍﻣﻴﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺩﺭ ‪ SF4‬ﻧﻴﺰ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ (9– 4‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳــﻠﻔﺮ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﻯ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ‪ VI‬ﺍﺻﻠﻲ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﺷــﺶ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ‬
‫ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﺑﺮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﻳﻚ ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺑﺎﻗﻰ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﻣﻴﺎﻧﺔ ﻋﻤﻮﺩﻯ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺘﻮﺍﻳﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺍﺳﺘﻮﺍﻳﻰ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ژﻳﻠﻴﺴﭙﻰ )‪( Jillespi‬‬
‫ﻭ ﻧﺎﻳﻬﻮﻟــﻢ )‪ ( niholm‬ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘــﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﻛــﻪ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘــﺎﻝ ﺟــﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘــﺎﻝ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻯ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺗﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻣﺘﻤﺮﻛﺰ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺟــﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ‪ 120‬ﺑﺎ ﺩﻭ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻭﺗﺤﺖ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ‪ 90 0‬ﺑﺎﺩﻭﻯ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪99‬‬
‫ﺷــﻜﻞ )‪ ( 9 –4‬ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ‪ Trigonal Bipyramid‬ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ (10 – 4‬ﺳﻤﺖ ﻳﺎﺑﻰ ﻫﺸﺖ ﻭﺟﻬﻰ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺩﺭ ‪ ICl 6 ، SF6‬ﻭ ‪: IF6‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ ClF6‬ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ (10– 4‬ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻭ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‬
‫ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ‪ Trigonal Bipyramid‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﺁﻳـــــﻮﺩﻳﻦ ) ﮔﺮﻭپ‬
‫‪ ( VII‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪ I 3 −‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﺩﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻛﺎﺭ ﻣﻴﺒﺮﻧﺪ ‪) ،‬ﺁﻳﻮﺩﻳﻦ ‪ 7‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺪﺍﺭ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳــﺖ ( ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﻪ ‪ 5‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﺎﻗﻰ ﻣﺎﻧﺪﻩ ﻭ‬
‫ﻫﻢ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﻠﺤﻖ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺑﺎ ﺁﻥ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺳﻪ ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺳﻤﺖ ﺩﻫﻰ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﭘﻨﺞ ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻛﺴﺘﺮﺵ ﻳﺎﻓﺘﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻨﺸﻮﺭ ﺗﺮﺍﮔﻮﻧﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪ ،‬ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ IF5 ، SF6‬ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪ ICl4−‬ﻣﺜﺎﻟﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪﺓ ﺷﺶ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺮﻯ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻭ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺍﻭﻛﺘﺎﻳﺪﺭﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻫﺮﻡ ﻣﺮﺑﻊ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺷﺸــﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻭﻛﺘﺎﻳﺪﺭ‬
‫ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺩﺭ ‪ ICl4−‬ﺩﺭ ﺭﺃﺱ ﻣﺮﺑﻊ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‬
‫ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﺖ ﺍﺳﺘﻮﺍﻳﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻭﻛﺘﺎﻳﺪﺭ ﻣﻜﻤﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫــﺎﻯ ‪ IF6‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻫﻔﺖ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘــﺎﻝ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ‬
‫ﭘﻨﺘﺎﮔﻮﻧﺎﻝ ﺑﻰ ﭘﺮﺍﻣﻴﺪ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺷﻜﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 11 – 4‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﭘﻨﺞ ﻛﻨﺠﻰ ‪ -‬ﻣﻨﺸﻮﺭﻯ‬
‫‪101‬‬
 ‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻗﺖ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺷﺪﺓ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 12 - 4‬ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻭ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ ﭘﻨﺘﺎﻓﻠﻮﺭﻭ ﻓﺎﺳﻔﻴﺖ‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮ ﻛﺐ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻫﻨﺪﺳﻰ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؟‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﻓﺎﺳﻔﻮﺭﺱ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ ؟ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﺑﺮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫‪ : 5- 4‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺧﻄﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﺧﻄﻰ ﻣﻰ ﺑﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ‪ O- H‬ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻼ" ﺑﺎﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺗﻼﻓﻰ ﻣﻴﺸﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ‬
‫ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻔﺮ ﻣﻰ ﺑﻮﺩ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﻥ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺑﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﭘﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺳﻬﻴﻢ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺩﻭ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ p‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﺑﺮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺁﻥ ﺑﺎ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪ ﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ‪ 90 0‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﻣﻄﺎ ﻟﻌﺎﺕ ﻭ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻋﻤ ً‬
‫ﻼ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ‬
‫‪sp 3‬‬ ‫ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 104.50‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﺩﻭ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻯ ﻭﺩﻭﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‬
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 ‫) ﺷﻜﻞ ‪ (13– 4‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ) ‪ sp 3 hybridization- ( 13 - 4‬ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻔــﺎﻭﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺁﺏ ) ‪ ( 104.5‬ﻭ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﺗﺘﺮﺍ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻯ ) ‪ (109.5o‬ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﺗﻮﺿﺢ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻯ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﺯﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ ﺍﻭﻝ‬
‫ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻭﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻫﻨﺪﺳﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ F2O -‬ﺏ ‪ SeCl 4 -‬ﺝ ‪ ICl 3 -‬ﺩ ‪COCl 2 -‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ ﺩﻭﻡ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺁﻥ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﺟﻮﺍﺏ‬
‫ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 14 - 4‬ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻔﺮ ﻭﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺳﻠﻔﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺳﻠﻔﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ؟‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﭼﺮﺍ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﻛﻮﭼﻜﺘﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ؟‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻫﻨﺪﺳﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 6- 4‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ‬
‫ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﻏﺮﺽ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺳﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ 2p‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﻣﻴﺒﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ‬
‫ﺳﻄﺢ ﻋﻤﻮﺩﻯ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 107‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ‪ sp 3‬ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ sp 3‬ﻳﻚ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺁﻥ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺳﻪ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺁﻥ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻯ ﭘﺮ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 15 - 4‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ‪.‬‬
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‫ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ‪ 107‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺗﺘﺮﺍ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭ )‪ 109.5‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ( ﻓﺮﻕ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‬
‫؛ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻭ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻯ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻗﻮﻯ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 15 - 4‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻄﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛــﺐ ‪ N F3‬ﻛــﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫــﺎِﻯ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ) ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ (‬
‫ﺑﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؟ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻫﻨﺪﺳﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ﺷﺒﺎﻫﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺧﻴﺮ ؟ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ‬
‫ﺩﻟﻴﻞ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 7 – 4‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ )ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ‪،‬ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ (‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﮔﻮﻳﻨﺪ ؟ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺗﺒﺎﺭﺯ ﻗﻄﺒﻴﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ ؟ ﺍﺻﻄﻼﺡ ﻗﻄﺐ ) )‪Polar‬ﭼﻪ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ؟‬
‫ﻗﻄﺒﻴﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﺯ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﻭﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ ﻫﻤﭽﻮ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺳــﺒﺐ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎﺷــﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﻳﻚ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﻗﺴﻤﻰ ﻭﻃﺮﻑ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺁﻥ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻗﺴﻤﻰ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺩﻭﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻴﻜﻪ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻋﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ H 2 :‬ﻭ ‪ Cl 2‬ﻫﺮ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻋﻴﻦ ﺳــﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻳﻜﺴــﺎﻥ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ؛ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻫﺮ ﺩﻭ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺟﺬﺏ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ )‪ (Non polar‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﻛﻪ ﺩﻭﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ ) ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ ‪ HCl‬ﻭﻣﺎ ﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻗﻮﻩ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﻫﺮﺩﻭﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻫﺎ ﻳﻜﺴــﺎﻥ ﻧﺒﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺩﺍﺷﺘﻦ ﻗﻮﻩ‬
‫ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻛﺶ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺁﻥ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺷــﺪﻩ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠــﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﻗﺴــﻤﻰ )‪(– δ‬ﺭﺍﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﻳﮕــﺮﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻥ ﻛﺶ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻗﺴــﻤﻰ)‪ (+ δ‬ﺭﺍﺣﺎﻳﺰﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ) ‪(HCl‬‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻗﺴــﻤﻰ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻭﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻗﺴــﻤﻰ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ‬
‫ﻣــﻰ ﮔــﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺩﻭﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﺁﻥ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﺴــﻤﻰ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻭﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﻭﺟــﻮﺩ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑــﻄﻪ‬
‫ﻓﻄﺒﻰ ) ‪ ( Polar bond‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺩﻭﻗﻄﺒﻰ‬
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 ‫)‪ ( Dipole‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﻃﻮﺭﻳﻜﻪ ﻗﺒ ً‬
‫ﻼ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺷﺪ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻗﺴــــﻤﻰ ﺭ ﺍ) ‪ ( δ‬ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻭﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ‬
‫‪D+‬‬ ‫‪D−‬‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ) ‪ ( L‬ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ؛ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪H − Cl :‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 16 – 4‬ﻛﺸﺶ ﺍﺑﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻭﻗﻄﺒﻴﺖ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻗﺴﻤﻰ ) ‪ ( Particle Charges‬ﻣﺜﺒﺖ)‪ ( 0,17 +‬ﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ‬
‫ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﻗﺴﻤﻰ )– ‪ ( 0,17‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻤﻮﻣــﺎَ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘــﻮﻝ ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺖ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ‪ μ‬ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﭘﺲ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺩﻭﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺿﺮﺏ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻗﺴﻤﻰ ﻭﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﺟﻬﺎﻯ ﻗﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﺯﻫﺪﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ μ = q ⋅ l‬ﻳﺎ ‪μ = δ ⋅ L‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺣﻘﻴﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺖ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻯ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺗﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﺁﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﻭﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﺑﺎ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﭼــﺎﺭﺝ ‪ δ = e = 4.81 ⋅ 10−10 esu = 1.6 ⋅ 10−19 cb‬ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻓﺎﺻﻠﺔ ‪ 1A°‬ﺍﺯﻳﻜﺪﻳﮕﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺖ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫‪μ = q ⋅ I = 4.81 ⋅ 10 −10 esu ⋅ 10 −8 cm = 4.8 ⋅ 10 −18 esu ⋅ cm‬‬
‫‪ 10 −18 esu ⋅ cm‬ﻳــﻚ ﺩﺑﺎﻯ ) ‪ ( Debbie ) ( D‬ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻧﻤــﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:‬ﻃﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ HCl‬ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ) ‪ (7 1.27°A‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺖ ﺁﻥ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ) ‪( 1.03D‬‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻧﺎﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﻧﺒﺎﻳﺪ ﮔﺬﺍﺷﺖ ﻛﻪ ‪ Debbie = 0.33 ⋅ 10 −29 cb ⋅ m‬ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ HCl‬ﻳﻚ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﭘﺲ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻳﻚ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﻴﺸــﺘﺮ ﺍﺯﻳﻚ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺧﻄﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻞ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮﺭﺍ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺑﺪ ﻳﻦ ﻣﻠﺤﻮﻅ ﺑﺎ ﻭﺟﻮﺩﻳﻜﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺕ ﻛﻞ ﻏﻴﺮﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
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‫ﺍﺷــﻜﺎﻝ ﺫﻳــﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺮﺭﺍﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ﻛــﻪ ﭼﻄﻮﺭ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﺆﻣﻨــﺖ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺧﻄﻰ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺖ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺻﻔﺮ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳــﻦ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺖ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ‬
‫‪ ( +‬ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺳﻤﺖ ﺗﻴﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬ ‫)‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ)‪ ( 17 – 4‬ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺖ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺣﺬ ﻑ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻯ‬
‫ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺩﺭﺳــﻮﻳﺔ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﺁﻥ ﺑﺴــﻴﺎﺭ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؛ﺑﻪ ﻃــﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺑﻄﻮﺭﻋﻤﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ MXn‬ﺭﺍﺩﺭﻧﻈﺮﺑﮕﻴﺮﻳﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺁﻥ ‪ M‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﻭ‪ X‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻭﻳﺎﮔﺮﻭپ ﺍﺯﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺁﻥ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪. ،‬ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ X‬ﻳﻜﺴﺎﻥ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ) ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ ( CCl 4 , BCl 3 , CO 2‬ﻭﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ‪ M‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻧﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻏﻴﺮﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻻً ﺩﺍﻯ‬
‫ﭘــﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻮﻯ ﺣﺬ ﻑ ﻧﮕﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﮔﺮﭼــﻪ ﻣﻄﻠﺐ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺒﻮﺩﻩ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﭘﺪﻳﺪﻩ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﺁﺏ ﻭﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ﻛﻪ ﻫﺮﺩﻭﻯ ﺁﻥ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺷــﻜﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ :( 18 –4‬ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺖ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺣﺬﻑ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻯ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ‪.‬‬
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‫ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﺣﺔ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺛﻘﻞ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ )ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ( ﺑﺎ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺛﻘﻞ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ) ﻛﻪ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺴﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ( ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﻧﺪﺍﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻟﻬــﺎﻯ ‪ D + D −‬ﻭ ‪ D + D −‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻗﺖ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺳــﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ‬
‫‪C − O C − Cl‬‬
‫ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺩﻫﻴﺪ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺩﺭ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻭﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻭﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻭﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ‬
‫ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺁﻳﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭﻳﺎﺧﻴﺮ ؟ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻓﻀﺎﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺭﺳﻢ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻫﻤﺼﻨﻔﺎﻥ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺧﻼﺻﻪ ﻓﺼﻞ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ‬
‫*ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛــﺰﻯ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻋﺒــﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻭ‬
‫ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫*ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻗﺸــﺮ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﻗﺸﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻴﻜــﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘــﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﻄﻰ ‪ :‬ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺧﻄﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺗﺠﺮﻳﺪ ﺍﻋﻈﻤﻰ ﺩﻭ ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺗﺄﻣﻴﻦ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫*ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺴــﻄﺢ ‪ :‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺳــﻪ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺳــﻄﺢ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ‪ 120‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺳﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﺭ ﺭﺃ ﺱ ﻣﺜﻠﺚ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
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‫* ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﻭﺟﻬﻰ ‪ ،‬ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺭﺃﺱ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺳــﻄﺤﻰ ﺳــﻤﺖ ﺩﻫﻰ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘــﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﺧﻄﻰ ﻣﻰ ﺑﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ‪ O- H‬ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻼ" ﺑﺎﻳﻜﺪﻳﮕﺮ ﺟﺒﺮﺍﻥ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ‬
‫ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻔﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﻥ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺑﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﭘﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺳﻬﻴﻢ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 107‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ‪ sp 3‬ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ sp 3‬ﻳﻚ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺁﻥ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺳﻪ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺁﻥ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻮﻯ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺩﻭﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﺁﻥ ﭼــــﺎﺭﺟﻬﺎﻯ ﻗﺴـــــــــﻤﻰ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻭﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﺍﺑــــــﻄﻪ‬
‫ﻓﻄﺒــﻰ ) ‪ ( Polar bond‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧــﺎﻡ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺩﻭﻗﻄﺒﻰ‬
‫)‪ ( Dipole‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺩﻭﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺿﺮﺏ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻗﺴــﻤﻰ ﻭﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﺟﻬﺎﻯ ﻗﺴــﻤﻰ ﺍﺯﻫﻢ‬
‫ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪M = q.L .‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺟﻮﺍﺑﻪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛــﺰﻯ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ‪ -----‬ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﺷﻦ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﺏ ‪ -‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺝ – ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ‬
‫ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺩ – ﻫﻴﭽﻜﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺏ – ﻗﺸﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺝ – ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻗﺸﺎﺭ ﺩ – ﻫﻤﻪ ﺟﻮﺍﺑﺎﺕ ﺩﺭﺳﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ‪ -------‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺩ – ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ‪ ،‬ﺏ ‪ -‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ ﺝ – ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎ ﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﻭﺟﻬﻰ ‪ ----------‬ﺑﻪ ﺭﺃﺱ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺳــﻄﺤﻰ ﺳــﻤﺖ ﺩﻫﻰ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﭼﻬﺎﺭﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺏ‪ -‬ﺩﻭﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻫﺎﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ‪ ،‬ﺝ ‪ -‬ﺳﻪ ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺩ – ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻴﻜــﻪ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ‬
‫‪---‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟــﻒ ‪ -‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒــﺎﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧــﻰ ‪ ،‬ﺏ – ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻋﻀﻮﻯ ‪ ،‬ﺝ – ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ ،‬ﺩ‪ -‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ‬
‫‪ - 6‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ؟‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ D + D − -‬ﺏ‪ D + D − -‬ﺝ – ﺍﻟﻒ ﻭﺏ ﻫﺮﺩﻭ ﺩ – ﻫﻴﭽﻜﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫‪C − O‬‬ ‫‪C − Cl‬‬
‫‪ - 7‬ﻳﻚ ﺩﺑﺎﻯ ) ‪( Debbie ) ( D‬ﺭﺍ ‪ -----‬ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪−18‬‬
‫‪ 10‬ﺏ‪10 −28 esu ⋅ cm -‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪esu. Cm 10 −18 esu ⋅ cm ⋅ L -‬‬
‫ﺝ ‪ - 10−20 esu. cm‬ﺩ – ﻫﻴﭽﻜﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫‪ - 8‬ﭘﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ‪ --------‬ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺳﻬﻴﻢ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﺍﻓﻌﻪ ﺏ – ﻗﻮﺍﻯ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﺝ ‪ -‬ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺩ ‪ -‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ‬
‫‪ - 9‬ﺭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺩﻭﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﺁﻥ ﭼﺎﺭﺟﻬﺎﻯ ﻗﺴﻤﻰ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻭﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ‪ --‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺝ – ﺍﻟﻒ ﻭﺏ ﻫﺮﺩﻭ ﺩ – ﻫﻴﭽﻜﺪﺍﻡ‬ ‫‪polar bond‬‬ ‫ﺏ‪-‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻓﻄﺒﻰ‬
‫‪ - 10‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ PCl 5‬ﺑﺎ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻦ ﭘﻨﺞ ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ‪----‬‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻣﺴﻄﺢ ﺏ ‪ -‬ﺧﻄﻰ ﺝ ‪ -‬ﺗﺘﺮﺍ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﺍﻝ ﺩ ‪ -‬ﺗﺮﺍﻯ ﮔﻮﻧﺎﻝ ﭘﻴﺮﺍﻣﻴﺪ‬
‫‪ - 11‬ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ ----‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺒﺮﻳﺪ ‪ ---‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ‪ 120°‬ﻭ ‪ sp 2‬ﺏ ‪ 107 -‬ﻭ ‪ sp 3‬ﺝ ‪ 180° -‬ﻭ ‪ sp‬ﺩ‪ 90° -‬ﻭ‪p‬‬
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 ‫ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﺤﻰ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﻳﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻫﻨﺪﺳﻰ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺧﻄﻰ ﺏ – ﻣﺴﻄﺢ ﻣﺜﻠﺜﻰ ﺝ – ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﻭﺟﻬﻰ ﺩ – ﺍﻭﻛﺘﺎﻳﺪﺭﻯ‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﻠﺖ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ‪ -‬ﺩﻭ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﺎ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻳﻜﺴﺎﻥ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺏ – ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ‪ BF3‬ﻭ ‪ NH 3‬ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺝ – ﭼﺮﺍ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﻪ ﺩﺭ ‪ NH 3‬ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺁﺏ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻭ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ CO2 -‬ﺏ ‪ HCN -‬ﺝ ‪NO −3 -‬‬
‫‪ – 4‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻫﻨﺪﺳﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﻫﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪NO2‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ CO 2−3 -‬ﺏ ‪ PCl6 -‬ﺝ ‪-‬‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪------------------------------‬‬
‫‪------------------------‬‬
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 ‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﭘﻨﺠﻢ‬
‫ﻗﻮﺍﻯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺑــﺎﺭﻩ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬــﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒــﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺩﺭ ﺩﺭﻭﺱ ﮔﺬﺷــﺘﻪ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ‬
‫ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻳﺎ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﻧﻴﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺘﺤﺪ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺍﻧﺪ ؟ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﭼﻴﺴﺖ؟ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﭼﻪ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ؟ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﭼﻪ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ؟ ﺍﮔﺮ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؟ ﻭﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻮﻩ ﭼﻪ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮﻯ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﺁ ﻧﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ؟‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺳــﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺮ ﺟﻮﺍﺑﺎﺕ ﻗﻨﺎﻋﺖ‬
‫ﺑﺨــﺶ ﻭﻣﻘﺘﻀــﻰ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻭﻫﻢ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻣﺸــﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﻯ ‪ ،‬ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻧﻰ‬
‫ﻭﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ : 1- 5‬ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻭﻗﻮﺓ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺑﺎ ﻫــﻢ ﻣﺘﻮﺻﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﺮﻛﺒــﺎﺕ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ﻭ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻟﻴﺰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻛﺜﺮﺍ ً ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ﻭ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺣﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺟﺪﺍ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭﺩﺭﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻴﺮﺳــﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺖ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻀﻮﻯ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﭘﺮﻭﭘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻭ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺗﺘﺮﺍ‬
‫ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﻣﻴﺒﺎ ﺷﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺒﺤﺚ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ‪ ،‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﺩﺭ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﻭﻳﺎ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨــﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻣﺎ ﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻟﺤﺎﻅ ﺧــﻮﺍﺹ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺍﺷــﻜﺎﻝ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﻨﺪ؛ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻭﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﺟﺴــﺎﻡ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬
‫ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻫﻤﭽﻮ ﺍﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻳﻚ ﻗﻮﻩ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺘﺤﺪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺟﺴﺎﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻤﺪﻩ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻭﻗﻮﺓ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺍﺷــﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﻳﻚ ﻃﺮﻓﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻭﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺟﺴــﺎﻡ ﻛﺮﺳــﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ‪،‬‬
‫ﻗﻮﺓ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﻭ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺘﺤﺪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺟﺴــﺎﻡ ﻣﻜﺮﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻭﻳﺎ ﻣﺎﻳﻜﺮﻭ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺭﻭﺍﺑــﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺳــﻬﻴﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﻭﻳﺎ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺩﻳﻜﺎﻟﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠــﻒ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺘﺤﺪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺯﻳﺮ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪:‬‬
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 ‫‪ : 2 – 5‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻓﺼــﻞ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴــﺎﻭﻯ ) ﻣﺒﺤﺚ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ ( ﺩﺭﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺟــﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪﺓ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ ﺑﺤﺚ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ‬
‫ﺁﻧﻬــﺎ ﻣﻴﮕــﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯﺟﻤﻠﻪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘــﻮﻝ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ – ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﻭ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‬
‫‪ : 1- 2- 5‬ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﺟﺴــﺎﻡ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻏﺮﺽ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻨﻈﻢ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺭﺍﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻭﻋﻤــﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺩﺍﻳﭙﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻳﭙﻮﻟﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺯﻣﺎﻧــﻰ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﻣﻴﭙﺬ ﻳﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ‬
‫ﻫﻢ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺷــﺪﻩ ‪،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻗﺴﻤﻰ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻭﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍﺟﺬﺏ ﻭﺍﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺭﺍﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﺮﺳــﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻰ ﺣﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻯ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺟﺪﺍ‬
‫ﻛﺮﺩﻥ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺩﺭﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺗﺄﻣﻴﻦ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻨﺤﻠﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 1-5‬ﭘﺮﻭﺳﺲ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺷﺪﻥ‬
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 ‫‪ - 1‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭘﻮﻻﺭ ﺩﺭﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻝ‬
‫‪ -2‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﭘﻮﻻﺭ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻨﺤﻠﻪ‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﭘﻮﻻﺭ ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻯ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﺨﺮﻳﺐ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ‬
‫‪ Solvatation ) E Solve = E Solution‬ﺍﻧﺮژی (‬
‫ﭼﻨﻴﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ‪ solvation‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﺁﺏ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
‫‪ Hydration‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻗﺖ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﻻﺯﻣﻪ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺭﺍﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؟ ﺑﻪ ﻛﻤﻚ ﺍﺳﺘﺎﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺳﻴﺖ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﻗﻮﺍﻯ ﺩﺍﻓﻌﻪ ﻭ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻋﻠﺖ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 2- 2 -5‬ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ ‪ -‬ﻭﺍﻟﺲ )‪ ( Vander – Walls Forces‬ﻭﻟﻨﺪﻥ‬
‫ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺷــﺪ ﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺣﺘﻤﺂ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺟﺬﺏ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ) ‪ ( 1873‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺘﺎﻳﺞ ﺭﺍﺟﻊ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﻓﻊ ﻭﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺭﻧﻈﺮﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻏﻴﺮﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻭﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ‬
‫ﺍﻳﺸــﺎﻥ ﻧﺎﻳﻞ ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ؛ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﺮﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﻴﻢ ؛ ﻻﻛﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻮﻡ ﺍﻳﻨﻬﺎ ﻛﻨﻴﺔ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ‪ -‬ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻏﻴﺮﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﭘﻮﻻﺭﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﻟﺤﻈﻮﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺳﺒﺐ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺬ ﺏ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
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‫ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺷــﻜﺎﻝ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻭﺍﻧﺪ ﺭﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺩﺍﻳﭙــﻮﻝ– ﺩﺍﻳﭙﻮﻟﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺒﺎ ﺷــﺪ‪ .‬ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎﻯ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻧﺠﻴﺐ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻜﺪﻳﮕﺮ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ ﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻴــﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻏﻴﺮﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺧﺎﺹ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ – ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﻋﻤــﻞ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺁﻥ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫‪ Nespersion‬ﻳﺎ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ﻋﻠﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺁﻣﺪﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻓﺰﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺩﺍﻥ – ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻟﻨﺪﻭﻥ ) ﺩﺭﺳﺎﻝ ‪ (1930‬ﺑﻪ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻦ ﺩﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻏﻴﺮﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ؛ ﭼﻮﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻫﺴــﺘﻨﺪ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺁﻥ ﺗﻘﺴــﻴﻢ ﺷــﺪﻥ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺎﺕ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺍﻭﺳﻂ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻨﺎ ﻇﺮ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ؛ﺍﻣﺎﺩﺭ ﻫﺮﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻰ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﺩﺭﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ‬
‫ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻇﺮ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ؛ ﻃﻮﺭﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺩﺭﻟﺤﻈﺔ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ ﻇﺎﻫﺮ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺷــﻜﻞ )‪ ( 2 - 5‬ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﭼﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺩﺍﻳﭙﻮﻝ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻰ ﺩﺭﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎ)‪ (A‬ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﻤﺠﻮﺍﺭ )‪ (B‬ﺭﺍﺟﺬﺏ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎ ﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﻫﺮﺩﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺩﺍﻳﭙﻮﻟﻰ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﻭﺳﻤﺖ ﺁﻥ ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺷﺪ ﻥ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺁﻏﺎﺯ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﭼﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺬ ﺏ ﻣﺆﻗﺘﻰ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪( 2 - 5‬ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻳﭙﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻯ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻰ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺖ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺟﺎﺑﻪ ﺟﺎ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ - 2‬ﺟﺬﺏ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﺍﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﺳﻤﺖ ﺩﺍﻳﭙﻮﻝ ﻟﺤﻈﻮﻯ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﺳﻤﺖ ﺩﺍﻳﭙﻮﻝ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻫﻤﭽﻨﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﻳﭙﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺑﻌﺪﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ A‬ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺳــﻤﺖ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﺍﺭﺳــﺎﻝ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻭﺩﺍﻳﭙﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺷــﺪﻩ )ﻫﺪﺍﻳﺖ ﺷــﺪﻩ ( ﺭﺍﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ B‬ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻮﺟــﻮﺩ ﻣﻴﺂﻳﺪ ﻭﺧﻮﺩ ﺩﺍﻳﭙﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨــﺖ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﺩﺭﻟﺤﻈﺔ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺁﻣــﺪﻩ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ‬
‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭﺁﻥ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻗﻮﻩ ﺟﺬ ﺏ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺩﺍﻳﻤﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﻩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺳﺆﺍﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﮔﺮﻭﭘﻰ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺑﺪﻫﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﺩﺭﺍﺛﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺁﻣﺪﻥ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺍﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﭘﺲ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺁﻣﺪﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﭼﻴﺴﺖ ؟‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺗﺒﺎﺭﺯ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻙ ﻛﺮﺩ ؟‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﺑﻴــﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻯ ‪ A‬ﻭ ‪ B‬ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻒ ﻭﺏ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻨﺎﺳــﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ؟ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﮔﺮﻭﭘﻰ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ (3 – 5‬ﭼﮕﻮﻧﮕﻰ ﺍﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﺩﻭﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻟﺤﻈﻮﻯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ‬
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 ‫ﻋﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﻣﺆﺛﺮ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻗﻮﺕ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ‬
‫ﭼــﻮﻥ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺁﻣﺪﻥ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨــﺖ ﺍﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻭﻫﺮ ﻋﺎﻣﻠﻰ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﭘﺮﺍﮔﻨﺪﻩ ﮔﻰ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺑﻴﺸــﺘﺮ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﻧﺪ ﺍﺯ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺣﺠﻢ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭﻗﺸﺮ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﻫﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﺓ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ ‪.‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺑﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﻭ ﺍﺯ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻭﺍﻗﻊ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﭘﺮﺍﮔﻨﺪﻩ ﮔﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﻭ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪ ﻥ ﻧﺒﺰ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﻗﻮﺕ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﻭﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎ ﺭﺍﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺩﺭﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴــﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻥ‬
‫ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻗﺖ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺟﻮﺏ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻫﻠﻮﺟﻦ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺍﺳﺖ؟ ﻋﻠﺖ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻫﻠﻮﺟﻦ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺍﺳﺖ؟ ﻋﻠﺖ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 4 - 5‬ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﺔ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻫﻠﻮﺟﻦ ﻫﺎ‬
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 ‫ﺏ – ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻋﺎﺩﻯ ) ‪ ، (1 H‬ﺩﻳﺘﺮﻳﻢ )‪ (12D‬ﻭﺗﺮﻳﺸﻴﻢ ) ‪ (31T‬ﻫﺮﺳــﻪ ﻋﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬ﺣﺠﻢ‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻭ ﻃﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺮ ﺳﻪ ﺍﻳﺰﻭﺗﻮپ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻫﺮﺳﻪ‬
‫ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻭﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﺩﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ؛ ﭘـــــﺲ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩﻛﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻧﻴﺰ ﺩﺭ ﻗﺪﺭﺕ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻭﻥ‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ .‬ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ) ‪ ( 1 – 5‬ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﺍﻳﺰﻭﺗﻮپ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ‬ ‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ )‪ (g‬ﻃﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ )‪(pm‬‬ ‫ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺫﻭﺏ)‪(K‬‬ ‫ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺟﻮﺵ )‪( K‬‬
‫) ‪(11 H‬‬ ‫‪74.14‬‬ ‫‪2.00‬‬ ‫‪13.957‬‬ ‫‪20٫39‬‬
‫)‪(12 D‬‬ ‫‪74.14‬‬ ‫‪4.03‬‬ ‫‪18.73‬‬ ‫‪23.67‬‬
‫)‪(13 T‬‬ ‫‪74.14‬‬ ‫‪6.03‬‬ ‫‪20.62‬‬ ‫‪25.04‬‬
‫ﺝ – ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻭﺳﻄﺢ ﺗﻤﺎﺱ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪﺓ ﺳــﻄﺢ ﺗﻤﺎﺱ ﺑﻴﺸــﺘﺮ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻗــﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺗﺮ‬
‫ﻗﻮﻯ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺴﻄﺢ ﻭﺧﻄﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺮﻣﻰ ﻭ ﺧﻤﻴﺪﻩ ﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺯﻧﺠﻴﺮﻯ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻨﺸــﻌﺐ ﻭﺷﺎﺧﻪ ﺩﺍﺭ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺗﻤﺎﺱ ﺑﻴﺸــﺘﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ) ‪ ( 2 - 5‬ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ‬ ‫ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻧﻰ‬ ‫ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ) ‪ ( 0 C‬ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺫﻭﺏ ) ‪( 0 C‬‬
‫‪C4 H10‬‬ ‫‪-138‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫‪CH 3 − CH 2 − CH 2 − CH 3‬‬
‫‪C4 H10‬‬ ‫‪CH‬‬ ‫‪-159‬‬ ‫‪-12‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫|‬
‫‪CH 3 − CH − CH 3‬‬
‫‪119‬‬
 ‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﺁﺏ ﺳــﺒﻚ ﻭﺳــﻨﮕﻴﻦ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺷﻤﺎ‬
‫ﺗﻔــﺎﻭﺕ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺁﺏ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺬﻛــﻮﺭ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻭﺩﺭ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﭽﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﺎﻥ ﻳﺎﺩﺩﺍﺷــﺖ ﻭﻋﻠﺖ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 3– 5‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺁﺏ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ‬ ‫‪ M‬ﺑﺎﻻﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ‬ ‫ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ‬ ‫ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺫﻭﺏ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ‬ ‫) ‪(0 C‬‬ ‫) ‪(0 C‬‬ ‫) ‪(0 C‬‬
‫)‪(D‬‬
‫‪H 2O‬‬ ‫‪84٫١‬‬ ‫‪18.0151‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪100‬‬
‫‪D2O‬‬ ‫‪1٫84‬‬ ‫‪20٫0276‬‬ ‫‪3.81‬‬ ‫‪101.42‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻰ‬
‫ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﻧﻪ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺑﻠﻜﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻮﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺮﺍﺗﺐ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 3-2-5‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ )‪(Hydrogen Bond‬‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﻳﻜﻨﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺧﺎﺹ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ‬
‫) ‪ ( N ،O ، F‬ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺗــﻰ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻـﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ ﻋﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎ) ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ( ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺍﺭ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺷﺎﻥ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ‬
‫ﺍﻟـﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﮕﺎ ﺗـﻴﻒ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﺑﺎﺷﺪ ) ‪ ،) F, N,O‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻛﺎﺫﺏ ﻭﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ :(4– 5‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ﻳﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪﻩ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﻭﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ‪:‬‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ‬
‫‪H 2o‬‬ ‫‪100°C‬‬ ‫‪HF‬‬ ‫‪19°C‬‬
‫‪H2S‬‬ ‫‪− 60°C‬‬ ‫‪HCl‬‬ ‫‪− 84°C‬‬
‫‪H 2 Se‬‬ ‫‪− 41°C‬‬ ‫‪HBr‬‬ ‫‪− 57°C‬‬
‫‪H 2Te‬‬ ‫‪− 2°C‬‬ ‫‪HI‬‬ ‫‪− 53°C‬‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺳﻠﺴــﻠﻪ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴــﺎﻥ ﺁﺏ ‪ 100 0 C‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺩﻳﮕﺮﺳﻠﺴــﻠﺔ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻫﻢ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ) ‪ ( O 2‬ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺳﻠﺴــﻠﺔ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ‬
‫ﻏــــﻠﻴــﺎﻥ ) ‪ (HF‬ﺑﻠﻨــﺪ ﻭﻣﺮﻛﺒــﺎﺕ ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ) ‪ ( F2‬ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﻋﻠﺖ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺁﺏ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻫﻢ ﺩﺭ ‪HF‬‬
‫ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻔﺎﺑﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‪ HF‬ﻳﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻗﻄﻊ ﺁﻧﻬﺎﺭﺍ ﺍﺯﻫﻢ ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮ ﻣﺸــﻜﻞ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻔﺮﻳﺖ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻛﻢ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭﺩﺭﺟﻪ‬
‫ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻃﻪ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﻣﻴﺮﻭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻮﻕ‬ ‫ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﺗﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ‪،‬ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻴﻦ‪H – N , H – O , H – F‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ؛ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻗﺴــﻤﺎً ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ‪ ،‬ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ‬
‫ﻭﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﻗﺴﻤﺎً ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻛﻮﻟﻤﺐ ﺑﻴﻦ ﭼﺎﺭﺟﻬﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻗﺴــﻤﻰ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻛﺶ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ‪،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 5 – 5‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻒ – ‪ ، HF‬ﺏ – ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺝ – ﻳﺦ‬
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 ‫‪ : 1- 3- 2- 5‬ﻣﺎﻫﻴﺖ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ‬
‫ﮔﺮﭼــﻪ ﺗﻮﺍﻓﻘــﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻣــﻮﺭﺩ ﻣﺎﻫﻴﺖ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﻴﺴــﺖ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺎ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﻣﺸــﺨﺼﺎﺗﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺑﺤﺚ ﻗــﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻴﻢ ﺗﺎ ﻭﻳﮋﻩ ﮔﻰ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔــﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻮﻩ ﺑﻬﺘﺮ‬
‫ﺑﺸﻨﺎﺳﻴﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﺎﺩﺍﺷﺘﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭ ﻭﻳﮋﻩ ﮔﻰ‬
‫ﻗﻮﻩ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻮﻯ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 5 – 5‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ‬ ‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ‬ ‫ﻃﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻃﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ‬ ‫ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ‬ ‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ‬ ‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬ ‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬ ‫ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬ ‫‪pm‬‬
‫‪M‬‬ ‫‪M‬‬ ‫‪pm‬‬
‫‪1.9D‬‬ ‫‪1.8D‬‬ ‫‪-19kg/‬‬ ‫‪120‬‬ ‫‪120‬‬ ‫‪F − H ...F‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬
‫‪mol‬‬
‫‪1.5D‬‬ ‫‪1.82D‬‬ ‫‪-22kg/‬‬ ‫‪100‬‬ ‫‪170‬‬ ‫‪O − H ...O‬‬ ‫‪H 2O‬‬
‫‪mol‬‬
‫‪1.4D‬‬ ‫‪1.47D‬‬ ‫‪-17kg/‬‬ ‫‪90‬‬ ‫‪220‬‬ ‫‪N − H ...N‬‬ ‫‪H3‬‬
‫‪mol‬‬
‫ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴــﺔ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻗﻄﺒﻴــﺖ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻭﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻗﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻫﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺖ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨــﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺸــﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻗﻮﻩ ﺍﻯ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘــﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺍﻫﻤﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﺳــﺘﺎﺗﻴﻜﻰ ﻗﺒﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻧﻤﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻳﮋﻩ ﮔﻰ ﺧﺎﺹ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻦ ﺳﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ) ‪ ( X − H ...Y‬ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﺧﻂ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﻗﺪﺭﺕ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ﻭﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺟﻬﺖ ﺩﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺟﻬﺖ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﺁﻥ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻫﻢ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻧﻤﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ؛‬
