Pharmaceutical Calculations

Pharmaceutical Pharmaceutical calculations are

Calculations
p. 165
4 directly tested on the NAPLEX®.

Pharmaceutical Conversions Pharmaceutical Conversions

King Henry died drinking chocolate milk
Kilo- Hecto- deca- U deci- centi- milli-
Whenever units are expressed in either 1000 x 100 x 10 x U 1/10 x 1/100 x 1/1000 x
the apothecary or the avoirdupois, it is L 1 dL = 1/10 L = 0.1 L
convenient to immediately convert the 1 Kg = 1000 g g 1 mg =
units to metric units (SI units). 1/1000 g
Micro: one millionth (1 x 10-6)
Nano: one billionth (1 x 10-9)
Mega: one million (1 x 106)
Giga: one billion (1 x 109)
Tera: one trillion (1 x 1012)
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1
 Volume Measurements Weight Measurements

1 teaspoonful (tsp) = 5 mL
1 tablespoonful (tbsp) = 15 mL
1 pint = 473 mL
1 quart = 946 mL (2 pints)
1 gallon = 3784 mL or 3785 mL (4 quarts)
1 mL = 20 drops

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Length Measurements Roman Numerals

z ss =½
z I or i =1
1 inch = 2.54 centimeters (cm) z V or v = 5

z X or x = 10
1 ft = 12 inches
z L or l = 50
z C or c = 100

z D or d = 500
z M or m = 1,000

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 Roman Numerals Rules for Roman Numerals
z
z In writing prescriptions physicians or „
„ Two or more letters express a quantity that is
other health care professionals may use the sum of their values if they are
small or capital roman numerals. successively equal or smaller in value.
z When the small letter i is used it should be
z z e.g. ii = 2
z vii = 7 XIII = 13
dotted to distinguish it from the letter l.
z Sometimes a j may be used for the final i in
z „
„ Two or more letters express a quantity that is
a sequence (e.g. viij). the sum of the values remaining after the
value of each smaller letter has been
z Following the Latin custom, Roman
z
numerals are generally placed after the subtracted from that of a following greater
symbol or term (e.g. capsules no. xxiv or letter.
fluidounces xij) z e.g. IV = 4
z IX = 9 CM = 900
9 10

Examples Drug Dosing

„
„ lxvi = 66 Dosing based on body weight
„
„ xix = 19 ƒ Two steps
1. Convert the pounds to kilograms
„
„ xcix = 99 2. Multiply dose by the body weight

„
„ cclxx = 270

„
„ cxl = 140

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 Drug Dosing Drug Dosing
Example B:
Example A:
The oral dosing regimen for Cytoxan is 2 mg/kg/day for 10 days.
How many mg of Tobramycin are needed for How many 50-mg tablets should be dispensed by a pharmacist
a patient weighing 160 lbs if the desired dose to a 34-year-old patient weighing 154 pounds?
is 0.8 mg/kg? 1 kg = 2.2 lbs.
x kg 154 lbs. x = 70 kg
1 kg = 2.2 lbs. 2 mg = x mg
x kg 160 lbs. x = 72.7 kg 1 kg 70 kg x = 140 mg

1 tablet = 50 mg
0.8 mg = x mg x tablets 140 mg x = 2.8 tablets or 3 tablets
1 kg 72.7 kg x = 58 mg
For 10 days: 3 x 10 = 30 tablets (NOT: 2.8 x 10)
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Nomogram for Determining Surface Areas

Dosing Based on
Body Surface Area

Surface area of patient (m 2 ) m2

Child or adult dose = × Average adult dose
1.73

Patient' s height (cm) × Patient' s weight (kg)

Patient' s BSA (m 2 ) =
3600

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 Example C Example D
The average child dose of a drug is The surface area of a 4-year-old
200 mg/m2. Estimate an appropriate child is estimated to be 0.5 m2. How
dose for a 4-year-old child who is 4 many mg of a drug which has an
feet tall and weighs 80 lb. adult dose of 100 mg should be
administered?
m2 = 1.1
Child dose = surface area × adult dose
200 mg/m2 x 1.1 m2 = 220 mg 1.75
Dose = 0.5m2 × 100 mg Dose = 29 mg
1.75
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Dosing for Children Based on Weight or Age Dosing for Children Based on Weight or Age

Clark’s Rule: a weight calculation Young’s Rule: Also intended for

intended for children greater than 2 children greater than 2 years of age
years of age

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 Example Example
Determine the mg of an antibiotic
to be administered to an 8-year-old
Determine the mg of an antibiotic
child who weighs 84 lb. The usual
to be administered to an 8-year-old
adult dose is 250 mg.
child who weighs 84 lb. The usual
adult dose is 250 mg. Young’s: Dose = 8 × 250mg
(8 + 12)
Clark’s: Dose = 84 lb × 250 mg
150 lb
Dose = 140 mg Dose = 100 mg

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Example Concentration Expressions

Determine the mg of an antibiotic
to be administered to an 8-year-old
child who weighs 84 lb. The usual ƒ Percent (%)
adult dose is 250 mg. ƒ Parts per million (ppm)

Clark’s: ƒ Ratio strength (1 : something)

Young’s:

