COMPUTER

INTEGRATED
MANUFACTURING
N–S CHE ME

N. IYANARAPPAN, M.E., M.I.S.T.E.

!
!
!
!
!

!
Computer Integrated Manufacturing

Copy right © : K A L P a t hi p pa ga m
No part of this publication may be stored in a retrieval
system, transmitted or reproduced in any way, including but not
limited to photocopy, photograph, magnetic or other record,
without prior agreement and written permission of the publisher.

First Edition : November 2003

Revised Edition : November 2008
Revised Edition : November 2017
Revised Edition : August 2022

Price : 198.00 For Contact :

99446 50380
Publisher : 96266 26747
KAL PATHIPPAGAM
Vellore – 632 011

Type setting :
Students’ Media Computer Graphics
Vellore – 632 011.
 Preface
This book on Computer Integrated
Manufacturing has been written to cover the latest
revised syllabus for the Polytechnic college students of
V Semester Mechanical Engineering.

All the topics in this book are written in simple and

constructive manner with suitable examples and sketches.
I assure that the previous board examination questions
added at the end of each Unit will be more helpful to the
students while preparing for the examination.

I acknowledge my gratitude with thanks to

M/s. KAL Pathippagam for their kind encouragement to
bring out this book in time. The author would be very glad
and thankful to receive any comments and constructive
suggestions for the improvement of this book.

N. Iyanarappan
(iyanarvlr1976@gmail.com)

All the best...

 COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING

DETAILED SYLLABUS
Unit – I : COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
Computer Aided Design : Introduction – definition – Shigley’s
design process – CAD activities – benefits of CAD - CAD software
packages – point plotting, drawing of lines, Bresenham’s circle
algorithm.
Transformations : 2D & 3D transformations – translation, scaling,
rotation and concatenation.
Geometric modelling : Techniques – Wire frame modelling
applications – advantages and disadvantages. Surface modelling –
types of surfaces – applications – advantages and disadvantages –
Solid modelling – entities – advantages and – Boolean operation –
Boundary representation – Constructive Solid Geometry –
Comparison.
Graphics standard : Definition – Need – GKS – IGES – DXF.
Finite Element Analysis : Introduction – Development – Basic steps
– Advantages.

Unit – II : COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

CAM – Definition – functions of CAM – benefits of CAM. Introduction
of CIM – concept of CIM – evolution of CIM – CIM wheel – Benefits –
integrated CAD/CAM.
Group technology : Part families – Parts classification and coding –
coding structure – Opitz system, MICLASS system and CODE System.
Process Planning : Introduction – Computer Assisted Process
Planning (CAPP) – Types of CAPP – Variant type, Generative type –
advantages of CAPP.
Production Planning and Control (PPC) : Definition – objectives –
Computer Integrated Production management system – Master
Production Schedule (MPS) – Capacity Planning – Materials
Requirement Planning (MRP) – Manufacturing Resources Planning
(MRP-II) – Shop Floor Control system (SFC) – Just In Time
manufacturing philosophy (JIT) – Introduction to Enterprise
Resources Planning (ERP).
Unit – III : CNC PROGRAMMING
NC in CAM, tooling for CNC – ISO designation for tooling – CNC
operating system. Programming for CNC machining – part program –
Manual part programming – coordinate system – Datum points:
machine zero, work zero, tool zero – reference points – NC
dimensioning – G codes and M codes – linear interpolation and
circular interpolation – CNC program procedure – sub-program –
canned cycles – stock removal – thread cutting – mirroring – drilling
cycle – pocketing.
Rapid prototyping : Classification – subtractive – additive –
advantages and applications – materials – Virtual machining.

Unit – IV : FMS, AGV, AS/RS, ROBOTICS

FMS : Introduction – FMS components – FMS layouts – Types of FMS:
Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC) – Flexible Turning Cell (FTC) –
Flexible Transfer Line (FTL) – Flexible Machining System (FMS) –
benefits of FMS - introduction to intelligent manufacturing system.
Material handling in CIM environment : Types – AGV : Introduction
– working principle – types – benefits. AS/RS – working principle –
types – benefits.
Robotics : Definition – robot configurations – basic robot motion –
robot programming method – robotic sensors – end effectors –
mechanical grippers – vacuum grippers – robot programming
concepts - Industrial applications of Robot: Characteristics -
material transfer and loading – welding - spray coating - assembly
and inspection.
Unit – V : ADVANCED CONCEPTS OF CIM
Concurrent Engineering : Definition – Sequential Vs Concurrent
engineering – need of CE – benefits of CE. Quality Function
Deployment (QFD) : Definition – House of Quality (HOQ) – advantages
– disadvantages. Steps in Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
– Value Engineering (VE) – types of values – identification of poor
value areas – techniques – benefits. Guide lines of Design for
Manufacture and Assembly (DFMA). Product Development Cycle :
Product Life Cycle – New product development processes.
Augmented Reality (AR) – Introduction – concept – Applications.
 Contents
Units Page No.

Unit – I : Computer Aided Design …...…...…... 1.1 – 1.46

Unit – II : Computer Aided Manufacturing…..... 2.1 – 2.33

Unit – III : CNC Programming ……….............. 3.1 – 3.60

Unit – IV : FMS, AGV, AS/RS & Robotics …....... 4.1 – 4.28

Unit – V : Advanced Concepts of CIM .........…. 5.1 – 5.17

 3 Marks Questions and Answers

 Board Examination Question Papers
 Unit – I
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
1.1 Introduction
The consumer awareness about the quality of the product is
increasing now. Hence, it is necessary to initiate steps for achieving
quality manufacturing. The factors such as short lead times, lower
product cost, etc. should also be considered.

The use of Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing will give

good quality products at lower cost. Small and medium scale
industries are also implementing CAD/CAM due to the development
of interactive graphics, analysis softwares, graphic workstations and
availability of computer at lower prices.

1.2 Computer Aided Design (CAD) - Definition

Computer Aided Design (CAD) is defined as the use of
computer system to help in the creation, modification, analysis, and
optimization of a design.

1.3 Shigley's design process

The process of designing a component is explained by Shigley
as an iterative procedure. It consists of the following six steps.

1) Recognition of need
It involves the identification of problems in existing design. It
also involves the recognition of demand for a new product.

2) Definition of problem
It involves complete and clear specifications of the component.
The specifications include functional and physical characteristics, cost,
quality, operating performance, etc.

3) Synthesis
During this stage, various preliminary concepts, ideas about
shapes and forms of the product are developed. The creativity of the
designer and research of similar products are used for this purpose.

1.1
 Stages of CAD

Recognition of need

Problem definition

Synthesis

Analysis and
Optimization

Evaluation

Presentation

Fig.1.1 Shigley’s design process

4) Analysis and optimization

A conceptual design is arrived through iteration of analysis and
synthesis. The conceptual design is analyzed, improved and
redesigned. This process is repeated until a best possible (optimum)
design is arrived.

5) Evaluation
The optimized design is reviewed and evaluated to decide the
operating performance, quality, reliability, etc. When the evaluation
is not satisfactory, the design process is repeated from synthesis
stage until a best possible design is reached.

6) Presentation
This includes preparation of working drawings, material
specifications, bill of materials, part lists, etc.

1.2
1.4 CAD activities
Design Process

Recognition of need

Problem definition Role of computers

in CAD

Geometric
Synthesis
modeling

Analysis and Engineering

Optimization analysis

Design review and

Evaluation
evaluation

Automated
Presentation
drafting

Fig.1.2 Activities of CAD

The various activities of Computer Aided Design are explained below.

1) Geometric modelling
The mathematical description of the geometry of an object is
called model. A CAD system is used to develop geometric models with
the help of various drafting software packages.

The 2D modelling feature is used to create part drawings,

working drawings and sectional drawings of an object. Solid modelling
is used for creating and displaying realistical image of an object.

2) Engineering analysis
Engineering analysis is carried out in the geometric model for
deciding the exact dimensions of an object. CAD system provides
suitable softwares to carry out engineering analysis. The analysis may
include:
Stress strain analysis
Heat transfer analysis
Dynamic analysis
Finite element analysis (FEA), etc.
1.3
3) Design review and evaluation
CAD software contains a number of features to check the
accuracy of design.
Dimensioning and tolerancing : This feature is used to create
automatic and associative dimensioning with allowable
tolerances.
Zooming: It helps to include minute design details.
Animation: This feature of CAD is used to determine and
improve the performance of the product before actually making
a prototype.

4) Automated drafting
It involves the creation of database and preparing the hard
copy of the engineering drawing of the model. It is done with the help
of CAD features such as automatic dimensioning, cross-hatching,
scaling, creation of sectional views, etc.

1.5 Benefits of CAD

Benefits of CAD in designing of engineering components :
1) Productivity improvement in design.
2) More flexibility in design.
3) Less design errors.
4) Improved design analysis.
5) Standardization of design, drafting and documentation.
6) Easier creation and modification of design.
7) Easier visualization of drawings
8) Preparation of more understandable working drawings.
9) Creation of realistic image of component.

Benefits of CAD in manufacturing :

1) Tool and fixture design.
2) Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP).
3) Production Planning and Control (PPC).
4) Preparation of assembly lists and bill of materials.
5) Coding and classification of components.

1.4
 6) Computer aided inspection.
7) Preparation of NC part programs.
8) Assembly sequence planning

1.6 CAD software packages

The software in computer-aided design include the following:
1) System softwares or operating system
2) Application softwares

System software
System software is a group of computer programs used to
manage the operations of a computer. These programs control the
flow of information among the various units of computer system. The
important functions of operating system are :
1) Transferring data between computer and various peripheral
devices for input and output.
2) Managing various files in the computer
3) Loading computer programs into memory and controlling the
program execution.
DOS, Windows, OS/2, UNIX, and Linux are some of the well-
known operating systems.

Application software
The application softwares in CAD include the following:
1) Software for creating 2D and 3D models of components.
2) Software for creating models for engineering analysis such as
finite element analysis, heat transfer analysis, stress–strain
analysis, etc.
AutoCAD, Pro/E, IDEAS, UniGrpahics, CADian, SolidWorks, Solid
Edge, CADKey, ArchiCAD, Autodesk Inventor and CATIA are some of
the well-known application softwares used in computer aided design.

1.6.1 AutoCAD
AutoCAD is a drawing software package developed by the
Autodesk. It is one of the most widely used softwares for creating
engineering drawings easily and quickly.

1.5
Features of AutoCAD
1) Creating basic geometric objects : Basic geometric objects
like line, circle, arc, rectangle, etc. can be easily drawn by
specifying points with the pointing device or by entering
coordinate values in the command line.

2) Modifying the objects : We can easily modify the size, shape,

and location of objects by using AutoCAD commands.

3) Zooming : This feature is used to magnify the details in a

drawing for a closer view or shift the view to a different part of
the drawing.

4) Layering : By using this feature, various portions of a drawing

can be drawn on different layers. The can be super–imposed
according to the need.

5) Dimensioning and tolerancing : We can create dimensions

for variety of object shapes in different orientations. We can also
add geometric tolerance.

6) Hatching : We can use this feature to fill area of a drawing with

a predefined pattern. It is also possible to create our own hatch
patterns.

7) 3D modelling : AutoCAD supports 3D modelling such as

wireframe, surface, and solid modelling . Each type has its own
creation and editing techniques.

8) Rendering : We can add lighting and materials to the surfaces

of 3D models and render them to produce realistic effects. It is
also possible to create hidden–line or shaded image of model.

9) Customization : AutoCAD is a general purpose drafting system

designed with an open architecture so that we can customize its
features.

Advantages of AutoCAD
Refer: Benefits of CAD (Section 1.5)

1.6
1.7 Point plotting
In computer graphics, a point or a pixel is represented by
specifying its X and Y coordinate distances from an origin. Point
plotting is a process of converting a single pixel position into
appropriate operations for the output device.
In CRT monitor, the electron beam is turned ON to illuminate
the screen phosphor at the selected location.
In a random scan system, the coordinate values are converted
into deflection voltages that position the electron beam at the
screen location to be plotted.
In a black and white raster system, a point is plotted by setting
the bit value to 1 for a location to be plotted.
In RGB system, the frame buffer is loaded with colour codes to
be displayed at the location.

1.8 Drawing of lines

Line drawing is performed by calculating intermediate positions
along the line path between two endpoints. The output device is then
directed to fill these positions. The following two algorithms are
commonly used to draw lines :
1) Digital Differential Analyser (DDA) algorithm
2) Bresenham’s algorithm

1) Digital Differential Analyser (DDA) algorithm

The equation of a straight line is given by
𝑦 = 𝑚. 𝑥 + 𝑐 … … … . (1.1)
where, 𝑚 = slope of the line and 𝑐 = 𝑦 intercept.

Let a line is to be drawn from (𝑥𝑙 , 𝑦1 ) to (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ). Then,

𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝚫𝒚
𝒎= = … … …. (1.2)
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝚫𝒙
and 𝑐 = 𝑦1 − 𝑚. 𝑥1 … … … . (1.3)

Algorithms for displaying straight lines are based on the above

three equations.
1.7
 Δ𝑦
For small increments of Δ𝑥 and Δ𝑦, 𝑚 =
Δ𝑥
Δ𝑦
Δ𝑦 = 𝑚 Δ𝑥 (or) Δ𝑥 =
𝑚
Case – 1 :
When slope 𝒎 ≤ 𝟏 and positive, choose 𝚫𝒙 = 𝟏 (unit pixel).
Then, the successive pixel positions can be calculated as follows :
𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 + Δ𝑥 = 𝑥𝑖 + 1
𝑦𝑖+1 = 𝑦𝑖 + Δ𝑦 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑚 . Δ𝑥
𝑦𝑖+1 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑚 (∵ Δ𝑥 = 1)
The subscript 𝑖 takes values starting from 1 for the first point,
and increases by 1 until the end point is reached. The calculated 𝑦
values must be rounded to the nearest integer.

Case – 2 :
When slope 𝒎 > 𝟏, choose 𝚫𝒚 = 𝟏 (unit pixel). Then the
successive pixel positions can be calculated as follows :
𝑦𝑖+1 = 𝑦𝑖 + Δ𝑦 = 𝑦𝑖 + 1
Δ𝑦
𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 + Δ𝑥 = 𝑥𝑖 +
𝑚
1
𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 + (∵ Δ𝑦 = 1)
𝑚
Example :

Consider a line with end points (20,10) and (30,18) is to be plotted.

𝑦2 − 𝑦1 18 − 10
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒, 𝑚 = = = 0.8
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 30 − 20
Since, 𝑚 < 1 and positive, choose Δ𝑥 = 1.
Then, 𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 + 1 and 𝑦𝑖+1 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑚 .

Let the start point 𝑥1 = 20 and 𝑦1 = 10. The successive pixel

positions along the line path are tabulated below.

1.8
 𝒙𝒊+𝟏 𝒚𝒊+𝟏 𝒚𝒊+𝟏
(calculated) (rounded)
21 10.8 11
22 11.6 12
23 12.4 12
24 13.2 13
25 14.0 14
26 14.8 15
27 15.6 16
28 16.4 16
29 17.2 17
30 18.0 18

A line generated by plotting the above pixel positions is shown

in fig.1.3.
y

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 x

Fig.1.3 Line plotted with DDA algorithm

Drawbacks of DDA algorithm :

1) Floating-point operations and rounding off are time consuming.
2) Due to the accumulation of round-off error, the calculated pixel
positions may drift away from the true line path for long line.

1.9
2) Bresenham’s line algorithm
DDA algorithm involves floating point calculations that
increases computation time. Bresenham’s algorithm eliminates
floating point calculations and uses only integer operations. Hence it
is more efficient for raster conversion.

Consider a line with positive slope 𝑚 ≤ 1 is to be plotted. The

pixel positions along line path are determined by taking Δ𝑥 =1. Let
the current pixel position is determined as (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) .
Then, 𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 + 1.

We need to decide the next pixel position from the choices

𝐴 (𝑥𝑖+1 , 𝑦𝑖 ) and 𝐵 (𝑥𝑖+1, 𝑦𝑖+1 ).

Let 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 be vertical pixel seperations from the line path.

If 𝒅𝟏 < 𝒅𝟐 , pixel position 𝑨 will be plotted.

If 𝒅𝟐 < 𝒅𝟏 , pixel position 𝑩 will be plotted.

+1
2

+1
Fig.1.4 Vertical pixel separation

At the pixel position (𝑥𝑖 + 1), the 𝑦 coordinate is given by,

𝑦 = 𝑚. (𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 𝑐 … … … . (1.4)
From the figure, 𝑑1 = 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 𝑐 − 𝑦𝑖
𝑑2 = (𝑦𝑖 + 1) − 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑖 + 1 − 𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) − 𝑐
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = 2𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) − 2𝑦𝑖 + 2𝑐 − 1 … … … . (1.5)

1.10
 The above equation involves more computations. Hence, a
decision parameter 𝑝𝑖 can be defined so that it involves only integer
calculations.

Let, 𝑝𝑖 = (𝑑1 − 𝑑2 ) Δ𝑥
= {2𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) − 2𝑦𝑖 + 2𝑐 − 1 }Δ𝑥
Δ𝑦
Put, 𝑚 =
Δ𝑥
Δ𝑦
𝑝𝑖 = 2 Δ𝑥 Δ𝑥(𝑥𝑖 + 1) − 2 Δ𝑥. 𝑦𝑖 + (2𝑐 − 1)Δ𝑥
= 2Δ𝑦 . 𝑥𝑖 − 2Δ𝑥 . 𝑦𝑖 + 2Δ𝑦 + (2𝑐 − 1)Δ𝑥 … … … . (1.6)
The decision parameter for the step (𝑖 + 1) is given by,

𝑝𝑖+1 = 2Δ𝑦 . 𝑥𝑖+1 − 2Δ𝑥 . 𝑦𝑖+1 + 2Δ𝑦 + (2𝑐 − 1)Δ𝑥 … … … . (1.7)

Subtracting equation (1.6) from (1.7),

𝑝𝑖+1 − 𝑝𝑖 = 2Δ𝑦 (𝑥𝑖+1 − 𝑥𝑖 ) − 2Δ𝑥 (𝑦𝑖+1 − 𝑦𝑖 )
But, 𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 + 1
∴ 𝒑𝒊+𝟏 = 𝒑𝒊 + 𝟐𝚫𝒚 − 𝟐𝚫𝒙 (𝒚𝒊+𝟏 − 𝒚𝒊 )

To find the initial decision parameter 𝒑𝟏 :

From the start point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ),
Δ𝑦
𝑦1 = 𝑚 . 𝑥1 + 𝑐 = 𝑥 +𝑐
Δ𝑥 1
Δ𝑦
𝑐 = 𝑦1 − 𝑥
Δ𝑥 1
Substitute the value of 𝑐 in equation (1.6)
Δ𝑦
𝑝1 = 2Δ𝑦 . 𝑥1 − 2Δ𝑥 . 𝑦1 + 2Δ𝑦 + {2 (𝑦1 − 𝑥 − 1} Δ𝑥
Δ𝑥 1 )
𝑝1 = 2Δ𝑦 . 𝑥1 − 2Δ𝑥 . 𝑦1 + 2Δ𝑦 + 2Δ𝑥 . 𝑦1 − 2Δ𝑦 . 𝑥1 − Δ𝑥
𝒑𝟏 = 𝟐𝚫𝒚 − 𝚫𝒙

Case – 1 : If 𝒑𝒊 is negative (𝒊. 𝒆. 𝒅𝟏 < 𝒅𝟐 )

𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 + 1 ; 𝑦𝑖+1 = 𝑦𝑖
𝑝𝑖+1 = 𝑝𝑖 + 2Δ𝑦 − 2Δ𝑥 (𝑦𝑖+1 − 𝑦𝑖 ) = 𝑝𝑖 + 2Δ𝑦

1.11
Case – 2 : If 𝒑𝒊 is positive (𝒊. 𝒆. 𝒅𝟐 < 𝒅𝟏 )
𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 + 1 ; 𝑦𝑖+1 = 𝑦𝑖 + 1
𝑝𝑖+1 = 𝑝𝑖 + 2Δ𝑦 − 2Δ𝑥 (𝑦𝑖+1 − 𝑦𝑖 ) = 𝑝𝑖 + 2Δ𝑦 − 2Δ𝑥

Thus, the Bresenham’s line algorithm calculates pixel positions

along the line path using integer additions and subtractions.

Example :
Consider a line with end points (20,10) and (30,18) is to be plotted.
𝑥1 = 20; 𝑦1 = 10
Δ𝑥 = 30 − 20 = 10; Δ𝑦 = 18 − 10 = 8
Δ𝑦 18 − 10 8
Slope, 𝑚 = = = = 0.8
Δ𝑥 30 − 20 10
Initial decision parameter, 𝑝1 = 2Δ𝑦 − Δ𝑥 = 2 × 8 − 10 = 6 (positive).
∴ 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 + 1 = 20 + 1 = 21
𝑦2 = 𝑦1 + 1 = 10 + 1 = 11
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 2Δ𝑦 − 2Δ𝑥 = 6 + (2 × 8) − (2 × 10) = 2 (Positive)

The successive pixel positions along the line path are tabulated below.

𝒊 𝒙𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒑𝒊 𝒙𝒊+𝟏 𝒚𝒊+𝟏
1 20 10 6 21 11
2 21 11 2 22 12
3 22 12 -2 23 12
4 23 12 14 24 13
5 24 13 10 25 14
6 25 14 6 26 15
7 26 15 2 27 16
8 27 16 -2 28 16
9 28 16 14 29 17
10 29 17 10 30 18

1.12
 A line generated by plotting the above pixel positions is shown
in fig.1.5.
y

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 x

Fig.1.5 Line plotted with Bresenham’s algorithm

1.9 Bresenham’s circle algorithm

A circle is defined as the set of points that are all at a given
distance 𝑟 from a centre position. Let the centre of the circle is (0,0).
The equation of circle is given by 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2 .

+
( ,− ) ( , )
Octant

( , ,) )
(− ( , )
45°

+
(− , − ) ( , −) )

(− , − ) ( , ,) )
(−

Fig.1.6 Symmetry of circle

1.13
 Computations can be reduced by considering the symmetry of
circles. The adjacent octants in a circle are symmetric about a 450 line
dividing the quadrants. A point (𝑥, 𝑦) on one octant can be mapped
into other seven octants as shown in fig. 1.6. Hence, all pixel positions
around a circle can be generated by calculating the points within a
sector from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 𝑦.

To apply the Bresenham’s algorithm, a circle function is defined

as follows :
𝒇𝒄 (𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐 … … . (1.8)

The relative position of any point (𝑥, 𝑦) can be determined by

checking the sign of the circle function.

< 0, if (𝑥, 𝑦) is inside the circle boundary

𝑓𝑐 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0, if (𝑥, 𝑦) is on the circle boundary ......... (1.9)
> 0, if (𝑥, 𝑦) is outside the circle boundary
The above circle function is the decision parameter. The circle
function tests are performed for the mid-positions between pixels
near the circle path.

Mid- M
−1 point B

+1

Fig.1.7 Mid-point between pixels

Let the current pixel position is determined as (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) .

Then, 𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 + 1.

