ECOSYSTEMS

DEFINITION
⚫ Ecology is a science of interrelationship & deals with the
relationship of living organism & non living components of
environment.

⚫ Ecosystem= Eco (Environment)+ System (Interacting and

Interdependent Complex)
Ecosystem -
⚫ Ecosystem is the basic functional unit which includes organisms & non living environment;

each influencing the properties of the other and both are necessary for maintenance of life

as is on the earth.

⚫ The system in which living organism & their non living environment are inseparably

interrelated and interact upon each other so that the flow of energy leads to clearly defined

trophic structure, biotic diversity & material cycle is called as an “ecosystem‟.

⚫ From trophic (i.e. nourishment) stand point, an ecosystem has two components an

autotrophic (self nourishing) and heterotrophic (other nourishing).

ENVIRONMENT COMPONENT
 STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM

ECOSYSTEM

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS BIOTIC COMPONENTS

Climatic Factors Producers Consumer Decomposers

Edaphic Factors
(Soil Related)
 BIOTIC COMPONENTS
⚫ Biotic describes a living component of an ecosystem; for example
organisms, such as plants and animals. All living things — autotrophs
and heterotrophs — plants, animals, fungi, bacteria.

⚫ They are divided as

Producers (autotrophs)
Consumers ( heterotrophs)
Decomposers (detritivores)
Producers
⚫ Autotrophic organisms largely green plants, which are able to
manufacture food from simple inorganic substances are called
producers.

⚫ Chemosynthetic and photosynthetic bacteria, algae of various

types, grasses, mosses, shrubs, herbs and trees contribute in the
total production of an ecosystem.
Consumers
⚫ These are the heterotrophic organisms chiefly animals that eat
other organisms or organic matter.

⚫ They may be herbivores, carnivores or omnivores

⚫ Also called as macro consumers.

 Classes of Consumers
⚫ HERBIVORES- Primary consumer- Plants Eaters
Ex- Deer, Rabbit, Cow, Goats, Sheep etc.

⚫ CARNIVORES- Secondary- Meat eaters- Eat Herbivorous.

Ex- Lion, Tiger & Sharks etc.

⚫ OMNIVORES- Eat plant & Animals.

Ex- Birds, Chicken, Reptiles etc.
Decomposers or reducers
⚫ Heterotrophic organisms chiefly bacteria and fungi, that
breakdown the complex compounds of dead protoplasm, absorb
some of the products and release simple substances usable by the
producers are called as decomposers or reducers.

⚫ They are also called as micro consumers.

 ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
⚫ Abiotic components or abiotic factors are non-living chemical
and physical parts of the environment that affect living organisms
and the functioning of ecosystems.
⚫ The way in which plants and animals grow and carry out their
different activities is a result of several abiotic factors.
⚫ These factors are light, temperature, water, atmospheric gases,
wind as well as soil (edaphic) and physiographic (nature of land
surface) factors.
Functions of Ecosystem
⚫ From the functional point of view ecosystem has two
components:

1. Autotrophs ( Self nourishing)

2. Heterotrophs (Other nourishing)

Autotrophs ( Self nourishing)
⚫ Autotrophs fix light energy using simple inorganic substances and
build up of complex substances predominates.

⚫ The component is constituted mainly by green plants, including

photosynthetic bacteria.

⚫ Members of the autotrophic component are known as

producers.
Heterotrophs (Other nourishing)
⚫ In these organisms utilization, rearrangement and decomposition
of complex material predominate.

⚫ The organisms involved are known as consumers, as they

consume the matter built up by the producers.
POND ECOSYSTEM
⚫ It comes under Aquatic Ecosystem.

⚫ It contains both Biotic & Abiotic factors.

Biotic Factors are,

A. Producers-

I. Rooted or large floating plants generally growing in the shallow water

II. Minute floating algae- phytoplankton, when in abundance it gives greenish

colour to the water,
B. Consumers -
⚫ Primary Consumers- insect larvae, crustaceans, fish, algae,
fleas, tadpoles etc.
⚫ Secondary Consumers- Snails, worms, leeches, small
animals etc.
⚫ Tertiary Consumers- Fish, frogs, turtles etc.
C. Decomposers

Aquatic bacteria and fungi are distributed throughout the pond,

under favorable temperature conditions they decompose the dead
organisms and the materials are released for reuse.
 Abiotic component's are
⚫ Water,
⚫ Carbon dioxide,
⚫ Calcium
⚫ Nitrogen
⚫ Phosphorus,
⚫ Humus,
⚫ Oxygen in Water,
⚫ Light,
⚫ Heat,
⚫ Minerals etc.
 ZONES OF POND
⚫ Refers to Freshwater Ecosystem.