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6
 Concentration Expressions The following thought process should be
as Percentages followed to solve concentration problems:
The amount of active ingredient present 1. Determine total weight or volume of the
in a specified amount of final product. formula or prescription.
A 10% w/v indicates that 10 g of 2. Determine what percentage of a certain
ingredient is present in every 100 mL of ingredient is being requested for the final
formula. product.
A 10% w/w means a 10 g of drug are 3. Calculate weight or volume of that ingredient.
contained in every 100 g of product.
4. Some cases calculate weight or volume of
A 10% v/v means a 10 mL of drug are solvent (vehicle) needed.
contained in every 100 mL of product.
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Example A Example B
Rx: Rx:
Procaine HCl 2% w/v
Benzocaine 1% w/w
Pur. water qs—120 mL
Petrolatum qs 100%
1. Total volume 120 mL
2. Procaine HCl 2% w/v. = 2g
M & Ft Oint Disp—60 g
100 mL 1. The prescription calls for 60 g of product.
3. The amount of pure procaine will be: 2. Of the 60 g, 1% will be benzocaine. 1 g = X g X = 0.6 g
2g = Xg 100 g 60 g
100 mL 120 mL 3. The amount of benzocaine will be 0.6 g
X = 2.4 g 4. 60 g − 0.6 g = 59.4 g of petrolatum.

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7
 Concentration Expressions – Example A
Parts per Million Express 0.025% w/v as ppm.
Because 0.025% refers to 0.025 g per 100 mL of
Concentration expressions based solution
on a denominator of 1 million 0.025 g = X
(1,000,000). 100 mL 1,000,000

X= 250 ppm
One part per million is: 1
1,000,000
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Example B Example C
A water supply contains 12 ppm of calcium chloride
Express 20 ppm as a percentage. as an impurity. How many mg of calcium chloride are
present in every dL?

We know 20ppm is 20 12 ppm indicates

1,000,000
12 parts (g) per 1,000,000 parts (mL)
So:
12 g = xg
20 = X 1,000,000 mL 100 mL
1,000,000 100 X = 0.002 = 0.002%
x = 0.0012 g or 1.2 mg/100 mL
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8
 Example D Ratio Strength
The blood level of a drug is 8 µg/dL.
Express this concentration in terms of
parts per million. „
„ An expression of concentration using
ratios

„
„ Used when a low concentration is present

„
„ Always expressed as 1: something

33 34

Calculations Involving Specific Gravity

Express the resulting concentration of Drug Z as a
ratio strength if you were to dissolve 600 mg of
Drug Z in enough simple syrup to make 3000mL ƒ Converting a liquid measurement to a weight quantity
ƒ Converting a weight to a volume measurement
600 mg = 0.6 g ƒ Determining the volume cost of a drug purchased
ƒ Determining the density of a solution
0.6 g = 1
3000 mL X X = 5,000 mL

Answer: 1 : 5,000

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 The specific gravity is a ratio of the Example A
weight of a certain volume compared with
An ointment requires 10 g of Coal Tar Solution,
the weight of the same volume of water.
which has a specific gravity of 0.84. What
volume of the solution should be measured?
SG = density = wt
vol
0.84 = 10 g
The density of water is: 1 g = 1 g/mL X mL
1 mL Vol = 10 = 11.9 mL
0.84
The specific gravity of water = 1
37 38

Example B Example C
What weight of glycerin (SG = 1.25) must be What is the cost per mL of an elixir (sp. gr. =0.92)
used to obtain 120 mL of glycerin? if the bulk cost is $12.40/lb?

SG = density = wt 1. Determine volume of 1 lb of elixir:

vol SG = density = wt
1.25 = wt vol
120 mL 0.92 = 454 g x = 493 mL
x mL
Wt =120 x 1.25 = 150 g 2. Determine the cost per mL:
493 mL = $12.40
1 mL = x x = $0.025/mL
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10
 Calculations Involving
Adjustments of Strengths
The pharmacist may have to adjust the
concentration of an existing preparation
to a new strength. DILUTION PROBLEMS
Problems involving adjustment of strength
may be classified into:
ƒ Dilution problems
ƒ Concentration problems
ƒ Alligation problems
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The pharmacist must be able to Method 1

state the new strength of a Step 1: Determine how much active ingredient is
present.
solution if given the original
Step 2: Determine what the new total volume or weight
concentration and the amount of will be.
diluent added. Step 3: State the strength by dividing Step 1 by Step 2.

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 Example A Example B
What is the new strength of a solution prepared by A nurse dilutes 0.5 mL of a 1:1,000 epinephrine HCl
diluting 120 mL of a 5% w/v solution with 380 mL solution with 4.5 mL of sterile water for injection. What is the
of water? concentration of this dilution expressed as a ratio strength?
Step 1. 120 mL x 5% = 6g (of active ingredient) Step 1. 1g = Xg
1,000 mL 0.5 mL X = 0.0005 g
5g = Xg
(active ingredient)
100 mL 120 mL X=6g
Step 2. 4.5 mL + 0.5 mL = 5 mL (new volume)
Step 2. 120 mL + 380 mL = 500 mL (new volume)
Step 3. 0.0005 g = 1g
Step 3. 6g = Xg
5 mL x mL
500 mL 100 mL
0.005 x = 5
X = 1.2%
x = 10,000 or conc. is 1:10,000
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Method 2 Example A
What is the new strength of a solution prepared
Q1C1 = Q2C2 by diluting 120 mL of a 5% w/v solution with
380 mL of water?