We need to decide the next pixel position from the choices

𝐴 (𝑥𝑖 + 1, 𝑦𝑖 ) and 𝐵 (𝑥𝑖 + 1, 𝑦𝑖 − 1). The midpoint between these two
1
pixel positions is 𝑀 (𝑥𝑖 + 1, 𝑦𝑖 − ).
2
1.14
 The decision parameter (circle function) at the midpoint is
given by,
1
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑓𝑐 (𝑥𝑖 + 1, 𝑦𝑖 − )
2
1 2
= (𝑥𝑖 + 1)2 + (𝑦𝑖 − ) − 𝑟2
2
1
𝑝𝑖 = (𝑥𝑖 + 1)2 + 𝑦2𝑖 + − 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑟2 … … … . (1.10)
4

The successive decision parameter (circle function) is given by,

1
𝑝𝑖+𝑖 = 𝑓𝑐 (𝑥𝑖+1 + 1, 𝑦𝑖+1 − )
2
1 2
= [(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 1]2 + (𝑦𝑖+1 − ) − 𝑟2
2
1
𝑝𝑖+1 = (𝑥𝑖 + 1)2 + 1 − 2(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 𝑦2𝑖+1 + − 2𝑦𝑖+1 − 𝑟2 … … … . (1.11)
4
Subtracting equation (1.10) from (1.11),
1
𝑝𝑖+1 − 𝑝𝑖 = (𝑥𝑖 + 1)2 + 1 − 2(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 𝑦2𝑖+1 + − 𝑦𝑖+1 − 𝑟2
4
1
−(𝑥𝑖 + 1)2 − 𝑦2𝑖 − + 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑟2
4
𝒑𝒊+𝟏 = 𝒑𝒊 + 𝟐(𝒙𝒊 + 𝟏) + (𝒚𝟐𝒊+𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐𝒊 ) − (𝒚𝒊+𝟏 − 𝒚𝒊 ) + 𝟏

To find the initial decision parameter 𝒑𝟏 :

Let the start point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (0, 𝑟)
1 2
𝑝1 = (0 + 1)2 + (𝑟 − ) − 𝑟2
2
1 5
𝑝 1 = 1 + 𝑟2 + − 𝑟 − 𝑟2 = − 𝑟
4 4
If the radius 𝑟 is specified in integer, 𝑝1 can be rounded to
𝒑𝟏 = 𝟏 − 𝒓

Case – 1 : If 𝒑𝒊 < 𝟎, the midpoint is inside the circle path.

Then, 𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 + 1 ; 𝑦𝑖+1 = 𝑦𝑖
𝑝𝑖+1 = 𝑝𝑖 + 2(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + (𝑦2𝑖 − 𝑦2𝑖 ) − (𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 ) + 1
𝑝𝑖+1 = 𝑝𝑖 + 2(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 1 = 𝑝𝑖 + 2𝑥𝑖 + 3
1.15
Case – 2 : If 𝒑𝒊 > 𝟎, the midpoint is outside the circle path.
Then, 𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 + 1 ; 𝑦𝑖+1 = 𝑦𝑖 − 1
𝑝𝑖+1 = 𝑝𝑖 + 2(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + [(𝑦𝑖 − 1)2 −𝑦2𝑖 ] − (𝑦𝑖 − 1 − 𝑦𝑖 ) + 1
𝑝𝑖+1 = 𝑝𝑖 + 2(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + (𝑦2𝑖 + 1 − 2𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦2𝑖 ) + 1 + 1
𝑝𝑖+1 = 𝑝𝑖 + 2(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖 ) + 5

Thus, the Bresenham’s circle algorithm calculates pixel

positions along the circumference of a circle using integer additions
and subtractions.

Example :
Consider a circle of radius 𝑟 = 10. Let the centre of the circle is (0,0).
Initial point, 𝑥1 = 0 ; 𝑦1 = 𝑟 = 10
Initial decision parameter, 𝑝1 = 1 − 𝑟 = 1 − 10 = −9 (Negative).

∴ 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1
𝑦2 = 𝑦1 = 10
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + +2𝑥1 + 3 = −9 + 0 + 3 = −6 (Negative)
The successive pixel positions in an octant along the circle path
are tabulated below.

𝒊 (𝒙𝒊 , 𝒚𝒊 ) 𝒑𝒊 (𝒙𝒊+𝟏 , 𝒚𝒊+𝟏 )

1 (0, 10) -9 (1, 10)
2 (1, 10) -6 (2, 10)
3 (2, 10) -1 (3, 10)
4 (3, 10) 6 (4, 9)
5 (4, 9) -3 (5, 9)
6 (5, 9) 8 (6, 8)
7 (6, 8) 5 (7, 7)

An octant of a circle generated by plotting the above pixel

positions is shown in fig.1.8. The pixel positions in the other seven
octants are determined by using the symmetry as shown in the figure.
The open circles show the symmetry positions in the first quadrant.

1.16
 y=x
y

10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
Fig.1.8 Circle generated with Bresenham’s circle algorithm

1.10 Transformations
In computer graphics, drawings are created with combination
of geometric elements. These elements are represented by the
coordinates of their end points. The drawings can be modified by
performing some mathematical operations on the coordinates. These
operations are known as transformations. Translation, scaling, and
rotation are the basic transformations.

1.10.1 Two-dimensional transformations

The X and Y coordinates are specified to locate a point in a two–
axis Cartesian system. These coordinates may be represented by a
1x2 matrix as (x, y). For example, the matrix (4, 6) represents a
point, which is 4 units from the origin in the X direction and 6 units
from the origin in the Y direction.

Similarly, a line may be represented by a 2x2 matrix by giving

the X and Y coordinates of the two end points of the line. The notation
of line matrix is as follows:

x1 y1
L =q r
x2 y2
Where, (x1, y1), (x2, y2) be the two end points of the line L.
1.17
 Using the rules of matrix algebra, any geometric element
represented in matrix notation can be changed into a new element by
using the following matrix transformations.

1) Translation
Translation involves moving the geometric elements from one
location to another. In case of a point, the operation is as follows.
x' = x + m, y' = y + m
Where, x', y' = Coordinates of the translated points
x, y = Coordinates of the original point
m, n = Movement in the X and Y direction respectively.

In matrix notation, it can be represented as

(x', y') = (x, y) + T
Where, T = Translation matrix = (m, n)

For a line, the transformation matrix is applied to its two end points.

Example :
Y

7 (5,7)

6
Translated line
5

4 (3,4) (4,4)

3
Original line
2

1 (2,1)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X
Fig.1.9 Translation
Consider a line having (2, 1) and (3, 4) as two end points. Let, the
line is to be moved by 2 units in the X direction and 3 units in the Y direction.

1.18
Then, the line matrix, L = q r
2 1
3 4

The translation matrix, T = q r

2 3
2 3
The new line matrix after translation,

=q r+ q r=q r
2 1 2 3 4 4
3 4 2 3 5 7
The new line will have end points at (4, 4) and (5, 7). The effect
of translation is shown in the figure.

2) Scaling
Enlarging or reducing the size of a graphic element is known as
scaling. The points of an element can be scaled by the scaling matrix
as follows:
(x', y') = (x, y) S

Where, S = Scaling matrix = q r

m 0
0 n
This will produce an alteration in the size of the element by the
factor m in the X direction and by the factor n in the Y direction.
Example :
Y

8 (6,8)

5 Scaled line
4 (3,4)

2 (4,2)

1 (2,1)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X
Fig.1.10 Scaling

1.19
 Consider a line having (2, 1) and (3, 4) as two end points. Let,
the line is to be scaled by a factor 2 in the X and Y direction.

Then, the line matrix, L = q r

2 1
3 4

The scaling matrix, S = q r

2 0
02
The new line matrix after scaling,

=q r q r=q r
2 1 2 0 4 2
3 4 0 2 6 8
The new line will have end points at (4, 2 and (6, 8). The effect
of scaling is shown in the figure.

3) Rotation
It involves the rotation of an object about its origin by an angle
θ. For a positive angle, this rotation is in the counter–clockwise
direction. The object is moved while rotating. In matrix notations, the
procedure will be as follows:
(x', y') = (x, y) R
cos θ sin θ
Where, R = Rotation matrix = q r
–sin θ cos θ

Example:
Consider a line having (2, 1) and (3, 4) as two end points. Let,
the line is to be rotated about the origin by 30o.

Then, the line matrix, L = q r

2 1
3 4

The rotation matrix, R = q r= q r

cos 30 sin 30 0.866 0.500
–sin 30 cos 30 –0.500 0.866

The new line matrix after rotation,

=q r q r=q r
2 1 0.866 0.500 1.232 1.866
3 4 –0.500 0.866 0.598 4.964

1.20
 Y

6
(0.598, 4.964)
5
Rotated line
4
(3,4)
3

2
(1.232, 1.866) (2,1)
1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X

Fig.1.11 Rotation

The new line will have end points at (1.232, 1.866) and (0.598,
4.964). The effect of scaling is shown in the figure.

1.10.2 Three-dimensional transformations

The two dimensional transformations by matrix method can
also be applied to three-dimensional space. The same general
procedures are applied to three-dimensional transformations also.

1) Translation
The translation in three-dimensional space is represented in
matrix notation as follows:

(x', y', z') = (x, y, z) + T

Where, x', y', z' = Coordinates of the translated points

x, y, z = Coordinates of the original point
T = Translation matrix = (m, n, p)
m, n, p = Movement in the X, Y and Z directions respectively.

1.21
2) Scaling
The scaling in three-dimensional space is represented in matrix
notation as follows:
(x', y', z') = (x, y, z) S

Where, S = Scaling matrix = q 0 n 0 r

m 0 0

0 0 p

3) Rotation
The rotation about X-axis by an angle θ in three-dimensional
space is represented in matrix notation as follows:
(x', y', z') = (x, y, z) Rx

Where, Rx = Rotation matrix about X axis = q0 cos θ sin θ r

1 0 0

0 –sin θ cos θ
Similarly,
cos θ 0 sin θ
Rotation matrix about Y axis, Ry = q 0 1 0 r
–sin θ 0 cos θ

cos θ sin θ 0
Rotation matrix about Z axis, Rz = q–sin θ cos θ 0r
0 0 1

4) Concatenation
Concatenation is the process of combining the single
transformations as a sequence of transformations. The combined
transformations are called concatenated transformations.
Concatenated transformations are generally performed during the
editing process in a graphic model.

Consider the rotation of an element about a point in that

element. This transformation process involves the translation to the
origin, then rotation about the origin, then translation back to the
original location. The transformation matrix for concatenation is
obtained by multiplying their respective single transformation matrices.

1.22
1.11 Geometric modelling techniques (or)
Types of geometric models
The mathematical description of the geometry of an object is
called model. Geometric modelling involves the use of a CAD system
to develop a mathematical description of the geometry of an object.
The three major modelling techniques are :
1) Wireframe model or line model
2) Surface model
3) Solid model or volume model

1.11.1 Wireframe modelling

A wireframe model is the simplest geometric model used to
represent an object mathematically in the computer. It is also
called as line model or edge representation of the object.
A wire frame model consists of points, lines, arcs, circles, conics,
and curves.
The word ‘wireframe’ is related to the fact that one may imagine a
wire that is bent to follow the object edge to generate the model.
An edge may be a straight line, arc, or any other curve.
A wireframe model of a 3D object consists of a finite set of
points and the edges connecting these points.

Wireframe model with linear edge

Z

V2
E6
Y
E1
E5 V4

E - Edge
E2 E3 V - Vertex
V1

E4

V3 X

Fig.1.12 Linear wireframe model of tetrahedron

1.23
 Wireframe models with linear edges consist of straight-line
segments joining pair of points.
For example, a tetrahedron consists of four points with six linear
edges joining pairs of these points are shown in the figure.
The geometry of the tetrahedron is represented by a vertex list
giving the (x,y,z) coordinates of its vertices.
Vertex list Edge list Edge type
V1 (0,0,0) E1 (V1,V2) Linear
V2 (0,0,1) E2 (V2,V3) Linear
V3 (1,0,0) E3 (V3,V1) Linear
V4 (0,1,0) E4 (V3,V4) Linear
E5 (V1,V4) Linear
E6 (V4,V2) Linear

Wireframe model with curvilinear edges

Many objects have curved boundaries. They are represented in
wireframe with curved and linear edges.
Cone is the simplest curvilinear wireframe model. This consists
of a single apex point and a circular base.
The apex is joined to the base by a number of straight lines
called generators.
Z
V1

E1 E2

Y
V2
E4

V3 X
E3

Fig.1.13 Curvilinear wireframe model of cone

The geometry of the cone is represneted by three vertices. They
are the apex (V1) and two other vertices on the ends of a
diameter.
1.24
 The edge list contains four edges – two linear edges from apex
to base and two semicircular edges forming the circular base.

Vertex list Edge list Edge type

V1 (0,0,3) E1 (V1,V2) Linear
V2 (-1,0,0) E2 (V1,V3) Linear
V3 (1,0,0) E3 (V2,V3) Semi-circular
E4 (V3,V2) Semi-circular

The wireframe model can be improved by dividing the base

circle with more number of vertices.
Thus, the wireframe model of any object can be developed with
the help of linear edges and curvilinear edges.

Applications of wireframe modelling

1) Creating 3D objects in video games.
2) Programming tool paths for CNC machining.
3) Generating input for computer aided manufacturing.
4) Generating orthographic and auxiliary views automatically.
5) Checking for interference between mating parts.
6) Generating exploded views and perspective views easily.

Advantages of wireframe modelling

1) Easy to construct.
2) Less memory space.
3) Less manipulation time.
4) No need of training for users.
5) Suitable for creating orthographic, isometric and perspective views.
6) Editing is easy.

Disadvantages of wireframe modelling

1) More doubt in identifying the surfaces.
2) Create confusion to the viewer.
3) Not possible to calculate mass properties such as mass,
volume, moment of inertia, etc.
4) Not suitable for representing complex solids.
5) Hidden line removal is time consuming.
6) Lengthy procedure.
1.25
1.11.2 Surface modelling
A surface model is more complete and less confusing than
wireframe model.
A surface model can be built by defining the surface on the
wireframe model.
The procedure of constructing a surface model is stretching a
thin piece of material over a framework.

Fig.1.14 Representation of surface modelling

The boundary of an object may consist of surfaces. The surfaces
are bounded by straight lines and curves.
The figure shows the illustration of a surface model built with
number of surfaces as shown.
Modelling of curves and surfaces is important in areas of
mechanical design such as

• Body panel of automobiles

• Aircraft structural members
• Marine vehicles
• Consumer products, etc.

Types of surfaces
The following are the various types of surface entities used for
constructing surface models.

1.26
 Fig.1.15 Plane surface Fig.1.16(a) Ruled surface

1) Plane surface
This is the simplest flat 2D surface. Atleast three points are
required to define a plane.

2) Curved surface
The two types of curved surfaces are (a) single curved surfaces
and (b) double curved surfaces.
Single curved surface: It is a simple curved surface
generated by using straight line. Example : Cylindrical surface, conical
surface, surfaces of pyramids, prisms, and conics.
Double curved surface: It is a complex surface generated by
using curves. Example : Spheres, ellipsoids, paraboloids and torus.
Some of the construction methods available for these curves
are explained below.

Ruled surface : It is constructed by transitioning between two or

more curves using linear blending. This is used to generate the
surfaces with no twist.

Fig.1.16(b) Surface of revolution Fig.1.16(c)Tabulated cylinder

1.27
Surface of revolution : This is an axis–symmetric surface. It is
generated by revolving a wireframe entity about an axis.
Tabulated cylinder : This is a surface generated by translating a
planar curve to some distance along a specified direction.
Bezier surface : This surface is generated by giving input data. It
permits twists and bends. It is consists of Bezier curves. It can be
used in open boundaries.
B–spline surface : This surface can be generated approximately
or interpolate with the given set of input data. It consists of
B-spline curves. It is used in open boundaries.
NURBS : Non–Uniform Rational B–spline Surfaces are widely used
in all CAD systems. NURBS is similar to the B–spline surface with
the addition of the weighing factors. It is used to create surfaces
with any shape.

Fig.1.16(d) Coons surface Fig.1.16(e) Swept surface

Coons surfaces : A coon surface or patch is obtained by blending
four boundary curves. The single patch can be extended in both
the directions by adding further patches. This is done by linear or
cubic blending.
Swept surface : This surface is produced by sweeping the defining
curve along a spline curve.

Fig.1.16(f) Sculptured surface Fig.1.16(g) Fillet surface

1.28
 Sculptured or curved mesh surface : This surface is produced
by a grid of geometric curves, which intersect to form a patchwork
of surface patches.
Fillet surface : It is a B–spline surface that blends two surfaces
together. The original surface may or may not be trimmed.
Offset surface : Existing surfaces can be offset to create new ones
identical in shape with different dimensions. It is used to speed up
surface construction.

Applications of surface model

Surface modelling is generally used in the following applications.
1) Checking for interference between mating parts.
2) Generating cross sectional views.
3) Generating finite element meshes.
4) Generating NC tool paths.

Advantages of surface model

1) Less confusing than wireframe model.
2) Hidden line and surface algorithms gives realism to the model.
3) Shading algorithms are also available.

Disadvantages of surface model

1) Interior details of the model cannot be represented.
2) Designer requires more training and mathematical background.
3) More time to create.
4) Requires more storage capacity.
5) More manipulation time.
6) Construction is not as simple as wireframe model.

1.11.3 Solid modelling

The best method for the three dimensional model construction
is the solid modelling technique. It provides the user with
complete information about the model.
In this approach, the models are displayed as solid objects to
the viewer, with very little risk of mis-understanding.

1.29
 When colour is added to the image, the resulting picture
becomes very realistic.
All solid modelling systems provide facilities for creating,
modifying, and inspecting models of three-dimensional solid
objects.
The following representation schemes are available for creating
solid models.
1) Constructive solid geometry (CSG)
2) Boundary representation (B–rep)
3) Pure primitive instancing
4) Generalized sweep
5) Cellular decomposition
6) Hybrid scheme
Among these schemes, constructive solid geometry and
boundary representation techniques are widely used in CAD
systems.

Solid modelling entities or primitives

Y
Y Y
H
P P P
H X X
Z X R R
H
W D Z Z

Block Cylinder Cone

Y Y Y
Z
R2

R
P H P R1 X
P
Z
Z X
W X Ro Ri
D
Sphere Wedge Torus

Fig.1.17 Solid modelling entities

Solid modelling entities are simple basic shapes used for
constructing a solid model. They are set of building blocks, often called
as primitives. They can be combined by a mathematical set of Boolean
operations to create the solid. The important solid entities are :
1.30
 Block : This entity is a box or cube. The geometrical data is its
width (W), height (H) and depth (D). Point P defines the origin
of local coordinate system. The signs of W, H and D determines
the position of the block relative to its coordinate system.

Cylinder : This is a right circular cylinder. The geometry is

define by its radius R (or diameter D) and length H. The length
H is usually taken along the direction of the Z axis. H can be
positive or negative.

Cone : This is a right circular cone or a frustum of a right circular

cone. The geometry is defined by its base diameter D, top
diameter d ( for frustum) and height H.

Sphere : This is defined by its radius R or diameter D. It is

cantered about the origin of its local coordinate system.

Wedge : This is a right angled wedge. The geometrical data is

its height H, width W and base depth D.

Torus : This entity is generated by the revolution of a circle

about an axis lying in its plane. The geometry can be defined by
the radius of its body R1 and the radius of the centreline of the
torus body R2. It can also be defined by the inner radius Ri and
outer radius Ro.

Solid modelling schemes

1) Constructive solid geometry (CSG) or C–rep
This approach is also called building block approach. In the
constructive solid geometry approach, a sold object is represented in
a computer as a combination of simple solid objects, called primitives.
Some typical primitives used in the solid models are block, sphere,
hemisphere, cylinder, cone, torus, and wedge. The primitives are
normally stored internally using the analytical representation.

CSG using Boolean operators

Boolean operators are used for combining the primitives to
form the complete solid object. The available Boolean operators are
union (∪ or +), intersection (∩) and the difference (–)

1.31
 A B

U
AUB A B A-B B-A

Fig.1.18 Boolean operations for two - dimensional model

Union (∪): When two or more solids are combined with the
Boolean operator UNION, the result is the single solid shape
incorporating all the space occupied by any of the individual
components. Simply, this is like adding components together.

Fig.1.19 Boolean operations for three - dimensional model

Difference (–) : When two or more solids are combined with the
Boolean operator DIFFERENCE, the result is the single solid
incorporating the space, which is occupied by the first component
but is outside all of the remaining components. This is like
subtracting the second and subsequent components from the first
component.

Intersection (∩) : When two or more solids combined with

intersection, the result is a single solid object incorporating the
space, which is occupied in common by each of the components.

The effect of these operators on the simple primitives block and

a cylinder is shown in the figure for their two dimensional and three
dimensional relationship.

CSG tree
In CSG, the storage of data required for the complex job is only the
construction tree of the operators and the relevant dimensions of the
primitives. This enables the reduction of the storage requirement. Also
by making modifications on the CSG tree, a new object can be obtained
by any time.
1.32
 6

U 5

2 3 4

U
6

1 1 2 4

3
5

Model
CSG tree
Fig.1.20 CSG tree

2) Boundary representation (B–Rep)

In the boundary representation scheme, a solid is represented
by the data structure containing the elements, which describes
its boundary. These elements are divided into topological
elements and geometric elements.
The topological elements are linked together in a network or
group. The network represents the connectivity of elements in
terms of vertices, edges and faces.

Ed
ge ge
Ed

Vertex
Edge

Face Face

Vertex
Ed
ge ge
Ed

Fig.1.21 Winged edge data representation

The geometric elements are points, curves, and surfaces. These

geometric elements are linked to the appropriated topological
elements as follows:

1.33
 Face ←→ Surface
Edge ←→ Curve
Vertex ←→ Point
It means that a face in a B–rep model is simply a bounded area
of surfaces. A winged edge data structure, which is often used
for boundary representation, is shown in the figure.

Model

Input views

Fig.1.22 Boundary representation

The use of boundary representation to create a solid object is
shown in the figure.

Comparison of CSG and B–Rep

CSG B–Rep
1) Solid model is built from solid Solid model is obtained by creating
graphic primitives. the outline or boundary of the object.
2) It is easy to construct a precise It is not so easy to construct the model.
solid model.
3) It uses Boolean operations. It uses topological elements.
4) It requires less storage space. It requires more storage space.
5) It requires more computation to It requires less computation to
reproduce the model. reproduce the model.
6) Non–analytical surfaces such as Non–analytical and complicated
Bezier surfaces cannot be created. surfaces can be created.
7) Conversion between C–rep and Conversion between boundary
corresponding wireframe model representation and corresponding
is very difficult. wireframe model is easy.

1.34
3) Hybrid schemes
It is the combination of both constructive solid geometry and
boundary representation approach.
It makes use of the relative benefits of both approaches
overcoming their relative weaknesses.
By using this approach, solid models can be created by either
C–rep or B–rep whichever is more appropriate to the particular
problem.

Applications of solid modelling

1) Creating hidden line drawings, sections, and shaded images.
2) Calculating mass properties such as total surface area, volume,
centre of gravity, moments of inertia, radius of gyration, etc.
3) Self-adaptive finite element meshes generation.
4) Kinematics analysis of solid assemblies.
5) Dynamics interference analysis.
6) Process planning for manufacture.
7) CNC program generation.
8) CNC tool path simulation and program verification

Advantages of solid modelling

1) Solid model is complete and more understandable.
2) Solid models can be created easily.
3) It gives information about interior details.
4) There is little human intervention for automated application like
creating part program, etc.
5) It stores more information about geometry and topology of the
object.
6) It is best suitable for mass properties calculation.

Disadvantages of solid modelling

1) Solid model occupies more memory space.
2) It requires more manipulation time.