‫ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﻗﻮﻩ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺳــﻤﺖ ﻫﺎ ﻳﻜﺴــﺎﻥ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﺁﻧﻬﻢ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻤﻰ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﻛﻮﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﻳﺎ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻓﺮﺽ ﻛﺮﺩ؛ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻗﺪﻡ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺍﻭﺭﺑﻴﺘﺎﻝ ‪ s‬ﺩﺭ ﻗﺸﺮ‬
‫ﺍﻭﻟﻰ ﻭﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻧﻤﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻭﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻑ‬
‫ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺍﻛﺜﺮﺍ ً ﺑﻴﺶ ﺍﺯ ‪ 100kj/mol‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ‬
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‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺑﺎﻭﺟﻮﺩﻳﻜﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ ﻭﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺷﺒﺎﻫﺘﻰ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ؛ ﺍﻣـــــﺎ‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﻫﻴﭻ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻳﻜﺴﺎﻥ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻧــﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄــﻪ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨــﻰ ‪ Kj / mol 29 – 21‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ) ‪ (10‬ﺍﻟﻰ ‪ ( ( 20‬ﻣﺮﺍﺗﺒﻪ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺮﺍﺗﺐ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﻗﻮﻯ ﺗﺮﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﺍﻳﻤﻴﺮﻫﺎ ‪ (HF)2‬ﻭ ‪ H 2O)2‬ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ‬
‫ﺩﺭﻓﺎﺭﻣﻴﻚ ﺍﺳﻴﺪ ﺩﺍﻳﻤﻴﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺭﺍﺑﻪ ) ‪ ( ...‬ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺩﺭﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻋﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻧﻴﺰ‬
‫ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﻰ ﺑﻨﺰﺍﻟﺪ ﻳﻬﺎﻳﺪ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﮔﺮﻭپ– ‪OH‬‬
‫ﻭ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﺗﻴﻞ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﺯﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺍﻭﺭﺗﻮﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﻰ ﺑﻨﺰﺍﻟﺪﻳﻬﺎﻳﺪ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﭘﺎﺭﺍ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﻰ ﺑﻨﺰ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻬﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ‪ 1.6°C‬ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ؛ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﺩﺭﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﭘﺎﺭﺍ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﻰ ﺑﻨﺰﺍﻟﺪﻳﻬﺎﻳﺪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ ﺍﻭﻝ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷــﺖ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 5 – 5‬ﺑﮕﻮﻳﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻃﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭﻳﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﻃﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ؟ ﺁﻳﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻃﻮﻝ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪( X − H ...Y‬‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘﮕﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭﻳﺎﺧﻴﺮ؟‬
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 ‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ ﺩﻭﻡ‬
‫ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﻭﺍﻧــﺪﺭ‪ -‬ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟــﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﻭﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﺎﺍﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ‬
‫‪ 120pm،150pm، 10pm‬ﻭ‪ 155pm‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ H...N ، H...O ، H...F‬ﻣﺤﺎﺳــﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻭ ﻫــﻢ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﻰ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﭼﻰ ﮔﻮﻧﻪ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﻧﻪ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﺩﺭﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﺭﻭﻝ ﺍﺳﺎﺳــﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﺯﻯ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻠﻜﻪ ﺩﺭﺑﻴﻮﻟﻮژﻯ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺭﻭﻝ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺎﺳﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ؛ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻓﻨﺮﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﻧﻮﻛﻠﻴﻚ ﺍﺳﻴﺪ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﻭﺭﮔﺎﻧﻴﺰﻡ ﺣﻴﻪ ﺗﺄﻣﻴﻦ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻡ‬ ‫ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺭﺛﻰ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ :(6– 5‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪.DNA‬‬
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 ‫‪ : 3 – 5‬ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ‬
‫ﻗﻮﻩ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ )ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ( ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺑﺮﺍﺯﻧﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺫﻳ ً‬
‫ﻼ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 1 – 3 -5‬ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻧﺠﻤﺎﺩ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺩﺍﺩﻥ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺗﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺑﻠﻮﺭ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻏﺮﺽ ﻣﻐﻠﻮﺏ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﭘﻮﺗﻨﺴﻴﺎﻝ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﭼﺴﭙﺎﻧﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻳﺎﺩ ﺁﻭﺭﻯ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ‪ :‬ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺫﻭﺏ ﻭﺗﺒﺨﻴﺮ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﻣﻨﺠﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﺔ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻭﻳﺎ‬
‫ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﺯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺑﺮﺩﻥ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﻰ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻧﻤﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺩﺭﻙ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻭﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ‪ ،‬ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺗﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺍﺟﺰﺍﻯ ﻣﺘﺸــﻜﻞ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺳــﻪ ﮔﺎﻧﺔ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﺒﺨﻴﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺟﺴﻢ‬
‫ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺻﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ؛ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺴﻢ ﺩﺍﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺻﺮﻑ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻭﻥ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﭘﺎﺋﻴﻦ ﺫﻭﺏ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭﻣﺎﻳﻊ‬
‫ﺣﺎﺻﻠــﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺁﺳــﺎﻧﻰ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘــﻮﺍﻥ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺠﻴﺒﻪ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻨﺠﻤﺪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪ .‬ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﻴﻠﻴﻢ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ − 269 0 C‬ﻭﺭﺍﺩﻭﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ − 620 C‬ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫‪ .‬ﺍﻛﺜــﺮ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻋﻀﻮﻯ ﻭﻏﻴﺮ ﻋﻀﻮﻯ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻮﻣﻨﺖ ﻗﻄﺒﻴﺖ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ‬
‫ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻤﺎً ﺗﺼﻌﻴﺪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ CH 4 ( s) :‬ﺩﺭ ‪ BF3 ، − 262 0 C‬ﺩﺭ ‪ − 1010 C‬ﻭ ‪ SF6‬ﺩﺭ‬
‫‪ − 64 0 C‬ﺗﺼﻌﻴﺪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺁﺯ ﺁﻥ ﺟﺎﻳﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻗﻄﺒﻴﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﻧــﺪﺓ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺰﺭگ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﮔﺮﺩﻳــﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻋﺎﺩﻯ‬
‫ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ‪ Ni (CO) 4‬ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ‪ CCl4 ، 430 C‬ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ‪،‬‬
‫‪ N 3 H 6 , 77 0 C‬ﺑﺎ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ‪ 530 C‬ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ ﻭﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ‬
‫ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻭ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺮﺍﺗﺐ ﻣﺴــﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻗﻮﺓ‬
‫ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﻭ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺗﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺁﺏ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ‪ ،‬ﺳﻠﻔﻮﺭﻳﻚ ﺍﺳﻴﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻭﻓﺎﺭﻡ ‪ ....‬ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ ﻭﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ‬
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 ‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﺳــﺒﻚ ﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻗﺒﻴــﻞ ‪ PH 3 , H 2 Se, H 2 S , H 2 O‬ﻭ ‪ HI‬ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻗﻮﻯ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻧﺒﻮﺩﻩ ) ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﻣﺸــﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ (؛ ﺍﺯﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺳــﺒﺐ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺷــﺎﻥ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺁﻧﻬــﺎ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﻭﻟﻴﻦ ﻋﻀﻮﺳﺮﺩﺳــﺘﺔ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟـﺬﻛﺮ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﮔﺮﻭپ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ‪V‬ﺍﻟــﻰ‪ NH 3 , H 2 O) VII‬ﻭ ‪ ( HF‬ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮ ﻗــﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﺒﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﻗﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﺳﺘﺎﺗﻴﻜﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ‬
‫ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ؛ ﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺳــﺒﺐ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎﺭﺍ ﻧﻤﻴﺘــﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻛﻢ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﻫﻤﭽﻮ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻴﻜﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷــﻮﺩ‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﻄﻊ ﻭﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺫﻭﺏ ﻭﺑﺎ ﺍﻻﺧﺮﻩ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺘﺸــﻜﻞ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺷــﺒﻜﺔ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ‪ NaF‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ‪ 997 0 C‬ﻭﺍﺯ ‪ MgO‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 2800 0 C‬ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺟﺴﺎﻣﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻻﻧﺴﻰ‬
‫ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺱ‬
‫ﻭﮔﺮﺍﻓﻴﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺗﺼﻌﻴﺪ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺳﻠﻴﻜﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺫﻭﺏ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻻﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ ‪ 22000 C‬ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﮔﺎﻧﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺱ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺍﮔﺮ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﻭ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ‪ S‬ﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ‪ P‬ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ‬
‫ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ) ‪ ( 6 - 5‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺗﻔﻜﻴﻚ ﻫﻼﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻓﺎﺯ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻭﮔﺎﺯ ﺑﻪ ‪kj / mol‬‬
‫ﻧﺴﺒﺖ‬ ‫ﺗﺼﻌﻴﺪ‬ ‫)‪M − X (s‬‬ ‫)‪M − X (g‬‬ ‫ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫)‪M + (g) + X − (g‬‬ ‫)‪M + (g) + X − (g‬‬
‫‪268‬‬ ‫‪1033‬‬ ‫‪766‬‬ ‫‪LiF‬‬
‫‪209‬‬ ‫‪845‬‬ ‫‪636‬‬ ‫‪LiCl‬‬
‫‪184‬‬ ‫‪799‬‬ ‫‪615‬‬ ‫‪LiBr‬‬
‫‪167‬‬ ‫‪741‬‬ ‫‪573‬‬ ‫‪LiI‬‬
‫‪272‬‬ ‫‪916‬‬ ‫‪644‬‬ ‫‪NaCl‬‬
‫‪222‬‬ ‫‪778‬‬ ‫‪556‬‬ ‫‪NaBr‬‬
‫‪205‬‬ ‫‪741‬‬ ‫‪536‬‬ ‫‪NaI‬‬
‫‪184‬‬ ‫‪690‬‬ ‫‪506‬‬ ‫‪KF‬‬
‫‪230‬‬ ‫‪812‬‬ ‫‪582‬‬ ‫‪KBr‬‬
‫‪213‬‬ ‫‪707‬‬ ‫‪494‬‬ ‫‪KI‬‬
‫‪201‬‬ ‫‪678‬‬ ‫‪477‬‬ ‫‪RbF‬‬
‫‪192‬‬ ‫‪686‬‬ ‫‪498‬‬ ‫‪RbCl‬‬
‫‪213‬‬ ‫‪661‬‬ ‫‪463‬‬ ‫‪RbBr‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﺎﺯ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻭﻋﻴﻦ ﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻤﻞ ﺗﺒﺨﻴﺮ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺳﺮﻳﻊ ﻭ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻣــﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ ﻣﻴﺮ ﻫــﺎ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺻﺪ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﻓﺎﺳﻔﻮﺭ ﺱ ﺳﺮﺥ ﺗﺼﻌﻴﺪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻓﺎﺳﻔﻮﺭﺱ ﺳﻔﻴﺪ ﻣﻨﺠﻤﺪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪P‬‬ ‫‪P‬‬ ‫‪P‬‬
‫‪−P‬‬ ‫‪P − P‬‬ ‫‪P− n‬‬ ‫⎯⎯‬
‫→⎯‬ ‫‪2n‬‬ ‫‪P −−−−−−−P‬‬
‫‪P‬‬ ‫‪P‬‬ ‫‪P‬‬
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 ‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪( 7 - 5‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻫﻼﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭘﻮﺗﺎﺷﻴﻢ ﻭ ﻧﻘﺮﻩ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬ ‫ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫‪4350 C‬‬ ‫‪AgF‬‬ ‫‪880 0 C‬‬ ‫‪KF‬‬
‫‪4550 C‬‬ ‫‪AgCl‬‬ ‫‪776 0 C‬‬ ‫‪KCl‬‬
‫‪4340 C‬‬ ‫‪AgBr‬‬ ‫‪730 0 C‬‬ ‫‪KBr‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 8 - 5‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻗﺖ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺩﺭﺝ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ‬
‫ﻧﻤــﻮﺩﻩ ‪،‬ﻋﻠﺖ ﺗﻨﻘﻴﺺ ﻭﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﺁﻧﻬﺎﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻫﻢ ﭼﮕﻮﻧﮕﻰ ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺁﻧﻬﺎﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ‬
‫ﺩﻻﻳﻞ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 8 - 5‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻫﻼﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﻫﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺯﻣﻴﻨﻰ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬ ‫ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫‪812 0 C‬‬ ‫‪7650 C‬‬ ‫‪CaBr2‬‬ ‫‪1380 0 C‬‬ ‫‪730 0 C‬‬ ‫‪KBr‬‬
‫‪21370 C‬‬ ‫‪1280 0 C‬‬ ‫‪BaF2‬‬ ‫‪1250 0 C‬‬ ‫‪684 0 C‬‬ ‫‪CsF‬‬
‫‪ : 2-3-5‬ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺍﻧﺤﻼﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺤﻼﻟﻴــﺖ ﻭ ﺧﺼﻠﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﺟﺴــﺎﻡ ﺣﻞ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﭘﻴﭽﻴﺪﻩ ﺑــﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺟﺎ ﺻﺮﻑ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﺎﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﺼﺮ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺟﺴــﺎﻡ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺳــﺎﺩﻩ ﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻗﻮﻩ‬
‫ﻫــﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻨﺤﻠﻪ ﻭﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻧﻮﻉ ﻗــﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻗﻮﺓ‬
‫ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ .‬ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗــﻮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻨﺤﻠﻪ ﻭﻣﺤﻠــﻞ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻨﺠﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺤﻼﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻭﭼﺴــﭙﺶ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﻫﻤﭽﻮ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺁﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ ﺍﺟﺴﺎﻣﻰ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺑﺴــﻴﺎﺭ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﺁﺏ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﺧﻮﺏ ﺣﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‬
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‫‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺷــﺒﻜﺔ ﻛﺮﺳــﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﻏﻠﺒﻪ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﺳــﺘﺎﺗﻴﻜﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﻐﻠﻮﺏ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻨﺤﻠﻪ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻠــﻞ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻳﻚ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ‪ ) ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ ( Ξ 0 H O = 87 :‬ﺗﺠﺮﻳﺪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﻗﻮﺓ‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﻛﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺁﺳﺎﻧﻰ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻧﺘﻮﺍﻧﺴﺘﻪ ﻭﺭﺳﻮﺏ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻧﻤﻰ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﻗﻮﺓ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﻥ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻛﻮﻟﺐ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫‪q1 ⋅ q 2‬‬
‫‪F=K‬‬
‫‪Ξ0 ⋅ r 2‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳــﻦ ﻓﻮﺭﻣــﻮﻝ ‪ F‬ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧــﻲ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻣﻪ ‪ K،‬ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ‪ q2 ،‬ﻭ ‪ q1‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ‬
‫ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺎ ‪ r ،‬ﻓﺎﺻﻠﺔ ﺩﻭﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻭ ‪ Ξ 0‬ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻳﻚ ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺖ ﺍﻧﺤﻼﻟﻴﺖ ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﻫﺎ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸــﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻨﺤﻠﻪ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺑﺎ ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻨﺤﻠﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻰ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺸﻦ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳــﺪﻩ ﻭﻋﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺁﻥ ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺖ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﻯ ﺷــﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ؛ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ‪ :‬ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺖ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑــﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺴــﺎﻣﺖ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻭﺍﺑﺴــﺘﮕﻰ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ‬
‫ﺷــﺒﻜﺔ ﻛﺮﺳــﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺴــﺎﻣﺖ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ .‬ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ‬
‫) ﺁﻳــﻮﻥ – ﺁﻳــﻮﻥ ( ﺍﺯ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺠﺎﻭﺭ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ )ﺁﻳﻮﻥ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ ( ﻗﻮﻯ ﺗﺮ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺳﻠﻮﻳﺸﻦ)‪ (Solvation‬ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﻫﻤﭽﻮ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻟﻬﺎ ﺳﺮﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺳﻠﻮﻳﺸﻦ )‪(Solvation‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﮔﺮﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﻓﺼﻞ ﭘﭘﻨﺠﻢ‬
‫* ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻭﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﺟﺴــﺎﻡ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﺍﺷــﻜﺎﻝ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻫﻤﭽﻮ ﺍﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻳﻚ ﻗﻮﻩ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺘﺤﺪ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺩﺭﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺳﻬﻴﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺭﺍﺩﻳﻜﺎﻟﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺘﺤﺪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺍﺷــﻜﺎﻝ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ‬
‫ﺑﻴــﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯﺟﻤﻠﻪ ﻋﻤــﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ‪ ،‬ﻋﻤــﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭﺱ –‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ‪ ،‬ﻟﻨﺪﻭﻥ ﻭ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺩﺭﺍﺟﺴــﺎﻡ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻏﺮﺽ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻨﻈﻢ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺍﻧﺠــﺎﻡ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻤــﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺩﺍﻳﭙــﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺯﻣﺎﻧــﻰ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﻣﻰ ﭘﺬﻳﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺍﻳﻨﻬﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍﺟﺬﺏ ﻭﺍﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺭﺍﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫*ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻯ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺟﺪﺍ ﻛﺮﺩﻥ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺩﺭﺷــﺒﻜﻪ ﻛﺮﺳــﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻘــﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺗﺄﻣﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺤﻪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻨﺤﻠﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫*ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻏﻴﺮﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻟﻨﺪﻭﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﭘﻮﻻﺭﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ ﻟﺤﻈﻮﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺳﺒﺐ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺬ ﺏ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫*ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺧﺎﺹ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ‬
‫) ‪ ) N , O , F‬ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫*ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺻﺮﻑ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺫﻭﺏ ﺷــﺪﻩ‬
‫ﻭﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺣﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺁﺳﺎﻧﻰ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
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‫*ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻰ ﻛﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺁﺳﺎﻧﻰ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻧﺘﻮﺍﻧﺴــﺘﻪ ﻭﺭﺳﻮﺏ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻧﻤﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻳﻚ ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﻗﻮﺓ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻛﻮﻟﺐ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫‪q1 ⋅ q 2‬‬
‫‪F=K‬‬
‫‪Ξ0 ⋅ r 2‬‬
‫*ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺘﺸــﻜﻠﺔ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺷــﺒﻜﺔ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﻣﻰ ﻳﺎﺑﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﻓﺼﻞ ﭘﻨﺠﻢ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺟﻮﺍﺑﻪ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺟﺴــﺎﻡ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻳﻚ ‪ ----‬ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺘﺤﺪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ‪ ------‬ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﻗﻮﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺏ – ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺝ – ﺍﻟﻒ ﻭ ﺏ ﻫﺮﺩﻭ ﺩ‬
‫‪ -‬ﻫﻴﭽﻜﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺘﺤﺪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ‪ -----‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺏ‪ -‬ﺍﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺝ – ﺍﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩ – ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎً ﺩﺭ ﺳﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳــﺖ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒــﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ؟‬
‫ﺍﻟــﻒ – ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳــﻦ ﻭﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺏ – ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺝ – ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺩ – ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫‪ – 4‬ﺷﺮﻁ ﺣﺘﻤﻰ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ ؟‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‪ ،‬ﺏ – ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﺳــﻪ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ ) ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ‬
‫ﻭﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ( ﻭﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺝ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻒ ﻭﺏ ﻫﺮﺩﻭ‪ ،‬ﺩ – ﻫﻴﭽﻜﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺻﺮﻑ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻭﻥ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‪ ---‬ﺫﻭﺏ ﺷﺪﻩ‬
‫ﻭﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺣﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ‪ ------‬ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺁﺳﺎﻧﻰ ﺏ – ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻣﺸﻜﻞ ﺝ – ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻄﻰ ﺩ– ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺳﺎﺩﻩ‬
‫‪ - 6‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻯ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺟﺪﺍ ﻛﺮﺩﻥ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺩﺭﺷــﺒﻜﻪ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺗﺄﻣﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺤﻪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻨﺤﻠﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ‪ ----‬ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩ ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻒ ﻭﺏ ﻫﺮﺩﻭ‬ ‫ﺩ‪ -‬ﺧﻨﺜﻰ‬ ‫ﺏ – ﺟﺬﺏ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺁﺯﺍﺩ‬
‫‪ - 7‬ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪﺓ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻭﻥ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻋﺎﺩﻯ ‪ -----‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺏ – ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺝ – ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺩ – ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﭘﻼﺯﻣﺎ‬
‫‪ - 8‬ﺍﺟﺴــﺎﻣﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ؛ﺍﻣﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ‬
‫ﻛﻮﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ؛ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ‪ -----‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺏ – ﭘﺎﺋﻴﻦ ﺝ – ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﺩ – ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﭘﺎﺋﻴﻦ‬
‫‪ - 9‬ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ‪ ----‬ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺗﻨﺰﻳﻞ ﺏ – ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﺝ – ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻧﻤﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﺩ ‪ -‬ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ ﺗﻨﺰﻳﻞ‬
‫‪ 10-‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﺎﺯ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ‬
‫ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻭﻋﻴﻦ ﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻤﻞ ﺗﺒﺨﻴﺮ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ‪ --------‬ﻭ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩ – ﻫﻴﭽﻜﺪﺍﻡ‬ ‫ﺏ – ﺑﻄﻰ ﺝ ‪ -‬ﻛﻤﺘﺮ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﺳﺮﻳﻊ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﺤﻰ‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻨﻰ ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟ ﺩﺭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ؟‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ‪ HBr(g ) -‬ﺏ ‪ Br2 ( g ) -‬ﺝ ‪ ICl (g ) -‬ﺩ ‪HF (l ) -‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﺏ ‪ 100°C‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮﺳﻠﺴﻠﻪ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻫﻢ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺁﻛﺴﻴــﺠﻦ ) ‪(O2‬‬
‫ﭘﺎﻳﻴــﻦ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺩﺭﺳﻠﺴــﻠﻪ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ‪ (19 0 C ) HF‬ﺑﻠﻨــﺪ ﻭﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺩﻳﮕﺮﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ) ) ‪ ( ( F2‬ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﺖ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ – 4‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺣﻞ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ C4 H 9 − OH -‬ﺏ ‪ CH 3 − CH 2 − CH 2 − CH 2 − CH 3 -‬ﺝ‪(CH ) 3 CCH 3 -‬‬
‫ﺩ ‪N2 -‬‬
‫‪ – 5‬ﻗــﻮﺓ ﺟــﺬﺏ ﺑﻴــﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑــﺎﻥ ﻭﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﭼﻪ ﺗﺄﺛﻴــﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؟ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺩﻫﻴﺪ‬
‫‪ – 6‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻧﺤﻼﻟﻴﺖ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؟ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 7‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻓﻜﺘﻮﺭ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻧﺤﻼﻟﻴﺖ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺆﺛﺮ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؟ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻳﻚ ﭼﻴﺴــﺖ؟ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺩﻫﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 8‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻭﻗﻮﺓ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﺷﺸﻢ‬
‫ﺣﺎﻻﺕ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ‬
‫ﺑــﻪ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﻣــﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﺸــﺎﻫﺪﻩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻳﺎ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺪﺍﻧﻴﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺩﺭ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ ﺑﻪ ﭼﻨﺪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻰ ﺷــﻮﺩ ؟ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺷــﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؟ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺧﺼﻮﺻﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؟‬
‫ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻭ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺭﺍ ﭼﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻛﺮﺩ ؟ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﻭﻝ ﺍﺳﺎﺳﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ؟‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺔ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺭﺍﺟﻊ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﻓﻮﻕ‬
‫ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻭﻫﻢ ﺍﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺣﻞ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ - 1 – 6‬ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﻭ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻫﺮ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﻣﺤﻴﻄﻰ ﺳــﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ » ﺟﺎﻣﺪ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻭﮔﺎﺯ « ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﮔﺮﭼﻪ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺣﺎﻟــﺖ ﻋﺎﺩﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟــﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ؛ ﺍﻣــﺎ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻫﻤﻴﺖ ﺧﺎﺻﻰ ﺑﺮﺧﻮﺭﺩﺍﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﺍﺕ ﺣﻴﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﻪ ﺍﻧﺴــﺎﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺩﺍﺧــﻞ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ ﺯﻧﺪﻩ ﮔﻰ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬
‫‪ .‬ﺍﺗﻤﻮﺳــﻔﻴﺮ ﺯﻣﻴﻦ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻃﻰ ﺍﺯ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺁﻥ ﺍﺯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﻮﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﻭﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ‬
‫ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺁﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻧﺎﻣﻨﻈﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﻭﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻛﻢ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ‬
‫ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺳــﺮﻳﻊ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺟﺎﻣــﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ‬
‫ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻪ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ‬
‫ﺷــﺪﻩ؛ ﺍﻣــﺎ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺷــﺪﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ؛ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟــﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺫﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺮﺍﺗﺐ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺳﺨﺖ ﻭﺷﻜﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻪ‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻧﻴﺴﺘﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺧﺎﺻﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻭﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ‬
‫ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺑﻴﺸــﺘﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 1 - 6‬ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻭﮔﺎﺯ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺍﺩﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻭﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻋﻴﻦ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ‬
‫ﺁﺏ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻭﮔﺎﺯ )ﺑﺨﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺁﺏ ( ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪ .‬ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪:‬‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫‪135‬‬
 ‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 1 - 6‬ﺳﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺁﺏ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ‪.‬‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯ )ﺑﺨﺎﺭﺍﺕ ( ﺁﺏ‬ ‫ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺁﺏ‬ ‫ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺁﺏ‬ ‫ﺣﺎﻟﺖ‬
‫ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ‬
‫‪3.26 g / cm3‬‬ ‫‪0.9168 g / cm3‬‬ ‫‪0.997 g / cm 3‬‬ ‫ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ‬
‫‪4000 C‬‬ ‫‪00 C‬‬ ‫‪250 C‬‬ ‫ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‬
‫‪ : 1- 1- 6‬ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺳــﺎﺩﺓ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻭ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻳﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻭ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺗﺎﺑﻊ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻭ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻇﺮﻑ ﻧﻴﺴﺖ ‪ .‬ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ‬
‫ﺟﺎﻣﻊ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺟﺰﺍﻯ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﻩ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺑﺎﻧﻈﻢ ﺧﺎﺹ ﻭ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺗﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻨﺎﺭ‬
‫ﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺁﻳﺎ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻔﺎﺕ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻤﺪﻳﮕﺮ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ؟ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺟﻮﺍﻧﺐ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻳﻜﺴﺎﻥ ﻧﻴﺴﺘﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 2 – 1 – 6‬ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻫﺎ)‪(Crystal‬‬
‫ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺧﺼﻮﺻﻴﺎﺕ ﺑﺮﺍﺯﻧﺪﺓ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺒﺎﺣــﺚ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍﺟﻊ ﺑﻪ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺳــﻪ ﺑﻌﺪﻯ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ‬
‫ﺻﺤﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺁﻣﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺳــﻪ ﺑﻌﺪﻯ ﺭﺍ ﻳﻚ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﻣﻰ ﻧﺎﻣﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻭ‬
‫ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ : 1 – 2 – 1 - 6‬ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﻨﻈﻢ ﻫﻨﺪﺳﻰ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻓﻀﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺷﻜﻞ )‪(2 - 6‬‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻓﻀﺎﺋﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺭﺳﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻣﺘﻮﺻﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﮔــﺮ ﺗﺼﻮﺭ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻮﺻﻞ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻯ ﺁﻫﻦ ﺩﺭ ﭼﻨﻴﻦ ﺷــﺒﻜﻪ ﻫــﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﺭﻳﻜﻪ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﻫﺮ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺁﻫﻦ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻘﻂ ﺩﺭ ﭼﻨﻴﻦ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻭﺍﻗﻊ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻗﺴﻤﺘﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﺑﻠﻮﺭ ﺁﻫﻦ‬
‫ﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻤﺖ ﺭﺍﺳﺖ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﻛﺮﺩ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ‬ ‫ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ (2 - 6‬ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻳﻚ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻓﻀﺎﺋﻰ ﺗﺼﻮﺭ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﻛﺮﻭﭘﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺩﺭﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﺑﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﻟﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻪ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺗﻜﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ ﺗﺎ ﺳﺮﺣﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﻫﺮ ﺑﻠﻮﺭ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ‬
‫ﺔ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻏﺮﺽ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻒ ﻳﻚ ﺷــﺒﻜﻪ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺗﺎ ﺳﻠﻮﻝ ﻭ ﻳﺎﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻗﺴــﻤﺘﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺷــﺒﻜﻪ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺩﺍﺩﻥ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﻪ ﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ‬
‫ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺔ‬
‫ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﻯ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻻً ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺏ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻼﻉﻉ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺷﻜﻞ‬
‫ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺷﺶ ﻭﺟﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻫﺮ ﻭﺟﻪ ﺁﻥ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻯ ﺍﻻﺿﻼ‬
‫) ‪ (3 - 6‬ﻳﻚ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻳﻚ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻭ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ‬
‫ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻫﺮ ﻛﻨﺞ ﺁﻥ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﻳﺎ ﺩ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺷﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺿﻤﻨﺎً ﺍﻳﻦ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ ﻳﻚ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺍﺳﺎﺳﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺣﺠﺮﻭﻯ ﺁﻥ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺒﻰ ﺎﺩ‬
‫ﻳﻰ ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 3 – 6‬ﻳﻚ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ‬
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‫ﺩﻭ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺣﺠﺮﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻻً‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﻭﻳﺎ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻇﺮ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ) ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﺷــﻜﻞ )‪ . ( ( 4 - 6‬ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻜﻌﺐ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪﺓ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺑﺮ ﻫﺸــﺖ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻛــﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻨﺞ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻜﻌﺐ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﻣﻜﻌﺐ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﺩﺭ ﻫﺮ ﻭﺟﻪ ﺁﻥ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺣﺠﺮﻭﻯ ﺩﻭ ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻜﻰ ﻣــﻮﺩﻝ ﺗﻮپ ﻭ ﻣﻴﻠﻪ ﻭ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺁﻥ ﻛﺮﻩ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 4 – 6‬ﺳﻪ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺣﺠﺮﻭﻯ ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ ﺗﻮپ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻴﻠﻪ ﻭ ﻛﺮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺰﺭگ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ (5 – 6‬ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻰ ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺣﺠﺮﻭﻯ ﺁﻥ‬
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‫ﺩﺭ ﺷــﻜﻞ )‪ (5 - 6‬ﻳــﻚ ﺣﺠــﺮﻩ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ ﺑﺎ ﻭﺟﻮﻩ ﻣﺮﻛــﺰ ﺩﺍﺭ ) ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ( ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﻳﻚ ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺭﺳﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﺍﺳــﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﺯ ﭼﻨﺪ ﮔﻠﻮﻟﺔ ﭘﻼﺳــﺘﻴﻜﻰ ﻭﺳﺮﺵ ﻣﻨﺎﺳــﺐ ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ ‪ ،‬ﺳﺎﺩﻩ‬
‫‪،‬ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﻭﺟﻮﻩ ﭘﺮﺭﺍ ﺁﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻭﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺶ ﺩﻫﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺸﻖ ﻭ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ ﭘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ ‪،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﻠﻮﻝ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﻠﻮﻝﻝ ﺍ‬
‫ﻫﻫﺮ ﻠ‬
‫ﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﺎ‬
‫ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺫ ﺍ‬
‫ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻝ ﺍﻛ‬
‫ﺍﺗ ﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺍﻛﺜﺮﻯ ﺍﺯ ﺷــﺒﻜﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻝ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻳﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ‬
‫ﺳــﻄﺢ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻟﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺷــﺒﻜﻪ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﻋﻈﻤﻰ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫–‪ ( 6‬ﺗﺒﻠﻮﺭ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺳﻮﻳﺔﺔ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻝ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺍﺭﮔﻮﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ )‪6 6‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺍﺭﮔﻮﻥ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ؟‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 6 - 6‬ﺍﺭﮔﻮﻥ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ ﺑﺎ ﻭﺟﻪ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺩﺍﺭ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍ ﻟــﻒ ‪ -‬ﻣــﻮﺩﻝ ﻛﺮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺰﺭگ ‪ ،‬ﺏ – ﺍﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﻗﺴــﻤﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ‬
‫ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪،‬‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﻳ‬ ‫ﺍﺳﺎﺳــﻰ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻰ‬
‫ﻰ‬ ‫ﺩﺭ ﻳﻳﻚ ﺣﺠﺮﺮﺓ ﻭﻭﺍﺣﺪ‬
‫ﻛﺮﻭﻯ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺭ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻯ ﺮ‬
‫ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻰ‬ ‫ﺣﻞ‪ :‬ﺍﻭﻻً‬
‫ﻞ‬
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‫ﻣﺤﺎﺳــﺒﻪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪ .‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻨﻈﻮﺭ ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺗــﺎ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ ﭼﻨــﺪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﺭﮔﻮﻥ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻫﺮ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪ .‬ﻫﺮ ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﻫﺸــﺖ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺭﺃﺱ ﻫﺎ‪ ،‬ﺷــﺶ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺳــﻄﺢ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺭﺃﺱ ﻫﺎ ﻯ ﻳــﻚ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺃﺱ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻫﻔﺖ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ‪ 1‬ﺣﺼﺔ ﺭﺃﺱ ﻫﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺗﻌﻠﻖ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ ؛‬
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‫ﻫﻤﭽﻨﺎﻥ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺷﺶ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﺠﺎﻭﺭ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﺻﺮﻑ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻫﺮﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮ ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﺗﻌﻠﻖ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﻫﺸــﺖ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﺭ ﺭﺃﺱ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺷــﺶ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﺍﻛﺰ ﺳــﻄﺢ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺭﮔﻮﻥ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮ ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺗﻌﻠﻖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪ ،‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺭﺃﺱ‬
‫ﻫﺎﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻯ ﺭﺃﺱ‪8 ⋅1 / 8 = 1 :‬‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﺳﻄﺢ ‪6 ⋅1 / 2 = 3 :‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﻓﻰ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ‪1 + 3 = 4 :‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
‫‪ V = P r 3‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﻛﺮﻩ‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺍﺭﮔﻮﻥ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻭﻳﺎ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ ﺑــﺎ ﻭﺟﻪ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺩﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺗﻌﻠﻖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ V = 4 P r 3 = 4 ⋅ 4 P r 3 = 16 P r 3‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﺮﻭﻯ‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫ﺣــﺎﻝ ﺣﺠــﻢ ﺣﺠــﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣــﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮ ﺣﺴــﺐ ‪ r‬ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻣــﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪ ،‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺷــﻜﻞ )‪(6 - 6‬‬
‫ﻣﻴﺘــﻮﺍﻥ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻗﻄﺮ ﻳﻚ ﻭﺟﻪ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 4r‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺳــﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﺭﻳﺎﺿﻴﻜﻰ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻳﻚ ﻳﺎﻝ ) ‪ – e‬ﻓﺼﻞ ﻣﺸــﺘﺮﻙ ﺩﻭ ﻣﺴــﺘﻮﻯ ﻳﺎ ﺩﻭ ﻭﺟﻪ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻣﻨـــــــــﺸﻮﺭ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻯ ﺍﻟﺴﻄﻮﺡ ﻭ ﻫﺮﻡ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﺎﻣﻨﺪ( ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ 2 e = 16r‬ﭘﺲ ‪(4 r ) 2 = e 2 + e 2‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪ e = 2 r 2‬ﻭ ‪e2 = 8 r 2‬‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ) ‪ Vsell = e3 ( Vsell‬ﺍﺳﺖ ؛ ﭘﺲ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩﻛﻪ‪:‬‬
‫‪V = [2r 2 ] = 16r 3 2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻯ ﺍﺭﮔﻮﻥ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺍﺯ‪:‬‬
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 ‫‪V‬‬ ‫‪16 / 3Pr 3‬‬ ‫‪P‬‬
‫=‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 0.74‬‬
‫‪Vsell 16r 3 2 3 2‬‬
‫‪ = 0.74 ⋅100 = 74%‬ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻝ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﻣﺘﺒﻠﻮﺭ ﻣﻰ ﻛﺮﺩﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻧﺠﻴﺒﻪ ﻭ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻪ ﺗﺮ ﺍﺯ ‪ 40‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ‪ CH 4 ، H 2‬ﻭ ﻏﻴﺮﻩ‬
‫ﻧﻴﺰ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻝ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺍﻋﻈﻤﻰ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ‪ NaCl‬ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻜﻌﺐ ﺑﺎ ﺳﻄﻮﺡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺩﺍﺭ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ Cl −‬ﻛﻨﺞ ﻫﺎ ﻭ‬
‫ﻭﺳﻂ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻃﻮﺭﻳﻜﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ Na +‬ﻭﺳﻂ‬
‫ﻣﻜﻌﺐ ﻭ ﻭﺳﻂ ﻭﺟﻮﻩ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻫﺮ ‪ Na +‬ﻳﻚ ‪ Cl −‬ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻭﺿﻌﻴﺖ ﺭﻭﺷــﻦ‬
‫ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺑﺎﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷــﺖ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺷــﺒﻜﻪ ﺳــﻪ ﺑﻌﺪﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ‪ Cl −‬ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻛﻨﺞ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺳﻴﺴــﺘﻢ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﺸــﺖ ﻣﻜﻌﺐ ﺗﻌﻠﻖ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ‪ 8‬ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻨﺞ ﻫﺎ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻳﻜﻰ ) ‪ ( 8 ⋅ = 1‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮ ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺗﻌﻠﻖ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ ﻭ ﺿﻤﻨﺎ ً ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺳــﻄﻮﺡ‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪8‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻳﻚ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﭼﻮﻥ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺳــﻄﻮﺡ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭ ﻣﻜﻌﺐ ﺗﻌﻠﻖ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺷــﺶ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺩﺭ ﻭﺳــﻂ ﺳﻄﺢ ‪،‬ﺳﻪ ﺁﻥ )‪(6.1 / 2 = 3‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮ ﺳــﻠﻮﻝ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺍﺳﺎﺳﻰ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ .‬ﭘﺲ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺩﺭ ﺷﺶ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ‪ ،‬ﭼﻬﺎﺭ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ‪ Cl −‬ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ؛ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺩﺭ ﻓﻰ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪Na +‬‬
‫ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﻳﻚ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﺑﺎﻳﻚ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪،‬ﭘﺲ‬
‫ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ‪ NaCl‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 7 – 6‬ﺣﺠﺮﻩ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ‪ NaCl‬ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﺗﻮپ ﻭ ﻣﻴﻠﻪ ‪.‬‬
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‫ﻫﺮ ﻗﺪﺭ ﻛﻪ ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﺭﺷﺪ ﻭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻫﺎ ﺑﻄﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯ ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺎﻛﻴﻔﻴﺖ ﻭ ﺧﻮﺏ‬
‫ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ (8 – 6‬ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻝ ﻛﺎﻣـﻞ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺯﻣﭻ ‪KCr ( SO4 ) 2 ⋅12 H 2O‬‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻴﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ (8 - 6‬ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﻭ ﺍﺯ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻰ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺷﺪﺓ ‪KCr ( SO4 ) 2 ⋅12 H 2O‬‬
‫‪ : 3 – 1 – 6‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺗﺎ ﺣﺪﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺷــﻜﺎﻝ ﻫﻨﺪ ﺳﻰ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷــﺪﺓ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ‪ ،‬ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻭ ﻗﻮﻩ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻃﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺟﺎﻣــــــــﺪﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﻼﺣـــﻈﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻮﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﻭ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ ﺷــﺒﻜﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍ ﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻭ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﭼﻮﻥ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﺳــﺘﺎﺗﻴﻜﻰ ) ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ( ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﻮﻯ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻰ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻧﻮﻉ ﺷــﺒﻜﻪ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﻧﺎﭘﺬﻳﺮ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؛ ﺍﺯﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻣﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺳﺨﺖ ﺍﻧﺪ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺷــﻜﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻳﻚ ﺑﻠﻮﺭ ‪ NaCl‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻩ ﺷﺪﻥ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺖ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻳﺪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺸﻜﻨﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﭘﻮﺩﺭ ﻣﺒﺪﻝ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 9 – 6‬ﺷﻜﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﮔﻰ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ‪.‬‬