⚫ Shallow water bodies up to 12-15 feet.

Light zonation of pond-

⚫ Littoral zone- Upper Part, Contains warm & oxygen circulating water.

⚫ Limnatic zone- Central Part, Contains Rotifers, insects, larvae & Algae

⚫ Profundal zone- Deep water zone, Microscopic plants, decomposers are

present.
Littoral
FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM
1. Food Chain & Food Web.

2. Energy Flow.

3. Ecological Pyramid.
 1. Food Chain
⚫ The transfer of food energy from the source (plants) through a
series of organisms by repeated eating & being eaten up is
referred to as food chain.
 IMPORTANT FACTS
⚫ In a food chain each organism obtains energy from the one at the
level below.

⚫ Plants are called producers because they create their own food
through photosynthesis.

⚫ Animals are consumers because they cannot create their own

food, they must eat plants or other animals to get the energy that

they need.
Trophic level

⚫ In complex natural communities, organisms whose food is obtained from plants by the same
number of steps are said to belong to the same trophic level. (Each successive level of
nourishment as represented by the link of the food chain is known as a trophic or
nourishment level).

Thus,

⚫ The green plants (i.e. producer level) occupy the first trophic level,

⚫ Plant eaters (i.e. primary consumer level- herbivore) the second level,

⚫ Herbivore eaters (i.e. secondary consumer level-carnivores) occupy the third level and

⚫ Secondary carnivore occupy (i.e. tertiary consumer level) the fourth trophic level.
 TROPIC LEVELS IN FOOD CHAIN
⚫ PRODUCERS

⚫ CONSUMERS

Primary Consumers

Secondary Consumers.

Tertiary Consumers.

Quaternary Consumers.

⚫ DECOMPOSERS
TYPES OF FOOD CHAIN
⚫ Grazing Food Chain.

⚫ Detritus Food Chain.

GRAZING FOOD CHAIN
⚫ The consumers utilizing plats as their food, constitute grazing food chain.

⚫ This food chain begins from green plants & the primary consumer is
herbivore.

⚫ Most of the ecosystem in nature follows this type of food chain.

 DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN
⚫ Ecosystem exhibiting detritus food chain are less dependent on direct solar
energy.

⚫ It is shorter than grazing food chain.

⚫ The primary source of energy is organic waste & dead matter obtained from
the grazing food chain.

⚫ EX. Dead animals, leaves, plant parts, etc.

 SIGNIFICANCE OF FOOD CHAIN
⚫ The knowledge of food chain helps in understanding the feeding relationship
as well as the interaction between organism & ecosystem.

⚫ It also help in understanding the mechanism of energy flow & circulation of

matter in ecosystem.

⚫ It also helps to understand the movement of toxic substance & the problem
associated with biological magnification in the ecosystem.
 FOOD WEB
⚫ Food Web can be defined as, “ a network of food chains which are
interconnected at various tropic levels, so as to form a number of feeding
connections amongst different organisms of a biotic community”.

⚫ It is also known as consumer- resource system.

FOOD WEB IN GRASSLAND
FOOD WEB IN FOREST
IMPORTANT FACTS
⚫ A node represents an individual species, or a group of related species or
different stages of a single species.

⚫ A link connects two nodes. Arrows represent links, & always go from
prey to predator.

⚫ The lowest tropic level are called basal species.

⚫ The highest tropic level are called top predators.

⚫ Movement of nutrients is a cyclic but of energy is unidirectional &

non-cyclic.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
⚫ Ecological pyramids are graphical representations of the trophic
structure of ecosystem.

⚫ Trophic levels are the feeding position in a food chain such as

primary producers, herbivore, primary carnivore etc.
TYPES OF PYRAMIDS
⚫ Pyramid of Numbers
⚫ Pyramid of Biomass
⚫ Pyramid of Productivity
PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
⚫ It is the graphic representation of
individuals /per unit area of
various
tropic levels.
⚫ Large numbers of producers tend
to form the base.
⚫ Lower numbers of top carnivores
occupy the tip.
NUMBER PYRAMID EXAMPLE
⚫ The shape of the pyramid of numbers
vary from ecosystem to ecosystem.
⚫ In aquatic ecosystems & grassland
communities, autotrophs are present
in large numbers per unit area.
⚫ They support a lesser number of
herbivores, which in turn support
fewer carnivores.
PRYAMID OF BIOMASS
⚫ Is the graphic representation of
biomass present per unit area of
different trophic levels, with
producers at the base & top
carnivores at the tip.