1.35
 1.11.4 Comparison of wire frame, surface and solid modeling

Detail Wire frame model Surface model Solid model

1. Representation Collection of corner Collection of corner Collection of corner points,

points and edge points, edge lines and edge lines, surfaces and
lines surfaces internal volume
2. Ambiguity More Less Unambiguous
3. Memory requirement Less More than wire frame More than surface model
model
4. Manipulation time Less More Less
5. Time for construction Less More Less
6. Interior details Not possible Not possible Possible
7. Automatic view generation Impossible Impossible Possible
(Perspective and orthographic)
8. Cross sectioning Manually guided Manually guided Possible even automatically
9. Elimination of hidden lines Manually guided Manually guided Possible
10. Mass property calculation Not possible Not possible Possible
11. Numerical control application Difficult or Automatic possible Automatic possible
impossible

1.36
1.12 Graphics standards
A large number of applications are used in CAD/CAM, which are
manufactured by different companies. Therefore, there is a need to
establish standards in CAD that help in linking different hardware and
software systems from different companies. In addition, the data
from a CAD system is to be transferred to the CAM system to achieve
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM). The standards used in
CAD for exchanging data are called graphics standards.

Graphics database

DXF, IGES, STEP, SET

Applications
programs
GKS, PHIGS, CORE

Graphics functions

VDI, VDM, NAPLPS

Device driver Device driver

Device Device

Fig.1.23 Various CAD standards

Need or benefits of graphics standards

Graphics standards are needed to achieve the following
benefits in CAD.
1) Application program portability: The program in a CAD
system should not be hardware dependent. It is desired to have
programs, which are interchangeable with a number of systems.
2) Picture data portability: Description and storage of picture
should be independent of different graphic devices.
3) Text portability: Representation of text associated with the
graphics should be independent of hardware.
4) Object database portability: In CAD, analysis and
manufacturing operations should be integrated for sharing
design database.

1.37
 The following are the common graphics standards used in
CAD/CAM applications.

• GKS : Graphical Kernel System

• OpenGL : Open Graphics Library
• IGES : Initial Graphics Exchange Specification
• DXF : Drawing Exchange Format
• PHIGS : Programmer’s Hierarchical Interface for Graphics
• STEP : STandard for the Exchange of Product model data
• DMIS : Dimensional Measurement Interface Specifications
• VDI : Virtual Device Interface
• VDM : Virtual Device Metafile
• GKSM : GKS Metafile
• WMF : Windows Meta File

1.13 Graphical Kernel System (GKS)

GKS is a set of procedures that can be called by user programs
for carrying out certain generalized functions. ISO has standardized
the GKS as a 2D standard.
IGES file link to
other CAD systems

Application CAD system IGES

software software processor

GKS language
binding

GKS

Metafile
driver Device driver Device driver

Metafile Input
storage device

Fig.1.24 GKS in CAD

1.38
Objectives of GKS
1) To provide the complete range of graphical facilities in 2D.
2) To control all the graphic and display devices.
3) To be small enough for a variety of programs.

Features of GKS (Benefits or advantages of GKS)

1) Device independence: This standard does not require any
specific feature for the input or output devices.
2) Text or annotation: All the text or annotations are in a natural
language like English.
3) Display management: A complete set of display
management functions, cursor control, and other features are
provided.
4) Graphics functions: Graphics functions can be defined in 2D or 3D.
5) Metafile drivers: It makes use of metafile drivers, which are
devices with no graphic capability like a disc unit.

Input methods
The input methods into GKS environment are organized in the
following way:
• Locator :Entering the location in world coordinates.
• Valuator:Real value in terms of distance.
• Choice :Integer options such as 0,1,2,3,etc.
• Pick :To select an object in a drawing already created.
• String :Character value.
• Stroke :To provide continuously the location valuations in
world coordinates.

Graphics primitives
The concept of PEN is used for drawing lines. PEN has the
attributes of colour, thickness, and line type. The basic graphics
primitives are :
• Polyline : To draw polylines.
• Polymarker : To create specific marker type.

1.39
 • Generalised Drawing Primitives (GDP) : To specify the
drawing entity such as arc, circle, ellipse, spline, etc.
• Text : To create text.
• Fillarea : To create hatching and filling of areas.

1.14 Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES)

IGES is the most comprehensive standard. It is designed to
transmit the entire product definition. The software, which translates data
from CAD system to IGES, is called a pre–processor. The software, which
translates IGES data to a CAD system, is called post–processor.

CAD Pre- IGES Post- CAD

system A processor file processor system B

Fig.1.25 CAD data transfer using IGES

IGES is based on the concept of entities. The entities in IGES

are divided into three categories.
1) Geometry : Lines, circles, surfaces, etc. that define an object.
2) Annotation : Dimension, notes, title block, etc.
3) Structure : Ways in which CAD systems combine other entities
to make description of object easier.
In IGES, the records are present with 80-column field. Columns
1 to 72 provide the data and columns 73 to 80 provide a sequence
number for the record, which identifies the location of the subsection.

Sub–sections of IGES
The IGES file consists of the following five sub–sections.
a) Start section : It is identified by a letter “S” in column 73. It
contains the source, and description of drawing, format type, etc.
b) Global section : It is identified by a letter “G” in column 73. This
contains information about details of the drawing, the person who
created the drawing, date, drafting standard used, etc.
c) Directory entry section : It is identified by a letter “D” in
column 73. It describes all the entities in the drawing. Each
entry consists of two lines organized into 20 fields of 8
characters each. It contains attribute information such as
colour, line type, view, pointers, etc.
1.40
 d) Parameter data section : It is identified by the letter “P” in
column 73. This contains the data associated with the entities.
The data includes the coordinate values, coefficient of curves
and surface equations, pointers to other entities, text characters
and other attributes.
e) Terminate section : it is identified by the letter “T” in column
73. This contains the subtotals of records present in each of the
earlier sections.
Disadvantages of IGES
1) IGES is complex and wordy.
2) The various export choices make IGES file better or worse.
3) IGES files are about five times larger than an equivalent picture file.
4) Many entities required by CAD applications are not available.

1.15 Drawing Exchange Format (DXF)

The DXF format was developed by Autodesk for exchanging
AutoCAD drawing files between CAD systems. Because of the
widespread use of AutoCAD, DXF is made as a default standard for
use in a variety of CAD/CAM applications. A DXF file is simply an ASCII
text file with a file extension of .DXF.

Organization of DXF file

The overall organization of DXF file is as follows.
a) HEADER section : This section contains general information
about the drawing. Each parameter contains a variable name
and associated value.
b) CLASSES section : It contains the information for application–
defined classes, which appear in the BLOCKS, ENTITIES, and
OBJECTS sections of the database.
c) TABLES section : This contains definitions for the following
symbol tables.
1) Linotype table 2) Layer table
3) Text style table 4) User coordinate system table
5) View table 6) Viewport configuration table
7) Dimension style table 8) Application identification table
9) Block reference table
1.41
 d) BLOCKS section : This section contains block (symbol)
definition and drawing entities that make up each block
reference in the drawing.
e) ENTITIES section : This section contains the graphical entities
in the drawing, including block references.
f) OBJECTS section : This section contains data about non–
graphical objects in the drawing.
g) END OF FILE

Group and group codes for DXF

A DXF file is composed of many groups. Each group occupies
two lines in the DXF file. The first line is a group code and the second
line is a group value. The specific assignment of group codes depends
upon the item being described in the file. The types of the value of a
group is derived from the following way.

Group code range Following value

0–9 String
10 – 59 Floating point
60 – 79 Integer
210 – 239 Floating point
999 Comment (string)

Advantages of DXF
1) It is the most compatible vector file type.
2) It is used to exchange data between different CAD programs.
3) It can be viewed and edited in any CAD/CAM software.
4) Easy to process.
5) It can be divided into small components.
6) It is freely available in public.

Disadvantages of DXF
1) DXF does not support application specific CAD elements
2) Complex DXF files can become large in size.
3) Some applications can not support line widths in DXF Files.

1.42
1.16 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
Finite element analysis (FEA) is a computer simulation
technique used in engineering analysis to determine the behaviour of
structures and components under a variety of conditions.

1.16.1 Development of FEA

FEA uses a numerical technique called the finite element method
(FEM). In its applications, the object or system is represented by
small regions, called finite elements.
Equations of equilibrium are applied to each element, and a system
of simultaneous equations is constructed. The system of equations
is solved for unknown values using the techniques of linear algebra
or non-linear numerical schemes.
The finite-element method is originated from the need for solving
complex elasticity and structural analysis problems in civil and
aeronautical engineering.
Development of the finite element method became popular in
1950s for airframe and structural analysis.
In 1968, NASA introduced the first computerized Structural Finite
Element solver (NASTRAN).
In 1970, an integrated, general-purpose FEA software ANSYS was
developed.

In 1971, the FEA software package, MARC was developed.

In 1978, ABAQUS and DYNA3D analysis software were developed.

Due to the rapid growth of PC’s and their hardware, a number of
FEA software were developed during the 90’s and through today.

1.16.2 Basic steps in FEA

There are three phases in any finite element analysis.
1) Pre-processing
2) Analysis (Computation of solution)
3) Post processing (Visualization)

1.43
1) Pre-processing
Pre-processing is the construction of a finite element model of
the structure to be analyzed. Digital blueprints, design files,
CAD models, etc. can be used for this purpose.
A meshing procedure is used to define and break up the model
into small elements with definite number of nodes.
FEA packages use node numbers as an identification tool to view
solutions in structures such as deflections.
Elements define localized mass and stiffness properties of the
model. Elements are also defined by mesh numbers. They are
used as references to view deflections or stresses at specific
model locations.

2) Analysis (computation of solution)

The FEA conducts a series of computational procedures
involving applied forces and the properties of the elements. It
produces a model solution.
Such a structural analysis allows the determination of effects
such as deformations, strains, and stresses. These are caused
by applied structural loads such as force, pressure and gravity.

3) Post-processing (visualization)
These results can be studied using visualization tools to view
and identify the complete results of the analysis.
The precise location of data such as stresses and deflections can
be obtained by numerical and graphical tools.

Applications of FEA
Determination of stresses and displacements
Heat transfer
Solid state diffusion
Reactions with moving boundaries
Fluid dynamics
Electromagnetism

1.44
Advantages of FEA
Increased accuracy
Enhanced design
Better design parameters
Virtual prototyping
Fewer hardware prototypes
Faster and less expensive design cycle
Increased productivity
Increased revenue

Review Questions

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS :

1) Explain the activities of CAD in Shiley’s design process.
2) List out the benefits of CAD?
3) Briefly explain about CAD software packages.
4) Define the term AutoCAD. List out the advantages.
5) State the features of AutoCAD.
6) Explain point plotting.
7) Define concatenation with an example.
8) List out the disadvantages of wire frame modelling .
9) List out the advantages and applications of surface models.
10) What are the various representation schemes available for
creating solid models?
11) State the applications of solid modelling .
12) Explain the boundary representation technique.
13) Give the comparison of CSG and B-Rep.
14) What is a graphic standard? List out the benefits of introducing
standards for computer graphics.
15) List out the common graphics standards used in CAD/CAM
applications.
16) State the features of GKS.
17) State the features of OpenGL.
18) Briefly explain the development of FEA.

1.45
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS :
1) Explain the various activities of CAD.
2) Explain the DDA algorithm with an example.
3) Explain Bresenham’s line drawing algorithm with an example.
4) Explain Bresenham’s circle algorithm with an example.
5) Briefly explain the following transformations with an example:
i) Translation ii) Scaling iii) Rotation
6) Explain 3D rotation and 3D translation.
7) Explain wire frame model with examples. State the applications
and advantages.
8) Explain the various types of surfaces used for constructing surface
models.
9) Discuss in detail the surface modelling technique.
10) Explain the various solid modelling entities.
11) Discuss solid modelling with an example. State its merits and
demerits.
12) Explain with an example how complicated solid objects are
created in solid modelling by performing Boolean operations.
13) Compare the wire frame modelling , solid modelling and surface
modelling techniques.
14) Explain the implementation of GKS in CAD system.
15) Explain the structure of IGES file.
16) Explain the organisation of DXF file. List out its advantages and
disadvantages.
17) What is Finite Elements Analysis(FEA). Explain the basic steps.
18) List out the applications and advantages of FEA.

 

1.46
 Unit – II
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
2.1 Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
Computer aided manufacturing may be defined as the effective
use of computer technology in manufacturing, planning, and control.
CAM is most closely associated with functions in manufacturing
engineering, such as process planning and NC part programming.

Need of CAM
The following are the need of CAM.
To increase the productivity
To improve the quality and accuracy
To improve the flexibility in manufacturing
To reduce the lead time in manufacturing
To improve the reliability
To reduce the scrap and rework
To reduce the maintenance of machine tools.

2.1.1 Functions of CAM (or) Activities of CAM

The functions of CAM can be divided into the following two main
categories.
1) Manufacturing planning
2) Manufacturing control

1) Manufacturing planning
The computer can be indirectly used to provide information for
the effective planning and management of manufacturing activities.
The manufacturing planning includes the following activities.
Computer Assisted Process Planning (CAPP): Use of computer
to prepare route sheets that list the sequence of operations.
Computer assisted NC part programming: Automatic
generation of NC part program.
Computerized machinability data system: Providing
appropriate machinability data for different materials.

2.1
 Development of work standard: Use of computer software for
setting work standards.
Cost estimating: Estimating the cost of a new product.
Production and inventory planning: Maintenance of inventory
records, production scheduling, material requirements planning
and capacity planning.
Computer aided line balancing: Finding the best allocation of
work elements among stations on assembly lines.

2) Manufacturing control
It is concerned with the use of computer systems for managing
and controlling the physical operations in the industry. The
manufacturing control includes the following activities.
Process monitoring and control: Observing and regulating the
production equipment and manufacturing processes.
Quality control: Ensuring the highest possible quality levels in
the manufactured product.
Shop floor control: Collecting data from factory operations and
using the data to control production and inventory in the factory.
Inventory control: Maintaining the most appropriate levels of
inventory in the factory.

2.1.2 Benefits of CAM (or) Advantages of CAM

The following are the benefits of using CAM
1) Greater flexibility in design
2) Increased productivity
3) Greater flexibility in operations
4) Shorter lead time
5) Improved reliability
6) Reduced maintenance
7) Reduced scrap and rework
8) Better management control

2.2
2.2 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) includes all of the
engineering functions of CAD/CAM and business functions related to
manufacturing. CIM uses the database and communication
technology to integrate the design, manufacturing and business
functions.

2.2.1 Concept of CIM

of
o pe CA
Sc D

Design
IM
of C

Business Factory Mfg.

functions operations planning
o pe

Sc
Sc

op

Mfg.
e

control f
o
CA
M

Fig.2.1 Concept of C I M
The CIM concept is that all the operations related to
manufacturing are combined in an integrated computer system to
assist, improve and automate the operations. The output of one
activity acts as the input to the next activity. It starts with the sales
order and ends with the delivery of the product.

2.2.2 Evolution of CIM

Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) is considered as a
natural evolution of CAD/CAM. Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) is credited for the development of both CAD
and CAM.

2.3
 in 1950s, MIT developed a NC part programming language,
called APT. The first NC machine was demonstrated at MIT in
1952. In 1960s NC uses mini–computers. This development is
called CNC.
CNC technology led to the development of coordinate
measuring machines (CMMs) which automated inspection and
robots. All these developments led the evolution of flexible
manufacturing system (FMS) in 1980s.
During 1980s, computer control is implemented in several areas
of manufacturing. Yet the full potential of computerization could
not be obtained unless all the segments of manufacturing are
integrated. This realization led to the evolution of Computer
Integrated Manufacturing.

2.2.3 CIM wheel

CAD
Geometric modeling
Engineering analysis
Design review and evaluation
Automated drafting

Design

Computerized
CAM
Business System
Cost estimation
Order entry Business Factory Mfg. CAPP
Accounting functions operations planning
NC part programming
Payroll
MRP, Capacity planning
Customer billing
Mfg.
control

CAM
Process control
Process monitoring
Shop floor control
Computer aided inspection

Fig.2.2 CIM Wheel

2.4
 CIM wheel shows the components of a CIM system. Customer
orders are initially entered by the company’s sales department.
New products are designed on a CAD system. The bill of
materials and assembly drawings are prepared by using CAD
system.
The output of the design department is used as the input to
manufacturing engineering. Process planning, tool design and
similar activities are done to prepare for production.
The output from the manufacturing engineering provides input
to production planning and control department. MRP and
scheduling are performed using the computer system. Thus all
the activities from sales order to delivery of the product are
performed using computers in CIM.

2.2.4 Benefits of CIM

1) Increased machine utilization
2) Reduced direct and indirect labour.
3) Reduced manufacturing lead-time.
4) Lower in-process inventory.
5) Greater scheduling flexibility.
6) Reduced scrap and rework.
7) Increased factory capacity.
8) Safer working environment.

2.2.5 Integrated CAD/CAM

CA CA
process Tool CNC Material CMM Production
Program handling program control
planning Design
Computer
Aided
Design Common database

Design Common database

analysis
Finite Production
Element Scheduling Project
Simulation MRP Manage- control
Modeling ment

Fig.2.3 Common database linkage

2.5
 The product design and manufacturing functions are integrated
by using CAD/CAM technology. This is termed as integrated
CAD/CAM. The goal of CAD/CAM is not only to automate
certain phases of design and certain phases of manufacturing,
but also to automate the transition from design to
manufacturing.

In integrated CAM/CAM, the CAD system creates the model and

its design database. The database contains geometric data, bill
of materials, specification of the product, etc.
The CAM system uses this common database and converts it
into a process plan. This conversion can be automatically done
by Auto CAM softwares.
The NC part program is automatically generated by CAM
system. The part program is uploaded to the CNC machine
through telecommunication network.
Thus, product design, NC programs and physical production are
all done with the help of computer in integrated CAD/CAM
environment.

2.3 Group technology

Group Technology (GT) is a manufacturing philosophy used to
reduce the overall production cost by grouping the parts. The
grouping is based on similarities in design or manufacturing process.

T T T CG CG

T T T SG SG

M M D D D

T - Turning M - Milling D - Drilling

CG - Cylindrical Grinding SG - Surface Grinding

Fig.2.4 Process type layout

2.6
 T M D SG

T M D CG

T T CG

Fig.2.5 Group Technology layout

In process layout, all the machines of the same process will be

grouped in a single department and placed together. The parts move
through various departments before they are completed. This requires
a large amount of travel for the part and is wasteful.

In product layout, the machines are arranged in the sequence

operations needed. When the batch size is small, it is difficult to fully
load the machines. It makes lower utilization of machines.

The batch size can be made large by grouping the parts into a
family based on the production requirements. This philosophy is
called Group Technology. The layout thus obtained is called Group
Technology layout.

GT is more suitable under the following conditions.

The plant uses traditional batch production and a process
type layout.
The variety of parts can be grouped into part families.

2.3.1 Part families

A part family is a group of similar parts. They are similar in
geometric shape and size, or similar in processing steps needed for
manufacture.

The two parts shown in fig.2.6(a) are similar in design

viewpoint but different in terms of manufacturing. The parts shown in
fig.2.6(b) are similar in terms of manufacturing processes, but
different in design viewpoint.
2.7
 Part - 1 Part - 2
10,000 / Year 100 / Year
Tolerance ±0.05 Tolerance ±0.001
Aluminium Stainless steel
(a) Similar design attributes but different manufacturing attributes

(b) Similar manufacturing attributes but different design attributes

Fig.2.6 Part families

The following three methods are generally used for grouping

the parts.
a) Visual inspection: It is the least sophisticated and least
expensive method. It involves the classification of parts into
families by looking the physical parts or photographs and
arranging them into similar groupings. This method is least
accurate of the three.

b) Production flow analysis (PFA): It is a method of identifying

the part families and associated machine tool grouping by
analyzing the route sheets. It groups together the parts that have
similar operation sequences and machine routings.

c) Parts classification and coding: It is the most time consuming

and complicated method. However, it is the most frequently
applied method and most powerful of the three. In this method,
the similarities among parts are identified and related in the coding
systems.

2.8
2.3.2 Parts classification and coding
Parts classification is the process of separating the parts into
groups based on the characteristic attributes. Coding is the
process of providing a symbol to the component.
The part classification and coding process starts from the
examinations and analysis of the design and manufacturing
attributes of each part.
A number of classification and coding systems and software
packages for coding are commercially available. The system can
be customized suitably for a given company
The design and manufacturing attributes included in classification
schemes are :

Part design attributes Manufacturing attributes

Basic external shape Major processes
Basic internal shape Minor operations
Rotational or rectangular shape Operation sequence
Length to diameter ratio (Rotational parts) Major dimension
Aspect ratio (Rectangular parts) Surface finish
Material type Machine tool
Part functions Production cycle time
Major dimensions Batch size
Minor dimensions Annual production
Tolerances Fixture required
Surface finish Cutting tools

Application of parts classification and coding

Design retrieval: While developing a new part, the existing part

can be retrieved by specifying its part code.
Automated process planning: The part code of a new part can
be used to search process plans of existing parts with similar codes.
Machine cell design: The part codes can be used to design
machine cells capable of producing all members of a part family.

2.9
2.3.3 Coding structure
A part-coding scheme consists of a sequence of symbols that
identify the parts design and manufacturing attributes. The symbols
in the code can be all numeric, all alphabetic, or combination of both
types. The arrangement of these symbols in a part code is called
coding structure.

The following three types of coding structures are used in group

technology applications.
1) Hierarchical structure (or) Monocode structure
2) Chain type structure (or) Polycode structure
3) Hybrid structure (or) Mixed mode structure

1) Hierarchical structure
In this structure, the meaning of each symbol in the sequence
depends on the value of the preceding symbols.

Example :
Consider a two-digit code number for a part, such as 15 or 25.
Assume that the first digit stands for general shape of the part. The
symbol 1 means the part is cylindrical, and 2 means the part is
rectangular. In hierarchical structure, the symbol 5 in the code 15
may indicate a length-to-diameter ratio, and the same symbol 5 in
the code 25 may indicate an aspect ratio between the length and
width dimensions of the part.

Advantages
The structure is relatively compact.
It conveys more information about the part in a limited number
of digits.
2) Chain type structure
In this structure, the meaning of each symbol in the sequence is
always the same and does not depend on the value of preceding symbol.
Example :
Consider a two-digit code number for a part, such as 15 or 25.
In chain type structure, the symbol 5 in the above two codes will have
the same meaning whether it is preceded by 1 or 2. For example, it
may indicate the overall length of the part.

2.10
Advantages
It is used for convenient identification of specific part attributes.
It can be helpful in recognizing parts with similar processing
requirements.

3) Hybrid structure
It is a combination of hierarchical and chain type structures. It
makes use of the advantages of both the structures. It is the most
common structure used in GT parts classification and coding systems.
Hybrid codes are constructed as a series of short polycodes. It is best
suitable for both design and manufacturing attributes.

2.3.4 Parts classification and coding systems

The following are the generally used parts classification and
coding systems.
1) Opitz system 2) MICLASS system 3) The CODE system
4) DCLASS system 5) COFORM system 6) The KK–3 system

1) Opitz classification system

This system was developed by H. Opitz. The Opitz system uses
the following digit sequence.
12345 6789 ABCD
s

Form code Supplementary Secondary

Code code

The basic code consists of nine digits, which can be extended

by adding four more digits.
The first five digits (12345) are called form code. It describes
the primary design attributes of the parts such as external
shape and machined features.
The next four digits (6789) are called supplementary code. It
indicates some of the manufacturing attributes.
The extra four digits (ABCD) are referred to as secondary code.
It can be designed by the user company to identify the
production operation type and sequence.