Two guidelines must be followed:

Q1C1 = Q2C2
1. The original and new quantities must be
expressed in identical units. (120 ml)(5% w/v) = (500 ml)(X% w/v)
2. The original and new concentrations should be 600 = 500(X)
expressed in identical terms (% w/v, % w/w, % v/v,
ppm, ratio strength, etc…) X = 1.2%

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 Example B
A nurse dilutes 0.5 mL of a 1:1,000 epinephrine HCl solution The pharmacist must be able to
with 4.5 mL of sterile water for injection. What is the
concentration of this dilution expressed as a ratio strength? determine the amount of diluent
Q1C1 = Q2C2 that should be added to a given
(0.5 mL)(1/1,000) = (5 mL)(1/x) solution to obtain a desired new
0.5 = 5 concentration.
1,000 x
0.5 x = 5,000
x = 5,000/0.5 = 10,000 or conc. is 1:10,000
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EXAMPLE C
A pharmacist has 120 mL of a 4% aluminum chloride
solution.How many mL of water must be added to
The pharmacist must be able to
obtain a 0.24% solution? determine the amount of solution
Q1C1 = Q2C2 of a given strength that may be
(120 mL)(4% w/v) = (x mL)(0.24% w/v)
prepared from a second solution
480 = 0.24X
of another strength.
X = 2,000 mL
The question asks for the amount of diluent needed,
2,000 mL - 120 mL = 1,880 mL

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 EXAMPLE D EXAMPLE E
How much of a 1/1,500 strength solution can be prepared by
Determine the amount of solution of a 6% w/v strength
the dilution of 60 mL of a 1/120 strength solution?
that may be prepared from 1 pint of 25% w/v strength?
Q1C1 = Q2C2

Q1C1 = Q2C2 (60 mL)(1/120) = (x mL)(1/1,500)

60 = x
(473 mL)(25% w/v) = (x mL)(6% w/v) 120 1,500
11,825 = 6x 120x = 90,000
x = 1,970 mL x = 750 mL

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EXAMPLE F
A pharmacist needs 16 mL of a 0.2% w/v vanillin in alcohol
The pharmacist must be able to solution. How many mL of a 5% w/v solution should be
diluted with alcohol to obtain the desired solution?
determine the amount of solution
Q1C1 = Q2C2
of a given strength needed to
(x mL)(5% w/v) = (16 mL)(0.2% w/v)
prepare a specified amount of a 5x = 3.2 x = 0.64 mL
second solution. or
0.2 g = x g
100 16 mL x = 0.032 g
5 g = 0.032 g
100 x mL x = 0.64 mL
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14
 EXAMPLE A
Concentration Problems
A company has prepared 5 liters of a crude herbal
EXAMPLE A extract, which assays at 0.05% active drug. How
much alcohol menstruum must be evaporated to
A company has prepared 5 liters of a crude herbal extract, obtain a 1% w/v concentration?
which assays at 0.05% active drug. How much alcohol
menstruum must be evaporated to obtain a 1% w/v 0.05 g = Xg
concentration? 100 mL 5000 mL X = 2.5 g

Q1C1 = Q2C2 1 g = 2.5 g

(5,000 mL)(0.05%) = (x mL)(1%) 100 mL X mL X = 250 mL
x = 250 mL of final product may be 5,000 mL − 250 mL = 4,750 mL must be evaporated
made; therefore,
5,000 mL - 250 mL = 4,750 mL must be evaporated
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Adjustment of Strength Using Mixtures – Example A

Alligation Alternate Method How many mL of a 20% w/v solution of aluminum
chloride must be mixed with a 5% w/v solution to
prepare 120 mL of a 12% strength?
Step #1 Step #2

7 parts x mL

Parts of high-concentration ingredient [D] = [C] − [B] 8 parts

Parts of low-concentration ingredient [E] = [A] − [C]
Total: 15 parts 120 mL

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 Step# 3
Alligation
20% solution
*7parts = XmL
15total parts 120 mL X= 56 mL „
„ A second situation is when one of the
ingredients is available in a limited supply
(the amount of one of the ingredients is
5% solution
8 parts = XmL provided, and the amount of the other
15total parts 120 mL X= 64 mL ingredient is to be calculated).

Mixing 56 mL of 20% solution and 64 mL of 5% solution will

result in 120 mL of a 12% concentration.

61 62

Example B
A pharmacist wishes to prepare a 5% ichthammol Step #2 Parts of high-conc. [D] = [C] – [B] = 5 - 2 = 3 parts (of 20% oint)
Part of low-conc. [E] = [A] - [C] = 20 – 5 = 15 parts (of 2% oint)
ointment by using 20% w/w ichthammol ointment and
200 g of 2% w/w ichthammol ointment in stock. How
The amount of the 2% ointment is 200 g:
many grams of the 20% ointment are *needed?
3 parts of 20% oint = x g
Step #1
15 parts of 2% oint 200 g
20% [A] parts of 20% [D]
5% [C]
x = 3 x 200 = 40 g of 20% ointment
2% [B] parts of 2% [E]
15
Step #2 Parts of high-conc. [D] = [C] – [B] = 5 - 2 = 3 parts
Part of low-conc. [E] = [A] - [C] = 20 – 5 = 15 parts
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 Alligation Example D
How many grams of hydrocortisone powder must be
„
„ Alligation may also be used when either pure mixed with 1 lb of 2% hydrocortisone ointment to obtain
chemical (100%) or pure diluent (0% active a 5% w/w ointment?
ingredient) is mixed with a certain Step #1 100% [A] parts of HC [D]
concentration to obtain a new strength. 5% [C]
2% [B] parts of 2% [E]
„
„ Alligation is used to solve problems in which
concentration of a solid or semi-solid by the
Step #2 Parts of high-conc. [D] = [C] – [B] = 5 – 2 = 3 parts
addition of drug or active ingredient is desired
(diluent cannot be evaporated). Part of low-conc. [E] = [A] - [C] = 100 – 5 = 95 parts