⚫ Biomass is calculated by the mass

of each individual X number of
individuals at each tropic level.
 PYRAMID OF PRODUCTIVITY
⚫ Pyramid of productivity is a
graphic representation of the
flow of energy through each
trophic level of a food chain
over a fixed time period.

⚫ The input of solar energy may

be indicated as an extra layer
at the base.
ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM
⚫ Begins with Sun.

⚫ Green plants use water, Carbon dioxide

& Sun light to make glucose,

through the process of Photosynthesis.

⚫ The flow of energy is the most Important factor that controls what
kind of organisms live in an ecosystem & how organisms the
ecosystem can support.
PRIMARY ENERGY SOURCE
⚫ Most life on earth depends on photosynthetic organisms, which capture
sunlight & convert it into chemical energy in organic molecules.

⚫ These organic molecules are what we call as food.

⚫ Organisms that make glucose during photosynthesis are called producers, &
it includes plants, some kinds of bacteria etc.
 MOVEMENT OF ENERGY THROUGH ECOSYSTEM
⚫ Producers use most of the energy they make for themselves.

⚫ All other organisms in an ecosystem are Consumers.

⚫ Consumers eat plants or other organisms to obtain their energy.

TYPES OF FLOW MODELS
⚫ Single channel Models

⚫ Double channel Models (also called Y shaped Models.)

SINGLE CHANNEL MODEL
⚫ This model explains the unidirectional flow of energy.

⚫ Whatever the energy captured by the autotrophs does not revert

back to solar input. As it moves progressively through the various
trophic levels, it is no longer available to the previous level.

⚫ The system would collapse if the primary source, the sun, were cut
off.

⚫ There is a progressive decrease in energy level at each trophic level.

So, shorter the food chain, greater would be the available food energy.
DOUBLE CHANNEL MODEL
(Y Shaped model)
⚫ It is applicable to both terrestrial & aquatic ecosystem. In this energy
model, one arm represents herbivore food chain & the other arm
represents the decomposer (detritus) food chain.

⚫ The primary producers are entirely different for each arms. This model
also indicates that two food chains infact, under natural conditions, are not
completely isolated from one another.

⚫ It seperates the grazing & detritus food chains in both time & space.

⚫ Micro consumers & macro consumers differ greatly in size & metabolic
relations.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Definition

⚫ Ecological succession is the process of change in the species structure of

an ecological community over time.

⚫ It is a phenomenon or process by which an ecological community

undergoes more or less orderly and predictable changes.

⚫ The natural process by which the same locality becomes successively

colonised by different groups or communities of plants.
⚫ Succession is gradual & sequential replacement of one
community by other in an area over a period of time.

⚫ E. P. Odum (1971)- Ecological succession is an orderly process

of community change in a unit area.

⚫ It is process of change in species composition in an ecosystem

over time.

⚫ In simpler, It is the process of ecosystem development in

nature.
CAUSES OF SUCCESSION
⚫ Initial or initiating causes
⚫ Continuing causes or Ecesis
⚫ Stabilising causes
INITIAL OR INITIATING CAUSES

⚫ Climatic factors
⚫ Biotic factors
⚫ Erosion
⚫ Deposition
Continuing causes or Ecesis

⚫ Migration
⚫ Competition
⚫ Reaction
⚫ Edaphic factors
STABILISING CAUSES

⚫ Climate area
⚫ Continuous changes in kind of plants & animals.
⚫ Increase diversity of species.
⚫ Increase in biomass & organic matter.
TYPES OF SUCESSION
1. Primary Succession

2. Secondary Succession

3. Autogenic Succession

4. Allogenic Succession

5. Autotrophic Succession

6. Hetrotrophic Succession
1. PRIMARY SUCCESSION
2. SECONDARY SUCCESSION
3. AUTOGENIC SUCCESSION

⚫ Community itself as result of which its reactions &

environment, modifies is own environment.

⚫ Replaced by new communities.

4. ALLOGENIC SUCCESSION
⚫ Allogenic succession occurs as a result of external agencies or
changes brought about in the habitat by external forces not by
existing community itself.
 5. AUTOTROPHIC SUCCESSION
⚫ Is characterized by early & continued dominance of autotrophic organisms.