2.11
 Supplementary
Digit 1 Digit 2 Digit 3 Digit 4 Digit 5 code
Part class Digit
Main shape Rotational Plane surface Additional holes 6 7 8 9
machining machining teeth and forming
0 L/D<0.5
External shape Internal Machining of Other holes
1 0.5<L/D<3 shape plane surfaces
element and teeth
element
2 L/D>3
With deviation
3 L/D<2 Other holes,
Main shape Rotatiional Machining of teeth and
With deviation machining plane surfaces forming
4 L/D>2
5 Special
Material

Main shape
Accuracy

Dimension

A/B<3
6

2.12
A/C>4
Main bore and Other holes,
Main shape rotational Machining of teeth and
7 A/B>3 plane surfaces
machining forming
Original shape of raw material

A/B<3
8 A/C<4
Main shape
9 Special

 Fig. 2.7 Basic structure of Opitz classification system

Fig.2.7 shows the basic structure of the Opitz parts classification and coding system. The first digit
identifies whether the part is rotational or non–rotational. It also describes the general shape and
proportions of the part. Fig.2.8 shows the form code (1 to 5) for rotational part.
 Digit 1 Digit 2 Digit 3 Digit 4 Digit 5
External shape, Internal shape,
Part class external shape internal shape Plane surface machining Auxiliary holes and gear teeth
elements elements

Smooth, no Smooth, no shape

0 L/D≤ 0.5 0 0 0 No surface machining 0 No auxiliary hole
shape elements elements

Surface plane and/or

No shape No shape Axial, not on pitch
1 0.5<L/D<3 1 1 1 curves in one direction, 1
Elements Elements circle diameter
external
External plane surface
Axial on pitch
2 L/D≥3 2 Thread 2 Thread 2 related by graduation 2
circle diameter
around the circle

or smooth
or smooth
Functional Functional External groove Radial, not on pitch
3 3 3 3 3

Stepped to one end

Stepped to one end
Groove Groove and/or slot circle diameter

Rotational parts
Rotational parts

Axial, and/or radial

No shape No shape External spline
4 4 4 4 4 and/or other
Elements Elements (polygon)
direction
External plane surface Axial, and/or radial
5 5 Thread 5 Thread 5 and/or slot, external 5 on PCD and/or other

ends
ends
spline direction

Functional Functional Internal plane surface

Stepped to both
Stepped to both
6 6 6 6 6 Spur gear teeth
Groove Groove and/or slot

7 7 Functional cone 7 Functional cone 7 Internal spline (polygon) 7 Bevel gear teeth

Internal and external

8 8 Operating thread 8 Operating thread 8 polygon, groove and/or 8 Other gear teeth
slot

Non rotational parts

Non rotational parts

9 9 All others 9 All others 9 All others 9 All others

Fig.2.8 Form code for rotational parts in Opitz system

2.13
Example :

M10

Ø8
25

20
12.5
20
40

Fig.2.9 Example for Opitz system

The determination of form code for the rotational part shown

in fig.2.9 is explained below.
Digit 1 Digit 2 Digit 3 Digit 4 Digit 5
Auxiliary
Internal Plane surface
Part class External shape holes and
shape machining
gear teeth
Stepped on both Part contains No auxiliary
L 40 No plane
Details = = 1.64 ends with screw a through holes and gear
D 25 surface
thread on one end hole teeth
Form
1 5 1 0 0
code

The form code for the above component in Opitz system is 15100.

2) MICLASS coding system

MICLASS stands for Metal Institute CLASsification System.
The MICLASS code consists of 12 to 30 digits. The first 12 digits
are a universal code that can be applied to any part.
The other digits can be used to code data that are specific to
the particular company.
The component attributes coded in the first 12 digits are :

2.14
 Digit Attribute
1st digit Main shape
2nd and 3rd digit Shape elements
4th digit Position of shape elements
5th and 6th digits Main dimension
7th digit Dimension ratio
8th digit Auxiliary dimension
9th and 10th digit Tolerance codes
11th and 12th digit Material codes
The main feature of the MICLASS system is that parts can be
coded using a computer.
To classify a given part, the user responds to a series of
questions asked by the computer. Most of the question requires
“Yes” or “No” answers.
Example :
30

Ø6 Ø11

Ø75
Material : CC15
50
20
9.5
25
13.5

Fig.2.10 Example for MICLASS system

The universal part code assigned by the computer to the
component shown in fig.2.10 in MICLASS coding system is
1271 3231 3144.
2.15
3) CODE system of part classification
CODE system is used in design engineering for retrieval of part
design data, process planning, purchasing, tool design and
inventory control.
The CODE number has eight digits. For each digit, there are 16
possible values (0 - 9 and A - F). The values are used to describe
the parts design and manufacturing characteristics.
The initial digit is called the Major division. It is used to specify
whether the shape is cylinder, flat piece, block or other.
The value of the remaining seven digits depend on the value of the
first digit. These digits form a chain type structure. Hence, the
CODE system is a hybrid structure.
Representation of digits in CODE system is as follows :

Digit Attribute
1 External shape
2 - 3 Additional information about the basic geometry and
principal manufacturing process for the part
4 - 6 Secondary manufacturing processes such as threads,
grooves, slots, etc.
7 - 8 Overall size of the part (Diameter, overall length, etc.)

Example :

Fig.211 Example for CODE classification system

The part code determined for the component shown in the

fig.2.11 by using CODE classification system is 1388D75.

2.16
2.3.5 Benefits of Group Technology
1) Retrieval of existing design from the database is easy.
2) It helps in design standardization.
3) It helps in developing standard process plans.
4) Setup time is reduced.
5) Production rate is increased.
6) Inventory and work–in–process can be reduced.
7) Material handling and movement is reduced.
8) Product quality is increased.
9) Scrap is reduced.
10) Machine utilization is increased.
11) Available shop floor area is increased.
12) Overall plant efficiency is increased.

Limitations
1) Cost of implementing GT is high.
2) Not suitable for a factory with large variety of products.
3) The entire production of the company cannot be put under GT.
4) No acceptable universal standard for GT parts classification and
coding.
5) GT cells should be altered according to the change in the
product family.

2.4 Process planning

Process planning is the procedure to determine the most
suitable manufacturing processes and their sequence to produce a
product as per the specifications.

The process planning procedure includes the following

Interpretation of design drawing: The design details such
as materials, dimensions, tolerances, surface finish, etc. of the
product are analyzed.
Selection of process and sequence: The appropriate
processes and their sequence are selected.
Selection of equipment: Plans that uses the existing
equipment in the plant are developed.

2.17
 Selection of tools, dies, moulds, fixtures and gauges: The
required tooling for each processing step is decided.
Setting work standards: Work measurement techniques are
used to set time standards for each operation.
Selection of cutting tools and cutting condition: These
must be specified with reference to standard handbook.

Route sheet
The processing sequence for producing individual parts is
documented on a form called a route sheet.

Route sheet ABC Machine Shop Pvt. Limited.

Part No. Part Name Planner Checked by Date: Page:
05879 Generator shaft 1/1
Material Stock Size Comments:
1050 H18 60mm dia. 206 mm
Al length
No. Operation description Dept. Machine Tooling Setup Std.
10 Rough turn to 52mm dia. and Lathe L38 G098 60 min. 5 min.
finish turn to 50mm dia.
20 Drill 4 radial holes 7.5mm dia. Drill D07 J333 30 min. 3 min.
30 Mill 6 mm deep x 5 mm wide Mill M05 F765 80 min. 5 min.
slot

Fig.2.12 Typical route sheet

A typical route sheet includes the following information.

1) The list of all operations in the order in which they should be
performed.

2) A brief description of each operation.

3) The specific machine on which the operation is to be done.

4) Any special tooling such as dies, cutting tools, jigs, fixtures, and
gauges.

5) Setup time, standard cycle time, and other data.

2.18
2.4.1 Requirements for process planning
1) Annual demand of the product or batch size.
2) The list of parts in the product.
3) Available stock sizes.
4) Details of available equipment.
5) Tools, dies, moulds, fixtures and gauges requirements.
6) Accuracy and surface finish requirements.
7) Cutting parameters such as speed, feed, depth of cut and the
number of passes.

2.5 Computer Assisted Process Planning (CAPP)

Computer Assisted Process Planning (CAPP) is a method used
to automatically develop the process plan with the help of computer
programs.

Structure of CAPP

Inspection Machine
Geometric Material
model tool tool
database database database

Fixture Cutting
Pocket* Database tool
identification database editor database

Setup Standard Cutting process

Tool time parameter
identification planning optimization
estimator

Process
* Pocket - Volume and method sequencing
of material removal

Process
sheet
generation

Fig.2.13 Structure of CAPP

The geometric model of the part is the input for the process
plan. Based on the characteristics of the part, the program
automatically generates the sequence of manufacturing
operations.

2.19
 CAPP system arranging the data into categories and logical
relationships.
The data include the details of part design, manufacturing
facilities and capabilities.
The categories include CAD database, machine database, tool
database, material database, fixture database, etc.
The standard modules in the CAPP system use these databases
to analyze and generate the best process plan.

Types of CAPP
1) Variant type :
It is also called retrieval approach. It uses a Group Technology (GT)
code to select suitable process plan from the existing master
process plans. It edits the plan to suit the requirement of the part.

2) Generative type :
In this type, a process plan is created from beginning for each part
without human intervention.
It contains logic to use manufacturing database and part
description schemes to generate process plan. Most of the CAPP
systems are generative in nature.
Generative type eliminates the disadvantages of retrieval type.

2.5.1 Operation of Variant type (Retrieval type) CAPP system

The operation of a typical CAPP system includes the following stages.
1) Preparatory stage
2) Process planning stage
3) Report generation

Part Process plan Process

Description GT code Retrieve/Edit plan

Master
plans

Fig.2.14 Variant type to CAPP

2.20
1) Preparatory stage
It consists of the following steps.
Selecting suitable classification and coding scheme.
Forming part families.
Preparing standard process plans.

2) Process planning stage

The part code of new part is entered into the CAPP system. A
search is made in the part family file.
If the file contains the process plan for the part, it is retrieved
and edited to suit the new part design.
If the file does not contain a standard process plan for the given
code number, the existing process plan for the similar code can
be retrieved.
The route sheet for the new part can be prepared by editing the
existing process plan.

3) Report generation
The process plan formatter prints out the route sheet.
The report may be a route sheet, process picture, graphical
simulation of manufacturing processes or a NC part program.

2.5.2 Operation of generative CAPP system

Part Process plan Process

description logic plan

Knowledge base

Machine Cutting Jigs Materials

tool tool

Fig.2.15 Generative type CAPP

The generative CAPP system uses a branch of artificial

intelligence, called expert system. Expert system is a computer
program that is capable of solving complex problem.

2.21
 The problem solving procedure by using an expert system is
termed as inference engine.
The technical knowledge of manufacturing and logic used by
successful process planners are coded into programs. These
programs are called knowledge base.
By using this knowledge base and inference engine, CAPP
system creates a new process plan.

The steps involved in generative CAPP system are :

1) Machinable volumes, called pockets, are identified by taking

the difference of blank size and the finished component size.
2) Suitable machines for each pocket are selected.
3) Process sequence and suitable cutting tool are identified.
4) Optimum cutting process parameters such as speed, feed,
depth of cut and number of passes are obtained.
5) The operations are sorted on the basis of machine tool and
cutting tool.
6) Machining time and idle time are evaluated.
7) Final process plan is selected on the basis of lowest cost or
machining time.
8) Final results are presented as process sheet, process pictures
or CNC part program.

2.5.3 Advantages (Benefits) of CAPP

1) Automated process planning gives more logical and best
process plans.
2) The standard process plans result in lower manufacturing costs
and higher product quality.
3) The productivity of process planners is increased.
4) The lead-time for process planning is reduced.
5) Computer prepared route sheets are neat and easy to read.

2.22
2.6 Production Planning and Control (PPC)
Production planning and control is a predetermined process
which includes the use of human resource, raw materials, machines
etc. PPC helps to take the right decision at the right time and at the
right place to achieve maximum efficiency.

Objectives of PPC
1) Ensure safe and economical production process
2) Effectively utilize the resources
3) Ensure proper delivery of products
4) Ensure optimum inventory
5) Reduce the production time
6) Improve the quality of product
7) Control the wastage of raw material
8) Reduce the production cost

2.7 Computer integrated production management system

Sales and
marketing

Aggregate
Product
production
design
planning
Sales Sales
orders forecasts

Master
production
schedule
Inventory Capacity
records planning
Material Engineering &
requirements Manufacturing
planning database
Purchasing Shop floor
department control

Supplier Customer
Factory
base base

Fig.2.16 Computer integrated production management system

2.23
 The activities of PPC can be effectively done by managing
information with the help of computers. This is termed as
computer integrated production management system.
Both planning and control must be coordinated with each other
and with other functions in manufacturing company.

Production planning
Production planning involves the following :
Deciding the type and number of products, completion time, etc.
Scheduling the delivery and production of the parts.
Planning the manpower and equipment.
The activities of production planning are:
1) Aggregate production planning
2) Master production planning
3) Material requirements planning (MRP)
4) Capacity planning

Production control
It is concerned with determining the necessary resources to
implement the production plan.
It uses various systems and techniques for controlling
production and inventory.
The activities of production control are :
1) Shop floor control
2) Inventory control
3) Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II)
4) Just–in–time (JIT) production system

2.8 Master production schedule (MPS)

The aggregate production plan indicates the production output

levels for the major product lines of the company.
Master production schedule is a very specific schedule of
individual products in the aggregate plan.

2.24
 It is a list of products to be manufactured, when they should be
completed and delivered and in what quantities.
The information needed to prepare master production schedule:
1) The production plan conveyed by the top management.
2) Long term forecast of the individual items.
3) Actual orders received from the customers.
4) Present inventory level of the individual items.

Week
Product line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
M model line 200 200 200 150 150 120 120 100 100 100
N model line 80 60 50 40 30 20 10
P model line 70 130 25 100

(a) Aggregate production plan

Week
Product line models 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Model M1 120 120 120 100 100 80 80 70 70 70
Model M2 80 80 80 50 50 40 40 30 30 30
Model N1 80 60 50 40 30 20 10
Model P1 50 100
Model P2 70 80 25

(b) Master production schedule

Fig.2.17 Aggregate production plan and MPS

Objectives of MPS
1) To make the best use of the resources such as equipment,
material and labour.
2) To maintain the inventory as low as possible.
3) To maintain the proper delivery of finished products.

2.25
2.9 Capacity planning
Capacity planning is concerned with determining the labour and
equipment resources needed to meet the current master production
schedule as well as the long–term future production requirements of a
company. Capacity planning is accomplished in two stages as follows:
Rough–Cut Capacity Planning (RCCP): It is established
during master production scheduling. It indicates whether there
is any violation of production capacity in the MPS.
Capacity Requirements Planning (CRP): It is established
during material requirements planning (MRP). It determines
whether there is sufficient production capacity in the individual
departments to complete the parts that are scheduled by MRP.
If the schedule is not compatible with capacity, adjustments
must be made either in plant capacity or in MPS.
Short-term adjustments
1) Adjusting employment level.
2) Adjusting number of work shifts.
3) Adjusting number of labour hours per work shift.
4) Subcontracting of jobs to other shops can be made.

Long-term adjustments
1) Purchasing more machines.
2) Construction of new plants.
3) Purchasing existing plants from other companies.
4) Closing of plant that will not be needed in the future.

2.10 Material Requirements Planning (MRP)

A material requirement planning (MRP) is a computational
method that converts the master production schedule into a detailed
schedule for the raw material and components used in the end
products.

Objectives of MRP
1) To reduce inventory and inventory cost.
2) To coordinate production and purchase.
3) To make commitment for the delivery of the finished product.
2.26
Inputs to the MRP system
1) Master Production Schedule (MPS): The period–by–period
list of end products to be manufactured.
2) Bill Of Materials (BOM): Materials and components needed
for each product.
3) Inventory record file: Data on current and future inventory
status of each product, component and material.

Master Sales orders

production Sales forecasts
schedule Spare parts requirements

Capacity
Material planning
Inventory
requirements
record file Product design
planning BOM,
Design data &
Manufacturing
Manufacturing data
engineering
Order release
and
output reports

Fig.2.18 Structure of MRP system

Working of MRP system

The MRP processor computes how many of each component and
raw materials are needed each period by exploding the end
product requirements.
From the gross requirements, it calculates the planned order
receipt for each product by subtracting the inventory already
available.
From this, it further calculates that when the planned orders are
to be released by taking into account the lead-time for the
component.

MRP outputs
1) Planned order releases
2) Reports on inventory status.
3) Rescheduling notices
4) Cancellation notices

2.27
Benefits of MRP system
1) Reduction in inventory.
2) Quicker response to changes in demand.
3) Improved customer service.
4) Reduced setup and product changeover costs.
5) Better machine utilization.

2.11 Manufacturing Resources Planning (MRP–II)

Market
demand

Production
plan

Capacity
planning
Adjust
production
plans Any
Yes Problems?
No
Master Resource
procduction requirement
schedule planning

Material No Any Yes

requirement Problems?
planning

Capacity
requirement
planning
Adjust master
production
Schedule Any
Yes Problems?
No
Schedule
shop
orders

Fig.2.19 MRP– II System

Manufacturing resources planning (MRP–II) is an improved
version of MRP. The initial versions of MRP were limited to the
planning of purchase orders and factory work orders. It does
not include capacity planning or feed back data from the factory
shop floor control.

2.28
 MRP–II is a computer based system for planning, scheduling
and controlling the materials, resources and supporting
activities needed to meet the MPS.
MRP–II is a closed–loop system that integrates and coordinates
all the major functions of the business to produce the right
products at the right time.
The application modules provided in MRP–II system are :
1) Management planning 2) Customer service
3) Operations planning 4) Financial functions

The newer terms used for MRP–II software packages :

• Enterprise resource planning (ERP)
• Manufacturing execution systems (MES)
• Customer–oriented management systems (COMS)

2.12 Shop floor control (SFC) system

Shop floor control is concerned with the release of production
orders, monitoring and controlling the progress of the orders, and
collecting current information on the status of the orders.
Three phases of shop floor control system are :
1) Order release 2) Order scheduling 3) Order progress

1) Order release
It provides the documentation needed to process a production
order through the factory. The collection of documents is called shop
packet. It consists of the following:
Route sheet Job cards Move tickets
Parts list Material requisition
2) Order scheduling
It is the process of assigning the production orders to the
various work centres in the plant. This module prepares a dispatch
list that indicates production orders to various work centres. Order
scheduling involves :
Machine loading : Allocating orders to work centres.
Job sequencing : Priorities are established among the jobs in
the queue. The jobs are processed in the order of their relative
priorities.
2.29
 Master
production
schedule

Engineering & Material

manufacturing requirements Priority
database planning control

Order Order Order Management

release scheduling progress reports

Factory
Shop Dispatch Factory data
packet list collection
system

Raw materials Finished

and components products

Work centres Work-in-progress

Fig.2.20 Shop floor control system

3) Order progress
This module monitors the status of various orders in the plant
and work–in–progress (WIP). A factory data collection (FDC) system
is used for this purpose. It provides the following reports :
Work order status reports
Progress reports
Exception reports

2.13 Just–In–Time (JIT) manufacturing system

Just-In-Time (JIT) is a philosophy of manufacturing based on
planned elimination of all wastes and continuous improvement of
productivity. In this system, the component is delivered to the next
operation just at the time when it is needed.

The main objective of JIT is to eliminate the following wastes.

Waste of over production Waste of waiting
Waste of transportation Waste of processing
Waste of stocks Waste of motion

2.30
 Goals for achieving the JIT manufacturing :
Zero defects Zero set–up time
Lot size of one Zero handling
Zero breakdowns Zero lead time
The key elements for JIT approach :
Pull system of production control: When the parts at a given
workstation is about to be finished, that station orders the
upstream station to produce and deliver the parts.
High quality: JIT systems eliminate all defects, which
eliminates the scrap and rework.
Small batch sizes and reduced setup time: Batch size and
setup time must be minimized to minimize WIP inventories.

2.14 Enterprises Resources Planning (ERP)

Enterprise resource planning is one of the MRP-II softwares
used for developing an optimum manufacturing solution. The
important modules in a typical ERP software :
Finance module : It extracts the financial transaction from the
sales and manufacturing areas, and automatically updates the
general ledger.
Distribution module : It manages finished goods, raw
materials and services. Sales orders management, inventory
control, distribution planning are part of distribution module.
Manufacturing module : It can control all the operation
related to manufacturing. The important functions include bill of
materials, routing, MPS, MRP, shop floor control, project
control, etc.
Project module : It includes estimating, budget, planning,
monitoring, invoicing, etc.
Tools module : This module mainly consists of the features for
customization of the software, documentation and database
management.

Other modules : It includes Material management, supply

chain management, quality management, human resource
management, plant maintenance and treasury.
2.31
 Review Questions

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS :

1) What is CAM? What are its functions?
2) What is the need of CAM?
3) What are the benefits of CAM?
4) Define CIM. Explain the concept of CIM.
5) Write short notes on evolution of CIM.
6) Briefly explain CIM wheel.
7) List out the benefits of CIM.
8) Explain the integrated CAD/CAM.
9) Explain the term Group technology.
10) What are the various design and manufacturing attributes used
as a basis for parts classification and coding in GT.
11) Name some parts classification and coding systems.
12) What are the benefits of group technology?
13) Briefly explain the process planning procedure.
14) State the important requirements for process planning.
15) What are the benefits of CAPP?
16) What are the objectives of PPC?
17) What are the objectives of MPS?
18) Write short note on capacity planning.
19) Briefly explain Just–In–Time manufacturing philosophy.
20) Describe Enterprise Resources Planning.

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS :

1) Explain the various functions of CAM.
2) Explain the concept of part families.
3) Explain the various coding structures used in parts classification
and coding.
4) Explain OPITZ classification system.
5) Explain the MICLASS system with an example.
6) Explain the CODE system.
7) Explain with a neat diagram the structure of a CAPP system.

2.32
8) Explain with neat sketch the Variant type CAPP system.
9) Explain the generative type CAPP.
10) Explain the computer integrated production management system.
11) Explain the structure and working of MRP system.
12) Explain MRP-II.
13) Explain shop floor control system.

 

2.33
 Unit – III
CNC PROGRAMMING
3.1 Numerical control in CAM
Numerical control of machine tools may be defined as a method
of automation in which various functions of machine tools are controlled
by letters, numbers and symbols. Basically, a NC machine runs on a
program fed to it. Since the program is the controlling point for product
manufacture, the machine become versatile and can be used for
producing any part. The capability to change the program makes NC
suitable for low and medium production. It is much easier to write new
programs than to make major alterations in the machine tool.

Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

Computer numerical control is defined as a NC system that
utilizes a dedicated microcomputer to perform some or all of the basic
numerical control functions. Numerical control (NC) system is a
method of automation in which various functions of machine tools are
controlled by letters, numbers and symbols.

3.2 CNC operating system

Program Machine
control unit

Machine tool

Fig.3.1 Components of CNC system

Components of CNC system
A CNC system consists of the following three basic components.
1) Program of instructions
2) Machine Control Unit (MCU)
3) Machine tool
1) Program of instructions
In machine tool applications, the program of instruction is called
a part program, and the person who prepares the program is called a
part programmer. The part program consists of instructions written in

3.1
the numerical codes that constitutes the basic operations to be carried
out in machining of the part. These instructions include the positions of
cutting tool relative to the worktable, spindle speed, feed rate, cutting
tool selection, and other functions. The program is entered into MCU
through any one of the part programming methods such as manual
part programming, computer aided part programming, graphical
programming, manual data input or voice programming.