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Step# 3
Isotonicity Calculations
Hydrocortisone Based on Sodium Chloride Equivalents
3 parts of Hydrocortisone = X g
95 parts of 2% ointment 454 g X= 14.33 g “E” is Key
To confirm your answer, determine the amount of What is “E”
hydrocortisone in the new ointment and express it as
a % concentration: “E” = NaCl equivalent
Amount of HC in 2% ointment: 454 x 2% = 9.08 g
Total amount of HC in new ointment: NaCl equivalent is the amount of NaCl
9.08 + 14.33 = 23.41 g represented by another ingredient.
Weight of the new ointment: 454 + 14.33 = 468.33 g
% of hydrocortisone in new ointment The E-value of a substance is the amount of
23.41 g = X g NaCl equivalent to 1 gram of that substance.
468.33 g 100 g X= 5%
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 Isotonicity Calculations Isotonicity Calculations
Based on Sodium Chloride Equivalents Based on Sodium Chloride Equivalents
Steps to solve isotonicity problems:

Isotonicity is based on 1. Determine the weight in mg of all chemicals present.

2. Multiply each weight by the listed E value of the
0.9% NaCl. chemical.
3. Add these weights together.
4. Determine the theoretical amount (in mg) of sodium
chloride that would be necessary if no other chemical
were present.
5. Subtract Step 3 value from Step 4 value.
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Isotonicity Calculations Isotonicity Calculations

Based on Sodium Chloride Equivalents Based on Sodium Chloride Equivalents
If another substance (e.g. boric acid) will be used Steps to solve: 1. Determine the weight of each item.
instead of sodium chloride to make the solution
2. Multiply each weight by the listed $/lb
isotonic, then we need to add an extra step:
(convert the item to $).
6. Calculate the amount of the substance to be
3. Add these amounts in $.
used by dividing the amount of sodium chloride
calculated in step 5 by the E-value of this 4. Determine the amount of $ on the gift
substance. card.
Gift Card 5. Subtract Step 3 value from Step 4
value to determine change to be
$ returned.

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 Isotonicity Calculations Example A
Based on Sodium Chloride Equivalents How many mg of sodium chloride are needed to render 60 mL
of the following solution isotonic?
Steps to solve: 6. If store will not return cash, and you are
forced to buy gum with the amount Rx (E Value)
remaining on the gift card, then you
divide the $ amount remaining by the Zinc chloride 0.2% w/v 0.62
price of a pack of gum to find how many Phenacaine HCl 1.0% 0.17
packs of gum you should get. Pur. water qs 60 mL

e.g. If you are owed $ 2.00, then you should Step#1

get:
Zinc chloride 0.2 g = x g
$0.50/pack $2.00 ÷ $0.50 = 4 packs of gum 100 mL 60 mL x = 0.12 g = 120 mg
Phenacaine HCl 1g = xg
100 mL 60 mL x = 0.6 g = 600 mg
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Example A Example A
How many mg of sodium chloride are needed to render 60 mL How many mg of sodium chloride are needed to render 60 mL
of the following solution isotonic? of the following solution isotonic?

Rx (E value) Rx (E value)
Zinc chloride 0.2% w/v 0.62 Zinc chloride 0.2% w/v 0.62
Phenacaine HCl 1.0% 0.17 Phenacaine HCl 1.0% 0.17
Pur. water qs 60 mL Pur. water qs 60 mL

Step #2 Zinc chloride 74.4 mg

Zinc chloride 120 mg x 0.62 = 74.4 mg
Phenacaine HCl 102 mg
Phenacaine HCl 600 mg x 0.17 = 102 mg
Step#3 176.4 mg
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 Example A Example B
How many mg of boric acid could be used in
Step#4 place of sodium chloride in the last example?
0.9 g NaCl = xg
100 mL 60 mL x = 0.54 g 364 mg sodium chloride needed in every 60 mL of formula
or 540 mg of NaCl 1 gram of boric acid is equivalent to 0.5 grams of sodium chloride
(if no other chemical present) there for boric acid “E” value = 0.5

Step#5 mg boric acid = 364

540 mg – 176 mg = 364 mg sodium chloride needed in every 0.5
60 mL of formula
mg of boric acid = 728 mg of boric acid

77 78

Example C Isotonicity Calculations

Based on Freezing Point Depression
How much sodium chloride is needed to make the following
solution isotonic? Assume that the phenylephrine solution is the
commercial isotonic solution, and the E value of phenylephrine HCl
“D” is Key
is 0.184.
Rx What is “D”
Phenylephrine 0.5% ophthalmic sol. – 30 mL
Sodium chloride qs “D” = FP depression caused by a
Pur. Water qs – 60 mL
1% solution of the ingredient
In this example, the 30 mL of phenylephrine sol. Is already
isotonic. Therefore, it is necessary to add only sufficient sodium
chloride to adjust the remaining 30 mL of vehicle.
0.9 g xg x = 30 x 0.9 = 0.27 g or 270 mg
100 mL 30 mL 100
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 Isotonicity Calculations Isotonicity Calculations
Based on Freezing Point Depression Based on Freezing Point Depression
Steps to solve isotonicity problems:
1. Convert the weight in mg of all chemicals present to
Isotonicity is based on the premise that an % concentration.
aqueous solution that has a total freezing 2. Multiply each % concentration by the listed D value of
point depression of 0.52°C is isotonic. the chemical.
3. Add these FP depressions together.
4. Subtract Step 3 from 0.52 (FP depression of isotonic
solution).
5. Determine how much sodium chloride needs to be
added per 100 mL of solution (knowing that a 0.9%
NaCl solution causes a FP depression of 0.52°C).
81 82

Example D Example D
How many mg of sodium chloride are needed to How many mg of sodium chloride are needed to
render the following solution isotonic? render the following solution isotonic?