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‫ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍ ﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻧﻘﻂ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺍﻡ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﺴﺘﻦ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﭼﻮﻥ‬
‫ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﺴــﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺁﻥ ﺫﻭﺏ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻴــــﮕﻴﺮﺩ‬
‫؛ ﺑــﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺫﻭﺏ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﻫﺪﺍﻳــﺖ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ؛ﺯﻳﺮﺍ‬
‫ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺁﺯﺍﺩﺍﻧﻪ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻧﺘﻮﺍﻧﺴــﺘﻪ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺩﺭﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺬﺍﺑﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻫﺪﺍﻳﺖ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻜﺮ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷــﻌﺎﻉ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ‪،‬ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﺑﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ ‪ 116pm‬ﻭ ‪ 167pm‬ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ ،‬ﺣﺠــﻢ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺘﺮ ﻣﻜﻌﺐ‬
‫ﻭﺳﺎﻧﺘﻰ ﻣﺘﺮ ﻣﻜﻌﺐ ﻭﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻮﻟﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ‪ :‬ﺩﺭﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﻳﻚ ﺷــﺒﻜﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﻫﺮ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‬
‫‪،‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ‪ -‬ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﻗﻮﻩ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ‪ -‬ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻬﻤﺘﺮﻳﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﻮﺓ‬
‫ﺩﺍﻯ ﻳﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ ) ‪ ( Dipol –Dipoly‬ﻭ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻭﻥ )‪ (London‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻳﻜﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭘﻮﻻﺭ ‪ Polar‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺷﻴﻤﺎﺗﻴﻚ ﻳﻚ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻭﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﻣﺠﺎﻭﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪ .‬ﻗﻮﻩ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻗﻮﻩ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ (10 - 6‬ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻝ – ﺩﺍﻯ ﭘﻮﻟﻰ‬
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 ‫‪ – 3‬ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻛﻮﻭﻻ ﻧﺴﻰ‬
‫ﺟﺎﻣــﺪﺍﺕ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻌﻀﺎً ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺟﺎﻣــﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨــﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺣﺪﻯ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﻩ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺷــﺒﻜﻪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﻭﻟﻨﺖ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻭﺻﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺷــﺒﻜﺔ ﺳﻪ ﺑﻌﺪﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﺑﻠﻮﺭ ﮔﺴﺘﺮﺩﻩ ﻭﺗﻮﺳﻌﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻜﺎﻥ ﻛﺎﺭ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ‪ SiC‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻫﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ‪Si‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﻭﺟﻬﻰ ﺑﺎ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭﻫﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺑﺎ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ‪ Si‬ﺭﺍﺑﻂ‬
‫ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﺳــﺨﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺟـــــﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻧﻮﻉ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻗﻮﻯ ﺩﺭ ﺷــﺒﻜﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﻭ ﭼﻮﻥ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻧﻮﻉ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﻴﺴــﺖ ؛ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳــﺒﺐ ﻫﺎﺩﻯ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﻧﻤﻰ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺱ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻫﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺑﺎ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ‬
‫ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 11 – 6‬ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﮔﺮﺍﻓﻴﺖ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺱ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﺣﺪﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ Na +‬ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﻳﻚ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﻣﻜﻌﺒﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺩﺍﺭ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
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‫ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ )‪ ( Na‬ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﻏﺮﺽ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻭ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺯ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﺪ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﺒﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﻠﻜﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺷﻨﺎ‬
‫ﻭ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻭ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺮ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻴــﻦ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺍﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﻳﻚ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﺔ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻧﻰ‬
‫ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻭ ﭘﺎﻳﺪﺍﺭﻯ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﺍﺟﺎﺯﻩ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﻓﺮﻭ ﭘﺎﺷﻰ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺷﻜﻞ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻭ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻧﺮﻡ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﮔﻰ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫‪ .‬ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺑﺴــﻴﺎﺭ ﺳﺨﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﻭﻟﻔﺮﺍﻡ )‪ (w‬ﻭ ﻛﺮﻭﻣﻴﻢ)‪ (Cr‬ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺗﻤﺎﻳﻞ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ﺗﺎ ﺍﻧﻌﻄﺎﻑ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﻭ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺁﻥ ﺟﻠﻮﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ ﺩﻻﻳﻞ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻧﺘﺮﻭﺍﻝ ﻭﺳﻴﻊ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ؛‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ‪ 89 0 C‬ﺍﻣﺎ ﺍﺯ ﻭﻟﻔﺮﺍﻡ ‪ 34150 C‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺳﺒﺐ ﻫﺪﺍﻳﺖ ﮔﺮﻣﺎ ﻭ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ‬
‫ﻓﻠﺰ ﺑﻪ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺁﻥ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻫﺪﺍﻳﺖ ﺍﻟـــــﻜﺘﺮﻳﻜﻰ ﻭ ﮔـــــﺮﻣﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺳﺒﺐ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﻭ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺩﺭ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺳــﺒﺐ ﺟﻼﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻧﻮﺭﻯ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺳــﻄﺢ ﻓﻠﺰ ﺑﺮ ﺧﻮﺭﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺟﺬﺏ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻤﻞ‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﻣﻰ ﺍﻓﺘﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺳﻄﺢ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﻧﻮﺭ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 12 – 6‬ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﺩﺭ ﻓﻠﺰ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ -5‬ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻣﻮﺭﻑ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ ﺳﺮﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣـــﺎﻳﻊ ﺳﺮﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ‬
‫ﻳــﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻫﺮ ﻗﺪﺭ ﻛﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻛﻢ ﺷــﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺳــﻴﺎﻝ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺩﺳﺖ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺗﺎ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ‬
‫ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺳــﺨﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ‪،‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﻭﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺍﺯﻧﻈﺮ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻰ‪ ،‬ﺍﺟﺰﺍﻯ ﻣﺘﺸــﻜﻠﻪ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻧﺎ ﻣﻨﻈﻢ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﻣﻮﺭﻑ‬
‫) ‪) ( Amorph‬ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺷــﻜﻞ ( ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻭﺟﺎﻣــــــــﺪﺍﺕ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﻨﻈﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺟـــــﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺑﻠــﻮﺭﻯ )‪(Crystal‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺏ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 13– 6‬ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﻛﺮﺳﺘﺎﻝ‪ ،‬ﺏ ‪ -‬ﺍﻣﻮﺭﻑ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺟﺎ ﺳــﺆﺍﻝ ﭘﻴﺪﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺷــﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻣﻮﺭﻑ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﮔﻔﺖ؟ ﻻﻛﻦ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﮔﻔﺖ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﻫﺮﺷــﻰ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻭﺷــﻜﻞ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﮔﻔﺖ؛ ﺍﻣــﺎ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻣﻮﺭﻑ ﺍﺯ ﻟﺤﺎﻅ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺷﺒﺎﻫﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺷﻴﺸﻪ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﻪ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻣﻮﺭﻑ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 1 – 1 –6‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻭ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺍﮔﺮ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺑﺮﺩﻩ ﺷــﻮﺩ ‪،‬ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﻣﻨﺒﺴــﻂ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺿﺮﻳﺐ ﺍﻧﺒﺴــﺎﻁ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺗﻰ )ﺗﻐﻴﺮﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺑﺮﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻳﻚ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ(‬
‫ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﺴــﻴﺎﺭ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﻛﻢ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
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‫ﺟﺎﻣــﺪﺍﺕ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒــﺎً ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﺍﻧﻘﺒﺎﺽ ﺍﻧﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺧﻮﺍﺳــﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷــﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ‬
‫ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ ﻧﻘﺮﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺼﻒ ﺑﺮﺳﺎﻧﻴﻢ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺁﻥ ‪ 5⋅10 5 atm‬ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﻰ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺣﺠﻢ‬
‫ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺑﺎ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻭﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﻛﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺩﺭ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ، .‬ﺑﺮﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ‪ ،‬ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎًﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ‬
‫ﺗﻐﻴﺮ‪ ،‬ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﺓﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻥ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ‬
‫ﻣﺴــﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺑﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻣﺎ ﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺑﻄﻰ ﻭ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺭﺳــﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺳــﺮﻋﺖ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺟﺎﺭﻯ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭ ﭼﻮﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺁﺳــﺎﻧﻰ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺳﻄﺢ‬
‫ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻟﻐﺰﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺭﻭﻯ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻋﻠﺖ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻇﺮﻭﻓﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻗﻮﺓﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﻭ ﻗﻮﻯ ﺗﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺳﺒﺐ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ﺗﺎ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺖ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺟﺎﺭﻯ ﺷﺪﻥ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ‬
‫ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 2– 6‬ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﻪ ﺑﺪﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩﻩ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﻃﺮﻳﻘﻪ ﺫﻭﺏ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻃﺮﻳﻘﻪ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻦ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻃﺮﻳﻘــﺔ ﺍﻭﻝ ﻣــﺎﺩﺓ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺣﺮﻛﻰ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻣﺼﺮﻑ ﻣﻰ ﺭﺳــﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺩﻭﻡ ﻗــﻮﺓ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺩﺭ ﻓﺎﺯ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺷــﺪﻩ‬
‫ﻭ ﺳﻴﺴــﺘﻢ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﻣﺎﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻧــﺮژﻯ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ؛ ﭼﻮﻥ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ‬
‫ﻣـــﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺧﻴﻠﻰ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺍﺳــﺖ ؛ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳــﺒﺐ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﻭ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﻃﺮﻑ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﭼﻮﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺁﺯﺍﺩﺍﻧﻪ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺸــﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 1 - 2- 6‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺳــﺮﻋﺖ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺟﺎﺭﻯ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭ ﭼﻮﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺁﺳﺎﻧﻰ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ‬
‫ﺳﻄﺢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻟﻐﺰﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺭﻭﻯ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻋﻠﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻇﺮﻭﻓﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﻭ ﻗﻮﻯ ﺗﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺳﺒﺐ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ﺗﺎ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺖ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺟﺎﺭﻯ ﺷﺪﻥ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ‬
‫ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ : 1- 1 – 2- 6‬ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺑﺎ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻛﺜﺮﺍ ً ﻓﻀﺎﻯ ﺧﺎﻟﻰ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻛــﻢ ﺍﺳﺖ؛‬
‫ﺍﻣﺎ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻄﻠﺐ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺳــﺮﻳﻊ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﺮﺧﻮﺭﺩ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺗﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ؛ ﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺳﻤﺖ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻧﻤﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﻳﻚ ﻗﻄﺮﻩ ﺭﻧﮓ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺷــﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺭﻧﮓ ﺩﺭﺁﺏ ﺑﻪ ﺁﻫﺴﺘﮕﻰ ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻭ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻇﺮﻑ ﭘﺮﺍﺯ ﺁﺏ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺍﺣﺘﻮﺍ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺖ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﭘﺬ ﻳﺮﻯ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺣﺠﻢ‬
‫ﺧﺎﺹ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﻛﺮﭼﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺗﺎﺑﻊ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺍﺳﺖ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺑﺮﺧﻼﻑ‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﻰ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻇﺮﻑ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻧﻤﻰ ﻛﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﻧﺴــﺒﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻛﺸﺶ ﺳﻄﺤﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻛﺸﺶ ﺳﻄﺤﻰ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻴﻞ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺟﻬﺖ ﻛﺎﻫﺶ ﺳﻄﺢ‬
‫ﺧﻮﺩ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺒﺎﺭﺯ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻭ ﻧﺎﺷــﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺗﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻄﺢ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﺭﻳﻜﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻰ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﻛﺸﺶ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺳﻄﺤﻰ ﻗﻮﻩ ﻣﻮﺛﺮﻯ ﺟﻬﺖ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻥ ﻗﻮﻩ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 2- 1- 2- 6‬ﺗﺒﺨﻴﺮ ﻭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻬﻢ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﻋﺒﺎﺭ ﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺒﺨﻴﺮ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻳﻊ‬
‫ﺣﺮﻛﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻊ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺮ ﻰ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺮ‬
‫ﻞ‬ ‫ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻭ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ‬
‫ﺮ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 14 – 6‬ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻊ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ‪.‬‬
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‫ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﻫﺮ ﻟﺤﻈﻪ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺳــﺮﻳﻊ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺑﻄﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻣﻄﻠﺐ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺿﺎﺣﺖ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﮔــﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﻧﺮژﻳﻜﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻊ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺷــﻜﻞ ﻓــﻮﻕ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺣــﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻠﻨــﺪ ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺣﺮﻛﻰ ﺑﺸــﺘﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺁﻥ ﻋﺪﻩ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺳــﻄﺢ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺧــﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺎﺫﺑﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻧﺠﺎﺕ ﺩﻫﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺷــﻮﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺒﺨﻴﺮ ﻣﻰ ﻧﺎﻣﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻤﻠﻴﻪ ﺗﺒﺨﻴﺮ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻫﺮ ﻟﺤﻈﻪ ﺍﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﭘﺬﻳﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺍﺯ ﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺣﺮﻛﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪،‬‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﻪ ﺗﺒﺨﻴﺮ ﺳﺮﻳﻊ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 3- 1- 2- 6‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺩﺭﻳﻚ ﻇﺮﻑ ﺳــﺮ ﺑﺎﺯ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷــﻮﺩ ﮔﺮﻣﺎﻯ ﺁﻥ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪،‬ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺟﻮﺵ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺟﻮﺵ ﺁﻥ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻣﻰ ﻣﺎﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺟﻮﺵ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ‪ ،‬ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﻭﺍﺭﺩﻩ ﻳﺎ ﺍﺗﻤﻮﺳﻔﻴﺮ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﭘﺮﻭﺳﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺩﺭ ﻇﺮﻭﻑ ﺳﺮﺑﺎﺯ ﺭﻭﻧﻤﺎ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻇﺮﻭﻑ ﺳﺮﺑﺴﺘﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻧﻤﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ‬
‫‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻇﺮﻭﻑ ﺳــﺮﺑﺎﺯ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﺭﺩﻩ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻰ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ‬
‫ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﺭﻳﻜﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻛﺎﻫﺶ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻛﻤﻰ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﺏ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻤﻮﺳﻔﻴﺮ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ‪1000C‬‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﻣﺮﺗﻔﻊ ﻛﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ‪ 650mmHg‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺁﺏ ﺩﺭ ‪ 950 C‬ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﺏ ﺩﺭ ﺑﻠﻨﺪﻯ ﻛﻮﻩ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭﻳﺎﺩﺭ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺁﻥ ‪ ،‬ﭼﺮﺍ ؟‬
‫ﺏ ‪ -‬ﭘﺨﺘﻦ ﻛﭽﺎﻟﻮ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﺩﺭ ﺑﻠﻨﺪﻯ ﻛﻮﻩ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺑﺮﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺩﺭﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺁﻥ ؟‬
‫ﺝ – ﺁﻳﺎ ﺁﺑﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻛﻮﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺟﻮﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺳﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﻣﻰ ﺳﻮﺯﺍﻧﺪ ﻭﻳﺎﺁﺑﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻛﻮﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺟﻮﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﺩﺳﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﻣﻰ ﺳﻮﺯﺍﻧﺪ ؟‬
‫ﭘﺮﻭﺳــﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻇﺮﻭﻑ ﺳﺮﺑﺴــﺘﻪ ﻋﻤﻼ"ﺑﻪ ﻭﻗﻮﻉ ﻧﻤﻰ ﭘﻴﻮﻧﺪﺩ ؛ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻇﺮﻑ ﺳﺮﺑﺴــﺘﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺨﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺟﻤﻊ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭﺳﻄﺢ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺍﺣﺎﻃﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺳﻄﺢ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﺑﺨﺸﻴﺪﻩ ﻭ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻧــﻊ ﻏﻠﻴــﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻫﺮ ﻗﺪﺭ ﻛﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺁﻥ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ‬
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 ‫ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﺩﺭﺳــﻄﺢ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺩﺭ ﻇﺮﻑ ﺳﺮﺑﺴﺘﻪ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻤﻼ"‬
‫ﭘﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻭﻗﻮﻉ ﻧﻤﻰ ﭘﻴﻮﻧﺪﺩ ﻭ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺳﺮﺑﺴﺘﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻜﺮ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﺁﻳﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺟﻮﺷــﺎﻧﺪﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺩﻳﮓ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺳﺮﺑﺴﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺷﻌﻠﺔ ﺁﺗﺶ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺻﻮﺭﺕ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ؟‬
‫ﺏ – ﭼﺮﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺩﻳﮓ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺳــﻮﺭﺍﺥ ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻭﺭﻧﺪ ﺗﺎﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﻣﻨﺎﺳــﺐ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺯ ﻭﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ؟‬
‫ﺝ ‪ -‬ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺁﺏ ﺩﺭ ﺩﻳﮓ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺩﻳﮓ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺳﺮ ﺑﺎﺯ ﺁﺏ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ‬
‫ﺟﻮﺵ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ؟‬
‫ﺧﻼﺻﻪ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺯ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 4-1 - 2– 6‬ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪،‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﭘﺪﻳﺪﻩ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺷﺪ ؟ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺫﻭﺏ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪،‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺣﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﻫﻨﻮﺯ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﻮﺩ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺟــﺔ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻭ ﻓﺎﺯ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪ .‬ﻣﻨﺤﻨﻰ ﮔﺮﻣﺎ ﻭ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺳﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ )ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻭ ﮔﺎﺯ( ﺁﺏ ﺭﺍ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 15 – 6‬ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﻣﻨﺤﻨﻰ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘﮕﻰ ﮔﺮﻣﺎ ﻭ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺳﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺁﺏ ‪.‬‬
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‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻳﺦ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻫﺘﺰﺍﺯﺍﺕ ﺣﺮﻛﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺍ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﺟﺪﺍﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭﺷــﺒﻜﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺮﺳــﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺠﺰﺍ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ‬
‫ﺟﺎﻣــﺪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺷــﻮﺩ ﻭﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻳﻰ ﺯﻳــﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺷﺒﻜﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻭﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺩﺭ ﺫﻭﺏ ﺷــﺪﻥ ﺗﺎ ﻫﻨـــﮕﺎﻣﻰ ﺛﺎﺑــﺖ ﺑﺎﻗﻰ ﻣﻰ ﻣﺎﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻛﺎﻣ ً‬
‫ﻼ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ‬
‫ﺗﺒـــﺪﻳﻞ ﻧﮕﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ .‬ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺫﻭﺏ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﻣﻴﺮﻭﺩ ) ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺁﺏ ﺑﻪ ‪ 100 0 C‬ﺑﻠﻨــﺪ ﻣــﻰ ﺭﻭﺩ ( ﻭﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺗﺒﺨﻴﺮ ﺷــﺪ ﻥ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﺛﺎﺑــﺖ ﺑﺎﻗﻰ ﻣﻴﻤﺎﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻴﻜﻪ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻛﺎﻣ ً‬
‫ﻼ ﺗﺒﺨﻴﺮ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺭﺕ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﻣﻴﺮﻭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺗﺤﻘﻴــﻖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴــﺪ ﻛﻪ ﭼﺮﺍ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺛﺮ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺫﻭﺏ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ؟ ﭼﺮﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺛﺮ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﻭﻳﺎﮔﺎﺯ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ ؟ ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 16 – 6‬ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺏ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬
‫ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺫﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻭﻏﻠﻴﺎﻥ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻓﺸﺎﺭﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻭﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﮔﺮﺍﻑ‬
‫ﺫﻳﻞ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻭﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺁﺏ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻰ ﺩﻫﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ (17 - 6‬ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘﮕﻰ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺁﺏ ﺑﺎ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ : 7 - 1- 2- 6‬ﺍﻧﺠﻤﺎﺩ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻴﻜﻪ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﮔﺮﻣﺎ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷﻮﺩ ؛ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺣﺮﻛﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻛﻢ ﺷﺪﻩ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﺣــﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺁﻣﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻵﺧﺮﻩ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻠﻮﺭ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻧﺠﻤﺎﺩ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻓﺎﺯ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻳﻊ‬ ‫ﺟﺎﻣﺪ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺿﺢ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﮔﺮ ﮔﺮﻣﺎ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺳﻤﺖ ﭘﺮﻭﺳﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳﺖ ﺍﺩﺍﻣﻪ‬
‫ﭘﻴــﺪﺍ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺣﺎﻟــﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺠﻤﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﺎﻣﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﮔﺮﻣﺎ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷــﻮﺩ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﭘﺮﻭﺳــﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﺍﺩﺍﻣﻪ ﭘﻴﺪﺍ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﭘﺮﻭﺳــﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺫﻭﺏ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻧﺎﻣﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺳــﺮﻋﺖ ﺍﻧﺠﻤﺎﺩ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﺫﻭﺏ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﺭﻳﻜﻪ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﻧﻪ ﮔﺮﻣﺎ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻭﻧﻪ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﭼﻮﻥ ﭘﺮﻭﺳــﺔ ﺭﻓﺖ ﻭﺑﺎﺯﮔﺸﺖ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺳﻴﺴــﺘﻢ ﺩﺭ ﻋﻴﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﻣﻰ ﺍﻓﺘﺪ ؛‬
‫ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺫﻭﺏ ﻭﺍﻧﺠﻤﺎﺩ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﺧﺎﻟﺺ ﻳﻜﺴﺎﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺍﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻤﺎً ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺼﻌﻴﺪ)‪(Sublimation‬‬
‫ﻳــﺎﺩ ﻣــﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻭﮔﺎﺯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﭼﻮﻥ ﻗﻮﺓ‬
‫ﻛﺸﺶ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻗﻮﻯ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺗﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻭ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ‬
‫ﺗﻌــﺎﺩﻝ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ ﻛــﻢ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻭ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺷــﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺟﺎﻣﺪ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕــﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﭘﺪﻳﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺒﺮﻳﺪ )‪ (Depostion‬ﻣﻰ ﻧﺎﻣﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺷــﺮﺍﻳﻂ‬
‫ﻋــﺎﺩﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻳﻘــﺔ ﺗﺼﻌﻴﺪ ﻭ ﺗﺒﺮﻳﺪ ﺧﺎﻟﺺ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺍﻧﺮﺍ ﻣــﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﻭ ﻧﻔﺘﺎﻟﻴﻦ ) ‪ (C10 H 8‬ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ‬
‫ﻛﺮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺻــﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻡ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﺮﺍﻳﻂ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧــﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺳــﻪ ﺣﺎﻟــﺖ )ﺟﺎﻣﺪ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻳــﻊ‪ ،‬ﮔﺎﺯ(‬
‫ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﺷــﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳــﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﻜﺮ ﺷﻴﻤﺎﻯ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺭﺍﺋﻪ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 20 – 6‬ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﺳﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ‬
‫‪152‬‬
 ‫‪: 3 -6‬ﮔـﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫‪ : 1 - 3 - 6‬ﺻﻔﺎﺕ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﺓ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺸــﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﺸــﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎ ﺍﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﻣﻴﺴــﺮ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﺩ ﺗﺎ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺍﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ﻭ ﺑﻌﺪﺍ ً ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻴﻢ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﻭ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻳﺪ ﻳﺎﻝ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺑﻌﻀﻲ ﻣﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ‪) .‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻧﺒﺎﺷﺪ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭﺍﺭﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻧﻴﺰ‬
‫ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ( ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﻓﻜﺘﻮﺭ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﮔﺎﺯﻱ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ‬
‫ﺳــﺎﺩﻩ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻛﺮﺩ ؛ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺎ ﺍﻭﻻً ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺗﺎ ﻓﻜﺘﻮﺭﻫﺎﻱ ﺭﺍ ﻣــﻮﺭﺩ ﺑﺤﺚ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﻫﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺣﺠﻢ ‪ ،‬ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﻓﻜﺘﻮﺭﻫﺎﻱ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺒﺎﺣﺚ ﺑﻌﺪﻱ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻛﻤﻚ ﺷﺎﻳﺎﻧﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﺁﺯﻣﺎﻳﺸﻲ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﺠﻢ‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺁﻧﻲ ﻣﻨﺒﺴــﻂ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻇﺮﻑ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﭘﺮ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﭘﺲ ﺣﺠﻢ‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻣــﺎً ﻣﻌﺎﺩ ﻝ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻇﺮﻑ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺳــﺖ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺍﻣﺮﻭﺯ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻱ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﮔﻴﺮﻱ ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﻪ ﺳﻴﺴــﺘﻢ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻠﻲ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﭼﻮﻥ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺳﻴﺴــﺘﻢ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻠﻲ )‪ (SI‬ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﻣﺘﺮ )‪ (m‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺑﻨﺎ ًء ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺩﺭ )‪ (SI‬ﻣﺘﺮ ﻣﻜﻌﺐ ) ‪( m‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻋﻤﺪﺗﺎً ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺣﺠﻢ ‪) decm3‬ﺩﻳﺴﻲ ﻣﺘﺮ ﻣﻜﻌﺐ( ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺏ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺩﻳﺴــﻲ ﻣﺘﺮ ﻣﻜﻌﺐ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧــﺎﻡ ﻟﻴﺘﺮ )‪ (Liter‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﮔﻴــﺮﻱ ﺍﺣﺠﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺟﺰﺍ ﻭ‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫ﺍﺿﻌﺎﻑ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻋﻤﺪ ﺗﺎ"ً ‪ cm‬ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ‪ cc = 1cm 3 = mL‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﺸﺎﺭ‬
‫ﻗﻮﻩ ﻭﺍﺭﺩﻩ ﻓﻲ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺳﻄﺢ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫‪F‬‬
‫=‪P‬‬
‫‪S‬‬
‫ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺩﺭ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ‪ cgs‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ‪ MKS, Bary‬ﭘﺎﺳﻜﺎﻝ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ‪ FPS‬ﭘﻮﻧﺪ )‪ (Lb‬ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺑﺮ‬
‫‪ In 2‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ‪ 1atm = 14.7lb / In2‬ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﭘﻴﺴﻲ ‪ Psi‬ﻧﻴﺰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪−2‬‬
‫‪ 1atm = 14.7 Lb ⋅ Inch = Psi = 760mmHg‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﺍﺗﻤﻮﺳﻔﻴﺮ‬
‫‪1atm = 760mm hg = 760torr‬‬ ‫ﻭ ﻣﻠﻲ ﻣﺘﺮﺳﺘﻮﻥ ﺳﻴﻤﺎﺏ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪1atm = 14.1b / inch 2 = PSi = 101.3Kpa‬‬
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 ‫ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﮔﺎﺯﻱ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻡ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻮﻝ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ )‪ (n‬ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻘﺴــﻴﻢ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻥ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻣــﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺑﺮ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻲ ﻳﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻲ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ‬
‫‪m‬‬ ‫ﺩﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ‪:‬‬
‫=‪n‬‬
‫‪M‬‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﻟﻮﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻛﺎﻟﻮﻳﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‬
‫ﻣﻄﻠﻘﻪ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪:‬‬
‫‪TK = 0C + 273‬‬
‫‪ : 2- 3– 6‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺑﺎﻳﻞ )‪Boyls Law‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 1662‬ﻡ ﺭﺍﺑﺮﺕ ﺑﺎﻳﻞ ﻭ ﺁﺩﺍﻡ ﻣﺎﺭﻳﻮﺕ ﺩﻭ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﺪﺍﻥ ﻓﺮﺍﻧﺴــﻮﻱ ﻣﺴــﺘﻘﻞ ﺍﺯ ﻫﺮﺩﻳﮕﺮ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻭ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ )‪ (T= constant‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺁﻥ‪ ،‬ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺳــﺎً ﻣﺘﻨﺎﺳــﺐ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪V ≈ 1 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −1‬‬
‫‪P‬‬
‫ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻱ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺍﺯ ﺩﺳﺘﮕﺎﻫﻲ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻤﻮﻧﺔ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺩﺭ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﺗﺤﺘﺎﻧﻲ ﺑﺴﺘﻪ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﺎﻧﻮ ﻣﺘﺮ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺩﺍﺭ ﻗﺮﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ‪ .‬ﺑﺎ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻥ ﺳﻴﻤﺎﺏ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﺯ ﻣﺎﻧﻮ ﻣﺘﺮ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﮔﺎﺯ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﺩﺍﺩ ﻭﺑﺎ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﮔﻴﺮﻱ ﻛﺮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫‪Patm‬‬
‫‪Pgas‬‬
‫‪PHg‬‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯ‬
‫‪Hg‬‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ‪:‬‬
‫)‪ (21-6‬ﻣﺎﻧﻮﻣﺘﺮ ﺳﺮﺑﺎﺯ ﺑﺎ ﮔﮔﺎﺯ ﺭﻭ ﻦ‬
‫ﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬ ‫ﺷﻜﻞ ‪(21‬‬
‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬
‫ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﺪ‬
‫ﻧﺘﺎﻳــﺞ ﻳﻚ ﻋﺪﻩ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﮔﻴﺮﻱ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ‪ -‬ﺣﺠــﻢ ﮔﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎ‬
‫‪154‬‬
 ‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ)‪ (1 – 6‬ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪25° C‬‬
‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺏ‬ ‫ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ‪mm Hg‬‬ ‫ﺣﺠﻢ ‪ml‬‬ ‫ﺣﺠﻢ ﺿﺮﺏ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ‬
‫‪I‬‬ ‫‪mm Hg 760‬‬ ‫‪ml 25‬‬ ‫‪1.75 ⋅ 10 2‬‬
‫‪II‬‬ ‫‪mm Hg 830‬‬ ‫‪ml 21.1‬‬ ‫‪1.75 ⋅ 10 2‬‬
‫‪III‬‬ ‫‪mm Hg 890‬‬ ‫‪ml 19.7‬‬ ‫‪1.75 ⋅ 10 2‬‬
‫‪IV‬‬ ‫‪1060mm Hg‬‬ ‫‪ml 16.5‬‬ ‫‪1.75 ⋅ 10 2‬‬
‫‪V‬‬ ‫‪1240mm Hg‬‬ ‫‪ml 14.1‬‬ ‫‪1.75 ⋅ 10 2‬‬
‫‪VI‬‬ ‫‪1510mm Hg‬‬ ‫‪ml 11.6‬‬ ‫‪1.75 ⋅ 10 2‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﺘﺎﻳﺞ ﺩﻭ ﻧﻜﺘﻪ ﻣﻬﻢ ﻧﻬﻔﺘﻪ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ :‬ﺍﻭﻝ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻛﻢ ﺷﺪﻩ‬
‫ﻭ ﺩﻭﻡ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺍﺯﺩ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻭ ﺗﻨﻘﻴﺺ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻃﻮﺭﻱ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺿﺮﺏ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻭ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﺎﻗﻲ‬
‫ﻣــﻲ ﻣﺎﻧﺪ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﻜﺘﻮﺭ )‪ (PV‬ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺑﺎﻳﻞ ﻭ ﻣﺎﺭﻳﻮﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺟﻠﺐ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪PV = K − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 2‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻓﻮﻕ ‪ P‬ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ‪ V‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻭ ‪ K‬ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ‪ I‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭﻣﻜﻤﻞ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻛﺮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫‪T= Constant ، n= Constant‬‬
‫‪PV = K − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 3‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ‪ 1‬ﻭ ‪ 2‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺑﺎﻳﻞ ﻭ ﻣﺎﺭﻳﻮﺕ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ :‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ‬
‫‪K‬‬ ‫ﻛﺮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫=‪V‬‬ ‫‪− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −4‬‬
‫‪P‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺧﻼﺻﻪ ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺳﺎً‬
‫ﻣﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻳﻚ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺁﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ ﺩﺭ ﺩﺳﺘﮕﺎﻩ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺭﻩ ﮔﻴﺮﻱ ﺑﺎﻳﻞ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪ ،‬ﻃـــــــــــﻮﺭﻳﻜﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ‬
‫‪ 625Hg mm‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﺁﻥ‪ 247mL‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺑﻪ ‪ 825Hg mm‬ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ‬
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 ‫ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ)‪.( T= Constant‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ ‪ :‬ﻃﺒﻖ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺑﺎﻳﻞ ‪ P2 V2 = K, P1 V1 = K‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﭘﺲ ‪ P1 V1 = P2 V2‬ﺷــﺪﻩ‬
‫ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪V1 P2‬‬
‫‪V1 = 247mL‬‬ ‫=‬
‫‪V2 P1‬‬
‫‪V1 P1‬‬
‫‪P1 = 625mmHg‬‬ ‫= ‪V2‬‬
‫‪P2‬‬
‫‪P2 = 825mmHg‬‬
‫‪247mL ⋅ 265mmHg‬‬
‫? = ‪V1‬‬ ‫= ‪V2‬‬ ‫‪= 187mL‬‬
‫‪825mmHg‬‬
‫ﻣﺸﻖ ﻭ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸـــــــﺎﺭ ‪ atm 1.23‬ﺣﺠـــﻢ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺁﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ ‪ 4.63‬ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ﺍﺳـــــــﺖ ﺩﺭ ﺻـــﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ‬
‫ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ‪ 4.14 ⋅10 atm‬ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪. (T= constant) .‬‬
‫‪−2‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ‪ K, PV = K‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﺎﻳﻞ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺛﺎﻳﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﺳﺘﻨﺪﺭﺩ ﺑﻪ ‪ atm ⋅ L, mmHg⋅ L, pa ⋅ m3‬ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 3- 3 – 6‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﭼﺎﺭﻟﺲ )ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ(‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ‪ 1787‬ﻡ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﺪﺍﻥ ﻓﺮﺍﻧﺴﻮﻱ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺝ ‪ .‬ﭼﺎﺭﻟﺲ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺣــﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻭ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓــﺖ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ‬
‫ﺛﺎﺑــﺖ )‪ (P=con‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭﺍﺭﺩﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﺯ ‪ 00 C‬ﺍﻟﻲ ‪ 80 0C‬ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺩﻫﻴﻢ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ‪ 1806‬ﺗﺎ ‪ 1808‬ﮔﻴﻠﻮ ﺳﮓ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺴــﺖ ﻓﻬﺮﺳــﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﭼﺎﺭﻟﺲ ﺭﺍ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ﻭ ﺿﻤﻨﺎً ﻧﺎﻡ ﺑﺮﺩﻩ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ‬
‫ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻳﻚ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺳــﺎﻧﺘﻲ ﮔﺮﺍﺩ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﻫﺮ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺳــﺎﻧﺘﻰ ﮔــﺮﺍﺩ ﺣﺠــــﻢ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪ 1:237‬ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺒﺴــﺎﻁ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﻧﺘﺎﻳﺞ ﺳــﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺎﺕ ﭼﺎﺭﻟﺲ ﻭ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﺳﻚ ﺩﺭ ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﺷﻜﻞ‬
‫)‪ (21 - 6‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺳﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﮔﺮ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﻭﺍﺑﺴــﺘﮕﻲ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﺩﺍﻣﻪ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷــﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺤﻮﺭ ﺍﻓﻘﻲ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺭﺍ‬
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‫ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ‪ V= 0‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻗﻄﻊ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪ .‬ﺍﺯ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻪ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺫﻛﺮ ﺷﺪﻩ‬
‫ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺗﻨﺰﻳﻞ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻪ ‪ (00C ) − 2730 C‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺻﻔﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻇﺎﻫﺮﺍ ً ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ − 2730 C‬ﮔﺎﺯ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﺟﺮﺍ ﺷــﺪﺓ ﻻﺯﻣﺔ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‪ ،‬ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﮔﻴﺮﻱ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺭﺳﻢ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺍﻓﻴﻜﻲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﻣﺴــﺘﻘﻴﻤﻲ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻭﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎً ﻣﺤﻮﺭ ﺍﻓﻘﻲ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ‬
‫ﻣﻌﻴــﻦ ) ‪ (−2730 C‬ﻗﻄﻊ ﻣــﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﭼﻮﻥ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻛﻤﺘــﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺻﻔﺮ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺑــﻮﺩﻩ ﻧﻤﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﭘﺲ‬
‫ﺣــﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻛﻤﺘﺮﻳﻦ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳــﺒﺐ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺻﻔﺮ ﻣﻄﻠﻖ ﻗﺒــﻮﻝ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ )ﺭﻗﻢ ﺩﻗﻴﻖ ﺁﻥ‬
‫) ‪ (−273.150 C‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻲ ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ)ﺷﻜﻞ)‪ (21 – 6‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺍﺯ ‪:‬‬
‫‪V = a (t + 273) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −1‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩ ﻟﺔ ﻳﻚ ‪ V‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪ T‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻪ ‪ 0C‬ﻭ ‪ a‬ﻣﻴﻞ ﺧﻂ ﻣﺴــﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ .‬ﭼﻮﻥ‬
‫ﻛﻜﺮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪V/T = a (n. p)……………………………………….……. II‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ (6 - 21‬ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻭﺣﺮﺍﺭ ﺕ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ )‪ (P=constant‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻤﺄ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﻗﻀﻴﺔ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﻟﺲ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﺳﻚ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
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‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪ V1‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ؛ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭﺍﺭﺩﻩ ﺍﻭﻟﻲ‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ‪ T1‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻪ ‪ T2‬ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪ V2‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ؛ ﺑﺪﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ ‪:‬‬
‫‪V = KT − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 3‬‬
‫‪V2‬‬
‫‪= K−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−4‬‬
‫‪T‬‬
‫‪V1‬‬
‫‪= K−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−5‬‬
‫‪T1‬‬
‫‪V2‬‬
‫‪= K−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−6‬‬
‫‪T2‬‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ‪ 5‬ﻭ ‪ 6‬ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ‬
‫‪V1 V2‬‬
‫=‬
‫‪T1 T2‬‬
‫‪V1 T1‬‬
‫‪= −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−7‬‬
‫‪V2 T2‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻳﻚ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺍﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ ﺩﺭ ‪ 250 C‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ‪ 1.28L‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻪ ‪ 50 0C‬ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ؟ ) ﺩﺭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ(‬
‫ﺣﻞ‪:‬‬
‫‪V1 = 1.28Li‬‬
‫‪V1 T1‬‬
‫‪T1 = 250 C‬‬ ‫=‬
‫‪V2 T2‬‬
‫‪V T 1.28L ⋅ 323K‬‬
‫‪T2 = 500 C‬‬ ‫= ‪V2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫=‬ ‫‪= 1.39L‬‬
‫‪T1‬‬ ‫‪298K‬‬
‫? = ‪V2‬‬
‫‪158‬‬
 ‫ﻓﻜﺮ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 27 C‬ﻳﻚ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺁﻳﺪ ﻳﺎﻝ ‪ 128cm3‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺑﻪ ‪ 214cm3‬ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭﺍﺭﺩﻩ ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ؟‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 250 C‬ﻭ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ‪ 1atm‬ﻳﻚ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺍﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ ‪ 2.65L‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﻫﻤﺰﻣﺎﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 750 C‬ﻭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺑﻪ ‪ 2atm‬ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺑﺮﻭﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺣﺠﻢ‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ؟‬
‫ﺣﻞ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺑﺎﻳﻞ ) ‪ n‬ﻭ ‪ T‬ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ) ‪1 :‬‬
‫≈‪V‬‬
‫‪P‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﭼﺎﺭﻟﺲ )‪ n‬ﻭ ‪ p‬ﺛﺎﺑﺖ(‪:‬‬
‫‪V ≈T‬‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺑﺎﻳﻞ ﻭ ﭼﺎﺭﻟﺲ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ‬
‫‪CT‬‬
‫=‪V‬‬ ‫)‪ n‬ﺛﺎﺑﺖ(‬
‫‪P‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺟﺎ ‪ C‬ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺗﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﺍﺕ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ؛ﭘﺲ‪:‬‬
‫‪PV‬‬
‫‪=C‬‬
‫‪T‬‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄــﺔ ﻓــﻮﻕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧــﺎﻡ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻳــﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻲ ﺗــﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ‬
‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻛﺮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫‪P1V1‬‬
‫‪=C‬‬
‫‪T1‬‬
‫‪P2 V2‬‬ ‫‪P1V1T2 1atm ⋅ 2.65L ⋅ 348K‬‬
‫‪=C‬‬ ‫= ‪V2‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 1.55L‬‬
‫‪T2‬‬ ‫‪P2 T1‬‬ ‫‪2atm ⋅ 298K‬‬
‫‪P1V1 P2 V2‬‬
‫=‬
‫‪T1‬‬ ‫‪T2‬‬
‫‪ : 4 - 3- 6‬ﺍﺻﻞ ﺍ ﻭﮔﺪ ﺭﻭ‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻗﻀﻴﺔ ﮔﻴﻠﻮﺳﻚ‪ :‬ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻫﺎﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ ﺗﺤﺖ‬
‫ﻋﻴﻦ ﺷــﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺗﺎﻡ ﻭ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺍﺳــﺖ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫‪159‬‬
‫ﺗﺤﺖ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪ ،‬ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﻭ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ‪ 1:3‬ﻭ ﻫﻤﭽﻨﺎﻥ ﺑﺮﻋﻜﺲ ﺁﻥ ‪ H 2 : N 2 = 3 : 1‬ﺍﺳﺖ؛ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ‪:‬‬
‫⎯⎯ ‪3H 2 + N 2‬‬ ‫‪⎯→ 2 NH 3‬‬
‫⎯⎯ ﻳﻚ ﺣﺠﻢ ‪ +‬ﺳﻪ‬
‫ﺩﻭ ﺣﺠﻢ →⎯‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺳــﺆﺍﻝ ﻣﻄﺮﺡ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ‪ :‬ﭼﺮﺍ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻫﺎ ﺩ ﻗﻴﻘﺎً ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺭﺍﺑﻂ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻱ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ؟‬
‫ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﻃﻮﺭﻱ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻋﻴﻦ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ‬