2) Machine Control Unit

Machine control unit consists of the electronics and hardwares
that read and interpret the part program and convert it into
mechanical actions of the machine tool. CNC controller unit includes
the following elements.
Central processing unit
Memory
Input / Output interface
Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed.
Programmable logic controller
These subsystems are interconnected by means of a system bus.

3) Machine tool
Machine tool is the part of the CNC system that performs useful
work. It performs the processing steps to transform the starting work
piece into a completed part. Typically a CNC machine tool consists of
the work table, spindle, motors and controls. It also includes the cutting
tools, work fixtures, and other auxiliary equipment needed in the
machining operation.

Working of CNC system

The principle of operation of a CNC machine tool is shown in
the figure. The basic information that has to be inputted into the
system consists of the part geometry, cutting process parameters
followed by the cutting tools used. This part program is then entered
into the machine control unit. The controller translates these
numerical codes into the machine actuation details, which are then
used to control the individual machine functions such as the
movement of the axes.

3.2
 Each of the machine axes is connected to a servomotor which
works under the control of the MCU. The movement of the cutting tool
with respect to the work piece is given in terms of the coordinates,
which are used to control the motion of the servomotor which drives
the individual axes.

Most of the CNC tools are controlled with a feed back control
system. The feed back information is provided to the machine control
unit to ensure that the programmed instructions are accurately
carried out.

3.2.1 Machine Control Unit for CNC

Memory Input/output
Central
* ROM - Operating interfaces
Processing
system * Operator panel
Unit (CPU)
* RAM - Part program * Tape reader

System bus

Machine tool controls Sequence controls

* Position control * Coolant
* Spindle speed control * Fixture clamping
* Tool changer

Fig.3.2 Machine control unit for CNC

The MCU is the hardware that distinguishes CNC from

conventional NC. The MCU consists of the following components and
subsystems.
1) Central processing unit
2) Memory
3) Input / Output interface
4) Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed.
5) Programmable logic controller
These subsystems are interconnected by means of a system bus.
1) Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The central processing unit is the brain of the MCU. It manages
other components in the MCU with the help of software contained in main
memory. The CPU can be divided into three sections: (i) Control section
(ii) Arithmetic and Logic Unit and (iii) immediate access memory.
3.3
 The control section retrieves commands and data from memory
and generates signals to activate other components in the MCU. The
arithmetic and logic unit consists of the circuitry to perform various
calculations, counting and logical functions. The immediate access
memory provides a temporary storage for data being processed by
the CPU.

2) Memory
It can be divided into (i) Main memory and (ii) Secondary
memory.

Main memory consists ROM (Read Only Memory) and RAM

(Random Access Memory) devices. Operating system software and
machine interface programs are generally stored in ROM. NC part
programs are stored in RAM devices. Current programs in RAM can
be erased and replaced by new programs as jobs are changed.

High capacity secondary memory devices are used to store

large programs and files, which are transferred to main memory as
needed. Floppy diskettes, compact discs and hard disks are some
common secondary memory devices. Hard disks are high capacity
storage devices that are permanently installed in the MCU. CNC
secondary memory is used to store part programs, macros and other
softwares.

3) Input / Output Interface

The I/O interface provides communication between the various
components of the CNC system, other computer systems, and the
machine operator. The I/O interface transmits and receives data and
signals to and from external devices. It mainly consists of
(i) an operator control panel and (ii) a display device (CRT or LED)

Operator control panel: The machine operator

communicates to the CNC system through control panel. This is used
to enter commands relating to part program editing, MCU operating
mode, speeds and feeds, cutting fluid ON/OFF, and similar functions.
An alphanumeric keyboard or keypad is usually included in the
operator control panel.
3.4
 Display: It is used for communication of data and information
from the MCU to the machine operator. The display is also used to
indicate current status of the program as it is being executed and to
give warning to the operator about malfunctions in the CNC system.

I/O interface also includes one or more means of entering the

part program into storage. Programs can also be entered manually by
the operator or stored at a central computer site and transmitted via
local area network to the CNC system.

4) Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed

These are hardware components that control the position and
velocity of each machine axis as well as the rotational speed of the
machine tool spindle. The control signals generated by MCU must be
converted to a form suitable for the position control system used to
drive the machine axes.

Spindle speed control components in the MCU consists of a

drive control circuit and a feed back sensor interface. The particular
hardware components depend on the type of spindle drive.

5) Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

The programmable logic controller is used to manage the input
/ output interface for auxiliary functions such as logical sequencing,
timing, counting and arithmetic functions. These auxiliary functions are
generally ON/OFF actuations, interlocks and discrete numerical data.
PLC can be reprogrammed according to the changes in the control
functions.

3.2.2 Machine control panel

The machine control panel of a typical CNC machine is shown
in the figure. The main features are :
ON / OFF switch : Power and control switch for the main
power and control unit
Cycle Start : Starts program execution or MDI command
Emergency Stop : Stops all machine activity and turns off
power to the control unit
Feed hold : Temporarily stops motion of all axes
3.5
Single Block : Allows program run one block at a time
Optional Stop : Temporarily stops program execution.
Block Skip : Ignores blocks preceded with a forward slash (/)
in the program

Fig.3.3 Machine control panel

Dry Run : Enables program testing at fast feedrates (without

a mounted part)
Spindle Override : Overrides programmed spindle speed.
Feedrate Override : Overrides programmed feedrate.
Chuck Clamp : Shows current status of the chuck clamping
Table Clamp : Shows current status of table clamping
Coolant Switch : Coolant control ON / OFF / AUTO
Gear Selection : Shows current status of working gear range
selection
Spindle Rotation : Indicates spindle rotation direction
Spindle Orientation : Manual orientation of the spindle
Tool Change : Switch allowing a manual tool change

3.6
 Reference Position : Switches and lights relating to setup of
machine, from reference position
Handle (MPG) : Manual Pulse Generator (MPG), used for Axis
Select and Handle Increment switches
MDI Mode : Manual Data Input mode
AUTO Mode : Allows automatic operations
MEMORY mode : Allows program execution from memory of
the CNC unit
DNC mode : Allows program execution from an external device
EDIT mode : Allows changes to be made to a program stored
in CNC memory
MANUAL Mode : Allows manual operations during setup
JOG Mode : Selects jog mode for setup
RAPID Mode : Selects rapid mode for setup
Memory Access Key (switch) : to allow program editing
Error Lights : Red light indicating an error
Screen Display : It is the ‘window’ to control operation. Any
active program can be viewed, including the control status,
current tool position, various offsets, and parameters.
Keyboard pads and soft keys : They are used to input
instructions to the control. Existing programs can be modified
or deleted, new programs can be added.

3.3 Tooling for CNC

CNC tooling is designed specifically for use with CNC machines
and their machining characteristics.
Quick changeable tool such as preset or qualified tools are used
to reduce the idle time.
Preset tools : A presetting device is used to preset axial and
radial position of the tool tip on the tool holder.
Qualified tools : The cutting edge of the tool is maintained at a
fixed distance from reference surface of tool holder.
An interchangeable tooling system can be followed to use the
same tool for various machines.
3.7
 Tooling system consists of the following :
1) CNC work holding devices
2) CNC cuttinng tools
3) Indexable inserts
4) CNC tool holders
5) Automatic tool changer (ATC)
6) Tool magazines

1) CNC work holding devices

CNC work holding devices support multiple work piece fixturing.
They provide durability for high production runs.
They are adaptable and versatile
They are designed for high strength and wear resiatance.
They have facility for quick loading and unloading.
The important work holding devices are : CNC universal chucks,
vacuum chucks, vacuum tables, precision live centres, precision
vices, angle plates, T-bolts and clamps, grid plates, fixtures,
pallets, rotary swivel tables, rotary indexers, etc.

2) CNC cutting tools

CNC cutting tools are specially manufactured for automated
machining.
They are made from carbon steels, alloy steels, HSS, cemented
carbide, coated carbides, ceramics or cermets.
It can withstand higher cutting temperatures and pressures.
It is tougher and more wear resistant.
The widely used CNC cutting tools are : CNC turning tools, CNC
end mills, CNC multifacet drills, CNC taps, CNC boring tools, CNC
grinding wheels, etc.

3) Indexable inserts
Indexable carbide inserts are used for higher cutting speed.
Tool change time is reduced.
Tungsten carbide inserts are used for fast metal removal.
Titanium carbide layer is coated to increase wear resistance.
Inserts are available in various shapes and sizes.

3.8
4) CNC tool holders
CNC tool holders are quick changing type.
They enable automatic tool changing.
They have facility for automaic tool length measurements.
They are rigid and strong.

5) Automatic tool changer

Automatic tool changer picks up a tool from the tool magazine
and replaces it with the tool in the spindle.
It reduces the idle time during tool change operations.
The time for tool change varies between 3 to 7 seconds.
Various designs are available based on the relative movement
between arm and spindle during tool change.

6) Tool magazines
Tool magazine is a device used in CNC machines for storing the tools.
It keeps the tools clean and free from damage.
It also keeps track of which tools are where.
This can be done by coding the tool physically either on the tool
itself or in the magazine adjacent to the tool.
The main types of tool magazines are :
(i) Tool turret (ii) Drum type (iii) Chain type

3.3.1 ISO designation for tooling

The International Standard Organisation (ISO) is suggested a
coding system (as per ISO : 1832 – 2017) for the selection of suitable
tooling in CNC.

Fig.3.4(a) shows the ISO coding system for tungsten carbide

inserts used in turning. Fig.3.4(b) shows the ISO coding system for
tungsten carbide turning tool holders used in external turning.

3.9
Example : T N M F 22 04 08
T N M F 22 04 08

Insert Shape Insert Tolerance Insert Type Cutting Insert Nose

Clearance Edge Thickness Radius
T-Triangle G- ±0.001 A-With Hole
Angle Length
S-Square M- ±0.002 F-Clamp on type 04-0.4mm
R-Round N-0o U- ±0.005 with Chip Breaker 08-0.8mm
C-Diamond 80o B-5o M-Holes and 12-1.2mm
D-Diamond 55o C-7o Special features 16-1.6mm
V-Diamond 35o 24-2.4mm

Fig.3.4(a) ISO coding system for tungsten carbide insert

Example : P C L N R 16 16 H 09
P C L N R 16 16 H 09

Clamping system Insert Shape Holder Style Insert Hand of Shank Shank Tool Length Cutting
Clearance Tool Height Width Edge
C-Top clamping T-Triangle A-Straight shank 0o SCEA Angle H-100 S-250 Length
D-Rigid clamping S-Square B-Straight shank 15o SCEA R-Right K-125 T-300
N-0o L-Left
M-Top and hole R-Round D-Straight shank 45o SCEA M-150 U-350
clamping B-5o N-Neutral
C-Diamond 80o E-Straight shank 30o SCEA P-170 V-400
P-Hole clamping C-7o
D-Diamond 55o F-Offset shank 0o ECEA Q-180 W-450
S-Screw clamping V-Diamond 35o K-Offset shank 15o ECEA R-200 Y-500
L-Offset shank 5o SCEA
M-Straight shank 4o SCEA

(SCEA – Side Cutting Edge Angle ; ECEA – End Cutting Edge Angle)
Fig.3.4(b) ISO coding system for tungsten carbide turning tool holder
3.10
3.4 Programming for CNC machines
NC Part program
CNC part program is a detailed list of instructions that need to
be executed by the machine control unit (MCU) to achieve the final
component shape. The processing sequence needed to manufacture
a given part is broken down into small elements and written in a
specific format understood by the MCU.

3.5 Manual part programming

In this method, the programmer writes the machining
instructions on a special form called a part program manuscript. The
tool path of the CNC machine tool is then described in machine codes
with a standard format. The program is transferred from a computer
system into the machine control unit.

3.5.1 Data required for manual part program

1) Specification of coordinate system
2) Specification of axes
3) Specification of machines
4) Specification of reference points in machines and work pieces
5) Specification of tools
6) Method of holding work pieces
7) Data tables and books containing cutting process parameters
such as speed, feed, depth of cut, etc.
8) Sequence of operation

3.6 Coordinates system

Fig.3.5 Right hand coordinate system

3.11
 All the CNC machine tools make use of Cartesian coordinate
system for the sake of simplicity. The guiding coordinate system
followed for designating the axes is the right hand coordinate system.

Designation of axes
+z
Workpiece +c

-x +b +y
Workpiece

-z

+x
+a

-y +x
+z
Worktable -x
-z
(a) For flat workpieces (b) For rotational workpieces

Fig.3.6 Designation of axes

Z-axis
The Z-axis motion is along the spindle axis or parallel to the
spindle axis.
For machines such as milling, drilling and lathe, the cutting tools
move in the negative Z direction to move a tool into the work
piece. The positive Z motion increases the clearance between
the tool holder and work piece surface.

X-axis
The principal motion direction of cutting tool or the work piece
is designated as X–axis. It is perpendicular to the Z-axis and
should be horizontal and parallel to the work holding surface.
When looking from the principal spindle to the column, the
positive (+) X is to the Right. For turning machines, it is radial
and parallel to the cross slide.

Y-axis
It is perpendicular to both X and Z-axes, and the direction is
identified by the right hand Cartesian coordinate system.

3.12
Rotary motions
A, B and C define primary rotary motion. These motions are
located about the axis parallel to X, Y and Z respectively.
Positive A, B and C are in the directions which advance right
hand screw in the positive X, Y and Z directions respectively.

3.7 Datum points and reference points

Zero point
The origin of the coordinate system is considered as zero point.
In some of the CNC machines, the zero point may be located at
a fixed place and cannot be changed. This is known as fixed
zero point.
Some other machines, a zero point may be established by
moving the slides so that the cutting tool is placed in the desired
position. This is known as floating zero point.

Machine zero point or machine datum (M)

It is a fixed point on a
machine specified by the
manufacturer. This point is M
the zero point for the
coordinate system of the
machine controller. Fig.3.7 Machine zero point
In turning centre, the machine zero point is generally at the
centre of the spindle nose face. In machining centres, it is fixed
at centre of the table.

Work piece zero point (W)

+x Workpiece zero point Workpiece zero point

+x

M W +Z -Z M W

Fig.3.8 Work piece zero point

3.13
 This point determines the work piece coordinate system in
relation to the machine zero point.
This point is chosen by the part programmer and input to the
machine controller.
In turning, it is placed at the end face of the work piece. It is
also known as program zero point.

Tool zero point (T)

When machining a work piece, the tool must be controlled in
precise relationship with the work piece along the machining path.
This requires a point in the tool turret be taken as reference
point, which is known as tool zero point.

Machine reference point (R)

M
X MR

ZMR

Fig.3.9 Machine reference point (XMR, ZMR)

Machine reference point is also known as home position. It is
used for calibrating and controlling the measuring system of the
slides and tool movements. It is determined by the
manufacturers.
The value of machine reference coordinates (XMR, ZMR) is fixed
and cannot be changed by the user.

3.8 NC dimensioning
1) Absolute dimensioning : In absolute dimensioning, the
coordinates of a point in a work piece are always defined with
respect to the origin or a common datum chosen by the
programmer. Whatever may be the route of the move, the
programmed X and Y values of each position remain the same.

3.14
 2) Incremental dimensioning: In incremental dimensioning, the
coordinates of a point in a work piece are always defined relative
to the previous point. The programmed data changes if the route
of the move is altered.

Example :
100

(20,80) (40,80) (80,80)

F E D

100
60

(20,20) (60,20) (80,20)

A B C
20

(0,0)
20 40 20

Consider the initial position of the tool is at (0,0)

Programming from A-B-C-D-E-F-A :

Absolute Method Incremental Method

Point
X Y U V
A 20 20 20 20
B 60 20 40 0
C 80 20 20 0
D 80 80 0 60
E 40 80 - 40 0
F 20 80 - 20 0
A 20 20 0 -60

3.15
3.9 CNC program procedure

Study part drawing

Identify Machine tool

machine tool database

Identify operations
& tooling Cutting tool
database
Determine feeds,
speeds & depths
Machinability
database
Prepare
process sheet

Develop
part program

Simulate
tool path

Dry run

Cut the first part

Inspect the part Proven part

Fig.3.10 CNC program procedure

The steps involved in development of a part program are :

1) Process planning: The programmer carryout a careful study

of part drawing to prepare the process plan.
2) Axes selection: The reference axes should be chosen so that
the coordinates for various features can be determined easily.
3) Tool selection: More economical tool should be selected.

3.16
 4) Cutting process parameters planning: The appropriate
process parameters such as speed, feed and depth of cut are
selected.
5) Job and tool setup planning: The initial position of job and
tool are defined carefully.
6) Tool path planning: A tool path should be selected so that
to achieve the required manufacturing at the lowest cost.
7) Part program writing: This involves the actual writing of the
part programs using the format and syntax restrictions.
8) Part program proving: The part program should be verified
before it can be loaded on the machine controller. A trial run
can be carried out.

3.10 Structure or format of a part program

The complete part program for a given component consists of
a beginning code of %. A part program consists of large number of
blocks each representing an operation to be carried out in the
machining of the part. The words in each block are usually given in
the following order.
Sequence number (N – word)
Preparatory word (G – word)
Coordinates (X–, Y–, Z– words for linear axes)
Feed rate (F – word)
Spindle speed (S – word)
Tool selection (T – word)
Miscellaneous command (M – word)
End–of–block (EOB symbol)

The structure of part program used in Fanuc controller :

%; (Program start)
O 3642 (Program number)

s
N010 .....
..... .....
Blocks ..... .....
N100 M02; (Program end)

3.17
 Program number : This identification is specified in terms of a
program number with O word address. The number can be a
maximum of four digits.
Sequence number (N–word) : Each block in a part program
always starts with a block number, which is used as
identification of the block.
Coordinate function : The coordinate values are specified
using the word address such as X, Y, Z, U, V, W, I, J, K, etc.
Comments : Parentheses are used to add comments in the
program

Table 3.1 Common word addresses used in word address format

Address Function
N Sequence number to identify a block.
G Preparatory word.
X, Y, Z Coordinate data for three linear axes.
U, V, W Coordinate data for incremental moves in X, Y and Z
directions respectively.
A, B, C Coordinate data for three rotational axes X, Y and Z
respectively.
R Radius of arc, used in circular interpolation.
I, J, K Coordinate values of arc centre, corresponding to X, Y
and Z-axes respectively.
F Feed rate per minute or revolution in either inches or
millimeters.
S Spindle rotation speed.
T Tool selection.
D Tool diameter word used for offsetting the tool.
P It defines first contour block number in canned cycles.
Q It defines last contour block number in canned cycles.
M Miscellaneous function.

3.11 Preparatory functions (G – Codes)

These are preset function associated with the movement of
machine axes and the associated geometry. It prepares the machine
control unit for the instruction and data contained in the block.

3.18
Modal and Non–modal G–codes
Some of the G–codes are modal, which means that they behave
as settings to the control. Once given they remain operational
till cancelled by another G codes from the same group.
A few other G–codes are non–modal, which means that they
remain operational in the block in which they are programmed.
Example : G20 (Inch input) is a modal command, which can be
cancelled by G21 (Metric input) command.

Table 3.2 Common G–codes

G Function
Code Turning Center Machining Center
G00 Rapid positioning
G01 Linear interpolation
C02 Circular interpolation (Clockwise)
G03 Circular interpolation (Anticlockwise)
G04 Dwell
G10 Setting offset amount
G17 Selection of XY plane
G18 Selection of ZX plane
G19 Selection of YZ plane
G20 Inch input system
G21 Metric input system
G27 Zero return check
G28 Return to zero
G33 Thread cutting, block by block
G40 Tool nose radius compensation cancel Cutter radius compensation cancel
G41 Tool nose radius compensation Left Cutter radius compensation Left
G42 Tool nose radius compensation Right Cutter radius compensation Right
G50 Maximum spindle speed setting

3.19
 G Function
Code Turning Center Machining Center
G65 Call of user macro
G70 Finishing turning cycle
G71 Multiple turning cycle
G72 Multiple facing cycle
G73 Pattern repeating cycle
G74 Peck drilling cycle
G75 Grooving cycle
G76 Multiple thread cutting cycle
G80 Canned cycle cancel
G81 Drilling cycle, spot boring
G82 Drilling cycle, counter boring
G83 Peck drilling cycle
G84 Tapping cycle
G85 Boring cycle
G86 Boring cycle
G87 Back boring cycle
G90 Box turning cycle Absolute mode of positioning
G91 Incremental mode of positioning
G92 Thread cutting cycle Preset program zero point
G94 Box facing cycle Feed per minute
G95 Feed per revolution
G96 Constant surface speed (m/min)
G97 Constant RPM
G98 Feed per minute
G99 Feed per revolution

3.20
3.12 Miscellaneous functions or Auxiliary functions (M – codes)
These functions actually operate some controls on the machine
tool and thus affect the running of the machine. Miscellaneous
commands are normally placed at the end of the block.

Table 3.3 Common M – codes

M–code Function
M00 Program stop
M01 Optional stop
M02 End of program
M03 Spindle ON, clockwise
M04 Spindle ON, counter–clockwise
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change
M07 Coolant supply No.1 ON
M08 Coolant supply No.2 ON
M09 Coolant OFF
M10 Automatic clamping
M11 Automatic unclamping
M13 Spindle ON, clockwise + coolant ON
M14 Spindle ON, counter–clockwise + coolant ON
M30 Program END and rewind
M70 X axis mirror ON
M71 Y axis mirror ON
M80 X axis mirror OFF
M81 Y axis mirror OFF
M98 Subprogram call
M99 Subprogram end

[Note : G – codes, M – codes and programming methods used

in this book are based on FANUC CNC controller system]
3.21
3.13 Part programming for turning centres
Diameter programming

The dimensioning of a turned component is generally specified

by its diameters. However, in turning operation, the tool should
approach the work piece in radial direction for machining.

Hence, for the sake of simplicity, most of the turning centres

are provided with diameter programming facility. This means
that all the movements of the tool along X–axis should be
doubled to represent the diametral movement rather than radial
movement.

Axes system

Tool datum Tool turret

Machine datum
+X
Work datum

-Z M W

Chuck

Fig.3.11 Axes system used in turning centres

In turning centres, the spindle axis is designated as Z. The radial

axis perpendicular to the Z-axis and away toward the principal
tool post is termed as X–axis.

The machine datum or home position may be the intersection

of spindle axis and clamping plane.

The work piece datum is fixed by the programmer on the work

piece for the convenience of part programming. The difference
between the tool tip position and the turret datum is termed as
tool offset.

3.22
3.13.1 Tool function (T–word)
Tools are selected in a program through the T word. The T word
selects the turret station that is to be indexed to the cutting position
and activates the tool offset register number. The tool offset register
number selects the following data from the tool-offset file.
• X and Z axis tool offsets
• Tool nose radius value
• Tool nose orientation number

The T word has the format Tmmnn. The first two digits (mm)
specify the turret station and the last two digits (nn) specify the
location of the tool offsets. The offset is cancelled by giving 00 in place
of the offset register number.

Example: N050 M06 T0616

The above block calls for the turret station 6 and selects tool
offset register number 16.