Rx (D Value) Rx (D Value)
Pilocarpine HCl 1% 0.138 Pilocarpine HCl 1% 0.138
Benzyl alcohol 2.0 % 0.09 Benzyl alcohol 2.0 % 0.09
Pur. water qs 100 mL Pur. water qs 100 mL

Step #2
Step#1 Pilocarpine HCl 1 x 0.138 = 0.138
Benzyl alcohol 2 x 0.09 = 0.180
Not needed (already % concentration)

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 Step#4
Example D
0.52°C – 0.318°C = 0.20°C further depression needed
How many mg of sodium chloride are needed to
render the following solution isotonic?
Step#5
Rx (D Value)
0.9% NaCl = x% NaCl
Pilocarpine HCl 1% 0.138
Benzyl alcohol 2.0 % 0.09 0.52°C 0.20°C
Pur. water qs 100 mL
x = 0.35% or 350 mg NaCl per 100 mL, Ans.
Pilocarpine HCl 0.138 Note:
Benzyl alcohol 0.180 If the final volume was ordered as 60 mL instead of 100 mL,
Step#3 0.318 0.35 g = x g
100 mL 60 mL x = 0.21 g or 210 mg
85 86

Adjustments of Products to Isotonicity

Calculations Involving
An isotonic solution has approximately 300 mOsm/L.
Milliequivalents
How many mL of water should be added to 8 ounces of
Comply Liquid (410 mOsm/L) to obtain an approximate
isoosmotic solution (300 mOsm/L)? Milliequivalents ⎯ the amount, in milligrams, of the
solute equal to 1/1,000 of its gram equivalent
Q1C1 = Q2C2 weight
(240 mL)(410 mOsm/L) = (x mL)(300 mOsm/L)
x = 328 mL of total solution Alternatively, a milliequivalent (mEq) is the
Therefore, 328 mL – 240 mL = 88 mL equivalent weight expressed in mg.

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 Calculations Involving
Method 1
Milliequivalents
Method 1 is the standard method usually presented in
Knowledge of valences of common ions used in medicine.
chemistry.
1. Determine the atomic, molecular, or formula weight of the
ion or molecule.
2. Determine the equivalent weight by dividing the above
weight by the valence of either the anion or cation.
3. Express this equivalent weight in mg to obtain the
milliequivalent weight.

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Example Example
A 20-mL vial contains 20 mEq of potassium chloride. What weight of A 20-mL vial contains 20 mEq of potassium chloride. What weight of
chemical is present? (K = 39; Cl = 35.5) chemical is present? (K = 39; Cl = 35.5)
Determine the atomic, molecular, or formula weight of the ion or molecule. 1,490mg of KCl present
39 + 35.5 = 74.5
Determine the equivalent weight by dividing the above weight by the
valence of either the anion or cation
How many mg of KCl are present in each mL?
Eq. wt = 74.5 = 74.5
1,490 mg = X mg
1 20 mL 1 mL
Express this equivalent weight in mg to obtain the milliequivalent weight. X = 74.5 mg/mL
1 mEq = 74.5 mg
20 mEq x mg
x = 20 × 74.5 = 1490 mg, Ans.
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Determine the concentration of potassium ion as mEq
in a solution containing 0.3 g of KCl per 100 mL. (Mol. wt Milliequivalents
KCl = 74.5; K = 39; Cl = 35.5)
Note that:
Method I:
1 mEq of KCl provides 1 mEq of K++ and 1 mEq of Cl--
Step 1. Molecular weight of KCl = 74.5
1 mEq of CaCl22 provides
Step 2. 1 Eq wt of KCl = 74.5
1 mEq of Ca++
++ and 1 mEq of Cl--

Step 3. 1 mEq of KCl = 74.5 mg

1 mEq of NaCl provides
x mEq 300 mg x = 4 mEq, Ans.
1 mEq of Na++ and 1 mEq of Cl--
Note that 1 mEq of KCl provides 1 mEq of K+ 1 mEq of Na22SO44 provides
and 1 mEq of Cl- 1 mEq of Na++ and 1 mEq of SO44----
In the book, K+ content of KCl is calculated, not necessary (same
answer).
93 94

Method 2 Method 2
Determine the concentration of potassium ion as mEq in a
solution containing 0.3 g of KCl per 100 mL. (mol. wt KCl =
74.5; K = 39; Cl = 35.5)

mg KCl = (mEq) (molecular wt)

valence

300 mg = x mEq (74.5)

1
x = 4 mEq

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24
*Given the following prescription for calcium carbonate,
how many Milliequivalents of Calcium will the patient Example B
consume each day. (The atomic weights of atoms in
CaCO3 are Ca = 40, C = 12 O = 16) „
„ A 10-mL vial is labeled Potassium Chloride (2
Rx: Calcium Carbonate 500mg tablets mEq/mL). How many grams of potassium
# 180 chloride are present? (Mol. Wt.: potassium
Sig: 2 tablet tid chloride = 74.5)