⚫ It begins in a predominantly inorganic environments & the energy flow is

maintained indefinitely.

⚫ This is gradual increase in the organic matter content supported by energy

flow.
6. HETROTROPHIC SUCCESSION

⚫ Is characterized by early dominance of heterotrophic organisms

such as bacteria, fungi, animals etc.

⚫ It begins in a medium which is rich in organic matter such as

rivers, streams, which are polluted heavily with sewage.
PROCESS OF SUCCESSION
⚫ Ecological succession is a complex process & it may take thousands of years.
⚫ Fredric Clements (1916) first time proposed the sequential phases of an
ecological succession.

1. Nudation- Topographic, Climatic, Biotic

2. Invasion- Migration, Establishment, Aggregation.
3. Competition & co-action
4. Reaction
5. Stabilization
1. Nudation
⚫ Nudation is the development of a bare area. (An area without any life form).

⚫ It is the first step in ecological succession.

⚫ Causes of Nudation are

Topographic- Sand deposit, Soil erosion, Landslide etc.

Climatic- Glaciers, Dry Period, Storm etc.

Biotic- Forest destruction, Agricultural epidemics

2. INVASION
⚫ Invasion is the successful establishment of a species in the bare area.
⚫ It is the second step in ecological succession.
⚫ A new species reaches the newly created bare area & they try to establish there.
⚫ The process of invasion is completed in THREE steps
Migration (Dispersal)
Ecesis (Establishment)
Aggregation.
3. COMPETITION & CO-ACTION
⚫ Aggregation result in the increase of the number of species
within a limited space.

⚫ Competition & co- action results the survival of fit individuals &
the elimination of unfit individuals from the ecosystem.

⚫ A species with the wide reproductive capacity & ecological

amplitude only will survive.
4. REACTION
⚫ It is the modification of the environment through the influence of
living organism present on it.
⚫ Reaction cause change in soil, water, light & temperature of area.
⚫ Due to these modifications, the present community becomes
unsuitable for the existing environmental conditions.
⚫ Such communities will be quickly replaced by another community.
5. STABILIZATION
⚫ It is the last stage in ecological succession.
⚫ The final or terminal community becomes more or less stabilized for
longer period of time.
⚫ The community can maintain equilibrium with climate of area.
⚫ This final community is called the “Climax Community”.
⚫ The climax community is not immediately replaced by other communities.
⚫ Example- Forest, Grassland.
MAJOR ECOSYSTEMS IN THE WORLD
 Earth’s Major Biomes
⚫ Biome
◦ A large, relatively distinct terrestrial region with a similar climate soil, plants, and animals,
regardless of where it occurs in the world.

⚫ Location of each biome is primarily determined by:

◦ Temperature (varies with both latitude and elevation)
◦ Precipitation
⚫ Biomes can also be defined by
◦ Winds, rapid temperature changes, fires, floods, etc.
1. Forest Ecosystem
2. Grassland Ecosystem
3. Desert Ecosystem
4. Aquatic Ecosystem
1. FOREST ECOSYSTEMS
A. Boreal coniferous forest.
B. Temperature deciduous forest.
C. Temperature evergreen forest
D. Tropical rain forest
 A. BOREAL CONIFEROUS FOREST.

⚫ A region of coniferous forests in the northern hemisphere

⚫ Covers 11% of earth’s land.
⚫ Growing Season
◦ A little longer than
tundra
⚫ Precipitation
◦ ~ 50 cm/yr.
 Boreal Forests
⚫ Soils are acidic and mineral poor
⚫ Vegetation comprises of drought
resistant conifers
White spruce,
Balsam fir,
Eastern larch
⚫ Mostly characterized with
small animals & migrating
birds
⚫ Some large animals are present,
Wolves, bear, moose
 B. TEMPERATURE DECIDUOUS FORESTS