3.13.2 Speed function

a) Constant surface speed option (G96)
The cutting speed is specified by the diameter of the rotating
work piece which varies during different turning processes such as step
turning, taper turning, facing, etc. Hence to maintain a constant cutting
force and uniform surface finish, it is necessary to vary the spindle
speed in direct proportion to the change in work piece diameter at the
cutting tool edge. This is achieved by constant surface speed option.

b) Constant RPM option (G97)

This is the default option. Since, the spindle speed is
continuously varied in turning operation, there is a possibility that the
rpm may go beyond certain maximum limit. In such situations, it is
possible to specify an upper limit on the speed change using the G50
command.

Example :
N080 G50 S4000 (Maximum spindle rpm is 4000)
N070 G96 S200 (Spindle speed is set at 200 m/min)
N090 G97 S2500 (Spindle speed is set at 2500 rpm)

3.23
3.13.3 Feed specification
G98 – Feed in mm/min; G99 – Feed in mm/rev.

G98 is the default mode. The feed rate remains unchanged until
reprogrammed. The decimal point must be programmed while using
G99. The feed rate override switch on the control panel modifies the
programmed feed rate from 0 percent to 150 percent.

Example :
G98 F2.5 (2.5 mm / minute)
G99 F1 (0.01 mm / revolution)
G99 F1.0 (1.00 mm / revolution)
G99 F100 (1.00 mm / revolution)

3.13.4 Rapid positioning (G00)

G00 is used for rapid positioning simultaneously in all the axes.
The feed rate programmed in the block would be overridden by the
maximum allowed feed rate for the axes. The G00 command is modal.

Example: (Rapid movement from A to B)

+X
A(50,20)

B(10,0)

+Z

Fig.3.12 Rapid positioning

Absolute mode: N030 G00 X10 Z0

Incremental mode: N030 G00 U–40 W–20
Mixed mode: N030 G00 U–40 Z0 (or) G00 X10 W–20

3.13.5 Interpolation methods

Interpolation methods are used in NC for generating a smooth
continuous linear and curvilinear path in contouring applications. The
various methods of interpolation are as follows.

3.24
 Linear interpolation: This is used when a straight line path
is to be generated in continuous path.
Circular interpolation: This is used for generating circular arc.
Helical interpolation
Parabolic interpolation
Cubic interpolation

a) Linear interpolation (G01)

This is the most basic and is used for creating straight-line
path. G01 is used for linear interpolation at a given feed rate. The
programmer specifies the beginning point and end point of the
straight line and the feed rate to be used along the straight line. The
format of G01 is as follows:

G01 X_ Z_ F_

Example : (Programming from A–B–C–D)

+X
A
D
(60,-23)

C
(30,-25)
B(20,0)

+Z

Fig.3.13 Linear interpolation

N030 G00 X20 Z0

N040 G01 X30 Z–25 F150
N050 G00 X60 Z–23

b) Circular interpolation
This method is used for generating circular arc. The circular
interpolation can be achieved either by specifying the radius or centre
coordinates of the arc. The radius can be directly specified using the
R word address. When the center coordinate is specified, its value is
to be given in incremental form from the start point of the arc with
word addresses I and K.

3.25
(i) Circular interpolation – clockwise (G02)
The format of G02 is as follows:

G02 X_ Z_ R_ F_ (or) G02 X_ Z_ I_ K_ F_

Example : (Programming from A–B–C–D–E)

(60,-28) E
+X
R5
D A
(30,-30)
I=5

C (20,-20) B(20,0)

+Z

Fig.3.14 Circular interpolation – clockwise

N030 G00 X20 Z0 N030 G00 X20 Z0

N040 G01 X20 Z–20 F150 N040 G01 X20 Z–20 F150
(OR)
N050 G02 X30 Z–30 R5 F50 N050 G02 X30 Z–30 I5 K0 F50
N060 G00 X60 Z–28 N060 G00 X60 Z–28

(ii) Circular interpolation – Counter-clockwise (G03)

The format of G03 is as follows:
G03 X_ Z_ R_ F_ (or) G03 X_ Z_ I_ K_ F_

Example : (Programming from A–B–C–D–E)

(60,-28) E
+X
R5
D A
(30,-30)
C
K=-5 (20,-20) B(20,0)

+Z

Fig.3.15 Circular interpolation – Counter-clockwise

3.26
 N030 G00 X20 Z0 N030 G00 X20 Z0
N040 G01 X20 Z–20 F150 N040 G01 X20 Z–20 F150
(OR)
N050 G03 X30 Z–30 R5 F50 N050 G03 X30 Z–30 I0 K–5 F50
N060 G00 X60 Z–28 N060 G00 X60 Z–28

3.13.6 Tool nose radius compensation (G41, G42)

(a) (b)
Tool nose radius Tool nose radius
compensation - not active compensation - active
,

Fig.3.16 Tool nose radius correction

The tool path for finish cutting of a profile can be easily derived
by offsetting the nose radius.
By using the cutter compensation, the need for all complex
calculations will be eliminated. The programming can be written
for the actual contour to be machined.
The tool will leave a small amount of metal along the inclined
surface, when the tool nose radius compensation is not active.
If the correction is active, the controller automatically
compensates and removes the unwanted material.

Example part program : 3.01

☞ Write a part program for producing the component shown

below in turning centre.

% (Program start)
O 4030 (Program Number)
N010 G21 (Metric units – mm)

3.27
 [BILLET X50 Z80 (Work piece dimension)
N020 G50 S4000 (Maximum spindle speed 4000 rpm)
N030 G98 (Feed in mm/min.)
N040 G96 S300 (Spindle speed at 300 m/min.)
N050 G42 (Tool nose radius compensation right)
N060 M06 T0101 (Select tool 01 with offset No.01)
N070 M03 (Spindle ON – forward)

R10
(50,-60) D
A
(50,0)
I=10
C(30,-50) (30,0) B
Ø30
Ø50

10 50

Fig.3.17 Component for part program 3.01

N080 G00 X50 Z0 (Rapid position to A)

N090 G00 X30 Z0 (Rapid position from A to B)
N100 G01 X30 Z–50 F150 (Turning from B to C)
N110 G02 X50 Z–60 R10 F50 (Clockwise circular interpolation
(or) from C to D)
G02 X50 Z–60 I10 K0 F50
N120 G40 (Nose radius compensation cancel)
N130 G28 U0 W0 (Tool return to reference point)
N140 M05 (Spindle Stop)
N150 M30 (Program stop and rewind)

3.13.7 Canned cycles or Fixed cycles

Canned cycle or fixed cycle may be defined as a set of
instructions, inbuilt or stored in the system memory, to perform a
fixed sequence of tool movements. Canned cycles are used for
repetitive and commonly used machining operations.

3.28
Advantages of using canned cycles
1) The programming time and effort is reduced.
2) The program becomes simple.
3) The program needs less memory space.

The canned cycles commonly used in turning centres are

explained below.

a) Rough turning (or) Box turning canned cycle [G90]

X
Rapid

Feed Rapid Start position

Final point Feed
(X,Z)

Fig.3.18 Box turning canned cycle (G90)

Format of G90 is : G90 X_ Z_ F_

where, X , Z - coordinate values; F - Reed rate

The canned cycle generates the following motion:

• Move rapid to the X coordinate to take the depth of cut
• Move at feed rate to the Z coordinate
• Retract at feed rate to the initial X position
• Retract rapid to the start position

Example part program : 3.02 [Rough turning canned cycle]

☞ Write a part program for producing the component shown

below in turning centre with a depth of cut of 2.5mm for
each pass, using canned cycle.

3.29
 Ø50

Ø40
60

Fig.3.19 Component for part program 3.02

%
O 4060
N010 G21
[BILLET X50 Z80
N020 G98
N030 G96 S300
N040 G42
N050 M06 T0202 (Rough turning tool)
N060 M03
N070 G00 X50 Z0
N080 G90 X45 Z–60 F150 (First cut)
N090 X40 Z–60 (Second cut)
N100 G40
N110 G28 U0 W0
N120 M05
N130 M30

c) Thread cutting canned cycle [G92]

Thread cutting cycle is also similar to the rough turning cycle
G90 in terms of the motions performed.

Format of G92 is : G92 X_ Z_ F_

where, X , Z - coordinate values; F - Reed rate (pitch of the thread)

3.30
Example part program : 3.03 [Thread cutting canned cycle]

☞ Write a part program for cutting external threads on the

component shown below using thread cutting canned cycle.
M25x2

Ø25
5 30

Fig.3.20 Component for part program 3.03

For cutting V–threads the depth may be 0.64 times of its pitch,
i.e. d = 0.64 p.
For the given thread, pitch, p = 2mm
Total depth of cut, d = 0.64 x p = 0.64 x 2 = 1.28mm.

The depth of cut for each pass and their corresponding X values
are given below.
Depth of cut 0.5 0.5 0.28
X coordinate 24 23 22.44
%
O 4080
N010 G21 G99
[BILLET X25 Z50
N020 G97 S1000 M03
N030 M06 T0202
N040 G00 X25 Z2 M08
N050 G92 X24 Z–30 F2
N060 X23 Z–30
N070 X22.4 Z–30
N080 G28 U0 W0
N090 M09
N100 M05
N110 M30
3.31
d) Multiple turning canned cycle (or) Stock removal cycle [G71]

Start
R point
U-Depth
of cut

Pocket

U-Finishing
w allowance

Fig.3.21 Multiple turning canned cycle

Multiple turning canned cycle is used in stock removal operation

for a pocket in turning application. In this cycle, the tool is positioned at
the starting point. The finishing contour of the pocket is to be
programmed like the normal programming using G codes. Then using
the G71 cycle, the pocket will be machined. All the roughing cuts required
to turn the pocket will be generated by the controller automatically.

This caned cycle consists of the following two blocks :

G71 U_ R_
G71 P_ Q_ U_ W_ F_

The first block establishes the parameters for the multiple

rough turning cycle.

Where, U = Depth of cut of each pass

R = Distance by which the tool will be withdrawn from the
work piece for the return pass

The second block executes the multiple rough turning cycle.

Where, P = The sequence number of the first block in the program
that controls the work piece area to be machined.
Q = The sequence number of the last block in the program
that controls the work piece area to be machined.
U = Finishing allowance in X direction.
W = Finishing allowance in Y direction.
F = Feed rate

3.32
Finish turning canned cycle [G70]
The rough turning canned cycle G71 leaves the finishing
allowance on the contour. It is removed using the finish turning
canned cycle G70.

The format of G70 is : G70 P_ Q_ F_

Example part program : 3.04

☞ Write a part program for producing the following component

on CNC lathe.

(Note : The depth of cut for each pass is assumed as 1mm and the
finishing allowance is assumed as 0.5 mm)

Ø35
Ø25 R5
R7.5

10 10 10 30

Fig.3.22 Component for part program 3.04

%
O 4150
N010 G21
[BILLET X35 Z60
N020 G50 S4000
N030 G98
N040 G96 S300 M03
N050 M06 T0101
N060 G00 X35 Z0
N070 G71 U1 R1
N080 G71 P090 Q150 U0.5 W0.5 F100

3.33
 N090 G00 X0

N100 G03 X15 Z–7.5 R7.5 F5 
N110 G01 X15 Z–25 F100 
Blocks specifying the
N120 G02 X25 Z–30 R5 F5  contour position
N130 G01 X25 Z–40 F100 
N140 G01 X35 Z–50 
N150 G01 X35 Z–60 
N160 G70 P090 Q150 F5
N170 G28 U0 W0
N180 M05
N190 M30

f) Multiple thread cutting cycle [G76]

This cycle is used for cutting external thread. The syntax of G76
code is as follows.
G76 X_ Z_ A_ I_ K_ D_ F_

Where, X = Core diameter of the thread (X22.4)

Z = Length of the thread (Z–30)
A = Angle of the thread (A60)
I = Thread taper (usually zero) (I0)
K = Total depth of the thread in microns (K1280)
D = Depth of first cut in microns (D500)
F = Feed rate (pitch) (F2)

Example part program : 3.05 [Multiple thread cutting cycle]

☞ Write a part program for cutting external threads on the

component shown below in turning centre using multiple
thread cutting cycle.
M25x2
Ø25

5 30

Fig.3.23 Component for part program 3.05

3.34
 %
O 4110
N010 G21 G99
[BILLET X25 Z50
N020 G97 S1000 M03
N030 M06 T0202 (Thread cutting tool)
N040 G00 X25 Z2 M08
N050 G76 X22.4 Z–30 A60 I0 K1280 D500 F2
N060 G28 U0 W0
N070 M09
N080 M05
N090 M30

g) Peck drilling cycle [G74]

The G74 code is used for peck drilling in Fanuc controller system.
We simply position the drill to a safe starting point and then call the
drilling cycle. The drill then drills to each incremental peck depth and
then retracts to clear the chips. This continues until the programmed
Z–depth is reached.

Syntax for G74 : G74 X_ Z_ K_ F_

where, X = Finish diameter; Z = Finish Z – depth

K = Peck depth; F = Feed

Example part program : 3.06 [Peck drilling cycle]

☞ Write a part program for drilling in the component shown

below in turning centre using peck drilling cycle.
Ø12
Ø30

30 40

Fig.3.24 Component for part program 3.06

3.35
 %
O 4120
N010 G21 G98
[BILLET X30 Z70
N020 G97 S1800 M03
N030 M06 T0303 (Twist drill φ12 mm)
N040 G00 X0 Z2 M08
N050 G74 X0 Z–40 K5 F100
N060 G28 U0 W0
N070 M09
N080 M05
N090 M30

h) Grooving canned cycle [G75]

Start
K Tool

Fig.3.25 Grooving canned cycle [G75]

The tool will first take an initial cut to the finished diameter.
Then it will retract to the starting X position and move over in the Z
axis by the amount specified with the K–word. The tool will make
several passes until it reaches the programmed Z coordinate. This
cycle can be used as parting off operation by specifying the X
coordinate as zero.

Syntax of G76 : G75 X_ Z_ I_ K_ F_

where, X = Finish diameter ; Z = Finish Z – depth
I = Peck depth (radial) ; K = Z shift amount
F = Feed

3.36
Example part program : 3.07 [Grooving cycle]

☞ Write a part program to cut a groove on the component

shown below in turning centre using grooving cycle. The
width of the grooving tool is 4mm.

Start

4
Ø20

Ø30
25 12 25

Fig.3.26 Component for part program 3.07

%
O 4130
N010 G21 G98
[BILLET X30 Z60
N020 G97 S1000 M03
N030 M06 T0404 (Grooving tool 4mm width)
N040 G00 X30 Z29
N050 G75 X20 Z–37 I5 K4 F100
N060 G28 U0 W0
N070 M05
N080 M30

3.14 Part programming for machining centres

3.14.1 Preset [G92]
Most of the CNC machine tools allow for a ‘Floating datum’ to
be fixed anywhere in the machine. The programmer can choose a
convenient position on the component as a datum, which may be
referred to as ‘program zero point’. This point is programmed using
the G92 code.
Example: G92 X200 Y170 Z50

3.37
3.14.2 Cutter radius compensation (or) Cutter offset compensation

Programmed
path

Cutter

Offset path
of cutter

Fig.3.27 Cutter radius compensation

In contouring operations, the tool path will be separated from
the actual surface of the part by a distance equal to the cutter radius.
This tool path compensation is called the cutter offset. Modern
machine tool controllers perform these cutter offset calculations
automatically when the programmer uses the following G codes.
• G40 (Cutter radius compensation off)
• G41 (Cutter radius compensation left): It is used when the
cutter is to be positioned at the left of the programmed path
when looking in the direction of the tool movement. It is
programmed when the cutter moves in a clockwise tool path
around the work piece.
• G42 (Cutter radius compensation right): It is used when
the cutter is to be positioned at the right of the programmed
path when looking in the direction of the tool movement. It is
programmed when the cutter moves in a counter-clockwise
tool path around the work piece.
The pre-registered cutter radius compensation values are
called in the program block by the word D.
Example: M06 T04
G01 X50 D03 F150
The above blocks mean that milling will take place with tool
number 04 with a radius compensation corresponding to the entry in
the register against the identifier 03.
3.38
3.14.3 Tool length compensation
Z

1 2 3 4

L2

L3

L4
X

Fig.3.28 Tool length compensation

In modern NC practice, all tools are measured in the assembled
state using a tool presetter. The difference in length is manually
entered and stored with the associated tool number.

Whenever these tools are called in a program, the respective

compensation values are activated and automatically taken into
account in the tool motion. The pre-registered length compensation
values are called in the program block by the word H.

Example: M06 T02

G81 X150 Y100 Z60 R40 H07 F100
The above blocks mean that the drilling operation will take
place with tool number 02 with a length compensation corresponding
to the entry in the register against the identifier 07.

Example part program : 3.08

☞ Write a part program for producing the following component

in machining centre using Fanuc controller. The size of the
material used is 100x100x10mm.
The diameter of the cutter is assumed as 10mm.
%
O 4190
N010 G21 (Metric mode)

t DENFORD CNC simulator)

[BILLET X100 Y100 Z10
(Applicable only for
[TOOLDEF T1 D10
[EDGEMOVE X0 Y0 Z0
N020 G92 X0 Y0 Z0 (Presetting at S1)
3.39
 N030 M06 T01 (Tool change)
N040 M03 S1500 (Spindle speed at 1500 rpm)
R10
4(0,100) 3(100,100)

(20,80) (40,80) (80,80)

F E D
100
60

60 (20,20) (60,20) (80,20)

(0,20,2) S2 A B C
20

R10
(0,0,2) S1

20 50 1(0,0) 40 20 2(100,0)

100
Tool movement
Fig.3.29 Component for part program 3.08

(Absolute programming)
N050 G90 (Absolute mode)
(Cutting along 1–2–3–4)
N060 G41 (Cutter radius compensation, left)
N070 G00 X0 Y0 Z2 (Position S1)
N080 G00 Z–5 (Depth of cut)
N090 G01 X100 Y0 F1.5 (Position 2)
N100 G01 X100 Y100 (Position 3)
N110 G01 X0 Y100 (Position 4)
N120 G01 X0 Y0 (Position 1)
N130 G40 (Cutter compensation cancel)
(Cutting along A–B–C–D–E–F)
N140 G42 (Cutter radius compensation, right)
N150 G00 X0 Y20 Z2 (Position S2)
N160 G00 Z–5 (Depth of cut)
N170 G01 X60 Y20 F1.5 (Position B)
N180 G03 X80 Y20 R10 F0.5 (Circular interpolation from B–C)
N190 G01 X80 Y80 F1.5 (Position D)
N200 G01 X40 Y80 F1.5 (Position E)
N210 G03 X20 Y80 R10 F0.5 (Circular interpolation from E–F)
N220 G01 X20 Y20 F1.5 (Position A)

3.40
 N230 G40 (Cutter compensation cancel)
N240 G28 X0 Y0 Z0 (Return to reference point)
N250 M05 (Spindle STOP)
N260 M30 (Program end and rewind)

Fig.3.30
The above program can also be written in incremental mode as follows:

(Incremental programming)
N050 G91 (Incremental mode)
(Cutting along 1–2–3–4)
N060 G41 (Cutter radius compensation, left)
N070 G00 X0 Y0 Z2 (Position S1)
N080 G00 Z–7 (Depth of cut)
N090 G01 X100 Y0 F1.5 (Position 2)
N100 G01 X0 Y100 (Position 3)
N110 G01 X–100 Y0 (Position 4)
N120 G01 X0 Y–100 (Position 1)
N130 G40 (Cutter compensation cancel)
(Cutting along A–B–C–D–E–F)
N140 G42 (Cutter radius compensation, right)
N150 G00 X0 Y20 Z7 (Position S2)
N160 G00 Z–7 (Depth of cut)
N170 G01 X40 Y0 F1.5 (Position B)
N180 G03 X20 Y0 R10 F0.5 (Circular interpolation from B–C)
N190 G01 X0 Y60 F1.5 (Position D)
N200 G01 X–40 Y0 F1.5 (Position E)
N210 G03 X–20 Y0 R10 F0.5 (Circular interpolation from E–F)
N220 G01 X0 Y–60 F1.5 (Position A)

3.41
3.14.4 Canned cycles
a) Drilling cycle [G81]

Ra
pid

Clearance plane
depth

Rapid
Feed
Hole

Breakthrough
distance

Fig.3.31 Drilling canned cycle [G81]

G81 canned cycle is used for carrying out the drilling operation
for through holes.
Format of G81 : G81 X_ Y_ Z_ R_
Where, X,Y = Centre coordinates of the point where drilling is to
be carried out
Z = Final depth of the hole to be drilled
R = Position of the clearance plane from the work surface.
As G81 is modal, any point specified when G81 is in force, the
drilling action will be repeated. So it is necessary to use the code G80
to cancel the canned cycle.
The following canned cycles have the same format as drilling
cycle [G81].
G82 Counter sinking, counter boring cycle
G84 Tapping cycle
G85 Reaming cycle
G86 Boring cycle
G87 Multiple boring cycle

b) Peck drilling cycle [G83]

It is used for deep hole drilling. In this cycle, the feed from the
work surface is intermittent.
Format of G83 : G83 X_ Y_ Z_ R_ Q_
Where, Q = Depth of cut for each pass
3.42
 While giving depth of cut (Z), the dimension between the drill
shoulder and the tip of point should be added with the actual depth
of the hole to be drilled.

The dimension between the drill shoulder and tip point

1
= x Diameter of drill
3

Example :
For drilling a hole of 30mm depth using a drill bit of 18mm diameter,
1
Depth of cut, Z= 30 + x 18 = 36 mm
3

Example part program : 3.09

☞ Write a part program to drill four holes of 8mm diameter in

a 100x100x10mm plate. The centre of each hole is at a
distance of 15mm from the nearest edges of the plate. Take
the speed as 2000rpm and feed as 0.1mm/rev.
15

4 3
50

Ø8-4HOLES

1 2
15

15 70 15
10

Fig.3.32 Component for part program 3.09

3.43
 %
O 4210
N010 G21
[BILLET X100 Y100 Z10
[TOOLDEF T01 D08
[EDGEMOVE X0 Y0 Z0
N020 G92 X0 Y0 Z0
N030 M06 T01
N040 M03 S2000
N050 G90 G95 (Feed in mm/rev.)
N060 G00 X0 Y0 Z2
N070 G81 X15 Y15 Z–13 R2 F0.1 (Hole 1)
N080 X85 Y15 (Hole 2)
N090 X85 Y85 (Hole 3)
N100 X15 Y85 (Hole 4)
N110 G80
N120 G00 Z2
N130 G28 U0 W0
N140 M05
N150 M30

Example part program : 3.10

☞ Write a part program for producing the component shown

below in machining centre using Fanuc controller system.

Cutting conditions

Tool Speed Feed rate

Tool name
No. (rpm) (mm/rev)

01 Centre drill 2000 0.5

02 Twist drill 750 0.1
Counter bore
03 1500 0.1
(φ15mm)
04 Tap (M10) 250 1.5

3.44
 20 20
Ø8.5-5HOLES

20
Ø15 Counter-boring
15mm depth
30

M10x1.5
20

50 50
10

15

30

Fig.3.33 Component for part program 3.10

%
O 4220
N010 G21
N020 G92 X0 Y0 Z0
(Centre drilling 5 holes)
N030 M06 T01
N040 M03 S2000
N050 G90 G95
N060 G00 X0 Y0 Z2
N070 G81 X50 Y20 Z–5 R2 F0.5 (Hole 1)
N080 Y50 (Hole 2)
N090 Y80 (Hole 3)
N100 X20 Y50 (Hole 4)
N110 X80 (Hole 5)
N120 G80
N130 G00 Z2
N140 M05

3.45
 (Drilling 5 holes of φ8.5 mm)
N150 M06 T02
N160 M03 S750
N170 G90 G95
N180 G00 X0 Y0 Z2
N190 G83 X50 Y20 Z–33 R2 F0.1
N200 Y50
N210 Y80
N220 G83 X20 Y50 Z–13 R2 F0.1
N230 X80
N240 G80
N250 G00 Z2
N260 M05
(Counter boring)
N270 M06 T03
N280 M03 S1500
N290 G82 X50 Y50 Z–13 R2 F0.1
N300 G80
N310 G00 Z2
N320 M05
(Tapping)
N330 M06 T04
N340 M03 S250
N350 G84 X20 Y50 Z–17 R2 F1.5
N360 X80 Y50
N370 G80
N380 G00 Z2
N390 M05
N400 G28 X0 Y0
N410 M30

3.14.5 Sub program

Sub programs are independent programs with all the features
of a usual part program. Sub programs are stored in the memory
under separate program number.