‫ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻱ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳــﺖ )ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺍﻭﮔﺪ ﺭﻭ(‪ .‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﺕ )ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺍﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ( ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻋﻴﻦ ﺷــﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺣﺠﻢ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪) .‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺩﻭﻡ ﺍﻭﮔﺪ ﺭﻭ(‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺍﺻﻞ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺴــﺘﻘﻴﻤﺎً ﻣﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪T=constant‬‬
‫‪P=constant‬‬
‫‪V ≈ n − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −1‬‬
‫‪n‬‬
‫‪= K − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −2‬‬
‫‪V‬‬
‫ﻣﺸﻖ ﻭ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻟﻰ ‪ 3.011⋅1023‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺷــﺮﺍﻳﻂ ‪ STP‬ﭼﻨﺪ‬
‫ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ؟‬
‫ﺏ – ﺣﺠﻢ ﻣﻮﻟﻰ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟ ﺑﺎﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻣﻮﻟﻰ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﺳــﺘﻨﺪﺭﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﻣﻮﻟﻰ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻤﻮﺳﻔﻴﺮ ﻭﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 1270C‬ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 5- 3 -6‬ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺑﺎﻳﻞ‪ ،‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﭼﺎﺭﻟﺲ ﻭ ﺍﺻﻞ ﺍﻭﻛﺪﺭﻭ ﻫﺮ ﺳﻪ ﺑﻴﺎﻥ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺗﻨﺎﺳﺒﻰ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻳﺪ ﻳﺎﻝ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻒ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺗﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻱ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺭﺍ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺧﻼﺻﻪ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ ‪:‬‬
‫‪160‬‬
 ‫‪1‬‬
‫≈ ‪) V‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺑﺎﻳﻞ (‬ ‫) ‪ n‬ﻭ ‪ T‬ﺛﺎﺑﺖ (‬
‫‪P‬‬
‫‪) V ≈ T‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﭼﺎﺭﻟﺲ (‬ ‫) ‪ n‬ﻭ ‪ P‬ﺛﺎﺑﺖ (‬
‫‪) V ≈ n‬ﺍﺻﻞ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ (‬ ‫) ‪ P‬ﻭ ‪ T‬ﺛﺎﺑﺖ (‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﻪ ﺗﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ‪:‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫≈‪V‬‬ ‫‪nT − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −3‬‬
‫‪P‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮﺗﻨﺎﺳــﺐ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ‪ 3‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﺍﺕ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪R ،‬ﺭﺍﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪،‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳﺖ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻠﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ‪:‬‬
‫‪V = RTn‬‬
‫‪P‬‬
‫‪nRT‬‬
‫=‪V‬‬
‫‪P‬‬
‫‪PV = nRT − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 4‬‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄــﺔ ‪ 4‬ﺭﺍﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔﻋﻤﻮﻣﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺁﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ ﻳﺎﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ R‬ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺣﺠﻢ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭﻓﺸﺎﺭﻭﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻧﻈﺮﺑﻪ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﮔﺎﺯﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﺁﻥ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻣﺎﺩﺭﺷــﺮﺍﻳﻂ‪ STP‬ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺮﮔﺎﺯ ‪ 22.4L‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﺭﺍﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﮔﺮﻗﻴﻤﺖ‬
‫ﻫــﺎﻱ ‪ n,T,P‬ﻭ ‪ V‬ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺁﻳﺪ ﻳﺎﻝ ﺩﺭﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻲ ﺣﺎﻟــﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻠﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻱ‬
‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ‪ R‬ﻧﻈﺮﺑﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻱ ﭘﺎﺭﺍ ﻣﺘﺮﻫﺎﻱ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺮ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫‪T = 00 C = 273K‬‬ ‫‪P V = nRT‬‬
‫‪PV‬‬
‫‪P = 1atm = 101.3kPa‬‬ ‫=‪R‬‬
‫‪nT‬‬
‫‪101.3kPa⋅ 22.4⋅10−3 m 3‬‬ ‫‪joul‬‬
‫‪n = 1mol‬‬ ‫=‪R‬‬ ‫‪= 8.31‬‬
‫‪1mol⋅ 273K‬‬ ‫‪mol⋅ K‬‬
‫‪V = 22.4L = 10−3 m 3‬‬
‫?= ‪R‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ‪ 0.432atm‬ﻳﻚ ﮔﺎﺯﺁﻳﺪ ﻳﺎﻝ ‪ .8.64Li‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﺭﺍﺍﺷــﻌﺎﻝ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﺁﻥ‬
‫‪ 0,176‬ﻣﻮﻝ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭﺍﺭﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺭﺍﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎ ﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪161‬‬
 ‫ﺣﻞ ‪:‬‬
‫?=‪T‬‬ ‫‪P V = nRT‬‬
‫‪P = 0.432‬‬
‫‪PV‬‬ ‫‪0.432atm‬‬‫‪m⋅ 8.64⋅10−3 m 3‬‬
‫‪n = 0.176mol‬‬ ‫=‪T‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 258K‬‬
‫‪nR o.176moll⋅ 0.0802atm‬‬‫‪m⋅ moll−1K −1‬‬
‫‪V = 8.64L = 8.64⋅10−3 m 3‬‬
‫‪m⋅ moll−1 ⋅ K −1‬‬
‫‪R = 0.0802atm‬‬
‫ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺁﺯﻣﺎﻳﺶ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫‪ 5 g‬ﮔﺎﺯﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ‪ 6L‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﺭﺍﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﻓﺸﺎﺭﻭﺍﺭﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭﭼﻘﺪﺭﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪﺑﻮﺩ ؟‬
‫ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻮﻟﻰ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺗﻘﺴــﻴﻢ ﺑﺮ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺩﺭ ﺷــﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﺳــﺘﻨﺪﺭﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻮﻟﻰ‬
‫) ‪m(mol‬‬ ‫ﮔﺎﺯ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫= ‪Dmol‬‬
‫‪VSTP‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ 5 g‬ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 220C‬ﻭﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻤﻮﺳﻔﻴﺮ ‪ 61.5‬ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ .‬ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ‬
‫ﻣﻮﻟﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ‪:‬‬
‫) ‪m(mol‬‬ ‫‪5g‬‬
‫= ‪Dmol‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 0.0813 g / L‬‬
‫‪VSTP‬‬ ‫‪61.5 L‬‬
‫‪m‬‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ = ‪ n‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ n‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ‪ P V = nRT‬ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻠﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ﺩﺍﺭﻳﻢ ﻛﻪ ‪:‬‬
‫‪M‬‬
‫‪m‬‬ ‫‪m‬‬
‫= ‪ P M‬ﻳــﺎ‬ ‫‪RT‬‬ ‫ﻳــﺎ‬ ‫= ‪PV‬‬ ‫‪RT‬‬ ‫ﻳــﺎ‬ ‫‪P V = nRT‬‬
‫‪V‬‬ ‫‪M‬‬
‫‪P M = dRT‬‬
‫‪PM‬‬
‫=‪d‬‬
‫‪RT‬‬
‫‪162‬‬
 ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻛﺜﺎﻓــﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 320 K‬ﻭ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ‪ 2.5atm‬ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓــﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ‪ 32amu‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ ‪:‬‬
‫‪PM‬‬
‫=‪d‬‬
‫‪RT‬‬
‫‪2.5atm ⋅ 32 g ⋅ mol −1‬‬
‫=‪d‬‬ ‫‪= 2.79 g ⋅L −1‬‬
‫‪0.082L ⋅ atm ⋅ mol −1⋅K −1⋅350K‬‬
‫ﻣﺸﻖ ﻭ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻤﻮﻧﺔ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 300K‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 2.0 g / L‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪،‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 28 g / mol‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 6 – 3- 6‬ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻣﻮﻟﻲ ﻳﻚ ﮔﺎﺯﺁﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ ﺩﺭﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ‪STP‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﺎﺳــﺒﺎﺕ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺁﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ ﺩﺭﺷــﺮﺍﻳﻂ ‪ STP‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ‬
‫‪ 22.4L‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪PV = nRT‬‬
‫‪nRT 1mol ⋅ 0.0802 atm ⋅ mol −1 ⋅ K −1 ⋅ 273K‬‬
‫=‪V‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 22.4 L‬‬
‫‪P‬‬ ‫‪1atm‬‬
‫‪V = 22.4 L‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺩﺭ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ‪ STP‬ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺮﮔﺎﺯ‪ 22.4L‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻌﺎﻝ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 7 - 3 -6‬ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻲ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻲ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻭ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻲ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ‬
‫ﻛﺮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪PV = nRT − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −1‬‬
‫‪m‬‬
‫=‪n‬‬ ‫‪− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −2‬‬
‫‪M‬‬
‫‪m‬‬ ‫‪mRT‬‬
‫= ‪PV‬‬ ‫‪RT‬‬ ‫=‪M‬‬
‫‪M‬‬ ‫‪PV‬‬
‫‪163‬‬
 ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻓﺎﺳﻔﻴﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 50 0 C‬ﻭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ‪ 727mm Hg‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺑﻪ ‪g/ 1.26‬‬
‫‪L‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺁﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻲ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ‪:‬‬
‫‪mRT‬‬
‫‪P = 727mmHg‬‬ ‫=‪M‬‬
‫‪PV‬‬
‫‪1.26 g ⋅ 62.36mmHg ⋅ mol −1 ⋅ K −1 ⋅ 323K‬‬
‫‪m = 1,26 g‬‬ ‫=‪M‬‬
‫‪727mmHg ⋅10−3 m 3‬‬
‫‪V = 1L = 10−3 m 3‬‬ ‫‪M = 34 g / mol‬‬
‫‪T = 500 C = 323K‬‬
‫‪R = 62,36mmHg ⋅ mol −1 ⋅ K −1‬‬
‫?= ‪M‬‬
‫ﻣﺸﻖ ﻭﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺻﻔﺮ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺳﺎﻧﺘﻲ ﮔﺮﺍﺩ ﻭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ‪ 0,1M Pa‬ﻳﻚ ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻣﺸﺒﻮﻉ‬
‫‪ 1.96g‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻲ ﻭ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 8 – 3- 6‬ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ )ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻗﺴﻤﻲ ﻳﺎ ﺟﺰﻳﻲ ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ(‬
‫ﺟﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 1801‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻳﻚ ﺳﻠﺴــﻠﻪ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﻋﻤﻠﻲ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﮔﺮﻓﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺭﺩﻩ ﺑــﺎﻻﻱ ﺟﺪﺍﺭ ﻇﺮﻑ ﭘــﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻭﺍﺭﺩﻩ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﺟﺰﺍﻱ ﻣﺘﺸــﻜﻠﺔ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﮔﺎﺯﻱ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﻳﻦ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﮔﺎﺯﻱ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻱ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺟﻤﻊ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﮔﺮ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺟﺰﺍﻱ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﻇﺮﻑ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺗﻨﻬﺎﻳﻲ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻛﻨﺪ ﻭ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﺩ ﻳﻮﺍﺭ ﻇﺮﻑ ﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ .‬ﭘﺲ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﻱ‬
‫ﺟﺰﻳﻲ ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﮔﻔﺖ‪ :‬ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻲ ﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﮔﺎﺯﻱ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺟﻤﻊ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺟﺰﻳﻲ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺟﺰﺍﻱ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺟﺰﻳﻲ ﻳﺎ ﻗﺴﻤﻲ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﻃﻮﺭﻱ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ‪ :‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﻳﻚ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻨﻬﺎﻳﻲ ﻇﺮﻑ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ‪،‬‬
‫ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺟﺰﻳﻲ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮ ﺩﻳﻮﺍﺭ ﻇﺮﻑ ﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﻛﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺟﺰﻳﻲ ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ ﻭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻲ‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺍﮔﺮﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺟﺰﻳﻰ ﻫﻴﻠﻴﻢ ‪ 100mm Hg‬ﻭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ‬
‫ﺟﺰﻳﻲ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ‪ 300mm Hg‬ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻲ ﻳﺎ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻛﻠﻰ ‪400mm Hg‬‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﻫﺎﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺟﺰﻳﻲ ﺩﺍﻟﺘــﻦ ﭘﻴﺮﻭﻱ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻭ‬
‫‪164‬‬
 ‫ﺷﺮﻁ ﺍ ﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻴﻜﻨﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ (22 - 6‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻗﺴﻤﻲ ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ) ‪ (PV = n RT‬ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻛﻠﻰ ﻭ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﻱ‬
‫ﺟﺰﻳﻲ ﻫﺮ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺪﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪n RT‬‬
‫‪PTotal = Total‬‬ ‫‪− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −1‬‬
‫‪V‬‬
‫‪ P = ni RT − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 2‬ﻓﺸﺎﺭﺟﺮﻳﻲ‬
‫‪i‬‬
‫‪V‬‬
‫‪n i RT‬‬
‫‪Pi‬‬ ‫‪V‬‬ ‫‪n RT‬‬
‫=‬ ‫‪= i‬‬ ‫‪−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−3‬‬
‫‪P‬‬‫‪Total‬‬
‫‪n RT n Total RT‬‬
‫‪Total‬‬
‫‪V‬‬
‫‪Pi‬‬ ‫‪n‬‬
‫‪= i −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−4‬‬
‫‪PTotal n Total‬‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻣﻮﻟﻲ ﻳﻚ ﺟﺰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺑﺮ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺍﺟﺰﺍﻱ ﻣﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻱ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻛﺴﺮ ﻣﻮﻟﻲ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ,‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﻛﺴﺮ ﻣﻮﻟﻲ ﻳﻚ ﺟﺰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ‪ X i‬ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺩﺍﺭﻳﻢ ﻛﻪ‪:‬‬
‫‪Pi‬‬
‫‪= Xi − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −5‬‬
‫‪PTotal‬‬
‫‪Pi = PTotal ⋅ X i − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −6‬‬
‫‪165‬‬
 ‫ﻣﺜـﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻳﻚ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫــﺎﻱ ‪ N 2 ,O2‬ﻭ ‪ H 2‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻳﻚ ﺑﺎﻟﻮﻥ ‪ 10‬ﻟﻴﺘﺮﻩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﮔﺎﺯﻫــﺎﻯ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﺯ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻳﺪ ﻳﺎﻝ ﺑــﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫‪ 1250 C‬ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻛﻠﻰ ﻳﺎ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻲ ) ‪ ( Total‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪) .‬ﺑﻪ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ‪atm‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ(‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ‪:‬‬
‫‪mH 2‬‬ ‫‪1g‬‬
‫= ‪nH 2‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 0.5mol‬‬
‫‪M‬‬ ‫‪2 g / mol‬‬
‫‪mO2‬‬ ‫‪1g‬‬
‫= ‪nO2‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 0.0313mol‬‬
‫‪M‬‬ ‫‪16 g / mol‬‬
‫‪mN‬‬ ‫‪1g‬‬
‫= ‪nN 2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫=‬ ‫‪= 0.0357 mol‬‬
‫‪M‬‬ ‫‪14 g / mol‬‬
‫‪nRT 0.5mol ⋅ 0.082atm ⋅ L ⋅ 398 K‬‬
‫= ‪PH 2‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 1.63atm‬‬
‫‪V‬‬ ‫‪10 L ⋅ mol ⋅ K‬‬
‫‪nRT 0.0313mol ⋅ 0.`082atm ⋅ L ⋅ mol −1 ⋅ K ⋅ 398 K‬‬
‫= ‪PO2‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 0.102atm‬‬
‫‪V‬‬ ‫‪10 L‬‬
‫‪n RT 0.0357 mol ⋅ 0.082 atm ⋅ L ⋅ mol −1 ⋅ K −1 ⋅ 398 K‬‬
‫‪nN 2 = 2‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 0.117 atm‬‬
‫‪N‬‬
‫‪V‬‬ ‫‪10 L‬‬
‫‪PTotal = PO2 + PH 2 + PN 2 = 1.63atm + 0.0102 atm + 0.117 atm = 1.85atm‬‬
‫‪Ptotal = 1.63atm ⋅ mol ⋅ K‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻡ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻛﻞ ﺳﻴﺴــﺘﻢ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻧﻴﺰ‬
‫‪nTotal RT‬‬ ‫ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫= ‪PTotal‬‬
‫‪V‬‬
‫‪ : 9 – 3- 6‬ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﮔﺮﺍﻫﺎﻡ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﻭ ﻧﻔﻮﺫ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺗﻮﻣﺎﺱ ﮔﺮﺍﻫﺎﻡ )‪ ( Tomas Graham‬ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻧﮕﻠﻴﺴــﻲ ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 1829‬ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﻻﺯﻣﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺳــﺮﻋﺖ ﺍﻧﺘﺸــﺎﺭ )‪ (Diffusion‬ﻭ ﻧﻔﻮﺫ )‪ (Effusion‬ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﺩﺍﺩ‪ .‬ﺍﻧﺘﺸــﺎﺭ‬
‫‪166‬‬
‫ﺍﺻﻄﻼﺣﻲ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺗﻮﺩﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﻣﻲ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻴﻜﻪ ﻏﺬﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻝ ﭘﺨﺘﻦ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻇﺮﻑ ﭘﺨﺘﻦ ﻏﺬﺍ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ‬
‫ﻣﺎﺣﻮﻝ ﭘﺨﺶ ﻭ ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺣﺲ ﺷﺎﻣﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺑﻮﻱ ﻋﺬﺍ ﺭﺍ ﺣﺲ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ‪.‬‬
‫ﮔﺮﺍﻫﺎﻡ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ‪ :‬ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﻧﻔﻮﺫ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﮔﺎﺯﻱ ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺳﺎً ﻣﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺬﺭ‬
‫ﻣﺮﺑﻊ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪ V = K − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 1‬ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﭘﺨﺶ ﮔﺎﺯ‬
‫‪D‬‬
‫ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻧﻔﻮﺫ ﺩﻭﮔﺎﺯ َ‪ A‬ﻭ ‪ B‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﭼﻨﻴﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﭘﺨﺶ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪A‬‬ ‫‪K‬‬
‫‪V‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −2‬‬
‫‪DA‬‬
‫‪K‬‬
‫= ‪ V‬ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﭘﺨﺶ ﮔﺎﺯ‪:‬‬ ‫‪− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −3‬‬
‫‪DB‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ‪ 1‬ﻭ ‪ 4‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﭘﺨﺶ ﮔﺮﺍﻫﺎﻡ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻲ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻭ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻤﺪﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫‪m‬‬ ‫ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪D = −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−5‬‬
‫‪V‬‬
‫‪nRT‬‬
‫=‪V‬‬ ‫‪− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −. − − − − − − − − − −6‬‬
‫‪P‬‬
‫ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ V‬ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ‪ 6‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ‪ 5‬ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻠﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ‬
‫‪m‬‬ ‫‪mP‬‬
‫=‪D‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−7‬‬
‫‪nRT nRT‬‬
‫‪P‬‬
‫‪m‬‬
‫=‪n‬‬ ‫‪− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −8‬‬
‫‪M‬‬
‫‪mP‬‬ ‫‪mP M‬‬
‫=‪D‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫⋅‬
‫‪mRT‬‬ ‫‪1 mRT‬‬
‫‪M‬‬
‫‪PM‬‬
‫=‪D‬‬ ‫‪− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −9‬‬
‫‪RT‬‬
‫‪167‬‬
 ‫ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺿﺮﺏ ﻭ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺩﻭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺑﻪ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺳﻮﻣﻲ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ‪:‬‬
‫‪P‬‬
‫‪=K‬‬
‫‪RT‬‬
‫‪D = MK − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 10‬‬
‫‪D ≈ M − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −11‬‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻲ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻭ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻲ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﺴــﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ؛ ﭘﺲ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ‬
‫ﭘﺨﺶ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻲ ﮔﺮﺍﻫﺎﻡ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﺩﻭﮔﺎﺯ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻛﺮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫) ‪VA (Diffusion‬‬ ‫‪MB‬‬
‫=‬
‫) ‪VB (Diffusion‬‬ ‫‪MA‬‬
‫ﮔﺮﺍﻫﺎﻡ ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 1826‬ﻡ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻨﺘﺸــﺮ ﺳــﺎﺧﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻧﻔﻮﺫ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺩﻳﻮﺍﺭ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﻨﻔﺬ ﺩﺍﺭ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ )ﺳــﻮﺭﺍﺥ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ( ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻧﻔﻮﺫ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟــﻲ ﻳﻚ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻲ ﺁﻥ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻴﺎﻥ ﺗﺨﻠﺨﻞ ﺩﻳﻮﺍﺭ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻧﻔﻮﺫ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﭘﺨﺶ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻲ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﻧﻔﻮﺫ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺩﻳﻮﺍﺭ ﻭ ﻏﺸﺎ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻧﻴﻤﻪ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ‬
‫ﻧﻔﻮﺫ ﺑﺎ ﺟﺬﺭ ﻣﺮﺑﻊ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻲ ﻭ ﺟﺬﺭ ﻣﺮﺑﻊ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫؛ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ‪:‬‬
‫) ‪VA ( Effusion‬‬ ‫‪DB‬‬ ‫‪MB‬‬
‫=‬ ‫= ) ‪ VA ( Effusion‬ﻳﺎ‬
‫) ‪VB (effusion‬‬ ‫‪DA‬‬ ‫) ‪VB ( Effusion‬‬ ‫‪MA‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 23 – 6‬ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﻧﻔﻮﺫ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺳــﺮﻋﺖ ﻧﻔﻮﺫ ﻳﻚ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﺠﻬﻮﻝ ‪ X‬ﺍﺯ ﺳــﻮﺭﺍﺧﻬﺎﻱ ﺩ ﻳــﻮﺍﺭ ﺗﺨﻠﺨﻞ ﺩﺍﺭ ‪0.279‬ﺑﺮﺍﺑﺮ‬
‫ﺳــﺮﻋﺖ ﻧﻔﻮﺫ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺍﺯ ﺩﻳﻮﺍﺭ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺍﺳــﺖ )ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ‪ STP‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ(‪ .‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ‬
‫‪168‬‬
 ‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﺠﻬﻮﻝ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪ .‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ‪ 2.016‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ‪:‬‬
‫) ‪VX ( Effusion‬‬ ‫‪M H2‬‬
‫‪2.016‬‬ ‫=‬
‫= ‪0.279‬‬ ‫) ‪VH 2 (effusion‬‬ ‫‪MX‬‬
‫‪Mx‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫⎛‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪02‬‬ ‫⎞‬ ‫ﻳﺎ‬
‫⎜⎜ = ‪M x‬‬ ‫⎟‬
‫⎟‬ ‫= ‪Mx‬‬
‫‪2.016‬‬
‫⎠ ‪⎝ 0.279‬‬ ‫‪0.279‬‬
‫ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ‪M X = 26‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺍﺯ ﺍﺣﺘﺮﺍﻕ ﺍﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ‪ H 2O‬ﻭ ‪ CO2‬ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺍﮔﺮ‬
‫‪ 1.26g‬ﺍﻳﺘﺎﻥ ﺑﺎ ‪ 4.50L‬ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﺎﻧﺪﻩ ﺷﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﭼﻨﺪ ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ‪ CO2‬ﻭ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ﺑﺨﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺁﺏ‬
‫ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺷﺪ؟ ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 4000 C‬ﻭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ‪ 4.00atm‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ‪:‬‬
‫) ‪2C2 H 6 ( g ) + 7O2 ( g ) ⎯⎯→ 4CO2 ( g ) + 6 H 2O(l‬‬
‫‪2L‬‬ ‫‪7L‬‬ ‫‪4L‬‬ ‫‪6L‬‬
‫‪2L‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬ ‫‪7L‬‬
‫‪1.26 L ⋅ 7 L‬‬
‫‪1.26 L −‬‬ ‫‪X1‬‬ ‫= ‪X1‬‬ ‫‪= 4.41L‬‬
‫‪2L‬‬
‫‪2L‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬ ‫‪4L‬‬
‫‪1.26L ⋅ 4 L‬‬
‫‪1.26L −‬‬ ‫‪X2‬‬ ‫= ‪X2‬‬ ‫‪= 2.52L CO2‬‬
‫‪2L‬‬
‫‪2 L C2 H 6‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬ ‫‪6 LH 2O‬‬
‫‪1.26L ⋅ 4 L‬‬
‫‪2 LC2 H 6‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬ ‫‪X3‬‬ ‫= ‪X3‬‬ ‫‪= 2.78L‬‬
‫‪2L‬‬
‫ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ‪ 4.50L‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪،‬ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ‪ 1.26g C2 H 6‬ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻱ ﺑﻪ‬
‫‪ 4.41‬ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ‪ 0.094g‬ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﺎﻗﻲ ﻣﺎﻧﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﭘﺲ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ‪ CO2‬ﻭ‬
‫‪ H 2O‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣﺠﻤﻲ ﺍﻳﺘﺎﻥ ﺑﺪﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﻣﺸﻖ ﻭﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﭘﺮﻭﭘــﺎﻥ ‪ C3 H 8‬ﺑــﺎ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺍﺣﺘــﺮﺍﻕ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺍﻱ ﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺑــﻪ ﺁﺏ ﻣﺒﺪﻝ‬
‫ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﻳﻚ ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ﭘﺮﻭﭘﺎﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 12 0 C‬ﻭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ‪ 8.44atm‬ﺑﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻲ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ‬
‫ﺳﻮﺧﺘﺎﻧﺪﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺠﻢ ‪ CO2‬ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 9250 C‬ﻭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻤﻮﺳﻔﻴﺮ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 10 –3- 6‬ﻧﻈﺮﻳﻪ ﺟﻨﺒﺸﻲ )ﺣﺮﻛﻰ( ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺗــﺎ ﺣــﺎﻝ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻣﻬﻢ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤــﺖ ﻋﻨﺎﻭﻳﻦ ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ؛ ﺍﺯ ﻗﺒﻴﻞ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺑﺎﻳﻞ‪،‬‬
‫ﻗﺎﻧــﻮﻥ ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ‪ ،‬ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﮔﺮﺍﻫﺎﻡ‪ ...‬ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻳﻢ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺎﺕ ﺳــﺆﺍﻝ ﺧﻠﻖ ﻣﻲ ﺷــﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﭼﺮﺍ‬
‫ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺫﻛﺮ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ؟ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻫﻮﻳﺪﺍ ﻣﻲ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﺑﺎ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻭ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﺁﻏﺎﺯ ﻳﺎﻓﺘﻪ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪،‬ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﻳﺎ ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺮ ﭘﺎﻳﺔ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻣﺸــﺎﻫﺪﺍﺕ ﻭ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﺳﺘﻮﺍﺭ ﻣﻲ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﺎ ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﻪ ﺑﺮ ﭘﺎﻳﺔ ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﺍﺳــﺘﻮﺍﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ‬
‫ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻭ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻛﺮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻧﻈــﺮ ﻳــﺔ ﺟﻨﺒﺸــﻲ ﻭ ﺣﺮﻛﻲ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﻛﻪ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺣﺮﻛﻰ ﻧﻴــﺰ ﻣﻴﻨﺎﻣﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻲ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻒ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ ﻭ ﭼﮕﻮﻧﮕﻲ ﺭﻓﺘﺎﺭ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻳﻪ ﺑﺮ ﭘﺎﻳﺔ ﻓﺮﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺘﻮﺍﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﮔﺎﺯﻫــﺎ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌــﺪﺍﺩ ﻛﺜﻴــﺮ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﺴــﻴﺎﺭ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ )ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ( ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﮔـــﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺫ ﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﺓ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﺓﺣﺠﻢ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴــﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻓﻮﺍﺻﻞ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻃــــــــﻮﺭ ﺍﻭﺳﻂ ﻭﺣﺠﻢ ﻇﺮﻑ ﻛﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﻛﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ‬
‫ﺣﺪ ﺍﻋﻈﻤﻲ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻇﺮﻑ ﺭﺍ ﻓﻀﺎﻱ ﺧﺎﻟﻲ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﺣﺘﻮﺍ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫــﺎ ﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﻩ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﻣﺘﺪﺍﻭﻣــﺎً ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ‬
‫ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻲ ﻧﻈﻢ ‪ ،‬ﺳﺮﻳﻊ ﻭ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺨﻂ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﺎ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﺑﺎ ﺟﺪﺍﺭ ﻇﺮﻑ ﺑﺮ ﺧﻮﺭﺩ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺑﺮﺧﻮﺭﺩ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻴﻜﻲ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻃﻮﺭﻳﻜﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻫﺮ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺣﺮﻛﻲ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺑﺮ ﺧﻮﺭﺩ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻛﻢ ﻭ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻧﻤﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ‪،‬‬
‫ﻳــﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﻩ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫــﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺑﺮ ﺧﻮﺭﺩ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﻢ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ‬
‫ﺳﻴﻨﻴﺘﻚ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺩﻫﻨﺪ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺳﻴﻨﺘﻴﻚ ﺩﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻗﻲ ﻣﻲ ﻣﺎﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ - 3‬ﺩﺭ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺠﺰﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﻫﻴﭻ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺩﺍﻓﻌﻪ ﻭ‬
‫ﺟﺎﺫﺑﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﻤﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ) .‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﻱ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﺑﺮﺧﻮﺭﺩ(‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﺣﺮﻛــﺖ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ )ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻳــﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎ( ﺩﺭ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻟﺤﻈﺎﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻲ ﻣﻲ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺳﺮﻳﻊ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺑﻄﻲ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺑﻌﻀﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺳﺮﻳﻊ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺑﻌﻀﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ‬
‫ﺑﻄﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺣﺮﻛﻲ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﻭﺳــﻴﻊ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻧﻮ ﺳﺎﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻱ ﺣﺮﻛﻲ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻣﻄﻠﻘﻪ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﺎﻗﻲ ﻣﻲ ﻣﺎﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 23 - 6‬ﻣﻮﺩﻝ‬
‫ﺗﺼﻮﻳﺮﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﮔﺎﺯ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ﺧﺎﻟﻴﮕﺎﻩ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻓﻀﺎﻳﻲ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺧﺎﻟﻴﮕﺎﻫﺎ ﺳــﺮﻳﻌﺎً ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ‬
‫ﭘﺮ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ : ( 24 – 6‬ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﺣﺮﻛﻰ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻭﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺑﺮﻭﻧﻰ‬
‫ﺏ – ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﺐ ﺑﻤﺒﺎﺭﺩﻣﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺝ – ﺩﺭ ﻟﺤﻈﺎﺕ ﺑﻌﺪﻯ ﻭﺿﻌﻴﺖ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ ﺟﺰ) ﺍﻟﻒ( ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫‪ : 11 -3- 6‬ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎﻯ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ‬
‫ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺍﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ ﺭﺍ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺗﻲ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ‬
‫ﻧﻪ ﺭﺳــﺪ )ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺮﺧﻮﺭﺩ ﺍﻻﺳــﺘﻜﻲ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﺒﺎﺷــﺪ( ﻭ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﺷﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻇﺮﻑ ﺣﺎﻭﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﺻﺮﻑ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ؛ ﻻﻛﻦ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺩﺍﻧﺴــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﺷــﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺮ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻤﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺻﺪ ﻓﻴﺼﺪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ؛‬
‫ﭘﺲ ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎﻯ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﺍﺯ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ ﻭ ﺷﻴﻮﺓ ﺁﻳﺪ ﻳﺎﻝ ﺍﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ : 1 -11 – 3- 6‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺳﻪ ﻣﺘﺤﻮﻝ‪ V،P‬ﻭ‪ T‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺩﻫﻴﻢ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻــــﻮﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﺩﻭ ﻣﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺳــﻮﻣﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺁﺳﺎﻧﻲ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ ؛ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ o.1mol :‬ﮔﺎﺯ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ‪ o.5atm‬ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻳﻚ ‪ 39 0 C‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺍﺷــــــــﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻡ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺭﻳﺎﺿﻴﻜﻲ ﻛﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ‪،‬ﺣﺠﻢ‪ ،‬ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ‬
‫ﻣــﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻳــﻚ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪،‬ﺑــﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﻳﺎﺩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ‬
‫‪ PV = nRT‬ﺑــﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟــﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺍﻳﺪ ﻳﺎﻝ ﻳﺎ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﺪ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻲ‬
‫ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻫﻴﭻ ﻧﻮﻋﻰ ﺍﺯ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎﻯ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻒ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻧﻤﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺳــﺎﻝ ‪ 1873‬ﻭﺍﻧــﺪﺭ‪ -‬ﻭﺍﻟــﺲ )‪ (Vanderwaals‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ‪ ( P + a2 )(V − b) = RT‬ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ‬
‫‪V‬‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﻭ ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎﻯ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺳﺎﺧﺖ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻓﻮﻕ ‪ a‬ﻭ‪ b‬ﺛﺎﺑﺖ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺸــﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﺍﺧﺘﺼﺎﺻﻲ ﻫﺮ ﮔﺎﺯﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻲ ﻛﻪ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺧﻴــــﻠﻲ‬
‫ﻛﻢ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯ )‪ (v‬ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﺭﺯﺵ ‪ b‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ ﺑﺎﺣﺠﻢ )‪ (v‬ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫‪a‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺻﻔﺮ ﺗﻘﺮﺏ ﻣــﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬ ‫ﻛــﻪ ﻣﻴﺘــﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﺻﺮﻑ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻛــﺮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ‬
‫‪V2‬‬
‫ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ‪ -‬ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻳﺪ ﻳﺎﻝ ﺗﻘﺮﺏ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﺪ ؛ ﻃﻮﺭﻳﻜﻪ ‪:‬‬
‫‪a‬‬ ‫‪PV‬‬
‫‪(P + 2 ) = P‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪=Z‬‬
‫‪V‬‬ ‫‪RT‬‬
‫‪V −b =V‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪PV = nRT‬‬
‫ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ‪ b, a‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻪ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﻫﺮ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪( 3 – 6‬‬
‫ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻫﺎﻱ ‪ b,a‬ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ ‪ -‬ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 2– 6‬ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻫﺎﻱ ‪ b, a‬ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ‪:‬‬
‫‪b(liter / mol‬‬ ‫) ‪a (litler.atm / mol 2‬‬ ‫ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫‪0266 .0‬‬ ‫‪0.244‬‬ ‫‪H2‬‬
‫‪0.0237‬‬ ‫‪0.3412‬‬ ‫‪He‬‬
‫‪0.03913‬‬ ‫‪1.390‬‬ ‫‪N2‬‬
‫‪0.03183‬‬ ‫‪1.360‬‬ ‫‪O2‬‬
‫‪0.0427‬‬ ‫‪3.59‬‬ ‫‪CO2‬‬
‫‪0.03985‬‬ ‫‪1.485‬‬ ‫‪CO‬‬
‫‪0.0428‬‬ ‫‪2.25‬‬ ‫‪CH 4‬‬
‫‪0.0371‬‬ ‫‪4.17‬‬ ‫‪NH 3‬‬
‫‪0.03049‬‬ ‫‪5.464‬‬ ‫‪H2O‬‬
‫‪0.02789‬‬ ‫‪1.340‬‬ ‫‪NO‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﻴﺘﺎﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ‪ 10g‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 250 C‬ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻇﺮﻑ ﻳﻚ ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ﻧﮕﻬﺪﺍﺭﻱ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪،‬‬
‫ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﺭﺩﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺍﻳﺪ ﻳﺎﻝ ﻭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ‪ -‬ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻱ ‪ b,a‬ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ)‪ ( 2 - 6‬ﺑﺪﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪mRT‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪:‬‬ ‫ﺣﻞ ‪:‬‬
‫‪m = 10 g‬‬ ‫=‪P‬‬
‫‪MV‬‬
‫‪10 g ⋅ 0.062atm ⋅ L ⋅ mol −1 K ⋅ 298K‬‬
‫=‪P‬‬
‫‪16 g .1L‬‬
‫‪V = 1L‬‬ ‫‪P = 15.3atm‬‬
‫?=‪P‬‬
‫‪M = 16‬‬
‫‪nRT‬‬ ‫‪n 2 a 0.0625mol ⋅ 0.082atm.L.mol −1.K .298 K (0.625mol ) 2 ⋅ 2.25 L2 atm‬‬
‫= ‪(P‬‬ ‫= ) ‪)−( 2‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬
‫‪V −n‬‬ ‫‪V‬‬ ‫‪1L − 0.625mol.0.428‬‬ ‫‪L2 .mol 2‬‬
‫‪P = 14.8atm‬‬
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‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴــﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻲ ﺣﺎﻟــﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺗﺎ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻒ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪( 25 - 6‬ﭼﮕﻮﻧﮕﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻭﺿﻌﻴﺖ ‪ PV‬ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﻣــﻮﻝ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪ CO2‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 350k‬ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻲ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ؛ ﻫﻤﭽﻨﺎﻥ ﭼﮕﻮﻧﮕﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ‬
‫ﻭ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻲ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﭘﻴﺸــﺒﻴﻨﻲ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺍﻳﺪﻳﺎﻝ ﻭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻪ ﺧﺎﻃﺮ ﻣﺤﺎﺳــﺒﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﺧﻮﺑﺘﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺸﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﭘﻨﺞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 25 – 6‬ﮔﺮﺍﻑ ﺣﺎﻻﺕ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻣﻄﻠﻘﻪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺸﻖ ﻭ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ‪ a‬ﻭ‪ b‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻫﺮ ﺟﻮﺭﺓ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎﻯ ﺯﻳﺮ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ‪ H 2 ( g ) -‬ﻭ ) ‪ NH 3 ( g‬ﺏ ‪ N 2 ( g ) -‬ﻭ ) ‪I 2 ( g‬‬
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 ‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ) ‪ ( 3– 6‬ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﻛﺎﺯﺍﺕ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﻭﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ‪:‬‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬ ‫ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻣﻌﻴــﻦ ﻧﺪﺍﺷــﺘﻪ‬ ‫‪ – 1‬ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻧﺪﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭﺩﺭ‬ ‫‪ – 1‬ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‬
‫) ﺣﺠــﻢ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻇــﺮﻑ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ‬ ‫ﻇﺮﻑ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺤﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﺷــﻜﺎﻝ‬ ‫) ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺖ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺷﻜﻞ (‬
‫ﺩﺭﺁﻥ ﻗــﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﻧــﺪ ﻣﻜﻤــﻞ‬ ‫‪- 2‬ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﻰ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬
‫ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬ ‫‪ – 2‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‬ ‫ﭘﺬﻳﺮ ﺍﻧﺪ‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺷﺎﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻭ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﭘﺬﻳﺮ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ - 2 .‬ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﭘﺬﻳﺮ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﻛﺜﺎﻓــﺖ ﺷــﺎﻥ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﺎً ‪ – 3‬ﻛﺜﺎﻓــﺖ ﻛﻤﺘــﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﻧــﺪ‬ ‫ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻛﺘﻠــﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺷــﺎﻥ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ‬ ‫‪ -4‬ﺷﻜﻞ ﺳﻴﺎﻝ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺪﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 5‬ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺷﺎﻥ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ‪ – 4‬ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺳــﻴﺎﻝ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 4‬ﺷﻜﻞ ﺳﻴﺎﻝ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‬ ‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ‪ – 5‬ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺳــﺮﻳﻊ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻭ‬ ‫ﺷﺎﻥ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﺑﻄﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 6‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﺷــﺎﻥ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺖ ﺍﻧﺘﺸــﺎﺭ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﭘﺮﺍﮔﻨﺪﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 6‬ﺣﺮﻛــﺖ ﺑﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ‬ ‫ﻛﺎﻣ ً‬
‫ﻼ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﭼﺴــﭙﻴﺪﻩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺍﻫﺘﺰﺍﺯﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ - 6 .‬ﺧﺎﻟﻴﮕﺎﻩ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻭﺳﺮﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺮ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ﻭﺑﻬﺮ‬
‫ﻛﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺳـــــﺮﻳﻊ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺳــﻪ ﺑﻌﺪﻯ‬
‫ﻭ ﺑﻰ ﻧﻈﻢ ﺳﻪ ﺑﻌﺪﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬
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 ‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺷﺸﻢ‬
‫* ﻫﺮ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﻣﺤﻴﻄﻰ ﺳﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ » ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻭﮔﺎﺯ « ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬
‫* ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣــﻮﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻧــﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ ﺁﻥ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﻗﻮﺓ‬
‫ﺟﺬﺏ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺁﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻧﺎﻣﻨﻈﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﻭﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻛﻢ‬
‫ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺳﺮﻳﻊ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫* ﺧــﻮﺍﺹ ﺟﺎﻣــﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻪ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﺑﺰﺭگ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺷﺪﻩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺷــﺪﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺳﺨﺖ ﻭﺷــﻜﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﻰ ﻛﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻧﻴﺴﺘﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺧﺎﺻﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻭﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫*ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ )‪ (T= constant‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ )‪ (P=constant‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻣﺴــﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﻗﻀﻴﻪ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﻟﺲ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﺳﻚ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺣﺠﻢ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻋﻴﻦ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳــﺖ )ﻗﺎﻧــﻮﻥ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ(‪ .‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺩﺭﺍﺕ )ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫــﺎ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺍﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ (‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻋﻴﻦ ﺷــﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻱ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫)ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺩﻭﻡ ﺍﻭﮔﺪ ﺭﻭ(‪.‬‬
‫*ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻲ ﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﮔﺎﺯﻱ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺟﻤﻊ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﻱ ﺟﺰﻳﻰ‬
‫ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺟﺰﺍﻱ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫* ﮔﺮﺍﻫﺎﻡ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ‪ :‬ﺳــﺮﻋﺖ ﻧﻔﻮﺫ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﮔﺎﺯﻱ ﺩ ﻳﮕﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺬﺭ ﻣﺮﺑﻊ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫*ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﺮﺍﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﻱ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ‪ PV=RT‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ‪ V‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﮔﺮﻓﺖ ﻛﻪ‪:‬‬
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 ‫ﺳﺆﺍﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺷﺸﻢ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺟﻮﺍﺑﻪ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﻣﻮﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ‪ ----‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺏ ‪ -‬ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺁﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺝ‪ -‬ﺣﺮﻛﺖ ﻧﺎﻣﻨﻈﻢ ﺩ – ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ"‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺟﺎﻣﺪﺍﺕ ﻣﻮﺍﺩﻯ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ‪ ----‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺣﺠﻢ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺏ ‪ -‬ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺝ – ﺍﻟﻒ ﻭﺏ ﻫﺮﺩﻭ ﺩ – ﻫﻴﭻ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﺍﻧﺘﺸــﺎﺭ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‪ ----‬ﺑــﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﺮﺧﻮﺭﺩ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻠﻮﻝ ﻫــﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ‪-----‬‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺑﻄﻰ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻢ ﺏ ‪ -‬ﺳﺮﻳﻊ ‪ ،‬ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺗﺮ ﺝ‪ -‬ﻧﻮﺭﻣﺎﻝ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺩ ‪ -‬ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻭ ﻧﻮﺭﻣﺎﻝ‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ )‪ (T= constant‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻭﺍﺑﺴــﺘﮕﻰ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺩ؟‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺗﻨﺎﺳــﺐ ﻣﺴــﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﺏ ‪ -‬ﻣﺘﻨﺎﺳــﺐ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ ﺝ – ﺗﻨﺎﺳــﺐ ﻧﺪﺍﺭﺩ ﺩ – ﺟﺰ ﺍﻟﻒ ﺩﺭﺳﺖ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻭ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻳﻚ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺳــﺎﻧﺘﻲ ﮔﺮﺍﺩ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ‪ ----‬ﺍﺯ ‪00C‬‬
‫ﺍﻧﺒﺴﺎﻁ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩ – ‪1 :100‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ 237:1 -‬ﺏ ‪ 1:1 -‬ﺝ ‪3:2 -‬‬
‫‪ - 6‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﻫﺎﻱ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻋﻴﻦ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻱ ‪ ---‬ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﺏ ‪ -‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺝ – ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩ – ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ"‬
‫‪ - 7‬ﺩﺭﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ‪ STP‬ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺮﮔﺎﺯ ‪ ----‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﺭﺍﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ‪ 22.4L‬ﺏ ‪ 22mL -‬ﺝ – ‪ 22.4mL‬ﺩ ‪22.4m 3 -‬‬
‫‪ - 8‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻮﻟﻰ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺗﻘﺴــﻴﻢ ﺑﺮ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺩﺭ ﺷــﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﺳﺘﻨﺪﺭﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ‪ ---‬ﮔﺎﺯ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ﺏ – ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ ﺝ ‪ -‬ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻮﻟﻰ ﺩ ‪ -‬ﻭﺯﻥ ﻣﺨﺼﻮﺹ‬
‫‪ - 9‬ﻭﺍﻧﺪﺭ‪ -‬ﻭﺍﻟﺲ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ‪ -----‬ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪:‬‬
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 ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ ( P + a )(V − b) = RT -‬ﺏ ‪ PV = Z -‬ﺝ – ﺍﻟﻒ ﻭﺏ ﺩ – ﻫﻴﭽﻜﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫‪RT‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪V‬‬
‫ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﮔـــﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪:‬‬ ‫‪ - 10‬ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻛﺜﻴﺮ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ‪ -‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ‪ ،‬ﺏ‪ -‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ( ﺝ – ﺍﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﺩ ‪ -‬ﺗﻤﺎﻣﻰ ﺟﻮﺍﺏ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﺳﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 11‬ﺣﺪ ﺍﻋﻈﻤﻲ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻇﺮﻑ ﺭﺍ ﻓﻀﺎﻱ ‪------‬ﺑﻴﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﺣﺘﻮﺍ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩ – ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬ ‫ﺏ – ﺧﺎﻟﻲ ﺝ‪ -‬ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﭘﺮ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﺤﻰ ‪:‬‬
‫)ﺩﺭ ﺣﻞ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻓﺮﺽ ﺷﻮﺩﻛﻪ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻳﺪ ﻳﺎﻝ ﻫﺴﺘﻨﺪ (‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﭼــﺮﺍ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺷــﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﻋﺎﺩﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﻭ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺑــﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻭﻳﺎ ﮔﺎﺯ‬
‫ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ ؟‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻳﻚ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ‪ N 2‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ‪ 58mL‬ﺗﺤﺖ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻄﻲ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ .‬ﺍﻓﺰﺍﻳﺶ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﺁﻥ‬
‫‪ 125mm Hg‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ‪ 49.6mL‬ﺗﻨﺰﻳﻞ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ ،‬ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻄﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻭﻟﻲ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ )ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ( ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ؟‬
‫‪ 3-‬ﻇﺮﻑ ‪ A‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ ‪ 48.2L‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪ N 2‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪،‬ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭﺍﺭﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﺁﻥ ‪ 250 C‬ﻭﻓﺸﺎﺭ‬
‫‪ atm 8.35‬ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻇﺮﻑ‪ B‬ﺑﺎ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻧﺎ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ‪ He‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻓﺸـــﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﺭﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﺁﻥ‬
‫‪ 9.5atm‬ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 250 C‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻇﺮﻭﻑ ‪ A‬ﻭ ‪ B‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺘﺼﻞ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻫﺮ ﺩﻭ ﻇﺮﻑ ﺑﻪ ‪ 8,71atm‬ﺑﺎﻟﻎ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬ﺣﺠﻢ‪ B‬ﺭﺍﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺩﺳﺘﮕﺎﻩ ﺁﺯﻣﺎﻳﺸﻲ ﺩﺭﺣﺪﻭﺩ ‪ 1.10 −15 mmHg‬ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻚ ﻇﺮﻑ ﻳﻚ‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺩﺳــﺘﮕﺎﻩ ﺁﺯﻣﺎﻳﺸﻲ ﺩﺭﻧﻈﺮ ﺑﮕﻴﺮﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 0 C‬ﺑﺎ ﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻇﺮﻑ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻮﺍ ﭘﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ؟‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭﻳﻚ ﺳﻴﺎﺭﻩ ‪ 10 g / Cm 3‬ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺁﻥ ‪ 100K‬ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺳﻴﺎﺭﻩ ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ؟‬