⚫ Forest biome that occurs in temperate

areas with a moderate amount of
precipitation
⚫ Precipitation
◦ 75-150 cm/yr
⚫ Temperature
◦ Seasonality
◦ Hot summers and cold winters
 Temperate Deciduous Forest
⚫ Top soil is rich in organic material and underlain by clay
⚫ Vegetation is primarily deciduous.
Oak, maple, beech.
⚫ Animals
Deer, Bear, & Small animals.
⚫ Most of the biome land area has been
generated after farming & timber
harvest
 C. TEMPERATURE EVERGREEN
FOREST
⚫ Also called a Mediterranean
Climate
◦Ex: Southern California
◦Ex: Greece
⚫ Temperature
◦Mild, moist winters
◦Hot, dry summers
⚫ Frequent fires
⚫ Soil is thin and often not fertile
⚫ Vegetation
◦ Dense growth of evergreen shrubs
◦ Lush during the growing season
⚫ Animals
◦ Mule deer, chipmunks, many species
of birds
 D. TROPICAL RAINFOREST
⚫ Lush, species-rich biome that
occurs where climate is warm and
moist throughout the year
⚫ Precipitation
◦200-450 cm/yr
⚫ Very productive biome
⚫ Most species-rich biome
⚫ Ancient, weathered, nutrient-poor
soil
◦Nutrients tied up in vegetation,
not soil
⚫ Vegetation
◦3 distinct canopy layers
⚫ Animals
◦Most abundant insect, reptiles and
amphibians on earth
 2. GRASSLAND
⚫ Grasslands with hot summers, cold
winters and too little precipitation to
support trees
⚫ Precipitation
◦ 25-75 cm/yr
⚫ Tall grass prairies
⚫ Short grass prairies
⚫ 90% of this biome has been lost to
farmland
 Grassland
⚫ Soil has thick, organic material
rich organic horizon.
⚫ Periodic fires keep the dominant vegetation
⚫ Grassland is also known as prairies & savannas
⚫ 25% of the Earth is covered by grassland ecosystem
⚫ There is a grassland on each continent with the exception of
Antarctica.
⚫ Types of Grassland- Tropical & Temperature.
 3. DESERTS
⚫ Biome where lack of precipitation
limits plant growth
⚫ Temperature
◦Can very greatly in 24-hr
period, as well as yearly (based
on location)
⚫ Precipitation
◦< 25 cm/yr
⚫ Soils low in nutrients, high in salts
⚫ Vegetation sparse
◦cactus and sagebrush
⚫ Animals are very small to regulate temperature
Sonoran Desert
⚫ Deserts covers about 20% of the earth.

⚫ Sahara is largest desert of 300 million square miles.

⚫ The plants that are able to grow in the desert biome store water in

their stem. They normally grow spaced out so that their roots can

extend & find water.

⚫ Cacti have many adaption's to survive in the desert. Their spines

protect them for being eaten by animals & their waxy outer covering

keep moisture from escaping.

⚫ The desert ecosystem can be found on every continent except Europe.

 4. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
⚫ Fundamental Division
◦ Freshwater
◦ Saltwater
⚫ Aquatic Ecosystem is also affected by
◦ Dissolved oxygen level, light penetration, pH, presence/absence of currents
⚫ Three main ecological categories of organisms
◦ Plankton- free floating
◦ Nekton- strong swimming
◦ Benthos- bottom dwelling
Freshwater Ecosystems
⚫ Includes:
◦ Rivers and streams
◦ Lakes and ponds
◦ Marshes and swamps
⚫ Represent 2% of earth’s surface
⚫ Assist in recycling water back to the oceans (Biogeochemical
Cycling)
Rivers and Streams
⚫ Rivers & streams provide a “lotic” habitat for communities.

⚫ They possess definite & continuous water current.

⚫ A Lotic Ecosystem has flowing waters. Examples include:

creeks, streams, runs, rivers, springs, brooks and channels.

⚫ A Lentic Ecosystem has still waters. Examples include:

ponds, basin marshes, ditches, reservoirs, seeps, lakes, and vernal /
ephemeral pools.
Estuaries
 ESTUARIES
⚫ Where freshwater and saltwater mix
⚫ Highly variable environment
◦ Temperature, salinity, depth of light
penetration
⚫ Highly productive
⚫ Nutrients transported from land.
⚫ Tidal action promotes rapid
circulation of Nutrients.
⚫ High level of light penetrates
shallow water.
⚫ Many plants provide photosynthetic carpet
CORAL REEF
⚫ a ridge of rock in the sea formed by the growth and deposit of
coral.
⚫ coral reef is part of the ocean biome.
⚫ A coral reef biome is found in a shallow area of clear water
within the ocean.
⚫ The temperature in this biome is usually from 70 degrees to 85
degrees.
⚫ It is located in a shallow, clear portion of the ocean in mostly tropical areas.
These areas include the coats of East Africa, South India, Australia, Florida,
Brazil.

⚫ The great Barrier Reef is the largest coral reef ecosystem & is located in
Australia.

⚫ The Great Barrier Reef covers more than 1200 miles & contains 400 species
of coral.