Whenever a particular feature is required within the main

program, the associate sub program is called for execution. After
3.46
executing the sub program, the program control returns back to the
main program block next to the sub program calling block.

Main program Sub program

%… SUB 12
N010 … N100 …
N020 … N110…
………. ……….
………. ……….
………. ……….
………. N150 RETURN
N100 CALL SUB12
N110 …
N120 …

It is also possible to call another sub program from a sub

program. The following two types of sub programs are used in Fanuc
controller.

(a) Subroutines (b) Macros

(a) Subroutines
The subroutines are temporary in nature and will be specific to
a particular main program.

Format of subroutine
The format of the subroutine is similar to that of the main
program except that it should end by M99. The M99 should be in a
separate block.

O 1432 Subroutine number

N010 …..

t Program block
N020 …..
…………
…………
N100 M99 Return to calling program

Subroutine calling [M98]

Subroutine can be activated by giving a call block [M98] in the
main program. The format of subroutine calling should be as follows:

3.47
 N050 M98 Prrrnnnn

Where, ‘rrr’ specifies the number of times the subroutine is to be

repeated. It is possible to repeat a subroutine up to
999 time. If no value is entered, the subroutine is
called once.
‘nnnn’ Specifies the identification number of the subroutine
to be executed.
Example :
N050 M98 P0021432 (Subroutine 1432 is to be executed two times)
N110 M98 P8432 (Subroutine 8432 is to be executed once)

Example part program : 3.11

☞ Write a part program for producing the component shown

below in machining centre, using subroutines.

200
50

200
50
50

M10x1.5
- 7 Nos.

50 50 50
30

Fig.3.34 Component for part program 3.11

3.48
The component requires the following operations :
1) Centre drilling of seven holes
2) Drilling of seven core holes using φ8.5mm drill bit.
3) Tapping of seven holes using M10 tap.

The positioning of tools at seven holes will be repeated for each

operation. So, this procedure is written into a separate subprogram
and called whenever required.

Tool Speed Feed rate

Tool name
No. (rpm) (mm/rev)

01 Centre drill 2000 0.5

Twist drill
02 750 0.1
(φ8.5mm)
03 Tap (M10) 250 1.5

%
O 4230
N010 G21
N020 G92 X0 Y0 Z0
N030 M06 T01 (Centre drill)
N040 M03 S2000
N050 G90 G95
N060 G00 X0 Y0 Z2
N070 G81 Z–5 R2 F0.5
N080 M98 P4321 (Calling subprogram 4321 once)
N090 M06 T02 (Twist drill φ8.5mm)
N100 M03 S750
N110 G00 X0 Y0 Z2
N120 G81 Z–33 R2 F0.1
N130 M98 P4321
N140 M06 T03 (Tap)
N150 M03 S250
N160 G00 X0 Y0 Z2
N170 G84 Z–32 R10 F1.5
N180 M98 P4321
N190 G28 X0 Y0 Z0
N200 M30
3.49
(Sub program)

O 4321 (Sub program name)

X50 Y50
Y100
Y150
X100 Y100
X150 Y50
Y100
Y150
G80
G00 Z2
M05
M99 (Return to main program)

b) Macros
Macros are also subprograms that are permanent in nature and
stored permanently in the controller memory. Therefore macros can
be called by any program.

Macro calling in Fanuc [G65]

The preparatory function G65 is used for calling a macro in the
main program. The format is as follows.

G65 P4322 A_ B_ C_ . . . . . .

Where, P4322 specifies the subprogram number to be called

A, B, C, etc. are word addresses used for assigning arguments.

Each word address has an equivalent variable number in the

sub program as follows.
Word address A B C D E F H I J K M Q
Variable number #1 #2 #3 #7 #8 #9 #11 #4 #5 #6 #13 #17

Word address R S T U V W X Y Z
Variable number #18 #19 #20 #21 #22 #23 #24 #25 #26

In Fanuc controller, the variables are identified by # and can

vary from 0000 to 9999.

3.50
Example :
G65 P4322 A12.6 B24.4 C15.0 D10 X48.3
The above block in the main program will call the sub program
4322 and the effects are as follows.

Word address Equivalent variable

Value
in main program in subprogram
A #1 12.6
B #2 25.4
C #3 15.0
D #7 10
X #24 48.3

3.14.6 Mirror imaging

When writing part program for symmetric geometries, most of
the blocks in the program may be repeating with small changes. In
this case, mirror imaging facility is used to simplify the program. The
part program may be simply repeated by using appropriate mirror
imaging codes.

Mirroring allows for changing the sign of the dimensions of the

particular axis whose mirroring is specified. For example, if mirroring
is done about X axis, then all X coordinates after that will have their
sign reversed.

Fig.3.35 Mirror imaging

The following M codes are used for mirroring in Fanuc control.
• M70 – X axis mirror ON
• M71 – Y axis mirror ON
• M80 – X axis mirror OFF
• M81 – Y axis mirror OFF

3.51
 Example part program : 3.12 [Mirror imaging]

☞ Write a part program for contouring operation on the

component as shown below using subprogram and
mirroring.

Y
20

2 1
(-X,+Y) (+X,+Y)
10 20 20
10

X
100

(0,0)

(-X,-Y) (+X,-Y)
4 3

100

Fig.3.36 Component for part program 3.12

The component is symmetric about both X and Y axis. the
program zero point is taken at the centre of the component for
convenience.
%
O 4200
[BILLET X100 Y100 Z10
[TOOLDEF T01 D5
[EDGEMOVE X–50 Y–50 Z0
N010 G21 G90 G94
N020 M06 T01
N030 M03 S1500
N040 G00 X0 Y0 Z2
N050 M98 P2001 (Calling sub program 2001)
N060 M70 (X axis mirror ON: The sign of all X values
are reversed)

3.52
 N070 M98 P2001
N080 M80 (X axis mirror OFF)
N090 M71 (Y Axis mirror ON: The sign of all Y values
are reversed)
N100 M98 P2001
N110 M81 (Y axis mirror OFF)
N120 M70 (X axis mirror ON)
N130 M71 (Y axis mirror ON)
N140 M98 P2001
N150 M80
N160 M81
N170 G28 X0 Y0
N180 M05
N190 M30
Sub program
O 2001
G00 X10 Y10 Z2
G01 Z–2 F30
G01 X30 Y10
G03 X10 Y30 R20
G01 X10 Y10
G00 Z2
M99

3.14.7 Pocketing
Pocketing or pocket milling is the process of removing the
material inside a closed boundary on a flat surface of a work piece to
a specified depth. A roughing operation is done to remove the bulk of
material and then the pocket is finished by a finish end mill.

Circular pocketing
This canned cycle consists of two blocks :

G170 P_ Q_ R_ X_ Y_ Z_ I_ J_ K_
G171 P_ T_ S_ R_ F_ B_ J_

3.53
For G170 block,
P0 = Roughing cycle; P1 = Finishing cycle
Q = Incremental depth of cut; R = Reference plane
X,Y = Coordinate of centre of pocket; Z = Depth of pocket
I = Finishing allowance in walls of pocket
J = Finishing allowance in base of pocket
K = Radius of pocket

For G171 block,

P = Cut width percentage; T = Tool number
S = Spindle speed during roughing; R = Feed rate in Z
F = Feed rate during roughing; B = Finishing spindle speed
J = Finishing feed rate;

Rectangular pocketing
This canned cycle consists of two blocks :

G172 P_ Q_ R_ X_ Y_ Z_ I_ J_ K_
G173 I_ K_ P_ T_ S_ R_ F_ B_ J_ Z_

For G172 block,

P0 = Roughing cycle; P1 = Finishing cycle
Q = Incremental depth of cut; R = Reference plane
X,Y = Coordinate of lower left corner of pocket
Z = Depth of pocket; I = Length of pocket
J = Width of pocket; K = Corner radius (always 0)

For G173 block,

I = Finishing allowance in walls of pocket;
K = Finishing allowance in base of pocket
P = Cut width percentage; T = Tool number
S = Spindle speed during roughing; R = Feed rate in Z
F = Feed rate during roughing; B = Finishing spindle speed
J = Finishing feed rate; Z = Safe height

3.54
Example part program : 3.13 [Pocketing]

☞ Write a part program for pocketing operation on the

component as shown in the figure.

100
25 5

Ø30

25
100
30
10

10 30 10

Fig.3.37 Component for part program 3.13

%
O 2300
[BILLET X100 Y100 Z10
[TOOLDEF T01 D5
[EDGEMOVE X0 Y0 Z0
N010 G21 G90 G94
N020 M06 T01
N030 M03 S1500
N040 G00 X0 Y0 Z5
N050 G172 P0 Q1 R0 X10 Y10 Z-5 I30 J30 K0 (Circular – Roughing)
N060 G173 I0.1 K0.1 P50 T1 S1500 R60 F30 B1800 J60 Z5
N070 G172 P1 Q0.1 R0 X10 Y10 Z-5 I30 J30 K0 (Circular – Finishing)

3.55
 N080 G173 I0 K0 P50 T1 S1500 R60 F30 B1800 J60 Z5
N090 G00 Z5
N100 G00 X75 Y75 Z5
N110 G170 P0 Q1 R0 X75 Y75 Z-5 I0.1 J0.1 K15.0 (Rectangular–Roughing)
N120 G171 P50 T1 S1200 R60 F30 B1800 J60
N130 G170 P1 Q0.1 R0 X75 Y75 Z-5 I0 J0 K15.0 (Rectangular–Finishing)
N140 G171 P50 T1 S1200 R60 F30 B1800 J60
N150 G00 Z5
N160 G28 X0 Y0
N170 M05
N180 M30

3.15 Rapid prototyping

Rapid prototyping is the automatic construction of physical
objects using subtractive or additive manufacturing technology.

Subtractive manufacturing : It is a process by which 3D

objects are constructed by successively cutting material away from
a solid block of material. Subtractive prototypes are created using
traditional manufacturing processes or CNC machining.

Additive manufacturing : It is a process by which 3D

objects are constructed by successively adding layers of liquid,
powder, or sheet material and joining them together to create the
final shape.

Subtractive rapid prototype Additive rapid prototype

1) Material is removed Material is added
2) Solid composition Layered composition
3) High strength Low strength.
4) Only simple shape can be made Complex shape can be made
5) Slow process Fast process
6) High cost Low cost

3.56
Materials
The various prototyping technologies and their base materials
are tabulated below:

Prototyping technologies Base materials

Selective laser sintering (SLS) Thermoplastics, metal powders
Fused deposition modeling (FDM) Thermoplastics, eutectic metals.
Stereolithography (SLA) Photopolymer
Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) Paper
Electron beam melting (EBM) Titanium alloys
3D printing (3DP) Various materials
Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) Metal powders

Applications of rapid prototyping

Rapid manufacturing Visualization
Metal casting Architecture
Education Geospatial
Healthcare Entertainment
Retail Biotechnology
Jewelry Footwear
Industrial design Automotive
Aerospace Archaeology
Dental and medical industries

Advantages of rapid prototyping

1) Easier to find the design errors.
2) Design changes can be made easily.
3) Gives the fair idea about the final product.
4) Development time and cost are reduced.
5) Product quality is improved.
6) Better communication between user and designer.

3.16 Virtual machining

The programs for CNC machining can be automatically created
with the help of AutoCAM software packages. This method eliminates
the difficulties in writing large programs. Errors are reduced and

3.57
thereby wastage is avoided. However it is still necessary to prove the
program for its suitability. Improper programming may remove more
material or leave material on the work piece unremoved. Errors in
geometry or tool motion statements may result in a work piece whose
dimensions after machining may not be acceptable. Dry runs and
program prove out on the machine are always time consuming and
costly. Hence it is desirable to simulate the machining program on the
computer itself to verify the program.

The various modules available in the CAM software packages

are used to carry out machining on the computer workstation. Since
the machining is carried out in a virtual environment, it is called virtual
machining.

Benefits of virtual machining

1) Programmer can visualize and modify the program until it is
correct.
2) Deeper cuts are detected and correctd.
3) Machining can be started straight away.
4) Tool breakage, collisions and tool wear are avoided.
5) Programmer can select the tool of correct shape and size.

3.58
 Review Questions

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS :

1) Explain the ISO designation for tooling in CNC.
2) What are the data required for manual part programming?
3) What is meant by ‘machine zero point’ and ‘machine reference
point’?
4) Explain the NC dimensioning methods with example.
5) Write short notes on CNC program procedure.
6) Explain the format of a part program.
7) Briefly explain preparatory and miscellaneous functions.
8) Explain the following: i) Tool function ii) Feed function.
9) Write short notes on interpolation schemes.
10) Briefly explain about tool offset and tool nose radius
compensation.
11) Describe any five G functions.
12) What is a canned cycle? Give two examples.
13) Explain peck drilling cycle.
14) Write short notes on tool length compensation.
15) Explain the terms macros, subroutines, and canned cycles used
in CNC programming.
16) What is rapid prototyping? Differentiate subtractive and additive
prototypes.
17) List out the rapid prototyping techniques.
18) List out the materials used for RP.
19) What are the applications and advantages of RP?
20) Write short notes on virtual machining.

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS :

1) Explain the working of CNC operating system.
2) With neat sketch, explain NC coordinate system.
3) Explain about the datum points and reference points in CNC.
4) Explain the terms linear interpolation and circular interpolation
with an example.

3.59
5) Explain stock removal canned cycle with an example.
6) Write a part program for thread cutting operation in a CNC lathe.
7) Explain grooving canned cycle with an example.
8) What is cutter compensation? When it is used and how it is
programmed?
9) What are canned cycles? Explain with sketches canned cycles for
drilling and tapping.
10) Write a part program to drill three holes in a rectangular work
part. The part is 10mm thick. Assume the dimensions and
positions of the hole.
11) Explain the use of subprogram with a simple CNC program.
12) Write a part program to explain mirroring operation in CNC
machining centre.
13) Explain pocketing in CNC machining centre with an example.

 

3.60
 Unit – IV
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM,
AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLE,
AUTOMATED STORAGE & RETRIEVAL SYSTEM
AND ROBOTICS
4.1 Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS)
Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) is a highly automated GT
machine cell. It consists of a group of machine tools interconnected
by automated material handling and storage system, and controlled
by a central computer.

Objectives of FMS
1) To maximize the utilization of resources in the factory.
2) To minimize the process cycle time.
3) To produce a variety of part styles simultaneously at the various
machine tools.
4) To provide flexibility in product mix according to the change in
demand.
5) To produce parts through alternative work stations in case of
equipment break–downs, tool failures, etc.
6) To provide a system that can be expanded to increase total
production quantities.

4.1.1 FMS components

FMS consists of the following components.
1) Processing stations or work stations
2) Material handling and storage system
3) Computer control system
4) Human labour

1) Workstations: The equipments or workstations used in an

FMS depend on the type of work done by the system. CNC machine tools
can be used in a system designed for machining operations. However,
the FMS concept is also applicable to various other processes such as
press working, forging, assembly, inspection, etc.
4.1
 2) Material handling and storage system: The material
handling system is used to transfer parts between stations in an FMS. It
includes conventional material transport equipment, inline transfer
machines, and industrial robots. The material handling system is
integrated with an automated storage/retrieval systems (AS/RS).

3) Computer control system: FMS computer system consists

of a central computer and microcomputers. They control the
individual machines and other components. The central computer
coordinates the activities of the components to achieve smooth
overall operations of the system.

4) Human labour: Human labour performs the following

functions in FMS:
Loading raw work parts in to the system
Unloading the finished parts from the system
Changing and setting tools
Equipment maintenance and repair
NC part programming in machining system

4.1.2 FMS layouts

The following are the layout configurations found in FMS.
1) Inline layout 2) Loop layout 3) Ladder layout
4) Open field layout 5) Robot centered layout

1) In-line layout
Part transport system
Loading Work flow Unloading
(Manual) (Manual)

Starting Work Work Work Completed

workparts station station station workparts

Fig.4.1 In-line layout

In this layout, the machines and handling system are arranged
in a straight line.
The work part moves from one workstation to the next in a well–
defined sequence.
The work part always moves in one direction. No back flow is
allowed.

4.2
2) Loop layout
Work Work
station station
Part
Starting transport
workparts loop

Load/
Unload
(Manual)
Completed
workparts
Secondary
handling
Work Work system
station station

Fig.4.2 Loop layout

In this layout, the workstations are arranged in a loop. It is served
by a part transport system in the same shape.
Parts usually flow in one direction around the loop. The parts
can be stopped and transferred to any station.
A secondary handling system is used at each workstation.
The loading/unloading stations are located at one end of the loop.

3) Ladder layout

Work
station

Work
station

Work
station

Starting Completed
workparts Load/ workparts
Unload
(Manual)

Fig.4.3 Ladder layout

4.3
 The ladder layout consists of a loop with rungs between the
straight sections. Workstations are located on the rungs.
The rung increases the possible ways of transporting work part
from one machine to the next.
It eliminates the need of a secondary handling system.
This reduces average travel distance and minimizes jamming in
the handling system.
Thus transport time between workstations is considerably
reduced.

4) Open field layout

Starting
workparts
Load/
AGV

Unload Inspection
(Manual) station
Completed
workparts

Work Cleaning
station station

Work Work
station station

AGV

Fig.4.4 Open field layout

This layout consists of multiple loops and ladders.

This type of layout is appropriate for processing a large family
of parts. The number of different machine types may be limited.
The parts are routed to different workstations depending on
which one becomes available first.

5) Robot centered cell layout

In this layout, one or more robots are used as the material
handling system.

4.4
 Industrial robots can be equipped with grippers for the handling
of rotational parts.
This type of layout is often used to process cylindrical or disk-
shaped parts.

Turning
centre

Parts
Robot conveyor

Turning
centre

Fig.4.5 Robot centered cell layout

4.1.3 Types of FMS

The following are the types of FMS :
1) Flexible turning cell (FTC)
2) Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC)
3) Flexible Transfer Line (FTL)
4) Flexible Machining System (FMS)

1) Flexible Turning Cell (FTC)

It consists of one CNC turning centre combined with a parts
storage system.
The availability of C-axis and the live tools in the turret enable
the machine to perform operations like turning, milling, off-
centre drilling, tapping, helical groove cutting, etc.
It means that all operations to produce a component can be
carried out in one set up itself.
It is provided with facilities like automatic part changer,
automatic tool changer, tool breakage sensors, automatic tool
length compensation, in-process gauging, automatic chuck
changing, etc.

4.5
 The idle time of the machine can be considerably reduced with
the help of these facilities. The productivity and flexibility of CNC
turning centres can be improved by using these facilities.

2) Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC)

It consists of two or three CNC machine tools interfaced with
automated material handling and automatic tool changers.
Flexible manufacturing cells are capable of automatically
machining a wide range of different work pieces.
They are usually employed in small batch production.
Examples of flexible manufacturing cell include :
 A turning centre fitted with a gantry loading and unloading
system and pallets for storing work pieces and finished parts.
 One or two horizontal machining centres with modular
fixturing, multiple pallets, advanced tool management
system, automatic tool changer, automatic head changer,
robots, etc.
 A turning centre and a machining centre equipped with a pick
and place robot, automatic storage and retrieval system, rail
guided vehicle, etc.

3) Flexible Transfer Lines (FTL)

A transfer line is a manufacturing system which consists of a
predetermined sequence of machines connected by an
automated material handling system.
The objective of flexible transfer line is to provide quick system
changeover and quick adaptation to changing production orders.
It provides an adjustable material flow and precise work piece
transfer within an optimum processing station layout.
The flexibility of a transfer line relates to all of its components
such as material handling control, material flow and individual
processing stations.
A number of different work pieces can be manufactured on the
Flexible Transfer Lines.

4.6
4) Flexible Machining System (FMS)
It consists of several flexible automated machine tools which
are flexibly interlinked by an automatic part handling system.
In FMS, different parts can be machined with the same machine
configuration.
Different machining times at the individual stations are
compensated by central or decentralized work piece buffer stores.
Flexibility is applied to machines through CNC and flexible
transfer lines.

4.1.4 Applications of FMS

1) Machining operations such as milling, turning, drilling, etc.
2) Assembly of parts
3) Sheet metal press working
4) Forging
5) Welding
6) Inspection and testing

4.1.5 Benefits of FMS

1) Increased productivity
2) Less number of machines are required
3) Reduced human intervention
4) Reduced work-in-process inventory
5) Reduced manufacturing lead time
6) Improved manufacturing control
7) Improved quality
8) Reduction in factory floor space requirements
9) Reduced labour requirements

4.2 Intelligent manufacturing system

Intelligent manufacturing system is one in which computer
based Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques are used for
manufacturing products. AI can be defined as the ability of a device
to perform functions that are normally associated with human
intelligence. These functions include reasoning, planning and problem
solving.
4.7
Applications of AI in manufacturing
1) Expert system in process planning
An expert system is an interactive computer program with an
expert-like performance in a particular problem-solving area. It can
be used for developing process plans to manufacture components
economically and competitively.

2) Computer vision
In this system, a pictorial representation of a scene is given to
a computer. The scene is analyzed and the object in the scene is found
out by using some form of relational matching. Industrial applications
include automated inspection, automated guidance of material
handling system, etc.

3) AI based scheduling
Scheduling involves the allocation of specific time for various
activities in manufacturing. A knowledge-based expert system is used
to perform scheduling.

4) Decision support system

In a CIM environment, there are a series of decision support
tasks ranging from job acceptance, planning, and scheduling. In the
AI based decision support system, different program modules are
used to perform these tasks.

5) Other applications
Use of expert systems for the selection of equipments
Use of AI in database management
Expert systems in material handling
Estimation of tool wear
Fault diagnosis of machines, etc.

4.3 Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV)

An automated guided vehicle is a material handling equipment,
which can be independently operated and guided along defined
pathways in the factory floor. It is normally powered by on-board
batteries.

4.8
4.3.1 Working principle of AGV
AGV is provided with the following major components for its
proper working :
1) Vehicle guidance system 2) Vehicle routing system
3) Traffic control system

1) Vehicle guidance system

AGV wire
sensing unit

Factory floor
Coil
Magnetic field
Guide wire Slot cut in floor

Fig.4.6 Wire guidance used in AGV

The guidance system is the method by which AGV pathways

are defined and vehicles are controlled to follow the pathways.
Guide wire method : Electrical wires are placed inside the
factory floor. This induces a magnetic field along the pathway
that can be followed by on-board sensors in the vehicle.
Paint strips method : Paint strips are used to define the
pathways. The vehicle uses an optical sensor system for
tracking the pathway.

2) Routing system
An AGVS layout contains multiple loops, branches, and
sidetracks, as well as pick up and drop off stations. The most
appropriate route must be selected from the alternative pathways
available.
Frequencies select method: The guide wires have different
frequencies. The vehicle selects the correct guide path by
following only one of the frequencies.