‫‪ - 6‬ﻳــﻚ ﺣﺒــﺎﺏ ﻛﺮﻭﻱ ﺑﺎﻻﻱ ﺳــﻄﺢ ﺁﺏ ﺑﻪ ﻗﻄﺮ ‪ 2 cm 2‬ﺩﺭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 250 C‬ﻭ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ‬
‫‪ 1atm‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺁﺏ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ؟‬
‫‪ - 7‬ﺑــﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ 177 0 C‬ﻭ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ‪ 2atm‬ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ‪ 1,52 g / L‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﭼﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﺩﺭﻇﺮﻓﻲ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ‪ L 5‬ﺁ ﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫‪ - 8‬ﻳﻚ ﺳــﻠﻨﺪﺭﮔﺎﺯ ‪ N 2‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻱ ‪ 1.5kg‬ﮔﺎﺯ ﺩﺭ ﻓﺸــﺎ ‪ 31.8atm‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ‪ N‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫‪2‬‬
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 ‫ﺳﻠﻨﺪ ﺭ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺗﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺳﻠﻨﺪﺭ ‪ 75atm‬ﻛﺮﺩ؟‬
‫‪ - 9‬ﻓــﺮﺽ ﻛﻨﻴــﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﻭﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ‪ A,B‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻤﺎ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﻛﺘﻠــﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪ A‬ﺩﻭ‬
‫ﭼﻨﺪ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪ B‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺳــﺮﻋﺖ ﻣﺘﻮﺳــﻂ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪ A‬ﺩﻭ ﭼﻨﺪ ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪ B‬ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫)ﺍﻟﺒﺘﻪ ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻱ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ ( ﺍﮔﺮ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻲ ﻫﺮﺩﻭ ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ ﻳﻜﺴﺎﻥ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬
‫ﻭﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪ 3atm B‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪ A‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 10‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻭﻓﺸﺎﺭ ‪ 700mmHg‬ﻳﻚ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪ 30‬ﻟﻴﺘﺮﺣﺠﻢ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪ .‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ‪ STP‬ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﻫﻔﺘﻢ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺗﻐﻴﻴــﺮﺍﺕ ﻭﺗﺒــﺪﻻﺕ ﺯﻳــﺎﺩﻯ ﺩﺭ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ ﺭﻭﻧﻤﺎ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺜــﺎﻝ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ‬
‫ﺁﺏ ﺑﻪ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﻭﺳــﺮﺩ ﺷــﺪﻥ ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺑﺨﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺁﺏ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺑﺎﺭﺍﻥ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺑﺮﻑ ﻭژﺍﻟﻪ ‪ ،‬ﭘﺎﺭﭼﻪ ﺷﺪﻥ‬
‫ﺳﻨﮓ ﻫﺎ ﻭﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺧﺎﻙ ﻭﺭﻳﮓ ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻩ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ‪ ،‬ﭼﻨﻴﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺯﻧﮓ ﺯﺩﻥ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ‪ ،‬ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻰ‪ ،‬ﺍﺳﺘﺤﺼﺎﻝ ﺍﺩﻭﻳﻪ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻦ ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻭﺳﺎﻳﻞ ﻭﻣﻮﺍﺩ‬
‫ﺯﻳﻨﺘﻰ ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻩ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﻧﻴــﺰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻃﺮﺯ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺩﺭﺳــﺖ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺷﻴﻮﺓﺩﺭﺳــﺖ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻴﺪ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻭ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻴﺪ ﺁﻣﻮﺧــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻧﻮﻉ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ ،‬ﭼﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺩﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻧﺪﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﻭﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺷﻴﻮﻩ ﺩﺭﺳﺖ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﭼﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
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 ‫‪ : 1- 7‬ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺳــﻴﻠﻪ ﺳــﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻟﻬﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺶ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﻣﻮﺍﺩﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺳﻬﻢ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﻧﺪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻳﺎ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ‬
‫ﺍﻭﻟﻴﻪ ﻳﺎﺩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭﻣﻮﺍﺩﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣــﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻭﻟﻴﻪ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﻭﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫⎯ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﻭﻛﺘﻮﺭ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻮﺽ ﻋﻼﻣﻪ )=( ﺩﺭﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺍﺯ ﻭﻛﺘﻮﺭ ) →⎯(‬
‫ﻣﻌﻨﻰ »ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ « ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ﺳﻠﻔﺮ ‪+‬ﺁﻫﻦ‬
‫ﺁﻫﻦ )‪ (II‬ﺳﻠﻔﺎﻳﺪ →⎯‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ (1 - 7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﻫﻦ ﻭﺳﻠﻔﺮ ﻭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻓﻴﺮﻳﻢ ﺳﻠﻔﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫ﻗﺒــﻞ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻨﻜــﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻢ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻳــﺪ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻭﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺪﺍﻧﻴﻢ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟــﻪ ﻛﻴﻤﻴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻴﺎﻧﮕﺮ ﻧﺘﺎﻳﺞ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﻋﻤﻠﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻤﺲ ﻭﺩﻳﺪ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺍﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﻛﺸــﻒ ﻭﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺍﺻﻮﻝ ﻭﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺭﺍ ﭘﻴﺶ ﺑﻴﻨﻰ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﮔﺮﭼﻪ ﻧﻮﺷــﺘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﻛﺎﻏﺬ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺳــﻤﺒﻮﻟﻴﻚ ﺍﺭﺍﻳــﻪ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﺓ ﺧﺼﻮﺻﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣــﻞ ﻛﻨﻨــﺪﻩ ﻭﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻧﺒــﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎ ﺁﻧﻬﻢ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﺩﺍﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻛﻮﺷــﺶ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﺗﺎ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ‬
‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺩﺭﺳــﺖ ﻭﺩﻗﻴﻖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺶ ﺩﻫﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺷــﻴﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﺭﻓﺘﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻰ ﻫﺮﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻰ ﭘﺮﺩﺍﺯﻳﻢ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﺔ ﺷﻴﻮﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﮔﻔﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺣﺎﻟـــــﺖ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺣﺪﻭﻝ )‪ ( 1 – 7‬ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ‬ ‫ﺳﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺖ‬ ‫‪(Gas=(g‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺍﺳﺖ‬ ‫‪(Liquid=(l‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺍﺳﺖ‬ ‫‪(Solid = (s‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﺁﺑﻰ‬ ‫‪(Aqueouse=(aq‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﻠﻞ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬ ‫‪(Solved=(sol‬‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﺩﻫﺪ‬ ‫⎯‬
‫→⎯‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺩﻭﻃﺮﻓﻪ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ‬ ‫←⎯‬
‫⎯‬‫→⎯‬
‫⎯⎯‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻭﻟﻴﻪ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻰ‬ ‫⎯‬‫‪Δ‬‬
‫→⎯‬
‫ﮔﻴﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﺴﺖ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻯ‬ ‫→⎯⎯‬
‫‪Ni‬‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻭﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪⎯120‬‬
‫⎯⎯‬ ‫→⎯‬
‫‪C , 5 atm‬‬
‫‪ : 1- 1- 7‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮﻯ ﺣﺮﻭﻓﻰ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻫﺎ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﻭﻑ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺗﻰ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻤﺎﺗﻴﻚ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﻭ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭﻛﺘﻮﺭ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻃﻼﻋﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻧﻤﻰ ﻛﻨﻨﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:‬‬
‫)ﻧﺎﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺤﻠﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺭﻯ (‬ ‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕﺳﻨﮓ ﭼﻮﻧﻪ‬
‫⎯‬‫ﮔﺎﺯ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﻴﻚ ‪ +‬ﭼﻮﻧﺔ ﺯﻧﺪﻩ →⎯‬
‫) ﻧﺎﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻤﺎﺗﻴﻚ (‬ ‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻛﻠﺴﻴﻢ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ‪ +‬ﻛﻠﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ →⎯‬
‫⎯‬
‫‪ : 2 - 1 - 7‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺳﻤﺒﻮﻟﻴﻚ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﻳــﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺯ ﺳــﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﺎﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷــﺖ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺳــﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﭼﻮﻥ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ‬
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‫ﺳــﻤﺒﻮﻟﻴﻚ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻃﻼﻋﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮﻯ ﺣﺮﻭﻓﻰ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺗﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺮﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮﻯ ﺣﺮﻭﻓﻰ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺭﺍ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‬ ‫ﺳﻤﺒﻮﻟﻴﻚ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻛﺮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ⎯⎯ ) ‪CaCO 3 ( s‬‬
‫) ‪⎯→ CaO ( s ) + CO 2 ( g‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺯﻳﺮ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮﻯ ﺣﺮﻭﻓﻰ ﻭﺳﻤﺒﻮﻟﻴﻚ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻨﻮﻳﺴﺪ‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﻴﺘﺎﻥ ‪ ،‬ﮔﺎﺯ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻭﺁﺏ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺑــﻮﺭﻭﻥ )‪ (III‬ﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﻭﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ )ﮔﺮﺍﻓﻴﺖ ( ﺑﻪ ﺣــﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻮﺭ ﻭﻥ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ‪ B2 C2‬ﻭﮔﺎﺯ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻣﻮﻧﻮﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪،‬‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﺎ ﺁﺏ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﺳــﻴﺪ ﻭﮔﺎﺯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ )‪(II‬‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪،‬‬
‫‪ – 4‬ﺍﺯﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ﺑﺎ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺗﺘﺮﺍ ﻓﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻳﺪ‬
‫‪ – 5‬ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﻢ ﺩﺍﻯ ﻛﺮﻭﻣﻴﺖ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺛﺮ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ ،‬ﮔﺎﺯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺨﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺁﺏ ﻭﻛﺮﻭﻣﻴﻢ‬
‫)‪ (III‬ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪﺟﺎﻣﺪ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 3 – 1 – 7‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻔﻰ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺭﻭﺵ ﺍﺯ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺩﺭ ﭼﻮﻛﺎﺕ ﻳﻚ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻔﻰ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﻛﻠﺴﻴﻢ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﻴﺖ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺛﺮ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻪ ﻛﻠﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻭ ﮔﺎﺯ‬
‫ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴــﻢ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﺍﻳﺖ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳــﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﮔﺎﺯ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ﻭﺁﺏ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮﻯ‬
‫ﻭﺳﻤﺒﻮﻟﻴﻚ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻨﻮﻳﺴﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻭﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﻧﻤﻚ ﻭﺁﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‬
‫‪ ،‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮﻯ ﻭﺳﻤﺒﻮﻟﻴﻚ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻨﻮﻳﺴﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 4 - 1 – 7‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺷﻜﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﻪ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺶ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻏﺮﺽ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﺎﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺁﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬
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 ‫ﻛﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﺷﻜﻠﻰ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 2 - 7‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺷﻜﻠﻰ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﻭﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺁﺏ‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺷﻜﻠﻰ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻭﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﻭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺘﺎﻥ‬
‫‪ : 2- 7‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻴــﻂ ﻣﺎﺣﻮﻝ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻤﻪ ﺭﻭﺯﻩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗﻰ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺣﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻣﺴــﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﻭﻳﺎ‬
‫ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺴــﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﺩﺍﺭﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺩﻳﻦ ﻣﻠﺤﻮﻅ ﺿﺮﻭﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺗﺎ ﺩﺭﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﺩ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺗﺎ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﺓ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺴﺘﻠﺰﻡ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﻭﻗﺖ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺍﻳﺠﺎﺏ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻳﺎﺩ ﺁﻭﺭﻯ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﺍﻋﻈﻢ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ؛ ﺍﺯﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﺩﺍﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻭﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺷﻴﻮﺓ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺑﻨﺪﻯ ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﻣﻴﺨﺎﻧﻴﻜﻴﺖ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺧﻼﺻﻪ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﺣﺘﺮﺍﻕ‬
‫ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻮﻯ‬ ‫ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ‬
‫ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ‬
‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﻳﮕﺎﻧﻪ‬ ‫ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ‬
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 ‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ )‪ (2– 7‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺷﻤﺎﺭﻩ‬

‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻫﺎ‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻔﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ‬ ‫ﻃﺒﻘﻪ ﺑﻨﺪﻯ‬

‫‪−4‬‬ ‫‪+4‬‬ ‫‪−2‬‬ ‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫⎯ ‪C H 4 + 2O2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ C O2 + 2 H 2 O‬‬ ‫ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ‬ ‫ﻭﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ‬
‫ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ‬
‫⎯ ‪Ca 2+ O + H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Ca 2+ (OH ) 2‬‬ ‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‬ ‫ﻏﻴﺮﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻧﻤﻰ ﻛﻨﺪ‬ ‫ﻭﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ‬
‫‪+4‬‬ ‫ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ‬ ‫ﺍﮔﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ‬ ‫ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ‬
‫⎯ ‪C + O2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ C O2 + E‬‬ ‫ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬ ‫)ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺯﺍ(‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 HgO + E‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 Hg + O2‬‬ ‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ‬ ‫ﺍﻧﺪﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ‬
‫ﺟﺬﺏ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ‬ ‫)ﺟﺬﺏ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ(‬
‫⎯⎯ ‪3H + N‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 NH‬‬ ‫ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬ ‫ﺭﺟﻌﻰ‬ ‫ﺑﺮﮔﺸﺖ ﭘﺬﻳﺮﻯ‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫←‬
‫⎯⎯‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫ﺍﻭﻟﻴﻪ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫‪−4‬‬ ‫ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬ ‫ﻏﻴﺮ ﺭﺟﻌﻰ‬
‫⎯ ‪C 3 H 8 + 5O2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 3 C O2 +‬‬ ‫ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ‬
‫‪−2‬‬ ‫ﺍﻭﻟﻴﻪ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻧﻤﻰ‬
‫‪4H 2 O+ E‬‬ ‫ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪−4‬‬ ‫‪+4‬‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ‬ ‫ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ‬ ‫ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺖ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ‬
‫⎯ ‪C H 4 + O2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ C O2 +‬‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﻛﻪ‬
‫‪−2‬‬ ‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﺭﻭﺷﻨﻰ‬
‫‪H2 O‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫‪H 2O‬‬
‫→⎯⎯⎯‬ ‫ﭘﺎﺭﭼﻪ ﺷﺪﻥ ﻳﻚ‬ ‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻟﻴﺰ‬
‫⎯⎯ ‪NH 4 Cl‬‬ ‫⎯‬‫‪⎯→ NH 4 OH + H + + Cl −‬‬ ‫ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ‬ ‫‪4‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ‬
‫ﺁﺏ ﻭﻋﻤﻞ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺁﺏ ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫⎯ ‪HCl + NaOH‬‬
‫‪⎯→ NaCl +‬‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ﺷﺪﻥ‬
‫ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ‬
‫‪−2‬‬
‫‪H2 O‬‬
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 ‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ‬ ‫ﺭﺍﺩﻳﻜﺎﻝ‬
‫⎯ ‪O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ O + O Radical‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺭﺍﺩﻳﻜﺎﻟﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ‬
‫‪+4‬‬ ‫ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ‬ ‫ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻪ ﺷﺪﻥ‬
‫⎯ ‪C2 H 4 + H 2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ C 2 H 6‬‬ ‫ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫‪−2‬‬ ‫ﻳﻚ ﺟﺰء ﺍﺯ‬ ‫ﺣﺬﻓﻰ‬
‫⎯ ‪CHO‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪⎯→ C H + H O‬‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺗﺠﺮﻳﺪ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫‪⎯→ HSO 4− +‬‬
‫⎯ ‪HNO 3 + H 2 SO 4‬‬ ‫ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻳﻚ ﺫﺭﻩ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﻭﺳﺘﻰ‬
‫‪+‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺩﻭﺳﺖ‬
‫‪H 2O + N O2‬‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﻏﺎﺯ‬
‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫⎯ ‪N O2 + C6 H 6‬‬
‫‪⎯→ C6 H 5 N O2 + H‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 H 2 +‬‬ ‫ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ‬ ‫ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ‬ ‫ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻭﻟﻴﻪ‬
‫ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ‬ ‫ﻭﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ‬
‫‪O2‬‬ ‫ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 H 2 + O2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 H 2O‬‬ ‫ﺍﺯ ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ‬ ‫ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 Na + 2 H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 NaOH‬‬ ‫ﻳﻚ ﻭﻳﺎ ﭼﻨﺪ‬ ‫ﺗﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ‬ ‫ﺗﻌﻮﻳﺾ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺟﺎﻯ ﻳﻚ ﻳﺎ‬
‫ﭼﻨﺪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ‬
‫‪7‬‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫⎯ ‪HNO 3 + NaOH‬‬
‫‪⎯→ NaNO 3 + H 2 O‬‬ ‫ﺗﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ‬ ‫ﺗﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﻳﻜﺪﻳﮕﺮ‬
‫‪ : 1- 2- 7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ‬
‫‪ : 1- 1- 2 -7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﻳﮕﺎﻧﻪ ﻳﺎ ﺳـﺎﺩﻩ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺧﺎﻟﺺ‪ ،‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺩﻳﮕﺮﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻳﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺧﺎﻟﺺ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺑﻰ ﺟﺎ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺧﻮﺩﺵ ﺟﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ؛ ﺑﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺑﺎ ﭘﺘﺎﺷــﻴﻢ ﺑﺮﻭﻣﺎﻳﺪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺮﻭﻣﻴﻦ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﭘﻮﺗﺎﺷﻴﻢ ﺑﺮﻭﻣﺎﻳﺪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ )‪Cl − Cl ( g ) + 2 KBr (aq‬‬
‫) ‪⎯→ 2 KCl (aq) + Br2 (l‬‬
‫)ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺑﺮﻭﻣﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﺎ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ(‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻧﻴﻢ ﺑﺎ ﺁﻫﻦ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻫﻦ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪2 Al ( s ) + Fe2O3 ( s‬‬
‫) ‪⎯→ Al 2O3 ( s ) + 3Fe ( s‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﺯ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﻛﺮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻳﺎ ‪H‬‬ ‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ‪ A‬ﻓﻠﺰ ﻳﺎ ‪ H‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬
‫‪AC + B‬‬
‫‪A + BC‬‬ ‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‪ A‬ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪BA + C‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﻳﮕﺎﻧﺔ ﺟﺴﺖ ﻭ ﻣﺲ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻛﺎﭘﺮ ﺳﻠﻔﻴﺖ ﺑﺎ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺁﻥ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪CuSO4 (aq ) + Zn ( s‬‬
‫) ‪⎯→ Cu ( s ) + ZnSO4 (aq‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 3-7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺟﺴﺖ ﺑﺎ ﻛﺎﭘﺮ ﺳﻠﻔﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ‪ -‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺗﻜﻤﻴﻞ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻧﻴﻢ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﻧﻤﻚ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻧﻴﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﻭ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪⎯→ - 2‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪C ( s ) + Al 2O3 ( s‬‬
‫‪⎯→ - 3‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪K ( s ) + H 2O(l‬‬
‫‪ -4‬ﻣﺲ ﺑﺎ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻳﺖ ﻧﻘﺮﻩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪⎯→ -5‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪SiO2 ( s ) + C ( s‬‬
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 ‫ﺏ‪ -‬ﺑﻴﺠﺎ ﺷﺪﻥ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺍﺯﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﻧﻤﻚ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻓﻠﺰ ﺟﺴﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳـﺎﻣﺎﻥ ﻭ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ‪ :‬ﻓﻼﺳﻚ ‪ ،‬ﺳﺮ ﭘﻮﺵ‪ ،‬ﻧﻞ ﺯﺍﻧﻮ ﺧﻢ‪ ،‬ﻧﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﺮﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﻝ ‪ ،‬ﺗﺸﺖ‬
‫ﺁﺏ‪ ،‬ﺁﺏ ﻋﺎﺩﻯ‪ ،‬ﺗﺴــﺖ ﺗﻴﻮﺏ ﻫﺎ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﻋﺪﺩ‪ ،‬ﭘﺎﻳﻪ ‪ ،‬ﮔﻴﺮﺍ ‪ ،‬ﺗﺴــﺖ ﺗﻴﻮﺏ ﺩﺍﻧﻰ‪ ،‬ﺗﻮﺗﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺴﺖ‬
‫‪ 5‬ﻳﺎ ‪ 6‬ﺩﺍﻧﻪ‪ 10mL ،‬ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻭﻳﺎ ﮔﻮﮔﺮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻃﺮﺯ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ‪ :‬ﺗﻮﺗﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺴــﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻓﻼﺳــﻚ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺧﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺁﻥ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪،‬‬
‫ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﻴﺠﺎ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻣﺘﺤﺎﻥ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ)‪ ( 4 - 7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺟﺴﺖ ﺑﺎ ﻛﺎﭘﺮ ﺳﻠﻔﻴﺖ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻨﻮﻳﺴﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻴﺠﺎ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﻧﺪ؟ ﻟﺴﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻣﺘﺤﺎﻥ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺣﺮﻭﻓﻰ ﻭ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮﻯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺯﻳﺮﺩﻗﺖ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫⎯ ﺁﺏ ‪ +‬ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ‪ +‬ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ﻳﻜﻌﺪﻩ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑﻬﺎ ‪ +‬ﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﺯ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺏ ‪ -‬ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ‪ +‬ﻧﻤﻚ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ﻧﻤﻚ ‪ +‬ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺗﺮ‬
‫ﺝ ‪ -‬ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ‪ +‬ﻧﻤﻚ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ﻧﻤﻚ ‪ +‬ﻓﻠﺰ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺗﺮ‬
‫ﺩ ‪ -‬ﻓﻠﺰ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﺗﺮ ‪ +‬ﻧﻤﻚ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ →⎯‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪ ﺍﻡ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺣﺮﻭﻓﻰ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؟ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ‬
‫ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﻫﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
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 ‫⎯ ‪1 − Br2 + 2 NaI‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 NaBr + I 2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 − Mg + CuSO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ MgSO4 + Cu‬‬
‫⎯ ‪3 − 2 Na + 2 H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 NaOH + H 2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪4 − Zn + 2 HCl‬‬
‫‪⎯→ ZnCl2 + H 2‬‬
‫ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺑﺪﺍﻧﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻰ ﻛﻨﺪ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ‪Cu + HCl‬‬
‫‪ : 2- 1- 2 – 7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻳﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫ﺩﻳﮕــﺮ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﺩﻳﮕﺮﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﺩﻭ ﻣﺮﻛــﺐ ﺟﺎﻫﺎﻯ ﻳﻜﺪ ﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺍﺷــﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺩﻭ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﻣﻨﺠﺮ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﻣﻬﻢ ﻣﺤﺴﻮﺏ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 5 – 7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﻭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺷﻜﻠﻰ ﺁﻥ‬
‫‪.‬ﺗﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ‬
‫⎯ )‪PbCl2 (aq) + Li2 SO4 (aq‬‬
‫)‪⎯→ PbSO4 ( s ) + 2 LiCl (aq‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ‬
‫⎯ )‪ZnBr2 (aq) + 2 AgNO3 (aq‬‬
‫) ‪⎯→ Zn( NO3 ) 2 (aq) + 2 AgBr ( s‬‬
‫⎯ )‪BaCl2 (aq) + 2 KClO3 (aq‬‬
‫)‪⎯→ Ba(ClO3 ) 2 ( s ) + 2 KCl (aq‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪AB‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪CD‬‬ ‫⎯‬
‫‪⎯→ CB‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪AD‬‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺩﻭﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺍﻭﻝ‬ ‫ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺳﻮﻡ‬
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‫ﺑﻪ ﺧﺎﻃﺮ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷــﻴﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﺣﺪ ﺍﻗﻞ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ‪،‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ‪ ،‬ﺁﺏ ﻳﺎ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻳﺖ ﻧﻘﺮﻩ ﺑﺎ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﺳﻠﻔﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫ﺳـﺎﻣﺎﻥ ﻭ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ‪ :‬ﺗﺴﺖ ﺗﻴﻮﺏ‪ ،‬ﻣﻴﻠﺔ ﺷﻴﺸﻪ ﻳﻰ‪ ،‬ﻣﻨﺒﻊ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‪ ،‬ﮔﻴﺮﺍ‪ ،‬ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻳﺖ ﻧﻘﺮﻩ‬
‫ﻭ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﺳﻠﻔﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻃﺮﺯ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ‪ :‬ﺳــﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﺳــﻠﻔﺎﻳﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺴــﺖ ﺗﻴﻮﺏ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺧﺘﻪ‪ ،‬ﺑــﺎﻻﻯ ﺁﻥ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻳﺖ ﻧﻘﺮﻩ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪ ،‬ﺗﺴﺖ ﺗﻴﻮﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﮔﻴﺮﺍ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻗﻴﻘﻪ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﮔﺮﻡ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺭﺳﻮﺏ ﺳﻴﺎﻩ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺳﻠﻔﺎﻳﺪ ﻧﻘﺮﻩ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪2 AgNO3 (aq ) + Na 2 S (aq‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Ag 2 S ( s ) + 2 NaNO3‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 6 - 7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻳﺖ ﻧﻘﺮﻩ ﺑﺎ ﺳﻠﻔﺎﻳﺪ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ‬
‫ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺍﺯ ﺭﺳﻮﺏ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺑﻴﻨﻴﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ؟‬
‫‪ : 2 – 2 – 7‬ﺍﻧﺤﻼﻟﻴﺖ ﻭﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻓﺰﻳﻜﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺣﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ ؛ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺤﻼﻟﻴﺖ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻗﺴــﻤﻰ ﻣﺤﺴﻮﺏ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫‪.‬ﺩﺭ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺍﻧﺤﻼﻟﻴﺖ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﺁﺏ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪:‬‬
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 ‫ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﻭ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ‬
‫ﻧﻤﻚ ﻫﺎ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ‪ 0.1mol / L‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ)ﻣﻮﻝ ﺩﺭﻓﻰ ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ﺁﺏ( ﺣﻞ‬
‫ﺷــﻮﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﻭ ﺍﮔﺮ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ 0.1 − 0.001mol / L‬ﺩﺭﺁﺏ ﺣﻞ ﺷــﻮﻧﺪ ‪،‬ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﻭ ﺍﮔﺮ‬
‫ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ‪ 0.001mol / L‬ﺩﺭﺁﺏ ﺣﻞ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻧﻤﻚ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻳﺖ ) ‪ ( NO3−‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﺳﺘﻴﺖ ﻫﺎ ) ‪ (CH 3COO−‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﺖ) ‪ ( ClO3−‬ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﻯ ﭘﺘﺎﺷﻴﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﺖ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﭘﺘﺎﺷﻴﻢ‬
‫ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﺖ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ) ‪ ( Cl −‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍﻧﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺰ ‪PbCl2 , CuCl, Hg2Cl2 , AgCl‬‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍﻧﺪ )ﺳﺮﺏ ) ‪ (II‬ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ‪ PbCl2‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﺟﻮﺵ ﺣﻞ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ( ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﺑﺮﻭﻣﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ) ‪ ( Br‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍ ﻧﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺰ ‪HgBr2 , PbBr2 , CuBr , Hg 2 Br2 , AgBr‬‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ‪ HgBr2‬ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻛﺜــﺮ ﺁﻳﻮﺩﺍﻳﺪﻫﺎ ) ‪ ( I −‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍﻧﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺘﺜﻨﺎﻯ ‪ PbI 2 ، CuI ، Hg 2 I 2 ، AgI‬ﻭ ‪HgI 2‬‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺳــﻠﻔﻴﺖ ﻫﺎ ) ‪ ( SO42−‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺘﺜﻨﺎﻯ ‪Hg 2 SO4 , BaSO4 , SrSO4 , CaSO4 , Ag 2 SO4‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﺣﻞ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮﻳﻦ ﺳﻠﻔﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﻳﻰ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﻠﻔﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ) ‪ ( S 2−‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﻯ ﺳﻠﻔﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﮔﺮﻭپ)‪ (II‬ﺍﻭﻝ ﻭ ﺩﻭﻡ ﺍﺻﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﻳﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻭ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﻢ ﺳﻠﻔﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ( NH 4 ) 2 S‬ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﻴﺖ ﻫﺎ ) ‪ ( CO32−‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺟﺰ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ‬
‫ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﻳﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ )ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ( ﻭ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﻢ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﻴﺖ ‪ ( NH 4 ) 2 CO3‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﺣﻞ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﺎﺳﻔﻴﺖ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍﻧﺪ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ‪ ( NH 4 ) 3 PO4‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﺣﻞ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ ) ‪ ( OH −‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺟﺰ ﺍﺯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﺍﻭﻝ‬
‫)ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ( ‪ Sr (OH ) 2 , Ba(OH ) 2 ،‬ﻭ ﻛﻠﺴﻴﻢ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻨﻮﻳﺴﻴﺪ‪:‬‬
‫‪1−‬‬ ‫⎯ ) ‪NaHCO3 (aq ) + HCl (aq‬‬
‫→⎯‬
‫‪2−‬‬ ‫⎯ ) ‪CaO ( s ) + CO2 ( g‬‬
‫→⎯‬
‫‪3−‬‬ ‫⎯ ) ‪AgNO3 (aq ) + Cu ( s‬‬
‫→⎯‬
‫‪4−‬‬ ‫⎯ ) ‪Ca ( NO3 ) 2 (aq ) + Na2CO3 (aq‬‬
‫→⎯‬
‫‪5−‬‬ ‫⎯ ) ‪NaCl (aq ) + AgNO3 (aq‬‬
‫→⎯‬
‫‪Δ‬‬
‫‪6−‬‬ ‫⎯ ) ‪Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 (aq‬‬
‫→⎯‬
‫‪ : 2- 2- 7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻮﻯ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮﻕ ‪ ،‬ﻧﻮﺭ ﻭﺗﺼﺎﺩﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﻴﺨﺎﻧﻴﻜﻰ‬
‫ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺷﻜﻞ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪AB ⎯⎯⎯→ C + D‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﺔ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ‪ C‬ﻭ ‪A‬‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ‪ C‬ﻭ ‪ D‬ﻧﻴﺰﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜــﻪ ﻣــﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻫﻢ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﻭ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺑﺎﺷــﻨﺪ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‬
‫‪ C‬ﻭ‪ D‬ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺫﻛﺮ ﺷﺪﺓ ﻓﻮﻕ‬
‫ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‬
‫‪ + --- - 1‬ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ +‬ﻣﺮﻛﺐ →⎯⎯⎯ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ⎯ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ‪ +‬ﻣﺮﻛﺐ →⎯⎯‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ⎯ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫‪) - 3‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ( ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‪ +‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ →⎯⎯‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺳﻴﻤﺎﺏ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺳﻴﻤﺎﺏ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﻭﮔﺎﺯ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 7 – 7‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺷﻜﻠﻰ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﺔ ﻣﺮﻛﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ‬
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 ‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻗﺖ ﻣﺸــﺎﻫﺪﻩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷــﺖ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ‬
‫ﻫﺮ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻋﺪﺩ ‪ 1‬ﻳﺎ ‪ 2‬ﻭ ﻳﺎ ‪ 3‬ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻨﻮﻳﺴﻴﺪ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪H 2O ( g‬‬‫‪Δ‬‬
‫→⎯‬ ‫) ‪H 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g‬‬ ‫(‬ ‫)‬
‫⎯ ) ‪CdCO3 ( s‬‬‫‪Δ‬‬
‫→⎯‬ ‫) ‪CdO ( s ) + CO2 ( g‬‬ ‫(‬ ‫)‬
‫⎯ ) ‪Pb(OH ) 2 ( s‬‬‫‪Δ‬‬
‫→⎯‬ ‫) ‪PbO ( s ) + H 2O(l‬‬ ‫(‬ ‫)‬
‫⎯ ) ‪N 2O4 ( g‬‬‫‪Δ‬‬
‫→⎯‬ ‫) ‪2 NO2 ( g‬‬ ‫(‬ ‫)‬
‫⎯ ) ‪2 HgO ( s‬‬‫‪Δ‬‬
‫→⎯‬ ‫‪2 Hg + O2‬‬ ‫(‬ ‫)‬
‫⎯ ) ‪PCl5 ( s‬‬‫‪Δ‬‬
‫→⎯‬ ‫) ‪PCl3 ( s ) + Cl 2 ( g‬‬ ‫(‬ ‫)‬
‫⎯ ) ‪H 2CO3 (aq‬‬‫‪Δ‬‬
‫→⎯‬ ‫) ‪CO2 ( g ) + H 2O(l‬‬ ‫(‬ ‫)‬
‫ﺧﺼﻮﺻﻴﺖ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﻐﻠﻖ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻮﻯ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺯﻳﺮ ﻧﻮﺷﺖ‪:‬‬
‫→⎯⎯ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﻴﺖ‬
‫‪Δ‬‬
‫‪ + CO2‬ﻓﻠﺰ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫→⎯⎯ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﻴﺖ‬
‫‪Δ‬‬
‫‪ + CO2 + H 2O‬ﻓﻠﺰ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﻴﺖ‬
‫→⎯⎯ ﻓﻠﺰ ﺳﻠﻔﻴﺖ‬
‫‪Δ‬‬
‫‪ + SO2‬ﻓﻠﺰ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫→⎯⎯ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻳﺖ‬
‫‪Δ‬‬
‫‪ + O2‬ﻓﻠﺰ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﺍﻳﺖ‬
‫→⎯⎯ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﺖ‬
‫‪Δ‬‬
‫‪ + O2‬ﻓﻠﺰ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ‬
‫→⎯⎯ ﻧﻤﻚ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﻯ ﺁﺑﺪﺍﺭ‬‫‪Δ‬‬
‫‪ + H 2O‬ﻧﻤﻚ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺁﺏ‬
‫‪ Δ‬ﻧﻮﺭ‬
‫⎯ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺩﻭ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﻯ‬ ‫ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ‪ + B‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ‪⎯→ A‬‬
‫→⎯⎯ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﺍﺭ‬
‫‪Δ‬‬
‫ﻓﻠﺰ‬ ‫ﺁﺏ ‪ +‬ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻏﻴﺮ‬
‫ﺑﺮﻕ‬
‫⎯ ﻧﻤﻚ ﺫﻭﺏ ﺷﺪﻩ‬‫ﻓﻠﺰ ‪ +‬ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ﺁﺏ‬ ‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ‪ +‬ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﺮﻕ‬
‫→⎯‬
‫→⎯⎯ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫‪Δ‬‬
‫ﺁﺏ ‪ +‬ﻓﻠﺰ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫‪193‬‬
 ‫ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺑﺪﺍﻧﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻳﺖ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻪ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﺍﻳﺖ ﻭ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺑﻪ ﻓﻠﺰ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻭ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﻭﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩﻙ‬
‫‪Δ‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪2 KNO3 ( s‬‬
‫→⎯‬ ‫) ‪2 KNO2 ( s ) + O2 ( g‬‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ‬
‫⎯ ‪KNO3‬‬
‫) ‪⎯→ K 2O( s ) + N 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g‬‬
‫ﺟﺴﺘﺠﻮ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺁﻳﺎ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻮﻯ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻴﺪ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻳﮕﺮﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺫﻛﺮ ﺷــﺪﺓ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺱ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺑﺪﺍﺭﻳﺪ؟‬
‫‪ : 3- 2- 7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺁﻥ ﺩﻭ ﻳﺎ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﺷﺪ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻐﻠﻖ ﻳﺎ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺳــﺎﺯﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻭﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺑﻴﺸــﺘﺮﻯ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ ﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ‬
‫⎯ ‪A+ B‬‬
‫‪⎯→ CD‬‬ ‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪ CD‬ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ A ،‬ﻭ‪ B‬ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻳﺎ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ‪ A‬ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻭ ‪ B‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻡ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺯﻳﺮ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺶ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 8 – 7‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺷﻜﻠﻰ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻓﻴﺮﻳﻢ)‪ (II‬ﺳﻠﻔﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫⎯ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ +‬ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫‪) - 1‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ( ﻣﺮﻛﺐ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ‪ +‬ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﻣﺮﻛﺐ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ‪ +‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﻣﺮﻛﺐ →⎯‬
‫‪194‬‬
 ‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺟﻤﻌﻰ ﺁﻫﻦ ﻭﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 9 - 7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﻫﻦ ﺑﺎ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪+3 −1‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪2 Fe( s ) + 3 Cl 2 ( s‬‬
‫) ‪⎯→ 2 Fe Cl 3 ( s‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻗﺖ ﺧﻮﺍﻧﺪﻩ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ‪2 ,1‬ﻭ ‪ 3‬ﻛﻪ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﻓﻮﻕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺮﺍﺳﺖ ‪،‬ﺑﻪ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺩﻫﻴﺪ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪H 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g‬‬
‫) ‪⎯→ H 2O(l‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪Hg(l ) + O2 ( g‬‬
‫) ‪⎯→ HgO( s‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪NH3 ( g ) + HCl( g‬‬
‫) ‪⎯→ NH 4Cl( g‬‬
‫⎯ )‪CaO( s) + SiO2 ( s‬‬
‫) ‪⎯→ CaSiO3 ( s‬‬
‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬ ‫⎤‪⎡ H H‬‬
‫ﭘﻮﻟﻰ ﻣﻴﺮﺍﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫‪n C =C‬‬ ‫⎯‬
‫→⎯‬ ‫‪− ⎢⎢ C − C ⎥⎥ −‬‬
‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪⎣⎢ H H ⎦⎥ n‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﺘﻠﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﭘﻮﻟﻰ ﺍﻳﺘﻠﻴﻦ‬
‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪H H‬‬
‫‪C =C‬‬ ‫→⎯ ⎯ ⎯‪+ H 2 ⎯Δ‬‬ ‫‪H −C −C − H‬‬
‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﺘﻠﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻳﺘﺎﻥ‬
‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬
‫ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻳﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻦ‬
‫→⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯⎯ ‪H − C ≡ C − H + H 2‬‬ ‫‪C =C‬‬
‫ﺍﺳﺘﻠﻴﻦ‬ ‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬
‫⎯ ‪Na 2CO3 + H 2O + CO2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2NaHCO3‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﺘﻠﻴﻦ‬
‫‪195‬‬
‫ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺯﻳﺮ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺑﻨﺪﻯ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭﻯ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ‬
‫ﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ‪ +‬ﻓﻠﺰ‬
‫ﻓﻠﺰ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ‪ +‬ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰ‬
‫ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ﺁﺏ ‪ +‬ﻓﻠﺰ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫)ﻗﻠﻮﻯ( ﻓﻠﺰ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ﺁﺏ ‪ +‬ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﺍﺭ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰ ‪ +‬ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻓﻠﺰ‬
‫ﻧﻤﻚ →⎯‬
‫ﭘﻮﻟﻴﻤﺮﺍﻳﺰﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫⎯ ﻣﻮﻧﻮ ﻣﺮ‬
‫ﭘﻮﻟﻴﻤﺮ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ‪ +‬ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﺁﺏ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ‪ + HX‬ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎﻙ‬
‫) ‪⎯→ NH 4 X x = ( F , Cl, Br, I‬‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭ ﺟﻨﻴﺸﻦ‬
‫⎯ ‪ + H 2‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺸﺒﻮﻉ‬‫ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﺸﺒﻮﻉ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ﺁﺏ ‪ +‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺸﺒﻮﻉ‬
‫ﻣﺸﺘﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻨﻰ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻫﺎ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ‪ + X 2‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺸﺒﻮﻉ‬
‫) ‪ , x = (Cl, Br, I‬ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺸﺒﻮﻉ ﻫﻠﻮﺟﻨﺪﺍﺭ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ‪ + HX‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺸﺒﻮﻉ‬
‫) ‪ , x = (Cl, Br, I‬ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺸﺒﻮﻉ ﻫﻠﻮﺟﻨﺪﺍﺭ →⎯‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺟﺪﺍﻛﺮﺩﻥ ﻣﻨﮓ ﺳــﻤﺎﻭﺍﺭ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﭼﺎﻯ ﺟﻮﺵ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻭﺳــﺎﻳﻠﻰ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﺳــﻤﺎﻭﺭ ﻭ ﭼﺎﻯ ﺟﻮﺵ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺁﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺟــﻮﺵ ﻣﻰ ﺩﻫـــﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻠﺴــﻴﻢ ﺑﺎﻯ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﻴــﺖ ﻭ ﻣﮕﻨﻴﺰﻳﻢ ﺑﺎﻯ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﺎﺩﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺛﺮ ﺟﻮﺵ ﺷــﺪﻥ ﺗﺮﺳــﺐ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻭ ﺑــﻪ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ‬
‫ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﻴﺖ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﭼﻨﻴﻦ ﻇﺮﻭﻑ ﻭ ﻭﺳﺎﻳﻞ ﺭﺳﻮﺏ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺍﺯﺩﻳﺎﺩ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻭ‬
‫ﺑﻨﺪﺵ ﺷــﻴﺮﺩﻫﻦ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺠﺮﺍﻯ ﺧﺮﻭﺟﻰ ﺁﺏ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻭﺳﺎﻳﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﺠﺮﻳﺪ ﻣﻨﮓ ﺍﺯ ﻭﺳﺎﻳﻞ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﻃﺮﻳﻘــﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﺳــﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﻪ ﻫــﺎ ﺗﻬﻴﺔ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻗﻠﻮﻯ ﻭﻋﻼﻭﻩ‬
‫ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻥ ﺁﻥ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻣﻨﮓ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻭ ﻭﺳـﺎﻳﻞ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ‪ :‬ﮔﻴﻼﺱ‪ ،‬ﻫﺎﻭﻧﮓ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺳــﺘﻪ‪ ،‬ﺗﺮﺍﺯﻭ‪ ،‬ﭼﺎﻯ ﺟﻮﺵ ﻣﻨﮓ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ 10 g ،‬ﻧﻤﻚ ﻃﻌﺎﻡ‪ 9 g ،‬ﺳــﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ‪ 0.5 g ،‬ﭘﻮﺗﺎﺷﻴﻢ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﻴﺖ ﻭ ‪0.2 g‬‬
‫ﭘﻮﺳﺖ ﺑﻠﻮﻁ‪.‬‬
‫ﻃﺮﺯ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ‪ :‬ﻧﻤﻚ ﻃﻌﺎﻡ ‪ K 2CO3 ،‬ﻭ ﭘﻮﺳﺖ ﺑﻠﻮﻁ ﺭﺍ ﻃﺒﻖ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺩﻗﻴﻖ‬
‫‪196‬‬
 ‫ﻭﺯﻥ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﻫﺎﻭﻧﮓ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺧﻮﺏ ﺑﻪ ﭘﻮﺩﺭ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪ ،‬ﺳﭙﺲ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﮔﻴﻼﺱ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺧﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﺯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺑﺮﺩﻥ ﻣﻨﮓ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ 2‬ﺣﺼﺔ ﺣﺠﻢ ﭼﺎﻯ ﺟﻮﺵ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﺁﺏ ﭘﺮ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻫﺮ ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ﺁﺏ ‪2 − 3 g‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫ﭘﻮﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﺗﻬﻴﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﺁﻥ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪ .‬ﭼﺎﻯ ﺟﻮﺵ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻣﻨﺒﻊ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﮔﺬﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺟﻮﺵ ﺁﻣﺪﻥ ﺁﺏ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻣﺪﺕ ‪ 3 − 5‬ﺩﻗﻴﻘﻪ ﭼﺎﻯ ﺟﻮﺵ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻨﺒﻊ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻧﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺩﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺩﺍﻣــﻪ ﺩﻫﻴــﺪ ﻭ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﭼﺎﻯ ﺟﻮﺵ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺏ ﺗﺨﻠﻴــﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎ ﺁﺏ ﻋﺎﺩﻯ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ‬
‫ﻇﺮﻑ ﺷــﻮﻳﻰ ﭼﺎﻯ ﺟﻮﺵ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺸﻮﻳﻴﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺭﺍﺩﺭ ﭼﺎﻯ ﺟﻮﺵ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﻩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺩﺭ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﭽﻪ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﺎﻥ ﻳﺎﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 3 – 2- 7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﺣﺘﺮﺍﻗﻰ ) ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ(‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﻧﻮﺭ ﻫﻤﺮﺍ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺳــﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺳــﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ‪ ،‬ﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﻭ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺣﺘﺮﺍﻕ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻋﻀﻮﻯ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ‬
‫‪ ، CO2‬ﺁﺏ ﻭ ﺍﻧــﺮژﻯ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﺍﺣﺘﺮﺍﻕ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﺯ ﺳــﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺎﺭﺑﻨﻬﺎ ﻭ ﺳــﺎﻳﺮ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻋﻀﻮﻯ ﺳﻠﻔﺮ ﺩﺍﺭ ‪ ،‬ﺳﻠﻔﺮ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺳــﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻋﻀﻮﻯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺍﺭ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ‪ ،‬ﺑﺨﺼﻮﺹ ‪ NO2‬ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﻣﺘﺎﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺯﻳﺮ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪CH 4 ( g ) + 2O2 ( g‬‬
‫‪⎯→ CO2 ( g ) + 2 H 2O ( g ) + E‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﻛﻢ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﻫﻤﺮﺍﻫﻰ ‪ CO2‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﮔﺎﺯ ‪ CO‬ﻳﺎ ﺩﻭﺩ ‪ C‬ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﻩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻭ‬
‫ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻛﻢ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻃﺒﻘﺎﺕ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﺍﺗﻤﻮﺳﻔﻴﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻪ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﺁﺏ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺳﻚ‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪⎯→ 2 H 2O +‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 H 2 + O2‬‬
‫ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻃﻪ ‪ ،‬ﺭﻭﺷﻨﻰ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺗــــﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻴـﻜﻨﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺍﮔﺮ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻣﮕﻨﻴﺰﻳﻢ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺷﻌﻠﺔ ﺁﺗﺶ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺷﻌﻠﻪ ﻭﺭﺷﺪﻩ‪ ،‬ﻣﻰ ﺳﻮﺯﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 Mg + O2‬‬ ‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﻧﻮﺭ ‪⎯→ 2 MgO +‬‬
‫ﺁﻳﺎ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ ﻣﻴﺒﺎ ﺷﻨﺪ ؟ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺑﺨﻮﺩﻯ ﻓﺎﺳﻔﻮﺭﺱ‬
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‫ﺩﺭ ﻫﻮﺍﻯ ﻣﺮﻃﻮﺏ‪ ،‬ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻣﻬﻢ ﺳــﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺳــﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺧﻮﺩﻯ ﻓﺎﺳﻔﻮﺭﺱ ﺳﻔﻴﺪ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 10 – 7‬ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﻓﺎﺳﻔﻮﺭ ﺩﺭ ﻫﻮﺍ‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﺭﻭﺷﻨﻰ ‪⎯→ P4O10 ( s ) +‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪P4 ( S ) + 5O2 ( g‬‬
‫ﻓﻜﺮ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺁﻳﺎ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ ﻗﺒﻮﻝ ﻛﺮﺩ؟‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻣﮕﻨﻴﺰﻳﻢ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻭ ﻟﻮﺍﺯﻡ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ‪ :‬ﻓﻠﺰ ﻣﮕﻨﻴﺰﻳﻢ ﻭ ﮔﻮﮔﺮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻃﺮﺯ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ‪ 20cm :‬ﻓﻴﺘﺔ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻣﮕﻨﻴﺰﻳﻢ ﺭﺍ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﮔﻮﮔﺮﺩ ﺑﺴﻮﺯﺍﻧﻴﺪ‪ ،‬ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﺭﻭﺷﻨﻰ‬
‫ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﻩ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪ .‬ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﺧﺎﻛﺴﺘﺮ ﺳﻔﻴﺪ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﮕﻨﻴﺰﻳﻢ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﻩ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ (11 - 7‬ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﺳﻴﻢ ﻣﮕﻨﻴﺰﻳﻢ ﻭﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‬
‫‪ : 4 – 2 – 7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺪﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﺯ ﻟﺤﺎﻅ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻥ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭ ﺩﺳــﺘﻪ ﺗﻘﺴــﻴﻢ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ‪،‬‬
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‫ﺩﺳــﺘﺔ ﺍﻭﻝ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺑﺮ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﻧﻮﺭ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧــــﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺗﻌﺎﻣــــــــــﻼﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴـــــﻚ )‪(Exothermic‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﻫﺎ ﺍﮔﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﺎ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷﺪﻥ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﻧﺪ ؛ ﺑﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪:‬‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪⎯→ NaCl + H 2O + E‬‬
‫⎯ ‪NaOH + HCl‬‬
‫⎯ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﻧﻤﻚ ‪ +‬ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ‬ ‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ‪ +‬ﺁﺏ ‪ +‬ﻧﻤﻚ →⎯‬
‫ﻓﻠــﺰﺍﺕ ﻓﻌــﺎﻝ ﺑﺎ ﺁﺏ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻧﻮﺭ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ؛ ﺑﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻭﻗﺘﻴﻜﻪ ﺗﻮﺗﺔ‬
‫ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﻓﻠﺰ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺸﺖ ﭘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺁﺏ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﻮﺩ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﺳﺮﻳﻊ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻧﻮﺭ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻫﻤﺮﺍﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.:‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 12 – 7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻭ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﻧﻮﺭ‬
‫ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ +‬ﻧﻮﺭ ‪2 Na + 2 H 2O ⎯⎯→ 2 NaOH + H 2 +‬‬
‫⎯ ﺁﺏ ‪ +‬ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ‬ ‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ‪ +‬ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ →⎯‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣــﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴــﻚ ﻧﻴــﺰ ﮔﺎﻫﻰ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺷــﺪﻥ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑــﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﻣﮕﺮ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﺸــﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺼﺮﻑ ﻣﻴﺮﺳــﺪ ؛ ﺑﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻓﻠﺰ ﻣﮕﻨﻴﺰﻳﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﺍﺑﺘﺪﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻌﻠﺔ‬
‫ﺁﺗﺶ ﻧﺰﺩﻳﻚ ﺳــﺎﺯﻳﻢ ﺗﺎ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﻏﺎﺯ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﺘﻴﻜﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺷــﺮﻭﻉ ﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺑﻰ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺖ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ‬
‫ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣـــﻴﺸــﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﻫﻢ ﭼﻨﺎﻥ ﺍﮔﺮ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﭘﺘﺎﺷﻴﻢ ﭘﺮﻣﻨﮕﻨﻴﺖ ﮔﻠﻴﺴﺮﻳﻦ ﺭﺍﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﻏﺎﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫ﺑــﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﻓﺘــﺎﺏ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺳــﺎﺯﻯ ﻳﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﻛﺘﻴــﻮﻳﺸــﻦ‬
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 ‫)‪ (Activition‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﻧﺪ ﻳﺎ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺴــﺘﻠﺰﻡ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻧﺪﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴــﻚ )‪(Endothermic‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﻤﻠﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻧﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺍﺳﺘﺤﺼﺎﻝ ﭼﻮﻧﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺳﻨﮓ ﭼﻮﻧﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻣﺼﺮﻑ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﭘﺬﻳﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫‪Δ‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪CaCO3 ( s‬‬
‫→⎯‬ ‫) ‪CaO( s ) + CO2 ( g‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻣﻌــﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣــﻼﺕ ﺯﻳــﺮ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤــﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣــﻞ ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺭﺍ ﺑــﻪ ﺣﺮﻭﻑ ) ‪ (Ex‬ﻭ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺪﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﻭﻑ ) ‪ (En‬ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻰ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪4 H 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 H 2O (l ) + 571,6kJ‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪CH 4 ( g ) + 2O2 ( g‬‬
‫‪⎯→ CO2 ( g ) + 2 H 2O(l ) + 890kJ‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2CuO( s ) + 314,6kJ‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2Cu( s ) + O2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 H 2O(l ) + 571,6kJ‬‬
‫) ‪⎯→ 2 H 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g‬‬
‫⎯ ‪H 2O( s ) + 6kJ‬‬
‫) ‪⎯→ H 2O(l‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪H 2 ( g )Cl2 ( g‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 HCl( g ) + 185kJ‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪H 2O(l‬‬
‫‪⎯→ H 2O( s ) + 6kJ‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪2 Al2O3 ( s‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 Al2O3 + 3351,4kJ‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪4 Al ( s ) + 3O2 ( g‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 Al2O3 + 3351,4kJ‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪Sn( s ) + 2Cl2 ( g‬‬
‫‪⎯→ SnCl4 (l ) + 511,3kJ‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪C ( s ) + O2 ( g‬‬
‫‪⎯→ CO2 ( g ) + 393,5kJ‬‬
‫‪ : 5 – 2 – 7‬ﺩﻳﺎﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺮﻭﺗﺰﻣﻴﻚ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺪﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ‬
‫ﻃــﻮﺭﻯ ﻛــﻪ ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﺯ ﻧﮕﺎﻩ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭ ﺩﺳــﺘﺔ ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﻭ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺪﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ‪ .‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺑﺘﺪﺃ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺳــﺎﺯﻯ )‪ (Activation‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ؛ ﻭﻟﻰ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺳﺎﺯﻯ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣــﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺫﺧﻴﺮﻭﻯ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺫﺧﻴﺮﻭﻯ ﻛﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﻣﺤﺼــﻮﻻﺕ ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺑﺎ ﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ‬
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 ‫ﺗﺠﺰﻳﺔ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻭﻗﺖ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻧﺪﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻭﻟﻴﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺟــــﺬﺏ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ؛‬
‫ﻟــﺬﺍ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺫﺧﻴــﺮﻩ ﻭﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﻴﺸــﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻧﺪﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺑﻰ ﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻧﺪ ؛ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻭﻗﺖ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﺍﺧﺬ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‬
‫ﺩﻭﺑﺎﺭﻩ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻴﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 13 - 7‬ﺩﻳﺎﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﻭﺍﻧﺪﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﺍﺳﻴﺘﻠﻴﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﻫﻮﺍ ) ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ( ‪،‬‬
‫ﺏ ‪ -‬ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﻣﺮﻛﻴﻮﺭﻯ )‪ (II‬ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ )ﺍﻧﺪﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ (‬
‫ﺷــﻜﻞ )‪ ( 14 - 7‬ﭼﺮﺍﻍ ﺍﻛﺴــﻰ ﺍﺳــﻴﺘﻠﻴﻦ ﺩﺭﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺳــﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻭﻟﺪﻧﮓ ﻛﺎﺭﻯ ﻭﻗﻄﻊ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﻣﻴﺮﻭﺩ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻫﻔﺘﻢ‬
‫‪
t‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺶ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪
t‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣــﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻧــﻮﻉ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻧﺎﺗﻰ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻧﻬــﺎ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻭﻟﻴﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣــﻮﺍﺩ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻳﺎ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ‪ ُ،‬ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪
t‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣــﻞ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﺳــﺎﺩﻩ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻠﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻳﻚ ﻳﺎ ﭼﻨــﺪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺟﺎﻯ ﻳﻚ ﻳﺎ‬
‫ﭼﻨﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪
t‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻠﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻳﻚ ﻳﺎ ﭼﻨﺪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﻳﻚ ﻳﺎ ﭼﻨﺪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪
t‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻮﻯ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻠﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﺔ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ‪،‬ﭼﻨﺪ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳــﺖ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺂﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪
t‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﺟﺎﺷﺪﻥ ﺩﻭ ﺑﺎ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ‬
‫ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪
t‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣــﻞ ﺍﺣﺘﺮﺍﻗﻰ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛــﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ‬
‫ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻪ‪ ،‬ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﺭﻭﺷﻨﻰ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪
t‬ﻧﻤﻚ ﻫﺎ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ‪) 0.1mol / L‬ﻣﻮﻝ ﺩﺭﻓﻰ ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ﺁﺏ( ﺣﻞ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ‪،‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﻭ ﺍﮔﺮ ﺑﻴﻦ ‪ 0.1 − 0.001‬ﻣﻮﻝ ﻓﻰ ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ﺁﺏ ﺣﻞ ﺷــﻮﻧﺪ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﻭ ﺍﮔﺮ‬
‫ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ‪ 0.001‬ﻣﻮﻝ ﻓﻰ ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ﺁﺏ ﺣﻞ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪
t‬ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻦ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻛــﻢ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺑﺎ ﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﻭ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻧﺪﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻦ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺑﻰ ﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪
t‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣــﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﻧﻴﺰ ﮔﺎﻫﻰ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺷــﺪﻥ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺗﻌﺎﻣــﻞ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺕ‬
‫‪202‬‬
‫ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﻣﮕﺮ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺼﺮﻑ ﻣﻴﺮﺳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻫﻔﺘﻢ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺟﻮﺍﺑﻪ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﺍﺧﺘﺼﺎﺭﻯ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺑﻰ ‪ ------‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩ‪sol -‬‬ ‫ﺝ‪aq -‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ‪ L-‬ﺏ‪l -‬‬
‫‪ 2-‬ﺍﺯ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻣﻴﺘﺎﻥ‪ ،‬ﮔﺎﺯ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺁﺏ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺟﻤﻠﻪ ﭼﻴﺴﺖ؟‬
‫ﺏ‪ -‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮﻯ ﺍﺳﺖ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ‪ -‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺳﻤﺒﻮﻟﻴﻚ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﺩ‪ -‬ﻳﻚ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺝ‪ -‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻔﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫‪ 3-‬ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ →⎯‬
‫⎯ ) ‪ K ( s) + H 2O(l‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺍﺯ‪:‬‬
‫ﺩ‪ -‬ﻫﻴﭻ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ‪ K 2O + H 2O2 -‬ﺏ‪ KOH + H 2 -‬ﺝ‪K + H 2 + O2 -‬‬
‫‪ 4-‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺝ‪ -‬ﺭﺳﻮﺏ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﻩ ﺩ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻒ ﻭ ﺏ ﻫﺮﺩﻭ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ‪ -‬ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﻯ ﺏ‪ -‬ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ‬
‫‪ 5-‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺳﻠﻔﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻞ ﺍﻧﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ‪ Na 2 SO4 -‬ﺏ‪ K 2 SO4 -‬ﺝ‪ BaSO4 -‬ﺩ‪FeSO4 -‬‬
‫→⎯⎯ )‪ ، CaCO3 ( s‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ؟‬
‫‪Δ‬‬
‫‪ 6-‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪CaO + CO2‬‬
‫ﺩ‪ -‬ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ‬ ‫ﺝ‪ -‬ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ‬ ‫ﺏ‪ -‬ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻮﻯ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ‪ -‬ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺻﺤﻴﺢ ﻭ ﻏﻠﻂ‬
‫ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﺻﺤﻴﺢ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﻑ )ﺹ( ﻭ ﻏﻠﻂ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﻑ )ﻍ( ﻧﺸﺎﻧﻰ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫(‬ ‫‪ 1-‬ﻧﻤﻚ ﺫﻭﺏ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺑﺮﻕ ﺑﻪ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻭ ﺑﻘﻴﺔ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑﻰ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪).‬‬
‫(‬ ‫‪ 2-‬ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﻴﺘﻠﻴﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﺘﻠﻴﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ‪) .‬‬
‫(‬ ‫‪ 3-‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪).‬‬
‫(‬ ‫‪ 4-‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﺑﺎ ﺁﺏ ﻭ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺍﻧﺪ‪).‬‬
‫‪2 3‬‬
‫‪203‬‬
 ‫(‬ ‫‪ - 5‬ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﺍﻧﺪﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺑﺎ ﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻧﺪ‪).‬‬
‫(‬ ‫‪ - 6‬ﺳﻤﺒﻮﻝ ‪ S‬ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻣﺎﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪).‬‬
‫(‬ ‫‪⎯→ - 7‬‬
‫⎯ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ )ﻣﻰ ﺩﻫﺪ( ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‪).‬‬
‫(‬ ‫‪ - 8‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪⎯→ Fe + CO2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪ C + FeO‬ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﺩﻭﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ‪).‬‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﺎﻧﻪ ﺧﺎﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺟﺎﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﺎﻟﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺗﻜﻤﻴﻞ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﻣﮕﻨﻴﺰﻳﻢ ﺑﺎ ﻣﺲ ) ‪ (II‬ﺳﻠﻔﻴﺖ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ .................‬ﻭ ‪ .................‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ PbCl2 - 2‬ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ‪ .................‬ﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻮﻯ ‪ Pb(OH ) 2‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ‪ .................‬ﻭ ‪ .................‬ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﺷﻜﻞ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ ‪ .................‬ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ‪ ،‬ﻓﻠﺰ ‪ +‬ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ‪ .................‬ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 6‬ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﻧﻤﻚ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ .................‬ﻭ ‪ .................‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﻣﺎﺣﻮﻝ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺟﺬﺏ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪ .................‬ﻧﺎﻣﻴﺪﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 8‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ‪ .................‬ﻧﺎﻣﻴﺪﻩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﺤﻰ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ؟‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻋﻤﺪﺓ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻔﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺳﻤﺒﻮﻟﻴﻚ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﺩﻫﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 6‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻭ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﺑﻨﻮﻳﺴﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪204‬‬
 ‫‪ - 7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 8‬ﺁﻳﺎ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ؟ ﭼﺮﺍ؟‬
‫‪ - 9‬ﺩﻳﺎﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺰﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺪﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺮﺳﻴﻢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 10‬ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻨﻮﻳﺴﻴﺪ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺩﻫﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪1−‬‬ ‫⎯ ) ‪Al ( s) + HCl(l‬‬
‫→⎯‬
‫‪2−‬‬ ‫⎯ ) ‪Fe( s) + H 2O(l‬‬
‫→⎯‬
‫‪3−‬‬ ‫⎯ )‪C ( s) + Fe2O3 ( s‬‬
‫→⎯‬
‫‪4−‬‬ ‫⎯ )‪NaOH (aq) + H 3 PO4 (aq‬‬
‫→⎯‬
‫‪5−‬‬ ‫⎯ ) ‪C2 H 5OH (l ) + O2 ( g‬‬
‫→⎯‬
‫‪205‬‬
 ‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﻫﺸﺘﻢ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﭘﺮﻭﺳﺲ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭ ﻣﻬﻢ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬
‫‪ .‬ﺳــﻮﺧﺘﺎﻧﺪﻥ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻰ ﺩﺭﺳــﻮﺧﺖ ﮔﺎﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﻳﮓ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺳﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻟﺘﻴﻜﻰ‬
‫ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ‪ ،‬ﭘﺮﻭﺳــﺲ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﮔﻠﻮﺍﻧﻴﻜﻰ ﻭ ﺑﺘﺮﻯ ﻫﺎ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻫﻤﻪ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﻰ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻭﻟﻰ ﻭ ﺍﺑﺘﺪﺍﻳﻰ)‬
‫ﺁﻫــﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻛــﺮﻭﻡ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻨﮕﻨﻴﺰ ‪ ،‬ﻃــﻼ ‪ ،‬ﻧﻘﺮﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻠﻮﺭ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻮﺩﻳﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻭ ﻏﻴــﺮﻩ ( ﻫﻤﭽﻨﺎﻥ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ‬
‫ﻣﺸــﺨﺺ ﻛﻴـــــــﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ) ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﺷﻮﺭﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﮔﻮﮔﺮﺩ ﻭ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﻫﺎ ( ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻭﺭﮔﺎﻧﻴﺰﻡ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺣﻴﻪ ﺍﻋﻢ ﺍﺯ ﻧﺒﺎﺗﺎﺕ ﻭ ﺣﻴﻮﺍﻧﺎﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻭ ﺗﺒﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﺷــﻦ ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭﻣﻬﻤﻰ‬
‫ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻭ ﻣﺠﺰﺍ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﺷﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺑﻘﺎﻯ ﺣﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﺍﺕ ﺣﻴﻪ ﺣﺘﻤﻰ ﻭ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻯ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﻳــﻦ ﻓﺼــﻞ ﺭﺍﺟﻊ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻭﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸــﻦ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺣﺎﺻــﻞ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪،‬‬
‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻭﺗﻮﺯﻳﻦ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫ﻭﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻣﻮﺯﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺳﺎﺳﻰ ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ – ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻴﺪ ﮔﺮﻓﺖ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ : 1- 8‬ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻭﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﺳــﺎﺑﻖ ﺍﺻﻄﻼﺡ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻭ ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺩﻳﮕﺮﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﻣﻴﺮﻓﺖ ؛ ﻃﻮﺭﻯ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﻧﺼﺐ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺭﺍﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻳﺎﺩﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻧﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪S + O2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ SO2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪C + O2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ CO2‬‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺑﻠﻜﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ‬
‫ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺑﮕﻴﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 K ClO3 + 3S‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 KCl + SO2‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻓﻮﻕ ‪ K ClO3‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺳــﻠﻔﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻛﺸﻴﺪﻥ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﻭﻧﺼﺐ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻳﺎ ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﻣﻰ ﻧﺎﻣﻴﺪﻧﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪Fe2O3 + 3H 2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 Fe + 3H 2O‬‬
‫⎯ ‪Fe2O3 + 3CO‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 Fe + 3CO2‬‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﻪ ﻳﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ) ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ‬
‫ﻗﺴﻤﻰ ( ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﻣﻴﺮﻭﺩ ‪ ،.‬ﻋﻤﻠﻴﻪ ﻳﻰ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺁﻣﺪﻥ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ) ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ‬
‫ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻗﺴﻤﻰ( ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻴـــــﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺭﻳﺪ ﻛﺸﻦ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻛﻨﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻭﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸــﻦ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻧﻮﻋﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ – ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪+4 −2‬‬
‫⎯‪C+ O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ C O 2‬‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﺷﺪﻩ‬ ‫ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﺷﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻣﺎ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ – ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ؛ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﻧﻤﺒﺮﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺍﻭﻟﻰ ﺑﺎﻗﻰ ﻣﺎﻧﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫⎯ ‪BaO + H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Ba(OH ) 2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 NaOH + H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Na2 SO4 + 2 H 2O‬‬
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‫ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻻً ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻭﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻫﻢ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ ﻭ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﻭﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻗﺒﻮﻝ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪء ﺍﻟﺠﺒﺮﻯ‬
‫ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻔﺮﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﻩء ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻫﻤﺰﻣﺎﻥ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮ‬
‫ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ‬
‫ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﮔﻰ ) ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﺍﻧﻰ ( ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﻮﻯ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ) .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺩﺭ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ (‬
‫ﻭ ﺑﺮ ﻋﻜﺲ ﻫﺮ ﻗﺪﺭ ﻛﻪ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ‬
‫ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﺍﻧﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﮔﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﻮﻯ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻫﺎ ﻭﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺳﺎﺯﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫⎯ ‪Cl2 + 2 NaOH‬‬
‫‪⎯→ NaClO + NaCl + H 2O‬‬
‫ﻓﻜﺮ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺑﺮﻕ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻳﺎ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻭﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺑﺮﻕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺪﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ ؟‬
‫ﺏ – ﭼﺮﺍ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻭ ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﻻﺯﻡ ﻭﻣﻠﺰﻭﻡ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﻧﺪ ؟‬
‫‪ : 2 – 8‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺖ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺩﺍﻧﺴﺖ‪ ) .‬ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺖ ﺁﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﭘﻰ ﺑﺮﺩ ( ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﺗﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺷﻤﺎﺭ ﻧﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻭ ﻋﻼﻣﺎﺕ ) ‪ ( +‬ﻭ ﻳﺎ ) ‪ ( -‬ﺭﺍ ﻧﺪﺍﺭﻧﺪ ؛ ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺸــﺨﺺ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ؛ ﻻﻛﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺧﺬ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻴﺖ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ﻭ ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ‬
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‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺭﺍ ﻛﺴــﺐ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ‬
‫ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﻗﺴﻤﻰ ﻳﺎ ﺷﺮﻃﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺫﺭﻳﻌﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﭘﻴﺶ ﺑﻴﻨﻰ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ ﺗﻌﻠﻖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻋـــــــــﻼﻣﺖ ) ‪ ( +‬ﻭ ﻳﺎ ) ‪ ( -‬ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﻋﻼﻣﺖ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﺟﺪﺍ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭ‬
‫ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﻣﻠﺤﻖ ﺷﺪﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﻠﺤﻖ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 1 – 2 – 8‬ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ) ﻋﻨﺼﺮﻯ ( ﻭ ﺩﺭﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻋﻤﻠﻰ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﺭﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﺗﺎﻡ ﻭﻳﺎ ﻛﺴﺮﻯ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺑﺪﻫﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﺭ ‪ H 2O‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ) ‪ ( - 2‬ﺑـــﻮﺩﻩ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ‪ - 1، H 2O2‬ﻭ ﺩﺭﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ‪ KO‬ﻭ ‪ KO3‬ﺑﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ ‪ − 1‬ﻭ ‪ − 1‬ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺍﻛﺴﻰ‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫ﻓﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ‪ OF2‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ‪ + 2‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟــﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴــﺎﻭﻯ ‪ + 1‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺩﺭﻣﺮﻛﺒــﺎﺕ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ‬
‫)‪ (Hydride Metals‬ﻧﻤﺒﺮﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺁﻥ‪ - 1‬ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻭ‬
‫ﻋﻼﻣﻪ ﺁﻥ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻯ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ KCl‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ ‪ + 1‬ﻭ‪ - 1‬ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬ ‫‪−1‬‬ ‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ‪ + 1, K‬ﻭ ﺍﺯ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ‪، Cl‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺖ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ‪ -‬ﻛﻮﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻰ‬
‫ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ؛ ﺑــﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜــﺎﻝ ‪ ( HNO3 , NH 4 NO3 , NH 4 NO2 , NH 3 ) :‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ ﻗﻮﻯ ﻋﻼﻣﻪ ) ‪ ( -‬ﻭ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﮕﺎﺗﻴﻒ‬
‫ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻼﻣﻪ ) ‪ ( +‬ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺩ ﺍ ﻧﺴــﺘﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺳﻠﺴــﻠﺔ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻌﻘﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺗﺎ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﮔﺮﺍﻓــــــﻴﻜﻰ ﻣـــــــــــﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﮔــــــــــــــــﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ‬
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‫ﻣﺮﻛﺒـــــــــــﺎﺕ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟــﻦ ﺩﺍﺭ ) ‪ HNO3, HNO2 , NH 4OH , NH 3‬ﻭ ‪ ،( N 2 H 4‬ﺑﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ‪ + 5 ، + 3 ، - 3 ، - 3‬ﻭ ‪ - 1‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺁﺷــﻜﺎﺭ ﺩﺭﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻧﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎﺑﻪ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻴﺮﺳﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ‬
‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ N 2 H 4 :‬ﺗﻘﺴــﻴﻢ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎﻯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺗﻌﻘﻴﺐ ﺁﻥ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻬﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﻰ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺗﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺩﺭﺳﻄﺢ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﻭ‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺭﺍﻳـﻪ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻋﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ) ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ‪N 2 , Br2 , Cl 2 , H 2 :‬‬
‫ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻩ ( ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻔﺮ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ؛‬
‫ﺯﻳﺮﺍ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﻤﭽﻮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺷــﺎﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺸــﺘﺮﻙ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺮ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫) ‪ ( H : H‬ﻭ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ) ‪ ( Cl : Cl‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻫﺮ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻔﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻟﻴﻜﻦ‬
‫‪) Covalence‬ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ( ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺭﻧﻈﺮﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺟﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻋﻀﻮﻯ‪ ،‬ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺖ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻠﺤﻖ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ ) :‬ﻓﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ( ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﺳﻜﻠﻴﺖ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻋﻀﻮﻯ ﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﭘﻮﺗﻨﺴﻴﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺮ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﭘﻮﻻﺭﺗﻰ ) ﻗﻄﺒﻴﺖ(ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺯﺩ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﻮ ﻭﻻﻧﺴﻰ ﻗﻄﺒﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 6‬ﻓﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺩﺭﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻊ ﻣﻨﻈﻢ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻔﺮﻗﺒﻮﻝ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 7‬ﺩﺭﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺍﻟﺠﺒﺮﻯ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﻭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺒﺮﻯ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﺷــﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻔﺮﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 8‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﺎﻣﭙﻠﻜﺲ ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻻ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺸــﺨﺺ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﻧﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺩﺭﻣﺮﻛﺐ] ‪ [Ni ( NH 3 )5 ]SO4 ، K 2 [Fe(SCN )5‬ﺑﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺁﻫﻦ‬
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‫ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ )‪ (3+‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻧﻜﻞ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ) ‪ ( 2+‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﻻﺯﻡ ﺑﻪ ﻳﺎﺩ ﺁﻭﺭﻯ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺍﻧﺴــﺘﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﻪء ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻇﺎﻫﺮﻯ ﭘﺪﻳﺪﺍﺭ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻻ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﻰ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺑﺴﻴﺎﺭﻯ ﺣﺎﻻﺕ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﺸــﺨﺺ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺩﺭﻣﻴﺘﺎﻥ) ‪ ( CH 4‬ﻓﺎﺭﻣﻴﻚ ﺍﺳــﻴﺪ )‬
‫‪ ( HCOOH‬ﻣﻴـــﺘﺎﻧﻮﻝ ) ‪ ( CH 3 − OH‬ﻓﺎﺭﻡ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻬﺎﻳﺪ ) ‪ ( CH 2 O‬ﻭ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫) ‪ ( CO 2‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 4+ ، 0 ، 2- ، 2+ ، 4-‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﺁﻥ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺭﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺮ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 4‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺩﺍﻧﺴﺘﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺧﺎﺹ ﺩﺭﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻣﺘﺤﺎﻥ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪﻳﺶ ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍﻛﻪ ﻣﺠﻬﻮﻝ )‪(x‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪X‬‬ ‫‪X‬‬ ‫‪X‬‬
‫‪⎡X‬‬ ‫⎤‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ ⎢ Ni( NH 3 ) 5 ⎥ SO4 -‬ﺏ ‪ Al 2 (SO4 ) 3 -‬ﺝ ‪ Na Cl O -‬ﺩ ‪H 3 P O3 -‬‬
‫⎣‬ ‫⎦‬
‫ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﺳــﻠﻔﺮ ‪ ، +6‬ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ‪ ، +1‬ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ‪ ، -3‬ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ‪ +1‬ﻭ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ‬
‫‪ -2‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪: 3- 8‬ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ‪ :‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺒﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺑﺴﻴﻂ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ ﻭﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ) ‪2Ca( s) + O2 ( g‬‬‫)‪⎯→ 2CaO( s‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 HI + Br2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 HBr + I 2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 Al + 3CuSO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Al2 ( SO4 )3 + 3Cu‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ– ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺧﻮﺩﻯ ‪ ) Disproportionation‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ (‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺔ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﺩﺭﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭﻫﻢ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪Cl2 + 2 NaOH‬‬ ‫‪⎯→ NaClO+ NaCl + H 2O‬‬
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 ‫‪ - 3‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻳﻚ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ‬
‫ﺩﻳﮕــﺮ ﺁﻥ ﻭﻇﻴﻔــﺔ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺟﺮﺍ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺳــﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧــﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ‪،‬‬
‫ﭘﺮﻭﺳﺲ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ ﭘﺎﺭﭼﻪ ﺷﺪﻥ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻐﻠﻖ ﺑﻪ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:‬‬
‫‪1−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 NO3‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 NO2 + O2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 KClO3‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 KCl + 3O2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 AgNO3‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 Ag + 2 NO2 + O2‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ـ ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺯ ﺟﻤﻠﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻧﻮﻉ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ‬
‫ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻭﻫﻢ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍﻣﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫⎯ ‪1 − 3( NH 4 ) 2 S + K 2Cr2O7 + H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 3S + 2Cr (OH ) 3 + 2 KOH + 6 N 2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 − NaClO3 + 6 NaI + 3H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ NaCl + 3I 2 + 3 Na2 SO4 + 3H 2O‬‬
‫⎯ ‪3 − 4 K 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 3K 2 SO3 + K 2 S‬‬
‫⎯ ‪4 − NH 4 NO2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 H 2O + N 2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪5 − 3N 2 H 4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 4 NH 3 + N 2‬‬
‫‪ : 4 - 8‬ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺑﻴﻼﻧﺲ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ‪Oxidation – Reduction‬‬
‫ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻭ ﺑﻴﻼﻧﺲ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺗﺎ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ‬
‫ﻛﻨﻨــﺪﻩ ﻫــﺎ ﻭ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻫﺎ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻏﺎﺯ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻧﺴــﺘﻪ ﺷــﻮﺩ‬
‫‪.‬ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻌﻤــــــﻮﻻً ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻓــﻌﺎﻝ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﺪ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷــﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺁﺷﻜﺎﺭ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﺗﺒﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ »ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ« ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻭﻗﻮﻉ ﻣﻰ ﭘﻴﻮﻧﺪﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑــﻪ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬
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 ‫ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ‪ Redox‬ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻧﺠﺎﻡ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺗﺎ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻤﺮﻛﺰ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷــﺪﺓ ‪ H + ، O 2−‬ﻣﺪ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷــﻮﺩﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑﻰ ﺑﺎ‬
‫ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺷــﺪﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻢ ﺗﻔﻜﻴﻚ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺁﺏ ﻣﻨﺠﺮ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﻭ ﻳﺎ‬
‫ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ﺁﺏ ﺑﺎ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ) ‪ ( OH −‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫⎯ ‪HOH + O 2−‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2OH −‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺩﻭﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ‪ Red ox‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻭ ﺑﻴﻼﻧﺲ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ : 1 – 4- 8‬ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﺑﻴﻼﻧﺲ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺣﺘﻤﺎً ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻳﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻣﻠﺤﻖ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 2 – 4- 8‬ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﻧﻴﻤﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ) ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﺁ ﻳﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ (‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺪﺍﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ) ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻧﻴﻤﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ( ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﭘﺮﻭﺳــﺲ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸــﻦ ﺑﺎ ﺟﻤﻊ ﻛﺮﺩﻥ ﺑﻌﺪﻯ ﺁﻧﻬــﺎ ﺩﺭﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺁﻳﻮﻧــﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﻧﻴﻤﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﺁﺑﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻳﺎﺩﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﻳﺎﺩﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻥ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ‬
‫ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮﺩﻭﻃﺮﻑ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪ Oxidation – Reduction‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺗﺎ ﻧﻪ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﺿﺮﻳﺐ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ‬
‫ﮔــﺮﺩﺩ ﺑﻠﻜﻪ ﺿﺮﻳﺐ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ) ﺁﺏ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻴــﺰﺍﺏ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ( ﻧﻴﺰ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎﺕ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻳﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺟﺪﺍ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﻣﻮﺟﺐ‬
‫ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﭘﺮﻭﺳﺲ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫‪213‬‬
 ‫ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ) ‪: ( pH > 7‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑﻰ ) ‪( pH < 7‬‬
‫⎯ ‪HIO3 + 5 HI‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 3I 2 + 3H 2O‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﺿﻌﻴﻒ ‪pH ≥ 7‬‬
‫⎯ ‪As2O3 + 2 I 2 + 2 H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ As2O5 + 4 HI‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑﻰ ) ‪( pH < 7‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺗﻴﻜﻪ ‪ pH ≤ 1‬ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﭘﺮﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﺩﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﻯ ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ‬
‫ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪﻯ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﺩﻳﻦ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺗﺒﺎﺭﺯ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪5 H 2O2 + I 2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 HIO3 + 4 H 2O‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺧﺎﻃﺮ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺷﻤﺎ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻭﺍﺩﺍﺭ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ﺗﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺳﻤﺘﻰ ﻣﻴﻼﻥ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺳﻤﺖ ﺟﺎﺭﻯ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻏﻠﻈﺖ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺳﻪ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺍﺩﺍﻣﻪ ﭘﻴﺪﺍ ﻣﻰ ﻛﻨﺪ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﺍﺑﺘﺪﺍﻳﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﺍﺑﺘﺪﺍﻳﻰ ﻭ ﺗﻤﺮﻛﺰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﻰ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ ﻇﺎﻫﺮﻯ ﺩﻭﻡ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪ ،‬ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺗﺎ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺗﻤﺮﻛﺰ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺪﺍﻧﻴﻢ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ‪، + 5 ، + 6 ، + 7‬‬
‫‪ + 4‬ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﺑﺎﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺭﺳﻮﺏ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ‪ [RO4 ] n −‬ﻭ ‪ [RO3 ] m−‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ SO42− , MnO41− , SO32− , CO32− , ClO41− :‬ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻌﻀــﻰ ﺍﻭﻗــﺎﺕ ‪ C ، S ، Mn‬ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴــﻂ ﺧﻨﺜــﻰ ﻭﻳــﺎ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑــﻰ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﻫــﺎ‬
‫‪214‬‬
‫) ‪ ( dioxides‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪ ﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ‪ +4‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺁﻥ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﻧﺪ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ‪ SO2 , MnO2 , CO2‬ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻣﻔﻮﺗﻴﺮ) ‪ ( Amphotric Elementes‬ﺑﺎ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴـــــــــــﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ) ‪ (+ 4 ، + 3 ، + 2‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﺎﻣﭙﻜﻠﺲ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﺭﺍ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺷﻜﻞ‬
‫ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪:‬‬
‫] ) ‪[Me(OH ) ] , [Me(OH ) ] , [Me(OH‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪3−‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻯ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ) ‪ ( + 3 ، + 2 ، + 1‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑﻰ ﻧﻤﻚ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳــﺖ ﺁﻳــﻮﻥ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻰ ﻭ ﺑﻴﺶ ﺍﺯﺣﺪ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ) ‪ ( O 2−‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑﻰ ﺑﺎ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻛﻢ ﺗﻔﻜﻴﻚ ﺷﺪﺓ ﺁﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪O 2− + 2 H +‬‬
‫‪⎯→ H 2O‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﻳﺖ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﻴﺶ ﺍﺯ ﺣﺪ ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﻫﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫ﺁﺏ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪ OH‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪O 2 − + H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2OH −‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻰ ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﺑﺎ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪ OH −‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﺭﺍ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ‬
‫ﺫ ﻳﻞ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2OH − + 2 H +‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 H 2O‬‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﻛﻤــﻰ ﺁﻳــﻮﻥ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ) ‪ ( O 2−‬ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴــﻂ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑﻰ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺧﻨﺜــﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺁﺏ‬
‫) ‪ ( H 2O‬ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺟﺪﺍ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 H + + O 2−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪H 2O −‬‬
‫‪ - 6‬ﻗﻠﺖ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎﻯ ) ‪ ( OH −‬ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ‬
‫ﻛﺸﻴﺪﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2OH −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ H 2O + O 2−‬‬
‫‪+‬‬
‫‪ - 7‬ﺩﺭﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻗﻠﺖ ﻭ ﻛﻤﻰ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪ H‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ‪ Redox‬ﺍﺯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺁﺏ ) ‪( H +‬ﻛﺸﻴﺪﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪ OH −‬ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪⎯→ O H − + H +‬‬
‫⎯ ‪H 2O‬‬
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 ‫‪ : 5- 8‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ‪ Redox‬ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬
‫‪ : 1 - 5 -8‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺭﻳﺪﻭﻛﺲ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑﻰ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺍﻭﻝ‪ :‬ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪ ﻳﺸــﻦ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺳﻠﻔﺎﻳﺪ ‪ H 2 S‬ﺑﺎ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﺁﺑﻰ ‪ KMnO 4‬ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ‬
‫ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑﻰ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻃﺒﻖ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺩﺍﻣﻪ ﭘﻴﺪﺍ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪KMnO4 + H 2 S + H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ K 2 SO4 + MnSO4 + S + H 2O‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﭘﺮﻭﺳﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ‪ Mn‬ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ‪ MnO41−‬ﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫ﺳﻠﻔﺮ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ H 2 S‬ﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ – ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ‪ MnO41−‬ﻭﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪ ﻳﺸــﻦ‬
‫‪ H 2 S‬ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫‪1−‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 MnO4 + 8H + 5e‬‬‫‪⎯→ Mn 2+ + 4 H 2O − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − I‬‬
‫⎯ ‪H 2 S − 2e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ S + 2 H + − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − II‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﺭﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﭼﭗ ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻋﻴﻦ ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ‬
‫ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺭﻳﺪﻭﻛﺲ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑﻰ ﺟﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﻏﺮﺽ‬
‫ﺗﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ) ‪ ( 1‬ﻫﺸــﺖ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳــﺖ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻰ ﺩﺍﺭﻳﻢ ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺩﻭﻃﺮﻑ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ) ‪ ( 1‬ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ‬
‫ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺷــﺪﻥ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻣﺠــﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺒﺮﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ – ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺷــﺪﻩ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﭘﺮﻭﺳﺲ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪ ﻳﺸﻦ ‪ H 2 S‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ) ‪ ( II‬ﻣﺸــﺨﺺ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻣﺠـــــــــــــــﻤﻮﻋﻰ‬
‫ﺁﻳــﻮﻥ ‪ -‬ﺍ ﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧــﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ) ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ‪ (III‬ﻭ ﺿﺮﻳﺐ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣـــﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ‪:‬‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 MnO4 + 16 H + + 5 H 2 S‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 Mn + + 5S + 8 H 2O + 10 H + − − − − − − − − III‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 KMnO4 + 5 H 2 S + 3H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ K 2 SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 5S + 8H 2O − − − − − − IV‬‬
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 ‫ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺁﺯﻣﺎﻳﺶ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪ ﻳﺸــﻦ ﺳﻠﻔﺎﻳﺪ ﺳﺮﺏ) ‪ ( PbS‬ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ‪ HNO3‬ﺭﺍﻛﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪PbS + HNO3‬‬
‫‪⎯→ PbSO4 + NO2 + H 2O‬‬
‫⎯ ‪PbS + 8 HNO3‬‬
‫‪⎯→ PbSO4 + 8 NO2 + 4 H 2O‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺩﻭﻡ ‪ :‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻴﻼﻧﺲ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫⎯ ‪NaBr + NaBrO3 + H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Br2 + Na 2 SO4 + H 2O‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 Br − − 2e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Br2‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪BrO + 10e − + 12 H +‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪⎯→ Br2 + 6 H 2O‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪10 Br − + 2 BrO3 + 12 H +‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 5 Br2 + Br2 + 6 H 2O‬‬