Daily dose = 2 x 500 mg x 3 = 3,000 mg 10 mL . 2 mEq/mL = 20 mEq KCl total

mg CaCO3 = mEq (molecular wt)
1 mEq = 74.5 mg of KCl
valence
3,000 mg = X mEq (100)
20 mEq x mg of KCl
2
x = 1,490 mg or 1.49 g
X = 60 mEq
97 98

Example C Example D
„
„ A
A pharmacist
pharmacist has
has aa 1-liter
1-liter bottle
bottle containing
containing 24.5
24.5 gg of
of hydrated
hydrated
calcium
calcium chloride.
chloride. How
How many
many mEq
mEq perper mL
mL of
of calcium
calcium chloride
chloride are
are „
„ A solution contains 10 mg% of potassium ions.
present?
present? (Anhydrous
(Anhydrous calcium
calcium chloride
chloride == 111;
111; hydrated
hydrated calcium
calcium Express this concentration as mEq/L.
chloride
chloride == 147)
147)
(atomic weight: K = 39; Cl = 35.5)
11 mEq
mEq == 147
147 mg
mg of
of calcium
calcium chloride
chloride
22
11 mEq
mEq == 73.5
73.5 mg
mg of
of calcium
calcium chloride
chloride 10 mg% means 10 mg per 100 mL or 100 mg/L
xx mEq
mEq 24,500
24,500 mg
mg ofof calcium
calcium chloride
chloride
xx == 333
333 mEq
mEq in
in 11 Liter
Liter
100 mg = (x mEq)(39)
333
333 mEq
mEq == xx mEq
mEq
1000
1000 mL
mL 11 mL mL
1
xx == 0.333
0.333 mEq/mL
mEq/mL
x = 2.6 mEq/L
99 100

25
 Example E Example F
„
„ Potassium gluconate elixir contains 20 mEq of „
„ How
How many
many mg
mg of of anhydrous
anhydrous aluminum
aluminum chloride
chloride are
are needed
needed to to
prepare
prepare 200
200 mLmL ofof aa solution
solution that
that will
will contain
contain 40
40 mEq
mEq ofof
potassium gluconate per tablespoon. How many grams aluminum
aluminum in
in 11 liter?
liter? (Mol.
(Mol. Wt:
Wt: aluminum
aluminum chloride
chloride == 133,
133, Al
Al == 27)
27)
of potassium gluconate are present in every 100 mL?
11 mEq
mEq == 133
133 mg
mg of
of Aluminum
Aluminum Chloride
Chloride
(K = 39; potassium gluconate = 234) 33

11 mEq
mEq == 44.33
44.33 mg
mg of
of Aluminum
Aluminum Chloride
Chloride
x mg = (20 mEq)(234) = 4,680 mg in 15 mL 40
40 mEq
mEq xx mg
mg of
of Aluminum
Aluminum Chloride
Chloride
1
xx == 1,777
1,777 mg
mg in
in 11 Liter
Liter
4,680 mg = x mg
15 mL 100 mL 1,777
1,777 mg
mg == xx mg
mg
1,000
1,000 mL
mL 200
200 mL
mL
x = 31,200 mg or 31.2 g xx == 355
355 mg
mg
101 102

Example G Osmolarity Calculations

„
„ How
How many
many mEq
mEq of
of sodium
sodium areare present
present in
in the
the following
following The milliosmole (mOsm) is a measurement that is used for
admixture
admixture order?
order? (Na
(Na == 23,
23, Cl
Cl == 35.5)
35.5) parenteral solutions.
“Add
“Add sodium
sodium chloride
chloride (2.5
(2.5 mEq/mL)
mEq/mL) 20 20 mL
mL toto 11 liter
liter D5W/1/2NS
D5W/1/2NS
and
and infuse
infuse over
over 88 hours”
hours” Determination of mOsm involves two simple steps.
mEq
mEq of
of NaCl
NaCl in
in 20
20 mL
mL == 2.5
2.5 xx 20
20 == 50
50 mEq
mEq 1. Determine the number of millimoles present.
Amount
Amount of
of NaCl
NaCl in
in 11 liter
liter of
of ½
½ NS:
NS: Weight of drug in grams = moles × 1000 = millimoles
0.45
0.45 gg == xx gg xx == 4.5
4.5 gg or
or 4,500
4,500 mg
mg molecular weight
100
100 mL
mL 10001000 mL mL
2. Multiply this value by the theoretical number of particles or
11 mEq
mEq of Na++ == 58.5
of Na 58.5 mg
mg of
of NaCl
NaCl ions present (assuming complete disassociation).
xx mEq
mEq of Na++ 4,500
of Na 4,500 mg
mg of
of NaCl
NaCl

xx == 76.9
76.9 mEq
mEq mOsm = Wt. of a substance in g × 1000 × # of species
molecular weight
Total
Total mEq
mEq of Na++ == 50
of Na 50 ++ 76.9
76.9 == 126.9
126.9 or 127
127 mEq
mEq
103 104
PG 192

26
 Osmolarity Calculations Example A
# of species: How many mOsm are present in 1 liter of sodium chloride
Sodium chloride NaCl 1 Na+ + 1 Cl- = 2 injection? (Mol. wt: sodium chloride = 58.5)
Calcium chloride CaCl2 1 Ca++ + 2 Cl- = 3 0.9 g = X g
100 mL 1000 mL X = 9 g of NaCl in 1 liter
Potassium chloride KCl 1 K+ +1 Cl- =2
Sodium sulfate Na2SO4 2 Na+ + 1 SO4-- = 3 Step 1.
millimoles = Wt. of a substance in g × 1000
Magnesium sulfate MgSO4 1 Mg++ + 1 SO4-- = 2 molecular weight

Zinc sulfate ZnSO4 1 Zn++ + 1 SO4-- = 2 millimoles = 9 g × 1000 = 154 millimoles

58.5
Sodium acetate NaAc 1 Na+ + 1 Ac- = 2 Step 2.
mOsm = millimoles x # of species
Glucose Glucose 1 Glucose = 1 mOsm= 154 x 2 = 308 mOsm
105 106

Example B Example C
How many mOsm are present in 1 liter of D5W? Determine the mOsm/L concentration of calcium chloride
(Mol. Wt. of dextrose = 180) (mol. wt = 147) when 132 mg is dissolved in 100 mL of water.

5g = X g 0.132 g = X g
100 mL 1000 mL X = 50 g of dextrose in 1 liter 100 mL 1000 mL X = 1.32 g of CaCl2 in 1 liter

Step 1. Step 1.
millimoles = Wt. of a substance in g × 1000 millimoles = Wt. of a substance in g × 1000
molecular weight molecular weight
millimoles = 50 g × 1000 = 278 millimoles millimoles = 1.32 g × 1000 = 9 millimoles
180 147
Step 2. Step 2.
mOsm = millimoles x # of species mOsm = millimoles x # of species
mOsm= 278 x 1 = 278 mOsm/L mOsm= 9 x 3 = 27 mOsm/L
107 108

27
A solution contains 448mg of KCl (MW=74.5) and 468mg
of NaCl (MW = 58.5) in 500mL. What is the osmolar Some Terms
concentration of this solution?

0.448 g X 1,000 = 6 millimoles × 2 = 12 mOsm/500mL Hypotonic solution⎯

74.5

0.468 g X 1,000 = 8 millimoles × 2 = 16mOsm/500mL

58.5
Hypertonic solution⎯
12 + 16 = 28 mOsm = X mOsm
500 mL 1000 mL X = 56 mOsm/L

109 110

Some Terms Some Terms

Hypotonic solution ⎯ having a lesser Hypotonic solution⎯having a lesser

osmotic pressure, cells would swell osmotic pressure, cells would swell

Hypertonic solution ⎯ Hypertonic solution⎯having a greater

osmotic pressure, cells would shrink

111 112

28
 How many mL of 17% benzalkonium chloride
Miscellaneous Pharmaceutical should be used to make 240 mL of a solution of
Calculations benzalkonium chloride such that 10 mL diluted to
one liter equals a 1:5000 solution.
DOUBLE DILUTION
How many mL of 17% benzalkonium chloride
should be used to make 240 mL of a solution of
benzalkonium chloride such that 10 mL diluted to
a liter equals a 1:5000 solution. Q1C1 = Q2C2 Q1C1 = Q2C2
x mL (17%) = 240 mL (2%) 10 mL (1/x) = 1000 mL (1/5000)
x = 28.2 mL x = 50

Conc. is 1: 50 or 2%
114

Miscellaneous Pharmaceutical Miscellaneous Pharmaceutical

Calculations Calculations
Dilution of Acids
Dilution of Acids Example:
How many milliliters of 85.7% w/w lactic acid
• Concentrated acids are expressed as w/w (sp. gr. = 1.19) are needed to make 120 mL of
10% w/v lactic acid?
• Diluted acids are expressed as w/v
Q1C1 = Q2C2
• Conversion: x mL (85.7% x 1.19) = 120 mL (10%)
w/w x density = w/v x = 11.8 mL

115 116
PG 194 PG 194

29
 Miscellaneous Pharmaceutical How many mL of alcohol USP are needed to
Calculations prepare 1 gallon of cough elixir to contain 18% v/v
ethanol? (1 gal = 3,784)
Special Concentration Expressions for Alcohol
Q1C1 = Q2C2
Alcohol USP consists of 95% v/v ethanol.
3784 mL (18%) = X mL(95%)
Whereas Alcohol USP is used for formulation work,
commercial labels indicate a product’s concentration X = 717mL
in terms of absolute alcohol. That is, a label stating
40% alcohol contains the equivalent of 40 mL of pure
alcohol in each 100 mL despite the fact that Alcohol
USP was used during manufacturing.

117 118
PG 194

How many proof gallons are present in 4

Alcohol concentrations can also be expressed gallons of alcohol USP?
in terms of “proof” or “proof strength.”
Simply remember that the proof strength is Q1C1 = Q2C2
double that of the actual percent concentration.
x gal (50%) = 4 gal (95%)
Thus, Alcohol USP is 190 proof because
95% × 2 = 190. X = 7.6 gal

Volumes can be expressed as “proof gallons”.