‫⎯ ‪10 NaBr + 2 NaBrO3 + 6 H 2 SO4‬‬‫‪⎯→ 6 Br2 + 6 Na 2 SO4 + 6 H 2O‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺳﻮﻡ ‪ :‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻦ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫⎯ ‪SnCl 2 + K 2Cr2O7 + H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ K 2 SO4 + Sn( SO4 ) 2 + H 2O‬‬
‫⎯ ‪Sn 2+ − 2e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Sn 4+‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪Cr2O7 + 14 H + + 6e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Sn 4+ + 2Cr 3+ + 7 H 2O‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪3Sn 2+ + Cr2O7 + 14 H +‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 3Sn 4+ + 2Cr 3+ + 7 H 2O‬‬
‫⎯ ‪3SnCl 2 + K 2Cr2O7 + 7 H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ K 2 SO4 + CrCl 2 + 3Sn( SO4 ) 2 + 7 H 2O‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻦ ﺷﺪﺓ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﻓﻮﻕ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺁﺯﻣﺎﻳﺶ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻭﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪ -‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪ Oxidation – Reduction‬ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻭﺗﻮﺯﻳﻦ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫⎯ ‪1 − KNO 2 + K 2 Cr2 O7 + HNO3‬‬
‫‪⎯→ KNO3 + Cr ( NO3 ) 3 + H 2 O‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 − FeSO4 + KClO 4 + H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ KCl + Fe2 ( SO4 ) 3 + H 2 O‬‬
‫⎯ ‪3 − AS 2 S 3 + HNO3‬‬
‫‪⎯→ H 3 AsO4 + NO + H 2 SO4‬‬
‫⎯ ‪4 − Zn + HNO3‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Zn ( NO3 ) 2 + NH 4 NO3 + − − −‬‬
‫⎯ ‪5 − P + HNO3‬‬
‫‪⎯→ H 3 PO4 + NO + − − −‬‬
‫‪ : 2 - 5 – 8‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ‪ Oxidation – Reduction‬ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ‬
‫ﻣﺜـﺎﻝ ﺍﻭﻝ‪ :‬ﺩﺭﻳــﻦ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣــﻞ ‪ ( Sodium Chromite ) NaCrO 2‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ‬
‫ﺑﺮﻭﻣﻴﻦ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪NaCrO2 + Br2 + NaOH‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Na2CrO4 + NaBr + H 2O‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﭘﺮﻭﺳﺲ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻛﺮﻭﻡ ) ‪ ( Cr‬ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ‪ CrO2 −‬ﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﻭ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﻧﻴﻤﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴــــــــــــــﻢ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ‪ ) CrO2 −‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‪ ( 1‬ﻭ ﭘﺮﻭﺳﺲ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻋﻰ ﺑﺮﻭﻣﻴﻦ )ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ‪ ( 2‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﺩ‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻧﻈﺮ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﻳﻢ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪ Redox‬ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪CrO2 + 4OH − − 2e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ CrO42− + 2 H 2O − − − − − − − − − − − − − 1‬‬
‫⎯ ‪Br2 + 2e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 Br − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 2‬‬
‫ﻏﺮﺽ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺳــﺎﺧﺘﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ) ‪ ( 1‬ﭼﻬﺎﺭﺁﻳﻮﻥ‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫‪ OH‬ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳﺖ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺗﺎ ﺩﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ .‬ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺟﻤﻊ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2CrO2 + 3Br2 + 8OH −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2CrO42− + 4 H 2O‬‬
‫ﺿﺮﻳــﺐ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﻻﺯﻣﻪ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻻﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬
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 ‫ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺮ ﺑﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 NaCrO2 + 3Br2 + 8 NaOH‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 Na2CrO4 + 6 NaBr + 4 H 2O‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺩﻭﻡ ‪ :‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﺳﻠﻔﺎﻳﺖ ‪ Na2 SO3‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ‪ KMnO 4‬ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ‬
‫ﻗﻮﻯ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺛﺮﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻛﻢ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺑﺎ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻣﺮﺍﻋﺎﺕ ﺷﺪﺓ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ‪:‬‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻫﺎﺭﺍ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﻳﻢ ‪.‬‬
‫⎯ ‪Na 2 SO3 + KMnO4 + NaOH‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Na 2 SO4 + K 2 MnO4 + H 2O‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ Na2 SO3‬ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪ SO3 2−‬ﺑــﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺍﺭﺟــﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﭘﺪﻳﺪﺍﺭ ﺷــﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ‬
‫ﺩﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﺩﺳــﺖ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪ SO4 2−‬ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ KMnO 4‬ﺁﻳﻮﻥ‬
‫‪ MnO4 −‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺎﻥ ﻣﻰ ﺷــﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﻠــﻰ ﻏﻠﻴﻆ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺛﺮ ﻛﻤﻰ‬
‫ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻗﺒﻮﻝ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ‪ MnO4 2−‬ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻧﻴﻤﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﭘﺮﻭﺳﺲ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﻰ ﺳﺎﺯﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻣﻰ ﺷــﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﺟﺎﺭﻯ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺒﻮﺩ‬
‫ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ OH −‬ﺗﻜﻤﻴﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺁﺏ ﺗﺸــــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬ﺿﺮﻳﺐ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻧﻴﻤﻪ ﺑﺮﺭﺳﻰ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﻧﻴﻤﻪ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻮﻳﺴﻴﻢ‪:‬‬
‫‪−‬‬ ‫‪2−‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪MnO + 1e −‬‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪⎯→ MnO‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬ ‫‪2−‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪SO3 + 2OH − − 2e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ SO4 + H 2O‬‬
‫‪−‬‬ ‫‪2−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 MnO4 + SO32− + OH −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 MnO4‬‬ ‫‪+ SO42− + H 2O‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻴﻢ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﻛﻪ ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 KMnO4 + Na2 SO3 + 2 KOH‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 K 2 MnO4 + Na2 SO4 + H 2O‬‬
‫‪219‬‬
 ‫‪ : 3- 5- 8‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪ Red ox‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺍﻭﻝ ‪ :‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ‪ Red ox‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ ﺑﺮ ﺭﺳﻰ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ﻭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﻏﺮﺽ ﺑﺮﺭﺳﻰ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﺭﻳﻢ‪:‬‬
‫‪⎯→ MnO + Na 2 SO4 + OH −‬‬
‫⎯ ‪KMnO 4 + Na 2 SO3 + H 2O‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪SO32− + H 2O − 2e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ SO42− + 2 H +‬‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪MnO4 + 2 H 2O + 3e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ MnO2 + 4OH −‬‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 MnO4 + 3SO32− + 4 H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 MnO + 3SO42− + 6 H + + 8OH −‬‬
‫‪+‬‬
‫ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ H‬ﻭ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻛﻢ ﺗﻔﻜﻴﻚ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 MnO + 3 Na 2 SO4 + 6 H 2O + 2OH −‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 KMnO 4 + 3 Na 2 SO3 + 7 H 2O‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 KMnO4 + 3Na2 SO3 + H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2MnO+ 3Na2 SO4 + 2 KOH‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺩﻭﻡ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪ SO3 2−‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ‪ Co‬ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ‬
‫ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻴﻢ ‪ .‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻧﻴﻤﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ﻭ ﺿﺮﻳﺐ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻻﺯﻣﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ‬
‫ﺁﻥ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻴﻢ ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﻰ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﭘﻮﺭﻩ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣــﻞ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑــﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﺿﺮﻳﺐ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ‬
‫ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﺭﻳﻢ ‪:‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬ ‫‪2−‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪SO3 − 2e − + H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ SO4 + 2 H +‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪Co 3+ + 1e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Co 3+‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬ ‫‪2−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪SO3 + Co 3+ + 2 H 2 O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ SO4 + 2 H + + Co 2+‬‬
‫‪220‬‬
 ‫ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺁﺯﻣﺎﻳﺶ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﺿﺮﻳﺐ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻻﺯﻣﻪ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪1 − KMnO4 + MnSO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 MnO + K 2 SO4‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 − KMnO4 + SO2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ MnO2 + K 2 SO4‬‬
‫⎯ ‪3 − P + NH 4ClO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Cl2 + N 2 + H 3 PO4‬‬
‫⎯ ‪4 − NaBr + CaOCl 2 + H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ CaCl 2 + NaOH + HBr‬‬
‫⎯ ‪5 − Na S + Br + H 2O‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪⎯→ S + NaBr + NaOH‬‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪6 − Ni 2+ + MnO4 + H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Ni 3+ + MnO2 + OH −‬‬
‫⎯ ‪7 − K 2 MnO4 + H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ MnO2 + KMnO4 + KOH‬‬
‫‪ : 6 -8‬ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺑﻴﻼﻧﺲ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻙ‬
‫ﭘﺮﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ ‪ ) H 2O2 , CaO 2 , H 2 S 2 , FeO2‬ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻩ (‬
‫ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﭘﺮﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ ﺣﺎﻭﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﺩﻭ ﻭﻻﻧﺴــﻪ ) ‪ ( S – S‬ﻭ ) ‪ ( O – O‬ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻫﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﻭﺳﻠﻔﺮ ﻛﻪ ﺯﻧﺠﻴﺮ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ) ‪ ( - 1‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺍﺛﺮ ﭘﺎﺭﭼﻪ ﺷﺪﻥ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﻭﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﺎﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﻭ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ ) ‪ ( - 2‬ﻭ ) ‪ ( 0‬ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﭘﺮﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﻭﺍﺑﺴﺘﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻙ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﮔﺎﻥ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻭ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺣﻴﺚ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻧﻘﺶ ﺍﻳﻔﺎ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﭘﺮﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪﻩ ﮔﻰ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﭘﺮﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺍﻭﻝ ‪ :‬ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﭘﺮﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑﻰ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﭘﺮﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺩﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻭﺑﻪ ﺩﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺁﺏ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﺒﺪﻝ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪H 2O2 + 2 H + + 2e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 H 2O‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬
‫‪1 4H O‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪+ HS − − 8e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ SO‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪+ 9H +‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪4 H 2O2 + 8 H + + HS − + 4 H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 8 H 2O + SO4 + 9 H +‬‬
‫⎯ ‪4 H 2O2 + H 2 S‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 4 H 2O + H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪221‬‬
 ‫⎯ ‪4 H 2O2 + 2e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2OH −‬‬ ‫ﺏ ‪ -‬ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺧﻨﺜﻰ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺩﻭﻡ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪4 H 2O2 + PbS‬‬
‫‪⎯→ PbSO4 + ....‬‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪H 2O2 + 2e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2OH −‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪PbS − 8e − + 4 H 2O2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ PbSO 4 + 8 H +‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 8OH − + PbSO4 + 8 H +‬‬
‫⎯ ‪4 H 2O2 + PbS + 4 H 2O2‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ‪ H +‬ﻭ ‪ OH −‬ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺁﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫⎯ ‪4 H 2O2 + PbS + 4 H 2O2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ PbSO4 + 8 H 2O‬‬
‫⎯ ‪4 H 2O2 + PbS‬‬
‫‪⎯→ PbSO4 + 4 H 2O‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴــﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﻠــﻰ ‪:‬‬ ‫ﺝ ‪ -‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣــﻞ ‪ Redox‬ﺑــﺎ ﺷــﺮﻛﺖ ‪H 2O2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪H 2O2 + 2e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2OH −‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺳﻮﻡ ‪:‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬
‫‪⎯→ AsO43− + SO4‬‬
‫⎯ ‪As2 S3 + H 2O2 + NH 4OH‬‬
‫‪14‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪4 H 2O2 + 2e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2OH −‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪As S + 14 H O + 40OH −‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬‫‪⎯→ 2 AsO + 3SO‬‬ ‫‪3−‬‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪+ 20 H 2O‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪As2 S3 + 14 H 2O2 + 40OH −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 28OH − + 3SO4 + 2 AsO4 + 20 H 2O‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪As2 S3 + 14 H 2O2 + 12 NH 4OH‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 3( NH 4 ) 2 SO4 + 2( NH 4 ) 3 AsO4 + 20 H 2O‬‬
‫ﺩ ‪ -‬ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﭘﺮﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺩﺭﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑﻰ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﭘﺮﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﻪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫⎯ ‪H 2O2 + 2e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2O 2− + 2 H +‬‬
‫‪222‬‬
 ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﭼﻬﺎﺭﻡ ‪:‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2O 2− + 2 H +‬‬
‫⎯ ‪KMnO4 + H 2O2 + H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪MnO4 + 5e − + 8 H +‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Mn 2+ + 4 H 2O‬‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪H 2O2 + 2e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2O 2− + 2 H +‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2MnO4 + 5H 2 O2 + 16 H +‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Mn 2+ + 8H 2O + 5O2 + 10 H +‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 KMnO4 + 5 H 2O2 + 8 H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 MnSO4 + 8 H 2O + 5O2 + K 2 SO4‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻧﻴﻤﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ) ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ( ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ‪ Redox‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ‬
‫ﻭﺗﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﺑـﺮ ﻗـﺮﺍﺭ ﻧﻤــﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫⎯ ‪1 − KMnO4 + H 2O2 + CaOCl 2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ CaCl 2 + O2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 − H 2O2 + AuCl3 + NaOH‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Au + O2 +‬‬
‫⎯ ‪3 − CrBr3 + H 2O2 + NaOH‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Na2CrO4 + NaBr +‬‬
‫⎯ ‪4 − H 2O2 + AuCl3‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Au + O2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪5 − BaO2 + AgNO3‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Ag + O2 +‬‬
‫⎯ ‪6 − KO2 + MnO2 + H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ O2 + MnSO4‬‬
‫⎯ ‪7 − FeS 2 + HCl‬‬
‫‪⎯→ FeCl2 + S + H 2 S‬‬
‫⎯ ‪8 − FeS 2 + HNO3‬‬‫‪⎯→ Fe2 ( SO4 ) 3 + NO +‬‬
‫‪ : 7 -8‬ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺧﺎﺹ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺭﻳﺪﻭﻛﺲ‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩﻯ ﺳﻬﻢ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‬
‫ﻣﺸــﻜﻞ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ) ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ FeAsS , B5 H11 :‬ﻭ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻋﻀﻮﻯ ( ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ‬
‫ﺳــــــﻤﺒﻮﻟﻴﻚ ) ﻣﻴﺘــﻮﺩ ﺷــﻜﻠﻰ ( ﺑﻴﻼﻧﺲ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧــﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭ ﺑﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺎﻫﻴــﺖ ﺁﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪223‬‬
‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺒﺮﻯ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪ Redox‬ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ‬
‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﺳﻤﺖ ﺭﺍﺳﺖ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺍﻭﻝ ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪B2 H 6 + KClO3‬‬
‫‪⎯→ KCl + H 3 BO3‬‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺭﺍﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﭘﺮﻭﺳﺲ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ – ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪.‬‬
‫⎯ ‪B2 H 6 − 12e − + 6 H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 H 3 BO3 + 12H +‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ B2 H 6‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ H 3 BO3‬ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫‪⎯→ H 3 BO3 + 12 H +‬‬
‫⎯ ‪B2 H 6 + 6 H 2O‬‬
‫ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻤﺒﻮﺩ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ‪ H 3 BO3‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﻰ ﺗــﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺏ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺩﺳــﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ‪ H +‬ﻧﻴﺰ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻑ‬
‫ﭼﭗ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻓﻮﻕ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺎ ﺻﻔﺮ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺭﺍﺳﺖ ﺁﻥ‪ 12‬ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ؛‬
‫ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﻏﺮﺽ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﻫﺎ ﺍﺯﻃﺮﻑ ﭼﭗ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ‪ 12‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻛﻢ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻧﻴﻮﻥ ‪ ClO3 −‬ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ‪ Cl −‬ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻭ‬
‫‪ 6‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺧﺬ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪:‬‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪ClO3 + 6e − + 3H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ Cl − + 6OH −‬‬
‫ﺑﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷــﺪﺓ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﺏ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﭘﺲ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺁﺑﻰ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻭ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬ ‫‪2−‬‬
‫‪CO‬‬‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪− 2e − + H O‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪⎯→ 2CO3‬‬
‫‪−‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪ClO + 2 H O + 1e − + 2 H +‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪⎯→ ClO + H O‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬ ‫‪2−‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬
‫‪CO‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪+ 2 H O + 2ClO + 4 H +‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪⎯→ 2CO‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪+ 2ClO2 + 2 H 2O‬‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪H 2C2O4 + 2 KClO3‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 KCO3 + 2ClO2 + 2 H 2O + CO2‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺩﻭﻡ ‪ :‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺭﻳﺪﻭﻛﺲ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺗﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻋﻀﻮﻯ‬
‫‪2−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪C2O4 − 2e − + H 2O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2CO3‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬
‫ﺳﻬﻢ ﺩﺍﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪:‬‬
‫‪224‬‬
 ‫ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻭ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬ ‫‪2−‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪CO‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪− 2e − + H O‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2CO‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫‪−‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪ClO + 2 H O + 1e − + 2 H +‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬‫‪⎯→ ClO + H 2O‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪2−‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬ ‫‪2−‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬
‫‪CO‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪+ 2 H O + 2ClO + 4 H +‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪⎯→ 2CO3 + 2ClO2 + 2 H 2O‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫⎯ ‪H 2C2O4 + 2 KClO3‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 KCO3 + 2ClO2 + 2 H 2O + CO2‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺳﻮﻡ ‪:‬‬
‫⎯ ‪CO ( NH 2 ) 2 + NaOH + Br2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ N 2 + CO2 + NaBr + H 2O‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪CO ( NH 2 ) 2 + 6OH − − 6e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ N 2 + CO2 + 5 H 2O‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫⎯ ‪Br2 + 2e −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2 Br −‬‬
‫‪⎯→ N 2 + CO2 + 6 Br − + 5 H 2O‬‬
‫⎯ ‪CO ( NH 2 ) 2 + CO3 + 6OH + 3Br2‬‬
‫⎯ ‪CO ( NH 2 ) 2 + 6 NaOH + 3Br2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ N 2 + CO2 + 6 NaBr + 5 H 2O‬‬
‫ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺑﻴﺎﻣﻮﺯﻳﺪ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗــﻰ ﻛــﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺛــﺮ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻭ ﺗــﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ – ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻋﻤﻠﻰ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻼﻧﺲ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ – ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ – ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫⎯ ‪1 − Na 2CO3 + Fe3 Br6‬‬
‫‪⎯→ 2CO2 + NaBr + Fe3O4‬‬
‫⎯ ‪2 − I 2O4 + HCOOH + Br2‬‬
‫‪⎯→ CO2 + I 2 + H 2O‬‬
‫⎯ ‪3 − B5 H11 + KMnO 4 + H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ MnSO 4 + H 3 BO3 + K 2 SO4 + H 2O‬‬
‫‪225‬‬
 ‫ﺧﻼﺻﻪ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻫﺸﺘﻢ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﻪ ﻳﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻠﻨﺪ ﻣﻴﺮﻭﺩ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﻪء ﭘﺎﻳﻴﻦ ﺁﻣﺪﻥ ﻧﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻋﻼﻣﺖ ) ‪ ( +‬ﻭ ﻳﺎ ) ‪ ( -‬ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ .‬ﻋﻼﻣﺖ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﺟﺪﺍ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺩﺭﺟﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﻣﻠﺤﻖ ﺷﺪﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺭﺍ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﻣﻰ ﺩﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﻠﺤﻖ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸــﻦ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺒﺎﺩﻟﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺑﻴــﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠــﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺻــــــــﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸــﻦ – ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸــﻦ)‪)( Disproportionation‬ﺧﻮﺩﻯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ( ‪ :‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺔ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺼﺮﺩﺭﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭﻫﻢ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻳﻚ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ‬
‫ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺁﻥ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺔﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺟﺮﺍ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺩﻭﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ‪ Red ox‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻭ ﺑﻴﻼﻧﺲ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻣﻴﺘــﻮﺩ ﺑﻴﻼﻧﺲ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ‪ :‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺗــﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻧﻤــﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻣــﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺣﺘﻤﺎ" ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻳﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ‬
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 ‫ﻣﻠﺤﻖ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻴﺘــﻮﺩ ﻧﻴﻤﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ) ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﺁ ﻳﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻰ ( ‪ :‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺪﺍﮔﺎﻧﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ‬
‫) ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻧﻴﻤﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ( ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﭘﺮﻭﺳــﺲ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺑﺎ ﺟﻤﻊ ﻛﺮﺩﻥ ﺑﻌﺪﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺩﺭﻣﺠﻤــﻮﻉ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳــﻦ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻴﺘــﻮﺩ ﻧﻴﻤﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ‬
‫ﺁﻳﻮﻧــﻰ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻳــﻦ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﺁﺑﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪،‬‬
‫ﻳﺎﺩﺩﺍﺷــﺖ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﻳﺎﺩﺩﺍﺷــﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻥ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮﺩﻭﻃﺮﻑ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫‪ Oxidation – Reduction‬ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺩ ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺗﺎ ﻧﻪ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺿﺮﻳﺐ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ؛ ﺑﻠﻜﻪ ﺿﺮﻳﺐ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ) ﺁﺏ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ( ﻧﻴﺰ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻫﺸﺘﻢ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺟﻮﺍﺑﻪ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺒﺎﺩﻟﻪ ‪ -----‬ﻫﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ‬
‫ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺍﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﺏ – ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺝ – ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﺩﺭﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪﻯ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭﻫﻢ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻋﺪﻩء ﺍﺯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ‪ -----‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ‪ -‬ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺧﻮﺩﻯ ﺏ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺧﻮﺩ ﻯ ‪ ،‬ﺝ – ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ –ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺶ ﺧﻮﺩﻯ‬
‫ﺩ ‪ -‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻰ‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻪ ﻳﻚ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﻪ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻗﺴــﻤﺖ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﻭﻇﻴﻔﻪ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺟﺮﺍ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ‪ ----‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺏ‪ -‬ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺝ – ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺩ – ﻫﻴﭽﻜﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫‪ 4-‬ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺭﻳﺪﻭﻛﺲ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺣﺘﻤﺎً ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ‪---‬‬
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 ‫ﻫﺎﻳﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻣﻠﺤﻖ ﻣﻰ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩ ‪ -‬ﭘﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ‬ ‫ﺝ – ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﺏ – ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻳﺸﻦ ‪ -‬ﺭﻳﺪﻛﺸﻦ ﺑﻪ ‪ ---‬ﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺍﺩﺍﻣﻪ ﭘﻴﺪﺍ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩ – ﺳﻪ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ‬ ‫ﺝ‪ -‬ﭘﻨﺞ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ ﺏ ‪ -‬ﺩﻭﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ‬
‫⎯ ‪ Cu + HNO3‬ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺪﻯ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ‬
‫‪ - 6‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﻪ ‪⎯→ Cu ( NO3 ) 2 + NO + H 2O‬‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ﺍﺯ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ Cu -‬ﺏ‪ HNO3 -‬ﺝ ‪ H 2O -‬ﺩ ‪NO -‬‬
‫⎯ ‪ H 2O2 + 2e −‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ ‪ ------‬ﺍﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﭘﺬﻳﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫‪ -7‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪⎯→ 2O 2− + 2 H +‬‬
‫ﺝ ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ ﺩ – ﺁﺑﻰ‬ ‫ﺏ‪ -‬ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺑﻰ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﺧﻨﺜﻰ‬
‫⎯ ‪ ClO − + 6e − + 3H O‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪ - 8‬ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪⎯→ Cl − + 6OH −‬‬
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‫ﺍﺳﺖ؟‬
‫ﺩ‪ -‬ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻭﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬ ‫ﺝ‪ -‬ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺏ – ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ‬
‫⎯ ‪ B2 H 6 + H 2O‬ﺿﺮﻳــﺐ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜــﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ‪----‬‬
‫‪ – 9‬ﺩﺭﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ‪⎯→ H 3 BO3 + 12H +‬‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﺩ‪7 -‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ 3 -‬ﺏ‪ 4 -‬ﺝ‪6 -‬‬
‫‪ - 10‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪ Oxidation – Reduction‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮﺩﻭﻃﺮﻑ ‪.....‬‬
‫ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﺝ ‪ -‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺩ – ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ‬ ‫ﺏ ‪ -‬ﻣﻨﻔﻰ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﺟﻤﻊ‬
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 : ‫ﺳﺆﺍﻻﺕ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﺤﻰ‬
. ‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻦ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‬
1 − H 2O2 + KI + H 2 SO4 ⎯
⎯→ I 2 +
2 − NaCrO2 + H 2O2 + NaOH ⎯
⎯→ Na2CrO4 +
3 − S + HNO3 ⎯
⎯→ H 2 SO4 + NO2 + − − −
4 − Cu + H 2 SO4 ⎯
⎯→ CuSO4 + SO2 + H 2O
5 − MnO2 + HCOOH + H 2 SO4 ⎯
⎯→ MnSO4 + CO2 + H 2O
6 − P2O4 + H 2O ⎯
⎯→ H 3 PO4 + H 3 PO3
7 − Zn + HNO3 ⎯
⎯→ Zn( NO3 ) 2 + NH 4 NO3 + − − −
8 − P + HNO3 ⎯
⎯→ H 3 PO4 + NO + − − −
9 − KO2 + MnO2 + H 2 SO4 ⎯
⎯→ O2 + MnSO4
10 − FeS 2 + HCl ⎯
⎯→ FeCl 2 + S + H 2 S
229
 ‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﻧﻬﻢ‬
‫ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﻭ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﺎﺕ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ‬
‫ﮔﺮ ﭼﻪ ﻫﺮ ﺭﺷﺘﺔ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﺧﺎﺹ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ‬
‫ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﻫﻢ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺷﻘﻮﻕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﭘﻴﺮﻭﻯ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﻭﻣﺤﺎﺳــﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌــﺔ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ‬
‫ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺁﻣﻮﺧﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷــﺖ ﺭﻭﻧﺪ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﻰ ﻛﺸــﻔﻴﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺳﻌﺖ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻋﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﭘﻴﺪﺍ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻴﺪ ﻛﺮﺩ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﭼﮕﻮﻧﻪ ﮔﻰ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﺮﺩ ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﻣﺴﺎﻳﻞ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﻭﻛﺸﻔﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﺑﺎ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﺎﺕ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﺁﺷﻨﺎ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻳﺪ‬
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 ‫‪ : 1- 9‬ﭘﺎﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺴﺎﻳﻞ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻡ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺴﻠﻪء ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﺑﻪ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﭘﺎﻳﺔ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺍﺳﺘﻮﺍﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ‬
‫‪ – 2‬ﺍﺻﻮﻝ‬
‫‪ – 3‬ﻧﻈﺮﻳﻪ ﻫﺎ ﻭﻓﺮﺿﻴﻪ ﻫﺎ‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺩ ﻫﺎ ﻭﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ‬
‫ﺗﻼﺵ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﺭﺷــﻤﻴﺪﺱ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺣﻞ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺴــﺄﻟﺔ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻰ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﺎﻟﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻏﻠﺒﺔ ﺍﻧﺴــﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻫـــﺎ ﺑﺮ ﻧﺎ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻰ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺗﺨﻨﻴﻜﻰ ﻭﻓﻨﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺭﻭﻳﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻰ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﭘﺎﺩﺷــﺎﻩ » ﻫﻴﺮﻭ « ﻳﻚ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻃﻼﻯ ﺧﺎﻟﺺ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺯﺭﮔﺮ ﺩﺍﺩ ﺗﺎ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻥ ﺗﺎﺟﻰ ﺑﺮﺍﻳﺶ ﺗﻬﻴﻪ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺯﺭﮔﺮ ﺗﺎﺝ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻬﻴﻪ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﭘﺎﺩﺷــﺎﻩ ﺳــﭙﺮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻧﺰﺩ ﭘﺎﺩﺷﺎﻩ ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﭘﻴﺪﺍ ﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺁﻳﺎ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﺎﺝ‬
‫ﺧﺎﻟﺺ ﻃﻼ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭﻳﺎ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ﺯﺭﮔﺮ ﺑﺎ ﻃﻼ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺲ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺍﺯﺁﻥ ﺗﺎﺝ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ‬
‫ﭼﮕﻮﻧﻪ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﺖ ﭘﻰ ﺑﺮﺩ؟ ﭘﺎﺩﺷــﺎﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺭﻳﺎﺿﻰ ﺩﺍﻥ ﻭﺳــﺘﺎﺭﻩ ﺷﻨﺎﺱ ﻣﺸﻬﻮﺭ ﺯﻣﺎﻥ ﺧﻮﺩ‬
‫ﺍﺭﺷــﻤﻴﺪﺱ ﺭﻭﻯ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ ‪ .‬ﺍﺭﺷــﻤﻴﺪﺱ ﺑﺎﻭﺟﻮﺩﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﺖ ﻭﺣﻞ ﻣﺴﺄﻟﺔ ﺍﻓﺰﺍﺭ‬
‫ﻭﺭﻭﺷﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻤﻰ ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻜﺎﻯ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺫﻫﻦ ﻭﺗﻔﻜﺮ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺩﺳﺘﻮﺭ ﭘﺎﺩﺷﺎﻩ ﺭﺍ ﭘﺬﻳﺮﻓﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻭ ﻣﺪﺕ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺪﻳﺸﻪ ﺑﻮﺩ ﺗﺎ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ ‪......‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﻣﺘﻮﻥ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﺫﻳﻞ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﺻﻞ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﻭﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺭﺍ ﭘﻴﺪﺍ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﻫﺮﮔﺎﻩ ﻳﻚ ﺟﺴــﻢ ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﺷــﻨﺎﻭﺭ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﺯ ﻭﺯﻥ ﺁﻥ ﺟﺴــﻢ ﻛﺎﺳــﺘﻪ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ‬
‫ﻛﺎﻫﺶ ﻭﺯﻥ ﺟﺴﻢ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺯﻥ ﻣﺎﻳﻊ ﺑﻰ ﺟﺎﺷﺪﻩ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺟﺴﻢ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺭﻳﺰﺵ ﺑﺎﺭﺍﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺳﻴﺪﻯ ﻣﺘﻀﺮﺭ ﺷﺪﻥ ﻧﺴﻞ ﺣﻴﻮﺍﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺩﺍﻳﻨﺎﺳﻮﺭ ﻫﺎﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﺯﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻋﻠﺖ ﻣﺘﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
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 ‫ﻓﻜﺮ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫‪ – 1‬ﺳﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﺭﺯﺵ ﻭﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺩﺍ ﺭﺩ ؟‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻳﺎ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﺑﺎ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﭼﻪ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ؟‬
‫ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺴــﻴﺎﺭ ﭘﻴﺸــﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻯ ﻧﻈﺮﻯ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺧﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪﻩ ﮔﺎﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﺘﺎﺏ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ ﺁﺷــﻨﺎﻳﻰ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﻨﺪ ﺩﺍﺷــﺖ )ﺩﺭ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺫﻛﺮ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ( ﺍﻳﻦ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﭘﺪﻳﺪﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺯ ﻗﺒﻴﻞ ﺗﺒﺨﻴﺮ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻧﺤﻼﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ‪ ،‬ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ‪ ،‬ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ ﻭﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﺎﺕ ﻻﺯﻡ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣــﻮﺭﺩ ﭘﺪﻳﺪﻩ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺯ ﻗﺒﻴﻞ ﺑﺮﻕ ﺳــﺎﻛﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻟﻴﺰ ﻣﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺍﺩﻳﻮ ﺍﻛﺘﻴﻮﻳﺘﻰ ﻭ‬
‫ﺗﺸﻌﺸــﻌﺎﺕ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺭﺍﺩﻳﻮﺍﻛﺘﻴﻒ ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻩ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻧﺘﻮﺍﻧﺴــﺖ ‪ .‬ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﮔﻴﺮﻯ ‪،‬‬
‫ﻧﺎﻡ ﻫﺎ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺳــﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺭﻭﺵ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻧﺎﻣﮕﺬﺍﺭﻯ ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻩ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺩ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺩ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺩ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﭼﻴﺴﺖ ؟‬
‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺗﻮﺍﻓﻘﺎﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻳﺪ ﺗﺎ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﻣﺤﻘﻘﺎﻥ ﻳﻚ ﺭﺷــﺘﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﻤﻨﺪﺍﻥ ﺭﺷﺘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﺁﺳﺎﻥ ﺗﺮ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺩ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻰ‬
‫ﺁﻳﻮﭘﺎﻙ )‪ (IUPAC‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﺳﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﺍﺧﺘﺼﺎﺭﻯ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻛﻤﻴﺘﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻠﻰ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻰ ﻭﺧﺎﻟﺺ)‪( Inter national Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry‬‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺍﻧﺸﻤﻨﺪﺍﻥ ﺑﺮﺟﺴﺘﺔ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻤﺎﻟﻚ ﺟﻬﺎﻥ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ ﻋﻀﻮﻳﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﻭﻗﺮﺍﺭﺩﺍﺩﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﻣﺴﺎﻳﻞ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎ ﻋﻘﺪ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ : 2 - 9‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺑﻘﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺗﺤﻔﻆ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻗﺮﻥ ‪18‬ﻡ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﻓﺮﺍﻧﺴﻮﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻻﻭﺍﺯﻳﻪ )‪( Antoine Loucent lavoisier 1794 − 1843‬‬
‫ﺍﺑــﺮﺍﺯ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪C ( s ) + O2 ( g ) ⎯⎯→ CO2 ( g ) + 94 kj / mol‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﺯ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‪ -‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ ﺩﺭﺳــﺖ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻫﺮ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻋﻤﻼ" ﺗﻮﺃﻡ ﺑﺎ‬
‫ﺟﺬ ﺏ ﻭﻳﺎﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷﺪﻥ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﺩ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗﻴﻜﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻦ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ‬
‫ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ‪) Exothermic‬ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺯﺍ( ﻳﺎﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ‬
‫ﺟﺬﺏ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ) ﮔﺮﻣﺎ( ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻴﮕﻴﺮﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻣﺴﺘﻠﺰﻡ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ )‪(Endothermic‬‬
‫ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﭘﺮﻭﺳــﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻭ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻧــــﻮﻋﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺗـــــﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫‪ Exothermic‬ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ 94kj/mol‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺯ ﺗﺒﺪ ﻳﻞ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻭ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺁﻥ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ‬
‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺁﻏﺎﺯ ﻗﺮﻥ ‪ 20‬ﻡ ﺍﻧﺸﺘﺎﻳﻦ )‪ (Enstein‬ﺍﻇﻬﺎﺭ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ‪،‬‬
‫ﻧﻈﻴﺮ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻛﺎﺳــﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ‬
‫ﻓﻮﺭﻣــﻮﻝ ‪ E = mc 2‬ﺧﻮﺩ ﻣﺤﺎﺳــﺒﻪ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺑﻘﺎﻯ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻭ ﺍﻧــﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻴﺎﻥ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺣﻘﻴﻘﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺗﺒﺪ ﻳﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ‪ Exothermic‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﺓ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻫﻴﭻ ﻭﺳــﻴﻠﺔ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﻧﻤﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺑﻘﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻻﻭﺍﺯﻳﻪ ﭘﺎ ﺑﺮ ﺟﺎ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ‬
‫ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻫﺴــﺘﻪ ﻳﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻢ ﺩﺭ ﺭﺃﻛﺘﻮﺭ ﻫﺴــﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻧﻘﺴﺎﻡ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪ ،‬ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣــﻞ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺍﺯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻧﻘﺴــﺎﻡ ﻳﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻢ ﺍﻭﻟــﻰ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻩ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﺑــﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎ" ‪50‬‬
‫ﻣﻴﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻣﺮﺍﺗﺒﻪ ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻭ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪235‬‬
‫‪92‬‬‫⎯⎯ ‪U + 01n‬‬
‫‪⎯→141‬‬
‫‪56 Ba + 36 Kr +30 n‬‬
‫‪91‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪+ 200mev‬‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﻫﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻧﺸﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺑﻘﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﮔﺮﻓﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪233‬‬
‫ﻳــﻚ ﻣﻴﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭ ﻭﻟﺖ )‪ (mev‬ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ‪ 3.8 ⋅10−14 calory‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ‬
‫‪ E = mc 2‬ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﺭﻳﻢ ﻛﻪ ‪ 94kcalory/mole‬ﻭ‪ 200mev/mole‬ﺑﺎ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺖ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﻣﺒﺪﻝ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ‪:‬‬
‫‪E‬‬
‫‪Δm1 = 12‬‬
‫‪C‬‬
‫‪94 kJ / mol‬‬ ‫‪94 kjoul / mol‬‬
‫= ‪Δm1‬‬ ‫=‬
‫‪(3 ⋅10 8 m / sec) 2 9 ⋅1016 m 2 / sec 2‬‬
‫‪Δm1 = 10.44 ⋅10 −10 g / mol‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔﻛﺎﺳﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻫﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻳﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻢ ‪ 235g‬ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ‪) 6.02 ⋅10 23‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ( ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻳﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻢ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ ،‬ﭼﻮﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻫﺮ ﺍﻧﻘﺴﺎﻡ ﻫﺴﺘﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ‪ 200mev‬ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ؛ِﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺭگ )‪ (erg‬ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫‪E2 = 200 ⋅ 3.8 ⋅10 −14 calory = 200 ⋅ 3.8 ⋅10 −14 ⋅ 4.18 ⋅10 7 erg ⋅ 6.02 ⋅10 23‬‬
‫‪E2 1.19 ⋅10 20 erg / mol‬‬
‫= ‪Δm2‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 0.21g‬‬
‫‪C2‬‬ ‫‪(3 ⋅1010 cm / sec) 2‬‬
‫‪Δm1 / 235 molU‬‬ ‫‪0.21g / 235 g ⋅ mol −1‬‬
‫=‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 2.5 ⋅10 6‬‬
‫‪Δm2 / 12‬‬ ‫‪molC 4.36 ⋅10 −9 g / 12 g ⋅ mol −1‬‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺍﺯ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻳﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻢ ‪ 2,5‬ﻣﻴﻠﻴﻮﻥ‬
‫ﻣﺮﺍﺗﺒﻪ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺮژﻯ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺯ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫– ‪ (1‬ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﭼﺮﺍﻍ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﻋﻜﺎﺳﻰ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﺯ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺏ – ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﭼﺮﺍﻍ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺮﻗﻰ ﻋﻜﺎﺳﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺯ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﻦ‬ ‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪9‬‬
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 ‫‪ : 3–9‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻫﺎ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ)‪: (1807-Proust‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻭﻟﻴﻦ ﺑﺎﺭ ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ ‪ 1807‬ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ‪ Proust‬ﻃﺮﺡ ﺭﻳﺰﻯ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺯﻳﻦ‬
‫ﺳﺒﺐ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻑ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﺴﻤﻰ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫ ﻳﻞ ﺑﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺘﺸــﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻭﺯﻧﻰ ﻳﺎ ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻭ‬
‫ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﻃﺮﻳﻘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺳﺘﺤﺼﺎﻝ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻨﺪ ﺑﻪ ﻫﺮﺷﻴﻮﻩ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﻣﻬﻢ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﻭ ﺟﺴﻢ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﻫﻤﻴﺸﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﺎ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺁﺏ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺁﺏ ‪ 1:8‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫‪H 2 : O2 = 4 g : 32 g = 1 : 8‬‬
‫→⎯⎯ ‪2 H 2 + O2‬‬ ‫‪⎯ 2 H 2O‬‬
‫‪2 ⋅1 ⋅ 2 + 16 ⋅ 2 ⎯⎯→ 2 ⋅18‬‬
‫‪4g‬‬ ‫→⎯⎯ ‪+ 32 g‬‬ ‫‪36 g‬‬
‫ﭼﻪ ﻓﻜﺮ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻴﺪ ؟‬
‫ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﺎ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﻳﻚ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺑﻰ ﺭﻧﮓ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ‪ N 2O4‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺁﻳﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻛﻤﻚ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺳﻴﺪ ؟‬
‫‪ : 4 -9‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩ ﻳﺎ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ)‪(Dalton‬‬
‫ﺩﻭ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻧﻪ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷــﻮﺩ‪ ،‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ‬
‫ﻳﻜــﻰ ﺍﺯﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺗﺎﻡ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻭ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪:‬‬
‫ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﭘﻨﺞ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﺭﺍﻳﻦ ﭘﻨﺞ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺁﻥ ﺑﺎﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ‪1:2:3:4:5‬ﺍﺳﺖ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ؛ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ‪:‬‬
‫‪N 2 : O2‬‬ ‫‪N2‬‬ ‫‪: O2‬‬
‫‪N 2O 14 ⋅ 2 : 16‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪NO 14 : 16‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪: 8‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪N 2O3 14 ⋅ 2 : 16 ⋅ 3‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪: 12‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫‪NO2 14‬‬ ‫‪: 16 ⋅ 2‬‬ ‫‪1 7‬‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬
‫‪N 2O5 14 ⋅ 2 : 16 ⋅ 5‬‬ ‫‪1 7‬‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬
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 ‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 2 – 9‬ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﺭ ﭘﻨﺞ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺍﻥ ﺑﺎ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ‪ 1:2:3:4:5‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﻗﺎﻧــﻮﻥ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﻣﺘﻌــﺪﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑــﺎﻻﻯ ﭼﻬــﺎﺭ ﻧــﻮﻉ ﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳــﻦ‬
‫) ‪ (Cl 2O, Cl 2O3 , Cl 2O5 , Cl 2O7‬ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ :5-9‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺖ ﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺩﻭ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺟﺪﺍﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺳــﻮﻣﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣــﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺑﻘﻴﻪ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﻋﻨﺼــﺮ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫﻢ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺳﻮﻣﻰ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪:‬‬
‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪B‬‬ ‫‪AB‬‬
‫‪BC‬‬ ‫‪C‬‬ ‫‪AC‬‬
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‫ﺍﺯ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤــﺎﺕ ﻓــﻮﻕ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑــﻪ ﻣﻘﺎﺩ ﻳﺮ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺑــﺎ ﻳﻜﺪﻳﮕﺮ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬ﻛﺘﻠــﻪ ﻣﻌــﺎﺩﻝ ﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ‪8‬‬
‫ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺑﻘﻴﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻃﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﺁﻫﻦ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ‪ 1.5g‬ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺁﻥ‪ 1.17g‬ﺁﻫﻦ ﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪،‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﺁﻫﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪mFe = 1.17 g‬‬ ‫‪1.17 gFe‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬ ‫‪0.33 gO2‬‬