A proof gallon is the equivalent of 1 gallon of
50% v/v alcohol.
119 120

30
How much water should be added to 4 gallons Magnesium Sulfate
of alcohol USP to prepare 40% alcohol? Magnesium Sulfate is an interesting pharmaceutical
chemical.
There are two forms available.
Q1C1 = Q2C2
1. Anhydrous magnesium sulfate (MgSO4)
x gal (40%) = 4 gal (95%)
2. Hydrous magnesium sulfate (MgSO4 • 7H2O)
X = 9.5 gal The different forms of MgSO4 have the following molecular
The exact amount of water to be added cannot weights:
be calculated. • Anhydrous magnesium sulfate = 120

Add enough water to make 9.5 gallons. • Hydrous magnesium sulfate = 246
• Atomic wt magnesium = 24
121 122

Magnesium Sulfate Conversion Between the Two

Anhydrous Hydrous Forms of Magnesium
magnesium sulfate magnesium sulfate How many grams of anhydrous magnesium sulfate
1 molar are needed to obtain 40 g of hydrous magnesium
120 g/L 246 g/L sulfate?

1 molal
120 g + 1,000 g of water 246 g + 1,000 g of water

1 normal
60 g/L 123 g/L

123 124
PG 196

31
 Example Use of Statistics and Graphs
How many grams of hydrous magnesium sulfate are Statistics
needed to obtain 16 mEq of magnesium ion? The mean is calculated by totaling all of the values and
dividing by the N
1 mEq = 246 mg of magnesium sulfate
2
1 mEq = 123 mg of magnesium sulfate
16 mEq x mg of magnesium sulfate
Median. The median is the middle value in a series.
x = 1,968 mg
The median is determined by eliminating the highest
or 1.97 g of hydrous magnesium sulfate
value against the lowest and repeating the process until
only one value remains.
125 126
PG 196 PG 195

Calculation of
Mean and Median Mean Deviation Standard Deviation
Example: An experiment reported the following
values: 45, 55, 20, 38, 52. Calculate the mean and the
median.
Mean = (45 + 55 + 20 +38 +52) = 42
5
Candidates for the NAPLEX® will not be
The median is determined by eliminating the highest
value against the lowest and repeating the process until expected to calculate these values but should
only one value remains. understand what a standard deviation
represents. It is the square root of variability.
20, 38, 45, 52, 55 Median = 45
127 128

32
 Probability (p) indicates chances that something will happen by accident or
will be outside a certain range. For example, a p value of 0.05 means that an
accidental or an erratic value will occur only 5% of the time
Standard Deviation
Bias or systematic error describes the tendency for measuring something „
„ Indication of the spread of the data.
other than that intended; for example, showing a high incidence of hospital
drug-related deaths by using cancer ward patients
„
„ A small standard deviation is an indication of
Precision (reproducibility) refers to close agreement in the values obtained a narrow spread of the data.
Accuracy is closeness of values to the correct value
„
„ A large standard deviation is an indication of
t Test of significance (Student’s t test) and chi-square test of a wide spread of the data.
significance are mathematic methods of comparing sets of data to see if
they are significantly different. Must use prepared tables to evaluate
comparisons.

129 130
PG 198

Gaussian Distribution Standard Deviation

„
„ Example
If 100 capsules had an average weight of
500 mg ± 20 mg, how many weigh between:
480 and 520 mg?

„
„ For a Gaussian distribution:
z 68% of data are within ± 1 SD
z

z 95.5% of data are within ± 2 SD

z 68 capsules
z 99.7% of data are within ± 3 SD
z

131 132

33
 Standard Deviation Standard Deviation
„
„ Example „
„ Example
If 100 capsules had an average weight of If 100 capsules had an average weight of
500 mg ± 20 mg, how many weigh between: 500 mg ± 20 mg, how many weigh between:
460 and 540 mg? 460 and 500 mg?

95 capsules 47 capsules
(95.5 ÷ 2)

133 134

Evaluation of Graphic Data

Standard Deviation
(A) I only
„
„ Example (B) III only
(C) I and II only
If 100 capsules had an average weight of (D) II and III only
(E) I, II, and III
500 mg ± 20 mg, how many weigh between:
500 and 520 mg?

34 capsules From Figure 1, one may conclude that:

(68 ÷ 2) I. Sodium lauryl sulfate appears to increase the rate of dissolution.
II. At 10 min, approximately 40 mg of sodium lauryl sulfate has dissolved.
III. The rate of dissolution of tablets containing magnesium stearate is greater than
the control.
135 136
PG 199

34
 Evaluation of Graphic Data Evaluation of Graphic Data
(A) I only (A) I only
(B) III only (B) III only
(C) I and II only (C) I and II only
(D) II and III only (D) II and III only
(E) I, II, and III (E) I, II, and III

From Figure 2, one may conclude that:

From Figure 1, one may conclude that:
I. The presence of starch decreases the dissolution rate of salicylic acid tablets.
I. Sodium lauryl sulfate appears to increase the rate of dissolution.
II. At 10 min, approximately 40 mg of sodium lauryl sulfate has dissolved. II. The dissolution rate for tablets with 10% starch follows first-order kinetics.
III. The rate of dissolution of tablets containing magnesium stearate is greater than III. Inclusion of 20% starch increases the dissolution of the tablets by more than
the control. double the rate of 10% starch.
137 138
PG 199 PG 200

Evaluation of Graphic Data

(A) I only
(B) III only
(C) I and II only
(D) II and III only
(E) I, II, and III

From Figure 2, one may conclude that:

I. The presence of starch decreases the dissolution rate of salicylic acid tablets.
II. The dissolution rate for tablets with 10% starch follows first-order kinetics.
III. Inclusion of 20% starch increases the dissolution of the tablets by more than
double the rate of 10% starch.
139
PG 200

35