‫‪m Oxide = 1,5 g‬‬ ‫‪X‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬ ‫‪8 g O2‬‬
‫‪1,17 gFe ⋅ 8 gO2‬‬
‫‪mO2 = 0.33 g‬‬ ‫‪X =.‬‬ ‫‪= 28 gFe‬‬
‫‪0.33 gO2‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻳﺎﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ‪ -‬ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺁﻫﻦ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 28g‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺁﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﻳــﻚ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ‪ -‬ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﻭ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﺴــﺎﺯﺩ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻛﻠﺴﻴﻢ ‪ 20‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪:‬‬
‫‪Ca + H 2 SO4‬‬ ‫↑ ‪⎯⎯ ⎯→ CaSO4 + H 2‬‬
‫‪40 g‬‬ ‫‪98g‬‬ ‫‪2g‬‬
‫‪X‬‬ ‫‪1g‬‬
‫‪40 g ⋅ 1g‬‬
‫‪40 g − 2 g‬‬ ‫=‪X‬‬ ‫‪= 20 g‬‬
‫‪2g‬‬
‫‪X − 1g‬‬
‫ﺑــﻪ ﺻــﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻤــﻮﻡ ﻛﺘﻠــﻪ ﻣﻌــﺎﺩﻝ ﻳــﻚ ﻋﻨﺼــﺮ ﻋﺒــﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺘﻠــﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣــﻰ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺼــﺮ ﺗﻘﺴــﻴﻢ ﺑــﺮ ﻭﻻﻧــﺲ ﻫﻤــﺎﻥ ﻋﻨﺼــﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛــﺐ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨــﺪﺓ ﺁﻥ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ‬
‫= ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ‬
‫ﻭﻻﻧﺲ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻧﻴﻢ ‪ 27amu‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﺁﻥ ‪ 3‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪،‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﺋﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪M A Al = 27 amu‬‬
‫‪M A Al‬‬
‫‪VolanceAl = 3‬‬ ‫= ‪EqAl‬‬
‫‪Volance‬‬
‫‪27 amu‬‬
‫= ‪EqAl‬‬ ‫‪= 9amu‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫? = ‪Eq − gAl‬‬
‫‪ : 1 –5–9‬ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺗﻘﺴﻢ ﺑﺮ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺛﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﻣﻮﺛﺮ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻰ‬
‫ﻫﺎ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﮔﺮﻭپ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﻴﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻤﻜﻬﺎ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﻣﻮﺛﺮ‬
‫ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﻛﺘﻴﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺁﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺫﻳﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫‪M Acides‬‬
‫= ‪Eq Acide‬‬
‫‪∑H‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬
‫‪M Bases‬‬
‫= ‪Eq Bases‬‬
‫‪∑ OH‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬
‫‪M Salts‬‬
‫= ‪EqSaltes‬‬
‫‪Cathions Volance‬‬
‫ﺍﮔــﺮ ﻛﺘﻠــﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ‪-‬‬
‫ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻳﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ)‪ (Equivalent-gram‬ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﻛﻪ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﺎً ﺑﻪ )‪ (Eq-g‬ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻧﺎ ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﻧﺒﺎﻳﺪ ﮔﺬﺍﺷﺖ ﺍﻳﻨﻜﻪ‪ :‬ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﻯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻣﺲ ﺩﺭ ‪ Cu 2O‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 63.4amu‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ‬
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 ‫ﺣﺎﻟﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻣﺲ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ CuO‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 31.7amu‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺜـﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻛﺘﻠــﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ‪ H 3 PO4‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪،‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ‪ H 3 PO4‬ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ‬
‫‪ 98‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ‪:‬‬
‫‪M‬‬ ‫‪= 98amu‬‬
‫‪H 3 PO 4‬‬
‫‪M‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬
‫?= ‪Eq H PO‬‬ ‫= ‪EqH 3 PO 4‬‬ ‫‪3 PO 4 = 98amu‬‬ ‫‪= 32,6amu‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫‪∑H‬‬
‫‪+‬‬
‫‪∑ H =3‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ) ‪ Ca(OH‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﺋﻴﺪ‪ .‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﺴــﺒﻰ ) ‪ Ca (OH‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ‪ 74‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪M Ca ( OH ) 2 = 74 amu‬‬
‫? = ‪Eq Ca ( OH ) 2‬‬
‫‪ΣOH − = 2‬‬
‫‪M‬‬ ‫‪74amu‬‬
‫= ‪Eq Ca(OH ) 2‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 37amu‬‬
‫‪Ca ( OH ) 2‬‬
‫‪∑ OH‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ‪ MgSO4‬ﺭﺍ ﻣﺤﺎﺳــﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪،‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﻰ ‪ MgSO4‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ‪ 120amu‬ﺍﺳﺖ؟‬
‫ﺣﻞ ‪:‬‬
‫‪M MgSO 4 = 120 amu‬‬
‫‪M MgSO 4‬‬
‫‪Effictive Volance = 2‬‬ ‫= ‪Eq MgSO 4‬‬
‫‪Cathion Volance‬‬
‫‪120 amu‬‬
‫? = ‪Eq MgSO 4‬‬ ‫= ‪Eq MgSO 4‬‬ ‫‪= 60 amu‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺗــﻰ ﻛــﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ‪ Redox‬ﺳــﻬﻢ ﻣﻰ ﮔﻴﺮﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻــﻮﺭﺕ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﻣﺘﺸــﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ‪ Oxidation‬ﺷــﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﺁﻭﺭﻧﺪﻛﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻘـﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ )‪ (Losese‬ﻭﻳﺎ ﮔــﺮﻓﺘﻪ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻩ )‪ (gain electrons‬ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬ﻳﻌﻨﻰ‪:‬‬
‫‪M Compound‬‬
‫= ‪EqCompound‬‬
‫‪Losese or gain e −‬‬
‫‪239‬‬
 ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ :‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ‪ H 2 SO4‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪ Redox‬ﺫﻳﻞ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ ‪:‬‬
‫⎯⎯ ‪Cu + H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ CuSO4 + S + H 2O‬‬
‫‪↓ ⎯⎯→ − 2e − losese ↵ oxidation‬‬
‫‪Re duction‬‬
‫‪gran 6e‬‬
‫‪M‬‬ ‫‪98amu‬‬
‫= ‪EqH 2 SO4‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 16,33amu‬‬
‫‪H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪gaine−‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬
‫‪+ 6e gain‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﭼﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﻴﺪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ؟‬
‫‪H 3 PO4 , KOH , NaNO3‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ‪ H 2 SO4‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺭﻳﺪﻭﻛﺲ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫⎯⎯ ‪Cu + H 2 SO4‬‬
‫‪⎯→ CuSO4 + H 2 S + H 2O‬‬
‫‪ : 6 -9‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻫﺎ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ‬
‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﻫﺎ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ‪ Gay-Liusac‬ﻃﺮﺡ ﺭﻳﺰﻯ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ ﻭ‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﻓﺸــﺎﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﻯ ﻳﺎ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺗﺎﻡ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﻭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﺓ‬
‫ﮔﺎﺯﻯ ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﻭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷــﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜــﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ ﺑﺎ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪،‬ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﻭ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺩﺭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ‪1:1‬ﻭ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ‪ 1:2‬ﻭ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻭ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ‪ 1:2‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻌﻨﻰ‪:‬‬
‫‪240‬‬
 ‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 3 - 9‬ﺍﺣﺠﺎﻡ ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎ‬
‫‪ : 7– 9‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ‬
‫ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺑﺮﺯﻳﻠﻴﻮﺱ)‪ (Berzelius‬ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻫﺎ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻭ‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺮﺩ ﻛﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻋﻴﻦ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﻗﻀﻴﺔ ﺑﺮﺯﻳﻠﻴﻮﺱ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺗﻰ ﺻﺪﻕ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﻧﺪ؛ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﺭﺩ ﮔﺎﺯﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺻﺪ ﻕ ﻧﻤﻰ ﻛﻨﺪ ؛ ﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺗﻴﻮﺭﻯ ﺩﻳﮕﺮﻯ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺷــﻜﻞ ﻗﻀﻴﻪ ﺗﻮﺳــﻂ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻗﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻭﮔﺪ ﺭﻭ)‪ (Avogadro‬ﺩﺭ ﺳﺎﻝ‬
‫‪1811‬ﻡ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﻛﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫ﺣﺠﻢ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻋﻴﻦ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ) ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺁﻳﻮﻧﻬﺎﻏﻴﺮﻩ( ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‪ .‬ﻓﺮﺿﻴﻪ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ ﻓﻌﻼ" ﺷﻜﻞ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺨﻮﺩ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ‬
‫ﺣﻘﺎﻳﻖ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻮﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ ).‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ( ‪ .‬ﭼﻨﺎﻧﭽﻪ ﺩﻭ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻰ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻭ ﻳﻚ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ .‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻭ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺩ ﻭ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻫﺮ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﻫﺮ‬
‫ﻳﻜﻰ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ )ﺩﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ( ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪H 2 + Cl 2 ⎯⎯⎯→ 2 HCl‬‬
‫‪241‬‬
 ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻫﺎ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻧﻤﺎﺋﻴﺪ‪:‬‬
‫‪3H 2‬‬ ‫‪+ N2‬‬ ‫→⎯⎯‬
‫⎯‬ ‫‪2 NH 3‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ‪:‬‬
‫‪3H 2‬‬ ‫‪+ N2‬‬ ‫→⎯⎯‬
‫⎯‬ ‫‪2 NH 3‬‬
‫‪3‬ﺣﺠﻢ‬ ‫‪1‬ﺣﺠﻢ‬ ‫ﺩﻭ ﺣﺠﻢ‬
‫‪H 2 : N 2 = :1‬‬
‫‪H 2 : NH 3 =: 2‬‬
‫‪N 2 : NH 3 = 1 : 2‬‬
‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ ﺁﻥ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻴﺎﻥ ﻛﺮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻋﻴﻦ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺠﻢ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ ).‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺩﻭﻡ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ (‬
‫ﺑﻴﺸﺘﺮ ﺑﺪﺍﻧﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺮ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭ ) ‪ (6.02 ⋅10 23‬ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺮ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺑﻪ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ‪STP 22.4L‬‬
‫ﺣﺠﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻣﻌﺎﺩ ﻟﺔ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻰ ﮔﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ؛ﻳﻌﻨﻰ‬
‫‪ PV = nRT‬ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋــﺪﺩ ﺍﻭﮔــﺪﺭﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛــﻪ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺟﺎ ﺍﺯ ﺩﻭ‬
‫ﻃــــــﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺁﻥ ﺗﺬ ﻛﺎﺭ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻳﺪ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺍﮔﺮﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴــﺒﻰ ﻭﻳﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﺴــﺒﻰ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ )ﻣﻮﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻳﺎ‬
‫ﻣــﻮﻝ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ( ﻭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﻟﻰ ﺑــﺮ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻰ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ‬
‫= ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭ ﮔﺪﺭﻭ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‬
‫‪242‬‬
 ‫ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫= ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭ ﮔﺪﺭﻭ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴــﺒﻰ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ‪ 12‬ﻭ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺁﻥ ‪ 1,993 ⋅10 23 g‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻋﺪﺩ‬
‫ﺍﻭﮔﺪ ﺭﻭ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪:‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻳﻚ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ‬
‫= ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭ ﮔﺪﺭﻭ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻰ‬
‫‪12 g‬‬
‫ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭ ﮔﺪﺭﻭ‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 6.02 ⋅1023‬‬
‫‪1.99 ⋅10 −26 kg‬‬
‫ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺁﺯﻣﺎﻳﺶ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ‪ 2.9898 ⋅10 −26 kg‬ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺁﻥ‪ 18amu‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪،‬‬
‫ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﻳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺑــﻪ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻟﻴﺰ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺪﺳــﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩ؛ ﻃﻮﺭﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺍﮔﺮ‬
‫ﻋــﺪﺩ ﻓﺎﺭﺍﺩﻯ)‪ (F=96491Cb‬ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ‪ (e = 1.602 ⋅ 10 −19 Cb) e‬ﮔﺮﺩﺩ‬
‫ﻋــــﺪﺩ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪96491Cb‬‬
‫= ‪NA‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 6.02 ⋅10 23‬‬
‫‪e 1.602 ⋅10 −19 Cb‬‬
‫ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ﭼﺎﺭﺝ ﺭﺍ ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻣﺮﻳﻜﺎﺋﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻠﻴﻜﺎﻥ ﺩﺭ ﻗﻄﺮﺍﺕ ﺗﻴﻞ ﻛﺸﻒ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 8– 9‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠــﺔ ﺣﻘﻴﻘــﻰ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻــﺮ ﻛﻴﻤﻴــﺎﻭﻯ ﻛﻤﻴــﺖ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺑــﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ‬
‫‪ 10 −22 − 10 −24 g‬ﻗــﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳــﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﺍﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻨﻔﻰ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺎﺳــﺒﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﺸــﻜﻼﺗﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺳــﺒﺐ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻯ ﺳﺎﻳﻨﺲ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ‪ 1‬ﺣﺼﻪ‬
‫‪12‬‬
‫‪243‬‬
‫( ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ‬ ‫‪12‬‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪C‬‬ ‫ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺍﻳﺰﻭﺗﻮپ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ )‬
‫ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﻗﺒﻮﻝ ﻛﺮﺩﻧﺪ ؛ ﭘﺲ‪:‬‬
‫‪mass − per atomElemen ts‬‬
‫‪M atomic‬‬ ‫=‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪per − atom of Carbon − 12‬‬
‫‪12‬‬
‫ﺟﺴﺘﺠﻮ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻋﻠﺖ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﺯ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ‪ 12 -‬ﺩﺭ ﭼﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟‬
‫ﻭﻳﺎ ‪ 166 C‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﺒﺮﻧﺪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ‬ ‫‪14‬‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻮﺽ ‪ 126 C‬ﺍﻳﺰﻭﺗﻮپ ﻫﺎﻯ‪C , 13 C ،‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺗﻰ ﺭﻭﻧﻤﺎ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺷﺪ ؟‬
‫‪ 1‬ﺍﻡ ﺣﺼــــــــﻪ ﻛﺘﻠــﺔ ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﺍﻳﺰﻭﺗــﻮپ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ‪ 12-‬ﺭﺍ ﺑــﻪ ﺣﻴــﺚ ﻭﺍﺣــــــﺪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ‬
‫‪12‬‬
‫ﺍﺗــــــــــﻮﻣــﻰ ) ‪ ( Atomic . Mass .Unite‬ﻗﺒﻮﻝ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ) ‪ ( amu‬ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻛﻨﺪ ؛ﻳﻌﻨﻰ‪:‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫ﺍﻡ ﺣﺼﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ‪.‬‬ ‫) ‪ ( Amu‬ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻠﻰ =‬
‫‪12‬‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﻛـــﺘﻠﺔ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ‪ 126C‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 1.993⋅10−26 kg‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﭘﺲ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪ amu‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺍﺯ‪:‬‬
‫= ‪amu‬‬ ‫‪⋅1.993 ⋅10 − 26 kg = 1 ⋅ 661 ⋅10 − 27 kg‬‬
‫‪12‬‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺍﻳﻨﺠﺎ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻣﻰ ﺗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ ﻛﻪ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻢ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‬
‫= ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ‬
‫‪1 ⋅ 661⋅10 −27 kg‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ‪:‬‬
‫‪m peratom − Na 3.8203 ⋅10 −27 kg‬‬
‫= ‪M atom Na‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 23amu‬‬
‫‪amu‬‬ ‫‪1.661⋅10 − 27 kg‬‬
‫ﻣﺜـﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻳــﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ‪ 1⋅ 674 ⋅10 −27 kg‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪،‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪244‬‬
 ‫ﺣﻞ‪:‬‬
‫‪mass − peratomH 1.674 ⋅10−27 kg‬‬
‫= ‪M atomic H‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 1.008amu‬‬
‫‪amu‬‬ ‫‪1.661.10− 27 kg‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﻰ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﻳﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭﺝ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ‬
‫ﺍﺯ ﺍﻭﺳﻂ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻰ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺍﻳﺰﻭﺗﻮپ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺖ‬
‫ﺍﻭﺳــﻂ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋــﻰ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺍﻳﺰﻭﺗﻮپ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺨﺘﻠــﻒ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻳﺰﻭﺗﻮپ‬ ‫‪16‬‬
‫‪8‬‬
‫‪O‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬
‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪O‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬
‫‪8‬‬
‫‪O‬‬
‫ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﺩﺭ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺖ‬ ‫‪99.76%‬‬ ‫‪0.04%‬‬ ‫‪0.2%‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬ ‫‪15.99‬‬ ‫‪17.00‬‬ ‫‪18.00‬‬
‫‪: 9– 9‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺘﺸﻜﻠﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ‪ +‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ = ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺁﺏ‬
‫‪MH 2 O = 1 ⋅ 2 + 16 = 18amu‬‬
‫ﻣﺸﻖ ﻭﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺯﻳﺮ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ )‪ ( 4 - 9‬ﻣﻮﺩﻝ ﺍﻳﺘﺎﻧﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺏ ‪C2 H 5 − OH -‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪C6 H12 O6 -‬‬
‫‪245‬‬
 ‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻯ‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﺔﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ )‪ (amu‬ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﮔﺮ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷــﻴﻢ ﻭ ﺁﻥ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻘﺴــﻴﻢ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ‬
‫)‪ (amu‬ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻰ ﺷﻮﺩ؛ﻳﻌﻨﻰ‪:‬‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫‪ = ---------------------‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ‬
‫‪amu‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 2.9898 ⋅10 −26 kg‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ‬
‫ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ﺁﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ‪ -:‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺁﺏ‬
‫‪m‬‬ ‫‪2.9898 ⋅10−26 kg‬‬
‫= ‪M H 2O‬‬ ‫=‬ ‫‪= 18amu‬‬
‫‪H 2O‬‬
‫‪amu‬‬ ‫‪1.661⋅10− 27 kg‬‬
‫ﻧﻮﺕ‪ :‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔﺣﻘﻴﻘﻰ ﻫﺮ ﺫﺭﻩ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺑﺮ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ‪ amu‬ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ﺁﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 10- 9‬ﻣﻮﻝ )ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‪ -‬ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‪ -‬ﮔﺮﺍﻡ(‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‪ -‬ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﻳﺎ ﻣﻮﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻨﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴــﺒﻰ ‪ Na‬ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ‬
‫‪ 23amu‬ﺍﺳﺖ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 23g‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﮔﺮ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‪-‬ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﻳﺎ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ :‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻰ ﺗﻴﺰﺍﺏ ﮔﻮﮔﺮﺩ ) ‪ ( H 2 SO4‬ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 98amu‬ﺍﺳﺖ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ‪98‬‬
‫ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺁﻥ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ .‬ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻡ ﺍﮔﺮ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻰ ﻫــﺮ ﺫﺭﻩ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﺷــﻮﺩ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﺫﺭﻩ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻨﺪ؛ ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪:‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ‬
‫ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 5.4 ⋅10 −4 amu‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ؛ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﺁﻥ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ‬
‫‪ 5.4 ⋅10−4 g‬ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﭼﻮﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‪ -‬ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ‪-‬ﮔﺮﺍﻡ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻮﻥ‪-‬ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ‪ .....‬ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ" ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻳﺎﺩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻭ‬
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‫ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻫﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﺓ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮﺍﻳﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻣﻮﻝ ﺭﺍ ﭼﻨﻴﻦ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻛﺮﺩ‪:‬‬
‫ﻣﻮﻝ‪ :‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺘﻠﺔﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻳﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﻩ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﮔﺮ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠــﺔ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﺷــﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳــﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﻝ )‪(Mole‬‬
‫ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‪ 200g :‬ﺳﻮﺩﻳﻢ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻣﻮﻝ ﺁﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ ؟ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺁﻥ ‪40amu‬‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪m = 200 g‬‬
‫‪M = 40amu‬‬ ‫‪40 g − 1mo1‬‬
‫?=‪n‬‬
‫‪200 g − n‬‬ ‫‪200 g ⋅1mol‬‬
‫=‪n‬‬ ‫‪= 5mol‬‬
‫‪40 g‬‬
‫‪m‬‬
‫= ‪ n‬ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻣﻮﻝ ﺍﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﻛﺮﺩ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺍﺯ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ‬
‫‪M‬‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ) ‪ ( 5 – 9‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺲ‪ ،‬ﺳﻴﻤﺎﺏ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻧﻴﻢ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮﻭﻣﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻫﻦ‪ ،‬ﺟﺴﺖ ﻭ ﺳﻠﻔﺮ‬
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 ‫‪ : 11 – 9‬ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺘﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺑــﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﻪ ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺘﺸــﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺪﺳــﺖ ﺁﻭﺭﺩﻩ‬
‫ﺑﺘﻮﺍﻧﻴﻢ‪ ،‬ﻻﺯﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺗﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻫﺮ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﺁﻥ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻣﺮﻛــﺐ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ‬
‫ﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺿﺮﺏ ﺩﺭ ﻋﺪﺩ ‪ 100‬ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺗﻘﺴــﻴﻢ ﺑــﺮ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻮﻝ ﺁﻥ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ؛ﻳﻌﻨﻰ‪:‬‬
‫‪ .100‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‬
‫= ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫ﻣﺜـﺎﻝ ﺍﻭﻝ‪ :‬ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﻛﺎﺭﺑــﻦ‪ ,‬ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﮔﻠﻮﻛﻮﺯ ) ) ‪( (C6 H12O6‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﮔﻠﻮﻛﻮﺯ ‪ 180amu‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟــﻦ ‪ ، 1amu‬ﻛﺘﻠــﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻛﺎﺭﺑــﻦ ‪ 12amu‬ﻭ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ‪16amu‬‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ‪:‬‬
‫‪M C6 H12O6 = 12.6 + 1.12 + 16.6 = 180amu‬‬
‫‪M C6 H12O6 = 72 + 12 + 96 = 180amu‬‬
‫‪mole C6 H12O6 = 72 g + 12 g + 96 g = 180 g‬‬
‫‪180 g C6 H12O6 − 72 gC‬‬
‫‪100‬‬ ‫‪− W%‬‬
‫‪72 gC ⋅100‬‬
‫= ‪W %C‬‬ ‫‪= 40%C‬‬
‫‪180 g‬‬
‫‪180 g C6 H12O6 − 96 gO‬‬
‫‪100‬‬ ‫‪− W%‬‬
‫‪96 gO ⋅100‬‬
‫= ‪W %O‬‬ ‫‪= 53.33%O‬‬
‫‪180 g‬‬
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 ‫ﻧﻮﺕ‪ :‬ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺟﺰﺍﻯ ﻣﺘﺸــﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ‬
‫‪ 100‬ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ : 12 - 9‬ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻰ ﻭ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻻ" ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻃﺮﺯ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺳﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ‬
‫ﺁﻥ ﺑﺎ ﺿﺮﺍﻳﺐ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ﻛﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﺿﺮﺍﻳﺐ ﺳﺘﻴﻜﻴﻮ ﻣﺘﺮﻯ )‪(Stoichiometry‬ﻧﻴﺰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻧﺸﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪ NaCl :‬ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ ﻧﻤﻚ ﻃﻌﺎﻡ ﻭ ‪ H 2 O‬ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﻩ ﺁﺏ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﻃﺮﺯ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺳــﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻬﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﻩ ﺑﺎ ﺿﺮﺍﻳﺐ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺑــﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﻳــﻚ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺁﺏ ﺍﺯ ﺩﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺁﺏ ‪ H 2 O‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻮﺭﻣــﻮﻝ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟــﻰ ﺭﺍ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳــﺎﺱ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺗﻌﻴﻴــﻦ ﻧﻤﻮﺩ ‪ .‬ﻧﻮﻉ ﺩﻳﮕﺮﻯ ﺍﺯ‬
‫ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﻰ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻧﺸــﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﺸــﻮﺩ‪).‬ﻛﻠﻤﻪ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻰ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺟﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﻛﻪ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺍﺭﺍﻳﻪ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﺑﻪ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﮔﻴﺮﻯ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻔﻰ ﻭ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻯ‬
‫ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ(‪ .‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﮔﻠﻮﻛﻮﺯ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ‪ 6‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ‪ 12 ،‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ‪6‬‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻰ ﺁﻥ ‪ CH 2 O‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ‪،‬‬
‫ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﮔﻠﻮﻛﻮﺯ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ‪ .‬ﭼﻮﻥ ﺍﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻫﺎ ﻫﻤﻮﺍﺭﻩ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺗﺮﻳﻦ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺁﺷﻜﺎﺭ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻧﺎﻡ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺮﺍﻯ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﻪ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺳــﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺭﺳــﺘﻰ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻭ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﻴﻢ ‪،‬ﻻﺯﻡ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺗﺎ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻔﻰ ﻭ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻯ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺪﺍﻧﻴﻢ ‪ .‬ﺑﺎ ﺩﺍﻧﺴــﺘﻦ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻔﻰ ﻭ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻯ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻥ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻰ ﺁﻧﺮﺍ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻭ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻛﺮﺩ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻯ ﻫﺮ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﺍﺛﺮ ﺍﻧﺎﻟﻴﺰ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﻣﻮﻝ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﻴﻢ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻣﻘــﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻫﺮ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﻫﻨﺪﺓ ﻣﺮﻛــﺐ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ‪ 1‬ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻳﻢ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺩﻗﻴﻘﺎ"ﻣﻼﺣﻈﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺮﻣﻼ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﻳﻢ ‪ ،‬ﺳﭙﺲ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻣﻮﻟﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﻣﺘﺸﻜﻠﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺑﺮ ﻫﻤﻴﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﻣﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻗﻴﺎﺳﻰ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
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‫‪ - 3‬ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺭﻗﻤﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻃﺒﻖ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ‪ 2‬ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺩﻗﻴﻘﺎ" ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﻪ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺗﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﺷــﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺘﺸﻜﻠﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ‬
‫ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﮔﺮ ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺗﺎﻡ ﻧﺒﺎﺷﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﻪ ﺭﻭﻧﺪﺍﻑ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﺿﺮﺏ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻥ ﻛﻮﭼﻜﺘﺮﻳﻦ‬
‫ﻋــﺪﺩ ﺗــﺎﻡ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺗﺎﻡ ﺗﺒﺪ ﻳﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺗﺎﻡ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺳــﺎﺩﻩ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻜﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻰ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺭﺍ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺭﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷــﺖ ﻃﺮﺯ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺩﺭﺳﺖ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﺑﻪ ﺳﻤﺒﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﺿﻤﻴﻤﻪ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﻏــﺮﺽ ﺗﺤﺮﻳــﺮ ﺩﺭﺳــﺖ ﻓﻮﺭﻣــﻮﻝ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟــﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‪ ،‬ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺍﺯ ﺩﺍﺷــﺘﻦ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻔﻰ ﻭ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻯ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺑﺎ ﺩﺭ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺩﺍﺷﺖ‬
‫ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻔﻰ ﻭ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻯ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻓﻮﻕ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻭ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
‫ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﺴــﺒﺘﻰ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﻭ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺗﺎﻡ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺷﺪ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻳﻦ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺳــﺎﺩﻩ ﺿﺮﺏ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ‪1 :‬ﻳﻚ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﺯ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻭ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﺎﻧﺪﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ‪ 3.3g‬ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ) ‪ ( CO2‬ﻭ ‪ 0.899g‬ﺁﺏ )‪ ( H 2O‬ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‪،‬‬
‫ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺳﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ = 1g‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﻋﻀﻮﻯ ﺳﻮﺧﺘﺎﻧﺪﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ‬
‫‪ = 3.3g‬ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺩﺍﻯ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ‬
‫= ﺁﺏ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ‬ ‫‪0.899g‬‬
‫ﺍﺑﺘﺪﺍ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺑﻪ ﺩﺳﺖ ﻣﻰ ﺁﻭﺭﻳﻢ‪.‬‬
‫‪18 g H 2O −‬‬ ‫‪2 gH 2‬‬
‫‪0.899 gH 2O ⋅ 2 gH 2‬‬
‫‪0.899 g‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬ ‫‪mH 2‬‬ ‫= ‪mH 2‬‬ ‫‪= 0.1gH 2‬‬
‫‪18 gH 2O‬‬
‫‪44 gCO2‬‬ ‫‪− 12 gC‬‬
‫‪12 g ⋅ 3.3 gCO2‬‬
‫‪3.3 gCO2‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬ ‫‪mC‬‬ ‫= ‪mC‬‬ ‫‪= 0.9 gC‬‬
‫‪44 gCO2‬‬
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‫‪nC = 0.9 g ÷ 12 g / moll = 0.075 mol‬‬
‫‪nH 2 = 0.1g ÷ 2 g / moll = 0.1mol‬‬
‫‪C = 0.075 mol ÷ 0.075 mol = 1‬‬
‫‪H 2 = 0.1moll ÷ 0.075 mol = 1.3‬‬
‫‪C = 1⋅ 3 = 3‬‬
‫‪H 2 = 1.3 ⋅ 3 = 4‬‬
‫‪C =3‬‬
‫‪H2 = 4‬‬ ‫‪C3 H 4‬‬ ‫) ‪(CH 2 = C = CH 2‬‬
‫ﻣﺸﻖ ﻭﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‬
‫‪ 3.2g‬ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺁﻫﻦ ﺑﺎ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ‪ 2.24g‬ﺁﻫﻦ‬
‫ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺳﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺁﻫﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﺋﻴﺪ‪ ،‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ‬
‫ﺁﻫﻦ ‪ 56‬ﻭ ﺍﺯ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ‪ 16amu‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺜـﺎﻝ ‪ : 2‬ﺩﺭ ﺗﺮﻛﻴــﺐ ﻳــﻚ ﻣﺮ ﻛﺐ ‪ 8g‬ﻛﺎﺭﺑــﻦ‪ 1.33g،‬ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ‪10.667g‬‬
‫ﺍﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺷــﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ ،‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‪ 180amu‬ﺍﺳﺖ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺳــﺎﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻰ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪mC = 8 g‬‬ ‫‪nC = 8 g ÷ 12 g / mol = 0.667 mol‬‬
‫ﺣﻞ‪:‬‬
‫‪mH 2 = 1.33 g‬‬ ‫‪nH 2 = 1.33 g ÷ 1g / mol = 1.33mol‬‬
‫‪mO2 = 10 .66 g‬‬ ‫‪nO2 = 10.667 g ÷ 16 g / mol = 0.667‬‬
‫‪nC = 0.667 mol ÷ 0.667 mol = 1‬‬
‫‪nH 2 = 1.33mol ÷ 0.66mol = 2‬‬
‫‪nO2 = 1.667 mol ÷ 0.667 mol = 1‬‬
‫‪C =1‬‬
‫‪H =2‬‬
‫‪O =1‬‬ ‫‪CH 2O‬‬
‫‪M (CH 2O) n = 180‬‬
‫‪(30)n = 180‬‬
‫‪180‬‬
‫=‪n‬‬ ‫‪=6‬‬
‫‪30‬‬
‫‪(CH 2O)n = (CH 2O)6‬‬
‫‪CH O‬‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬
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 ‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻧﻬﻢ ‪:‬‬
‫* ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ‬
‫ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫* ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺘﺸــﻜﻞ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻭﺯﻧﻰ ﻳﺎ ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺩﻭﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻧﻪ ﺗﻨﻬﺎ ﻳﻚ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ ﺷﺎﻥ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﻮﺩ‪ ،‬ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪ .‬ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ ﻳﻜﻰ‬
‫ﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺁﻥ ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺗﺎﻡ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻭ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫* ﺩﻭ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻫﺮ ﻳﻚ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﺟﺪﺍﮔﺎﻧﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺳﻮﻣﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻳﻚ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫ﻧﻤــﻮﺩﻩ ﺑــﺪﻭﻥ ﺑﻘﻴﻪ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﺩﻭ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻫــﻢ ﻧﻴﺰ ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺳﻮﻣﻰ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻧﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫* ﻛﺘﻠــﺔ ﻣﻌــﺎﺩﻝ ﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺑﺎ ‪ 8‬ﮔﺮﺍﻡ‬
‫ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺑﻘﻴﻪ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻃﻪ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫* ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻳﻚ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻫﻤﺎﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺁﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ‬
‫ﻳﻚ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﻭ ﻳﺎ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‪ -‬ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﻭ ﺁﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻴﺴﺎﺯﺩ‪.‬‬
‫* ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻯ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻰ ﻧﺴــﺒﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺗﻘﺴﻢ ﺑﺮ ﻭﻻﻧﺲ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺛﺮ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺍﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫* ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ‬
‫ﻳﺎ ﺑﺨﺎﺭ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺗﺎﻡ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﻭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ‬
‫ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﻭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻣﻴﺒﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫* ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺮ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭ ) ‪ (6,02 ⋅10 23‬ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﮔﺎﺯﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺮ ﮔﺎﺯ ﺩﺭ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ‪ STP 22. 4L‬ﺣﺠﻢ ﺭﺍ ﺍﺷﻐﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻣﻰ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫* ﻣﻮﻝ‪ :‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ ﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻳﺎ ﺑﻪ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﻩ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺍﮔﺮ‬
‫ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﺓ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﺷــﻮﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻳﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ ﻣﻮﻝ )‪(Mole‬‬
‫ﻳﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻨﺪ‬
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‫* ﻣﻘــﺪﺍﺭ ﻋﻨﺼــﺮ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺭﺍ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﺿﺮﺏ ﺩﺭ ‪ 100‬ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ‬
‫ﺗﻘﺴــﻴﻢ ﺑﺮ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﻮﻝ ﺁﻥ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﻴﻢ ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺣﺎﺻﻠﻪ ﻣﻘــﺪﺍﺭ ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺍﻓﺎﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪،‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﻧﻬﻢ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﭼﻬﺎﺭ ﺟﻮﺍﺑﻪ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻡ ﻳﻚ ﻣﺴﺄﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻤﻰ ﺑﻪ ‪ ------‬ﭘﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﻮﺍﺭ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺝ – ﺳﻪ ﺩ – ﭼﻬﺎﺭ‬ ‫ﺏ – ﺩﻭ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ‪ -‬ﻳﻚ‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﻛﺘﻠــﻪ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋــﻰ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ‪ -----‬ﺑﻪ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻫــﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟــﻒ ‪ -‬ﺯﻳــﺎﺩ ﺗــﺮ ﺏ ‪ -‬ﻛﻤﺘﺮ ﺝ – ﻣﺴــﺎﻭﻯ ﺩ ‪ -‬ﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﻭﻗﺎﺕ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻭﺑﻌﻀﻰ ﺍﻭﻗﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻛﻢ‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﻋﺎﻟﻤــﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‪ -----‬ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻧﺴــﺒﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺭﺍ ﻃﺮﺡ ﺭﻳﺰﻯ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﺍﺯﻳﻦ ﺳــﺒﺐ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎﻡ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻑ ﻧﻴﺰ ﻣﺴﻤﻰ ﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ﻻﻭﺍﺯﻳﻪ ﺏ – ﮔﻴﻠﻮﺳﻚ ﺝ – ‪ Proust‬ﺩ ‪ -‬ﺩﺍﻟﺘﻦ‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﺁﺏ ﻭ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﭘﺮ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ‪ -----‬ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﺩ‪1:2 -‬‬ ‫ﺝ ‪2:3 -‬‬ ‫ﺏ – ‪1:3‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ‪2 :1‬‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻝ ‪ H 3 PO4‬ﺭﺍ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺫﻳﻞ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ؟‬
‫ﺩ ‪22.6 -‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ – ‪ 16‬ﺏ ‪ -15‬ﺝ ‪32.6 -‬‬
‫‪ - 6‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺣﺠﻤﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﮔﺎﺯﻯ‬
‫ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ‪ -----‬ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﺍﻟــﻒ ‪ -‬ﺍﻋــﺪﺍﺩ ﺗــﺎﻡ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻮﭼﻚ ﻭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺏ‪ -‬ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﻛﺴــﺮﻯ ﺝ – ﺍﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺑــﺰﺭگ ﺩ – ﻫﻴﭻ‬
‫ﻛﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫‪ - 7‬ﻳﻚ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺮ ﻣﺎﺩﻩ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﻩ ‪ -----‬ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ -‬ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ ‪ ،‬ﺏ ‪ ، (6.02 ⋅10 23 ) -‬ﺝ ‪ 22.4 -‬ﻟﻴﺘﺮ ‪ ،‬ﺩ – ﺍﻟﻒ ﻭﺏ ﻫﺮﺩﻭ‬
‫‪ - 8‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﻰ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ‪ 12‬ﻭ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﻳﻚ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺁﻥ ‪ 1.993 ⋅10 23 g‬ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻗﻴﻤــﺖ‬
‫‪ amu‬ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪ (1.661⋅10−24 g ) -‬ﺏ ‪ (6.02 ⋅10 −27 ) -‬ﺝ – ﺍﻟﻒ ﻭﺏ ﺩ – ﻫﻴﭽﻜﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫‪ - 9‬ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﮔﻠﻮﻛﻮﺯ ) ‪ ( C6 H 12 O6‬ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﺝ ‪ 40% -‬ﺩ – ‪33%‬‬ ‫ﺏ ‪23% -‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻒ ‪50% -‬‬
‫‪ – 10‬ﻣﻮﻝ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﺯ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻧﺪﺍﺯﺓ ‪ -------‬ﺑﻪ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟــﻒ – ﻛﻴﻠﻮﮔــﺮﺍﻡ ﺏ ‪ (6.02 ⋅10 23 ) -‬ﺝ – ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻭﮔﺪﺭﻭ ﺩ – ﺏ ﻭﺝ ﻫﺮﺩﻭ ﺩﺭﺳــﺖ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‬
‫ﺳﺆﺍﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﺤﻰ‬
‫‪ - 1‬ﺑﻪ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻭ ﻓﺸﺎﺭ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﻭ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻨــﺪ‪ ,‬ﺍﮔﺮ ‪ 4.20 ⋅10 26‬ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺑﺎ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺪ‪ ،‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻭ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻟﻬﺎﻯ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ ؟ ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴﺎ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻩ ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ﻭ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ؟‬
‫‪ - 2‬ﺍﻣﻮﻧﻴــﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺁﻛﺴــﻴﺠﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤــﻮﺩﻩ ‪ NO‬ﻭ ﺁﺏ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﮕــﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ‪3.6 ⋅10 21‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﭼﻪ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﻜﻮﻝ ‪ NO‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻛﺮﺩﻩ ﻣﻴﺘﻮﺍﻧﺪ؟‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ‪ B‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ HGa3 AlBSi2 O16‬ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬ﻣﺲ ﺳﻠﻔﻴﺖ ) ‪ KCrO 4 ، (CuSO4‬ﻭ ﺁﺏ ) ‪ ( H 2 O‬ﺗﺤﺖ ﺷﺮﺍﻳﻂ ﺧﺎﺹ ﺑﺎ ﻫﻢ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫ﻧﻤــﻮﺩﻩ ﻣﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺁﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﻰ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺍﺯ ‪ OH − , CrO42− , Cu 2+‬ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ .‬ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻯ ﻧﺸﺎﻥ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﺪ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺍﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺮ ﺑﺎﺍﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ‬
‫‪ 35.6% , 48.7%‬ﻭ ‪ 15.7%‬ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ,‬ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 5‬ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺭﺍ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻒ‪ -‬ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺩﺭ ‪ 9.32 ⋅10 25‬ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ‪.Zn‬‬
‫ﺏ‪-‬ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ‪ 3.27‬ﻣﻮﻝ ﺍﺭﮔﻮﻥ ﭼﻨﺪ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﺳﺖ؟‬
‫ﺝ‪ -‬ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ‪ 3,07.10 20‬ﻧﻘﺮﻩ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻣﻠﻰ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ؟‬
‫ﺩ‪ 46.5cm 3 -‬ﺁﻫﻦ ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﺳﺖ ) ‪ ( d Fe = 7.68 g / cm 3‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 6‬ﻭﺯﻥ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ﻛﻪ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻰ ﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻃﻪ ﺁﻥ ‪Me2 O3‬‬
‫ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﻭ ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﻓﻠﺰﻯ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺩﺭ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺁﻥ ‪ 68.4%‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 7‬ﻋﻨﺼﺮ‪ x‬ﺑﺎ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺩﻩ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ XCl 4‬ﺭﺍ ﺗﺸــﻜﻴﻞ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ ﺁﻳﻮﻥ‬
‫‪−‬‬
‫‪ (Cl‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ‪ %74‬ﺑﻮﺩﻩ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ‪ x‬ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ؟‬
‫‪ - 8‬ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ‪ 1.423g‬ﺍﻛﺴــﺎﻳﺪ ﺍﺳــﻜﺎﻧﺪﻳﻨﻴﻢ ﺑﺎ ‪ H 2‬ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻭ ﺍﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻛﻪ ﺩﺭ‬
‫ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ‪ 0.929g‬ﻓﻠﺰ‪ Sc‬ﻭ ﺁﺏ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
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 ‫‪ - 9‬ﺍﮔﺮ ‪ KClO3‬ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﺷﻮﺩ ﻃﺒﻖ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺫﻳﻞ ﺑﻪ ‪ KCl‬ﻭ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪2 KClO 3 ⎯⎯⎯→ 2 KCl + 3O2‬‬
‫ﺍﮔﺮ ‪ %50‬ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪ ،‬ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ﻭﺯﻥ ‪ KClO3‬ﻛﺎﺳﺘﻪ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ؟ ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺁﻥ ‪ 100g‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 10‬ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ‪ NaCl‬ﻭ ‪ KCl‬ﺑﻪ ﻭﺯﻥ ﻳﻚ ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳــﺖ ‪ ،‬ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ‬
‫ﺩﺭ ﺁﺏ ﺣﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ﻭ ﺑﺎﻻﻯ ‪ AgNO3‬ﻋﻼﻭﻩ ﺷــﻮﺩ ﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻳﻮﻥ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻛﻠﻮﺭﺍﻳﺪ ﺑﻪ ‪ AgCl‬ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ‬
‫ﺷﺪﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺭﺳﻮﺏ ﻣﻴﻨﻤﺎﻳﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ‪ AgCl‬ﺭﺳﻮﺏ ﻛﻨﻨﺪﻩ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻯ ﺑﻪ ‪ 2.1476g‬ﺍﺳﺖ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻴﺼﺪﻯ‬
‫‪ NaCl‬ﺩﺭ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﺍﻭﻟﻰ ﭼﻘﺪﺭ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﺑﻮﺩ؟‬
‫‪ - 11‬ﺑــﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ‪ 1.35g‬ﻛﻠﺴــﻴﻢ ﺩﺭ ﻣﺠﺎﻭﺭﺕ ﻫﻮﺍ ﻛﺎﻣﻼ" ﺑــﻪ‪ 1.8g CaO‬ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺖ‪ ,‬ﻛﺘﻠﺔﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ‪ Ca‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻰ ﻛﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﻪ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﺍﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ‪ 16‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 12‬ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻴﻜــﻪ ‪ 2.75g‬ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ‪ Pb3 O4‬ﺭﺍ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺩﻫﻴﻢ ‪ ،‬ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﺪ ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ‬
‫‪ 0.064g‬ﺁﻛﺴﻴﺠﻦ ﻭ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺩﻳﮕﺮ ﺁﻥ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﺍﻛﺴﺎﻳﺪ ﺳﺮﺏ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺷﺪﻩ‬
‫ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 13‬ﻳﻚ ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻁ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ﻛﻪ ﺷﺎﻣﻞ ‪ %60‬ﻛﺘﻠﻮﻯ ‪ C3 H 8‬ﻭ‪ C x H y %40‬ﺍﺳﺖ‪,‬ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ‪10‬ﮔﺮﺍﻡ ﺁﻥ ﺳــﻮﺧﺘﺎﻧﺪﻩ ﺷــﺪﻩ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ ,‬ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠــﻪ ‪ CO2 29g‬ﻭ ‪ 18.8g‬ﺁﺏ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ‬
‫ﮔﺮﺩﻳﺪﻩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻛﺎﺭﺑﻦ ‪ C x H y‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﺋﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ Li2CO3 -14‬ﻓﻮﺭﻣــﻮﻝ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻰ ﻟﻴﺘﻴﻢ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﻴﺖ ﺍﺳــﺖ ﻫﺮ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻓﻮﺭﻣﻮﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ ﻣﺬﻛﻮﺭ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ﻛﺪﺍﻡ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ ﻫﺎﻯ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﺘﺸﻜﻠﻪ ﺍﺳﺖ؟‬
‫‪ - 15‬ﻧﻤﻮﻧــﺔ ﺍﺯ ﮔﺎﺯ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟــﻦ ﺩﺍﺭﺍﻯ ‪ 4.6 ⋅10 22‬ﺍﺗــﻮﻡ ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺍﺳــﺖ‪ ,‬ﭼﻨــﺪ ﻣﻮﻝ ﺍﺗﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻧﺎﻳﺘﺮﻭﺟﻦ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻛﻤﻴﺖ ﺍﺗﻮﻣﻰ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ؟‬
‫‪ - 16‬ﺳﻨﮓ ﺁﻫﻚ)ﻛﻠﺴﻴﻢ ﻛﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﻴﺖ( ﺭﺍ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﻣﻴﺪﻫﻴﻢ ﺩﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﺑﻪ ‪ CaO‬ﻭ ‪ CO2‬ﺗﺒﺪﻳﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻴﮕﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﮔﺮ ‪ 40g‬ﺳﻨﮓ ﺁﻫﻚ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﮔﺮﺩﺩ ‪،‬ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ‪ 22.4g CaO‬ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﻴﺸﻮﺩ‪ ,‬ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ‬
‫‪ CO2‬ﺭﺍ ﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﻴﺪ‪.‬‬
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 ‫ﻣﺄﺧﺬ‬
1- Kotz John C., paul Treichel, Jr. Chemistry and Chemical
Reactivity(fourth edition). Harourt Barace and Company. U.S.A.,
1999.
2- Raymony Chang. Chemistry(seventh edition). 2002.
3- Chemistry News are selected from chemistry in Britian, Nos. May, Jun,
August/ 1998.
4- Hotl, Rinehart/Winston Physical Science, a Harcourt education chem-
istry Company 2005.
5- Hotl, Rinehart/Winston Modern chemistry 2005.
6- Chemistry stouten S.Zumdahl, third edition university of lllinois
1993.
7- Fuddamental of Chemistry, third edition, David E. Goldberg. Brookly
College, 1998.
8- Kotz John C., paul Treichel, Jr. Chemistry and Chemical
Reactivity(fourth edition). Harourt Barace and Company. U.S.A.,
1999.
1386 ،‫ ﺳﺎﻝ ﺳﻮﻡ ﺩﺑﻴﺮﺳﺘﺎﻥ‬،‫ ﺑﺮﻫﻢ ﮐﻨﺶ ﻣﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ‬.‫( ﻭ ﺁﺯﻣﺎﻳﺸﮕﺎﻩ‬3) ‫ ﺷﻴﻤﯽ‬- 9
257.1 ‫ﮐﻮﺩ‬
.1386 ‫ ﺳﺎﻝ‬143 ‫ ﮐﻮﺩ‬،‫ ﺳﺎﻝ ﺳﻮﻡ ﺩﻭﺭﻩء ﺭﺍﻫﻨﻤﺎﻳﯽ‬.‫ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﯽ‬- 10
. 1384 ‫ ﺳﺎﻝ‬207.1 ‫ ﮐﻮﺩ‬،(1)‫ ﺷﻴﻤﯽ ﺑﺮﺍی ﺯﻧﺪﻩ ﮔﯽ‬.‫ ﺷﻴﻤﯽ‬- 11
‫ ﺍﺳــﺘﺎﺩ‬،‫ ﭘﻮﻫﻨﺪﻭی ﺩﻳﭙﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻧﺠﻨﻴﺮ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻤﺤﻤﺪ ﻋﺰﻳﺰ‬: ‫ ﻣﻮﻟــﻒ‬.‫ ﮐﻴﻤﻴــﺎی ﻋﻤﻮﻣﯽ‬- 12
.1387 :‫ﭘﻮﻫﻨﺘﻮﻥ ﮐﺎﺑﻞ ﺳﺎﻝ‬
256