4.9
 Path switch select method: The appropriate path is selected
by switching off the power in all other pathways except the
required path.

3) Traffic control system

The purpose of traffic control in an AGV system is to minimize
interference between vehicles and to prevent collisions.
Forward sensing control: The vehicle uses on-board sensors to
detect the presence of other vehicles and obstacles in front of it.
Zone control: No vehicle is permitted to enter a zone if that
zone is already occupied by another vehicle.
Safety devices : Safety feature includes automatic stopping of
the vehicle if it drifts more than a short distance from the guide
path, obstacle detection sensor, emergency bumper, etc.

4.3.2 Types of AGV

1) Towing vehicles 2) Unit load carriers
3) Pallet trucks 4) Fork trucks
5) Light load vehicles 6) Assembly line vehicles

Towing Unit load Pallet truck

Fork truck Light load Assembly line

Fig.4.7 Types of AGV

1) Towing vehicle : It consists of one ore more trailers to form a

train. It is generally used for moving very large load over large
distances in warehouses or factories.
2) Unit load carriers : These are used to move unit loads from
one station to another. They are equipped with powered rollers,

4.10
 moving belts or mechanized lift platforms. The unit load carriers
are used for moving high volumes over moderate distances.
3) Pallet trucks : Pallet trucks are used to transport palletized
loads from floor level. The capacity ranges up to several
thousand kilograms. Some trucks are capable of handling two
pallets.
4) Fork trucks : Fork trucks have the ability to service palletized
loads both at floor level as well as on stands. They may also be
able to stack the loads when required. These are generally used
where the heights of load transfer vary.
5) Light load vehicles : Light load AGV is a relatively small
vehicle with corresponding light load capacity in the order of
250 Kg or less.
6) Assembly line vehicles : It is the adoption of light load
vehicles for serial assembly processes. It carries a partially
completed subassemblies through a sequence of assembly
workstations.

4.3.3 Applications of AGV

1) Driverless train operations 2) Storage and distribution
3) Assembly line application 4) Flexible manufacturing system
5) Office mail delivery 6) Hospital material transport

4.3.4 Benefits of AGV

1) Real time control of dispatching, tracking and monitoring
2) Better resource utilization
3) Increased control over material flow and movement
4) Reduced product damage
5) Less material movement noise
6) Flexibility in routing
7) Reduction in floor space
8) Reduced work-in-process inventory
9) Reduction in direct labour requirements

4.11
4.4 Automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS)
In large manufacturing industries, the volume of items to be
stored and retrieved is large. The manual handling of these items
become unreliable and time consuming. In such industries,
automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS) is used to control
inventories, keep track of parts and materials in process or transit. It
contains several rows of storage racks and storage and retrieval
devices. The system can be linked to other external devices such as
conveyors or AGV for transferring material to the shop floor or
palletizing stations.

4.4.1 Working principle of AS/RS

Components of AS/RS
The following are the major components of an AS/RS:
1) Storage and retrieval machine 2) Storage structures
3) Transport devices 4) System controls
Storage and retrieval machine (S/R machine) : The
shuttle crane or stacker crane are used as S/R machine. It can be
fully automated and easily controlled by a computer. It runs on a floor
mounted rail and guided at the top. It comes in a wide variety of sizes
and configurations.
Storage structure : The AS/RS storage racks are much higher
and interface directly with the S/R machine. AS/RS rack design must
provide for integration with S/R machine guide rails. The most
common storage structures are free standing and installed inside a
building. The specifications depend on the load to be stored and
system configuration.
Transport devices : These devices move the loads beyond the
limit of the S/R machine. Such devices include fork lifts, roller or chain
conveyors, overhead power and free conveyors, in-floor tow-lines,
shuttle trolleys and AGV.

System controls : The functions of system controls include

the control of equipment and the control of data. It also performs
tasks like inventory control, data automation and networking control.

4.12
Working
The task of tansporting the pallets to and from the production
floor is generally carried out by AGV. The pallets are loaded with jobs
at the loading station. The loaded pallets are put onto the conveyor.
The pallets are then received by respective storage input stations. The
S/R machine arrives and picks the pallets by its shuttle fork. Then it
stores the pallets on to a rack in the storage system.
When a request is received for a pallet, the S/R machine travels
to the required location and delivers the pallet to the storage output
station. The pallet is then transfered to the conveyor. The AGV
receives and transfers the pallet to the respective machine. The
reverse sequence should be carried out for the finished components
from the machine.

4.4.2 Types of AS/RS

The following are the major types of AS/RS
1) Unit load AS/RS : It is a large automated sytem used to
handle unit loads stored on pallets or standard containers. The
system is computer controlled. The S/R machines are
automated. A mechanical clamp mechanism on the S/R
machine handles the load.
2) Deep-lane AS/RS : This is high density unit load storage
system used to store large quantities of stock. The items are
stored in multi-deep storage with 10 items in a single rack, one
load behind the next. Each rack is designed with input on one
side and output on another side. One S/R machine is used on
the entry side for input load and loads are retrieved from other
side by another S/R machine.
3) Miniload AS/RS : This system is used to handle small loads
such as individual parts, tools and supplies that are stored in
bin. It is useful where the available space is limited. It is smaller
than unit load AS/RS. It is enclosed for security of items stored.
4) Man-on-board AS/RS : In this system, a human operator
rides on the carriage of the S/R machine to pick up individual
items from a bin. The operator can select the items and place

4.13
 them in a module. It is then carried by the S/R machine and
put on a conveyor to reach its destination.
5) Automated item retrieval system : It is designed for
retrieval of individual items. The items are stored in lanes.
When an item is retrieved, it is pushed from the lane and drops
onto a conveyor. The items in each lane is periodically
reloaded.
6) Vertical lift storage moules (VLSM) : It is an enclosed
system consists of two vertical columns of storage trays. It has
an inserter / extractor in the centre. It automatically locates
and delivers the trays to the operator. VLSM are available in
various heights and widths. It saves large floor space in the
factory.

4.4.3 Benefits (Advantages) of AS/RS

The following the advantages of using an AS/RS
• Better space utilization
• Less direct and indirect labour
• Reduced inventories
• Less energy consumption
• Less product damage
• Improved working conditions
• Less equipment damage
• Improved customer service
• Better management control

4.5 Robots
Robot is a programmed multi-function manipulator designed to
move material, parts, tools or special devices for the performance of
variety of tasks.

4.5.1 Basic elements of robot

An industrial robot consists of the following elements.
1) Base 2) Manipulator
3) End effectors 4) Actuators
5) Transmission elements 6) Control system
7) Sensors 8) Interfaces

4.14
 Fig.4.8 Elements of robot

Base: It is the bottom of the robot. It may be fixed or movable.

The manipulator is attached to the base.
Manipulator: It includes the body, arm and a wrist assembly. Body
and arm assembly does positioning. The wrist assembly does
orientation. Manipulator is constructed with series of links and joints.
End effectors: It is a device attached with the robot’s wrist to
perform specific task. The end effectors may be a gripper or a
tool. A tool is fastened directly to the robot wrist. Grippers are
used to hold either work pieces or tools.
Actuators: The actuators include the motors and drives that
move the links of the robot and other equipment.
Transmission elements: It includes belts, pulleys, ball
screws, gearing and other mechanical components.
Control system: The control system is used to generate the
necessary signals and to coordinate the movements of the robot.
Sensors: These are the feed back control system devices used
in robots. It includes cameras, amplifiers and related hardware.

4.15
 Interfaces: These are the devices used for connecting a robot
with other robots, computer system components, production
machines, material handling devices and other related
hardware.

4.5.2 Robot configurations

The following are the important robot configurations :
Polar coordinate configuration
Cylindrical coordinate configuration
Cartesian coordinate configuration
Jointed arm configuration
SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) configuration

Fig.4.9 Various robot configuration

Polar coordinate : This configuration consists of a sliding arm.

It can rotate about both a vertical axis and a horizontal axis.
Cylindricatl coordinate :This configuration consists of a
vertical column. An arm assembly is moved up or down about

4.16
 the column. The arm can be moved in and out relative to the
axis of the column. It can also rotate about the column.
Cartesian coordinate : It is also known as rectilinear robot or
x-y-z robot. It consists of three sliding joints. The slides are
mutually perpendicular.
Jointed arm : It has a general configuration of a human arm.
It consists of a vertical column that swivels about the base. At
the top of the column is a shoulder joint. Its output link connects
to an elbow joint.
SCARA : It is similar to the jointed arm robot except that the
shoulder and elbow rotational axes are vertical. This permits the
robot to perform insertion tasks in vertical direction.

4.5.3 Basic robot motions

Fig.4.10 Basic robot motions

There are six basic motions, or degrees of freedom, in a robot
to move the end effector through the required sequence of motions.

4.17
Arm and body motions :
1) Vertical traverse : Up-and- down motions of the arm, caused
by pivoting the entire arm about a horizontal axis or moving the
arm along a vertical slide.
2) Radial traverse : Extension and retraction of the arm (in–and–
out movement)
3) Rotational traverse : Rotation about the vertical axis (right or
left swivel of the robot arm)
Wrist motions :
4) Wrist swivel : Rotation of the wrist.
5) Wrist bend : Up-or-down movement of the wrist, which also
involves a rotational movement.
6) Wrist yaw : Right-or-left swivel of the wrist.

4.5.4 Robot programming method

The various methods used for programming the robot are :
1) Manual method
2) Walkthrough method
3) Leadthrough method
4) Off-line programming

1) Manual method : This method is like setting up a machine

rather than programming. It involves setting mechanical stops, cams,
switches and relays in the robot's control unit. This method is useful in
simple robots for short work cycles. Example : Pick-and-place operations.

2) Walkthrough method : The programmer manually moves

the robot's arm and hand through the motion sequence of the work cycle.
Each movement is recorded into memory for playback during production.
This method is useful for spray painting and arc welding robots.

3) Leadthrough method : A teach pendant is used to drive

the robot through its motion sequence. The teach pendant has
switches and dials to control the robot's movements. Each motion is
recorded into memory for playback during the work cycle. This
method is very easy and convenient.

4.18
 4) Off-line programming : This method involves the
preparation of the robot program a computer. After the program has
been prepared, it is entered into the robot memory for use during the
work cycle.

Advantages of off-line programming :

Production time is not lost due to delays in teaching the robot.
Programming can be done while the robot is still in operation.
Higher utilization of the robot and the equipment.
Robot can be integrated with CAD/CAM database and
information system.

4.5.5 Robot sensors

The robot must have humanlike senses and capabilities in order
to perform the task in a satisfactory way. Robot has the following
sensors:
1) Vision sensors 2) Tactile sensors
3) proximity sensors 4) Voice sensors

1) Vision sensors
Robot vision is made possible by means of a video camera, a
light source, and a computer program to process image data. It can
sense the presence of an object, its position and orientation.

Uses of vision sensors :

Retrieve parts which are randomly oriented.
Recognize parts which are intermixed with other objects
Perform visual inspection tasks
Perform assembly operations which require alignment

2) Tactile sensors
Tactile sensors are provided in robots to respond to contact
forces. The two types of tactile sensors are touch sensors and stress
sensors.
Touch sensors are used to indicate whether contact has been
made with an object. A simple micro-switch can be used as
touch sensor.

4.19
 Stress sensors are used to measure the magnitude of the
contact force. Strain gauge devices are used as force-measuring
sensors.

Uses of tactile sensors :

Alignment and joining operations in assembly
Gauging and dimension measuring in inspection.

3) Proximity sensors
The proximity sensors are used to sense when one object is
close to another object. This sensors are located on or near the end
effector. Eddy-current proximity detectors and magnetic field sensors
can be used as proximity sensors.

Uses of proximity sensors :

Indicate the presence or absence of a work part or other object.
Preventing injury to the human co-workers.

4) Voice sensors
The robot controller is equipped with a speech recognition
system. It analyzes the voice input and compares it with a set of
stored word patterns. When a match is found, the robot performs
some action which corresponds to that word.

Uses of voice sensors :

Speed up the robot programming
Performing maintenance and repair work in hazardous working
environments.

4.5.6 End effectors

End effectors are devices that are attached to end of a robotic
arm. They are also called end of arm tooling (EOAT) or manipulators.
They are designed and used to act as robot wrists that interact with
the environment. The two types of end effectors are grippers and
processing tools.

4.20
Grippers
A gripper is a type of end effector designed specifically for
grasping objects. Most grippers are custom designed based on the
variety of part shapes, sizes and weights. The following grippers are
used in robot applications :
1) Mechanical grippers 2) Vacuum grippers
3) Magnetic grippers 4) Other grippers

1) Mechanical grippers
Mechanical grippers consist of two or more moving fingers, or
jaws. The fingers can move in a rotary or linear direction.
The fingers can be actuated by the robot controller to open or
close to grasp the workpiece.
Mechanical grippers also have a collision sensor as a mechanical
safeguard.
Some of the innovations in mechanical grippers are :
• Dual grippers, consisting of two gripper devices in one end
effector for machine loading and unloading.
• Interchangeable fingers that can be used on one gripper
mechanism. Different fingers are attached to the gripper to
accommodate different parts.
• Multiple fingered grippers that look like a human hand.

2) Vacuum grippers
Vacuum gripper is used for handling large or brittle objects.
A vacuum gripper uses suction cups for gripping flat objects.
The suctions cups are round or oval. They are made of rubber
or plastic. Grip strength may be determined by the size of the
suction cups.
Objects may not be picked up immediately because of the time
required to create a vacuum within the cups.
This type of device is useful for lifting and placing small, brittle
objects in narrow spaces. The vacuum gripper is not covering
completely around the object

4.21
3) Magnetic grippers
Magnetic grippers use magnetism to move objects.
A magnetic gripper is used with metallic objects. Magnetic
grippers attach instantly to metallic objects. They can move
parts quickly and effectively.
Magnetic grippers also allow for wide variations in part size, as
the part can stick to any part of the gripper.
Residual magnetism may remain in a workpiece after it has
been handled by a magnetic gripper.
Electromagnets or permanent magnets can be used in magnetic
grippers.

4) Other grippers
Expanding gripper uses fingers made from a tube that can be
inflated. They can surround objects from the outside, or grasp
hollow objects from the inside.
Adhesive gripper uses a sticky substance that is constantly fed
through the robot wrist. This gripper is used for lightweight,
flexible materials such as fabric.
Hook gripper can be used to handle containers of parts and to
load and unload them from overhead conveyors.
Ladle gripper can be used to handle certain materials in liquid
or powder form.
Processing tools
Robot uses tools to perform processing operations on the
workpiece. The robot operates the tool relative to a stationary
or slowly moving object.
The robot controls both the relative position and operation of
the tool.
The robot must be able to transmit control signals to the tool
for starting, stopping and regulating its actions.
Examples : Spot welding gun, arc welding tool, spray painting
gun, rotating spindle for drilling, grinding, and similar
operations, assembly tool, heating torch, ladle, water jet cutting
tool, etc.

4.22
4.5.7 Robot programming concepts
A large number of robot programming languages are available.
Some examples are RAPT, SIGMA, MAL, ROBEX, MCL, VAL and AML.
These are similar to computer programming languages with
statements related to robot functions.

The commands available in a robot programming language are

classfied into the following catagories :
1) Constants and variables
2) Motion commands
3) End effector and sensor commands
4) computation and operations
5) Program control

1) Constants and variables

Constants and variable are given in a program to carry out
computations and to assign data.
Examples :
HERE P1 – The current location of the point is assigned to
the variable P1.
POINT PA=P1 – The point location stored in P1 is assigned to the
variable PA.
SET B=10 – A real value 10 is assigned to the variable B.
SETI NR=1 – An integer value of 1 is assigned to the variable NR.

2) Motion commands
Motion commands are used for the movement and control of
the manipulator arm.

Examples :
MOVE A – Moves the robot to the location specified by
the variable A.
MOVES A – Moves the robot along a straight line path to
the location specified by the variable A.

4.23
 APPROACH A, 40 – Moves the end effector or tool to the position
A with Z-axis tool offset of 40mm.
DEPART 40 – Moves the tool back from its current position
to 40mm along Z-axis.
ALIGN – Aligns the tool Z-coordinate to the nearest
robot world coordinate system.
SPEED 40 – Specifies the speed of robot motions.

3) End effector and sensor commands

These commands operate the end effector or any of the sensors
in the robot.

Examples :
OPEN – Opens the gripper.
CLOSE – Closes the gripper.
WAIT 1 – Allows the program to wait for the signal from input
channel 1.
WAIT -2 – Waits until input channel 2 is low.
SIGNAL 1 – Turns ON the output signal 1.
SIGNAL -1 – Turns OFF the output signal 1.

4) Computations and operations

It is also possible to carry out simple arithmetic operations as
part of the program.
Examples :
SETI NR=NR+1 – Increments the value of variable NR to 1.
SHIFT A BY -50, 30 – Update the position of A by shifting -50 mm along
X-axis and 30 mm along Y-axis.

5) Program control
These commands control the program execution.

Examples :
EXECUTE PRG1 – Executes the program named PRG1.
GOTO 80 – Transfers the control of the program to label 80.

4.24
 IF NR EQ 0 THEN 70 – Transfers the control of the program to label
70, if the variable NR = 0.
GOSUB PICK1 – Go to subprogram PICK1.
RETURN – Returns the control from the subprogram to
the next statement in the main porgram.
EXIT – Exits the program
DELAY 20 – Makes the robot idle for 20 seconds.

4.5.8 Characteristics of robot applications

The following are the general characteristics of industrial work
situations at which robots can be effectively used :
Hazardous work : Industrial robots can be used in hazardous,
unsafe or uncomfortable work environments. It includes
forging, spray painting, arc welding and spot welding.
Repetitive work cycle : A robot can be used when the work
cycle is repetitive and simple. Greater consistency and
repeatability can be obtained.
Difficult handling : Robots may be used when the work
involves the handling of heavy parts or tools.
Multishift work : Robot provides a faster financial return in
multishift work. It can replace two or three workers.
Infrequent changeovers : Robots are suitable for long
production runs with infrequent changeovers.

4.5.9 Industrial applications of robots

Industrial robots are used in a great variety of production
situations. The applications include the following.
1) Material transfer 2) Machine loading 3) Welding
4) Spray coating 6) Assembly 6) Inspection

1) Material transfer
Robots are used to move work pieces from one location to
another. Material transfer robot operations include the following.
• Simple pick and place operation
• Transfer of work parts from one conveyor to another conveyor
4.25
 • Loading parts from a conveyor to a pallet in a required pattern
and sequence (palletizing).
• Loading parts from a conveyor into cartons or boxes.
• Loading parts from a pallet on to a conveyor (depalletizing)

2) Machine loading and unloading

Machine loading applications are material handling operations
in which the robot is required to supply raw work parts to a
production machine and to unload finished parts from the
machine.
Robots are used for loading and unloading in the following
production operations.
• Die casting • Injection moulding
• Transfer moulding • Hot forging
• Upset forging • Stamping press operations
• Machining operations such as turning and milling

3) Welding
Industrial robots are widely used for welding operations such as
spot welding and arc welding. The end effectors are replaced by
welding guns.
In spot welding, six axes are required to achieve the required
position and orientation. Playback robots with point-to-point
control is widely used. Jointed arm robots are used in
automobile spot welding lines.
Industrial robots can be used to automate the arc welding
process. The robot must be capable of continuous path control.
Jointed arm robots with six joints can be widely used.
The advantages of using robots for welding :
• Higher productivity
• Improved safety
• More consistent welds

4.26
4) Spray coating
Spray coating operations with robots involve spray application
of paint, stain, plastic powder, sound absorber or similar
material on another material surface.
The applications include spray coating of appliances, automobile
car bodies, engines, etc., spray staining of wood products, and
spraying of porcelain coatings on bathroom fixtures.
The robot must be capable of continuous path control. Jointed
arm robots are widely used.
The advantages of using robots for spray coating applications :

• Safety • Coating consistency

• Lower material usage • Less energy used
• Greater productivity

5) Assembly
Nowadays a number of servo-controlled robots are effectively
used for assembly operations. The most common configurations
are jointed arm, Cartesian coordinate and SCARA.
Accuracy is very important in assembly work. The end effector
should perform multiple functions to reduce the number of
robots required.
Robots are widely used in automobile industries for assembling
of flywheels, spring struts, front covers, front and rear axles,
steering gear, door liners, windshield, wheels, chassis, etc.

6) Inspection
Robots can be used to perform dimensional checking and other
forms of inspection operations. The functions include :
• Ensuring that a given process has been completed.
• Ensuring that parts have been added in assembly as specified
• Identifying flaws in raw materials and finished parts.
Robots should be equipped with mechanical probes, optical
sensing capabilities, and other measuring devices.
The robots should be programmed to perform inspection.

4.27
 Review Questions

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS :

1) What is FMS? State the objectives.
2) Write short notes on (a) Flexible manufacturing cells (b) Flexible
transfer lines.
3) What are the benefits and applications of FMS?
4) Explain the intelligent manufacturing system.
5) Explain the various types of AS/RS.
6) List out the benefits of AS/RS.
7) What is AGV? List out the different types of AGV
8) What are the applications and benefits of AGV?
9) Define robot. List out the basic elements in an industrial robot.
10) Explain the configurations of robot.
11) Explain the basic robot motions.
12) Explain the various robot programming methods.
13) What are robot sensors? Explain their uses in robots.
14) What are end effectors? List out the types.
15) Explain the various types of grippers used in robot.
16) List out the processing tools used as end effectors in robot.
17) Explain the characteristics of robot applications.
18) Briefly explain the application of robot in material handling.
19) Explain the applications of robot in welding industry.

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS :

1) Explain about the FMS components.
2) Briefly explain the types of layout configurations used in FMS.
3) Explain the types of FMS.
4) Explain the working princple of AS/RS.
5) Explain the working principle of AGV.
6) Briefly explain the various types of AGV with line sketches.
7) Explain the robot programming concepts.
8) Explain the various industrial applications of robot.

 
4.28
 Unit – V
ADVANCED CONCEPTS OF CIM
5.1 Sequential engineering

Design Planning Manufacture Quality Marketing

Fig.5.1 Sequential engineering

Sequential engineering is a traditional method of product

development in which product design, development of
manufacturing process, quality and testing activities are carried
out one after another.
The research and development group completes the design
tasks and passes the data to planning. Then it passes the details
to manufacturing and so on. There is no interaction among the
groups.
The need for engineering changes is discovered during planning
or manufacturing or assembly. These changes are however to
be incorporated in design.
In such situation, the revision process has to start from design.
This involves additional expenditure and delay in manufacturing
the product.

5.2 Concurrent engineering

Concurrent engineering is a method by which several teams
within an organization work simultaneously to develop new
products. It is also known as simultaneous engineering or parallel
engineering. It is a technique adopted to improve the efficiency
of product design and reduce the product design cycle time.
Representatives from research & development, engineering,
manufacturing, materials management, quality assurance,
marketing, etc. develop the product as a team. Everyone
interacts with each other from the start, and then perform their
tasks in parallel.

5.1
 Market Product
analysis design

Sales and System

distribution design

Manufacturing

Fig.5.2 Concurrent engineering

The cooperation between various specialists and systematic

application of special methods such as DFMA (Design for
Manufacturing and Assembly) and FMEA (Failure Modes and
Effect Analysis) are used in concurrent engineering.
It ensures quick optimization of design and early detection of
possible faults in product. This leads to reduction in lead time.
Hence, the cost of production is reduced and the product quality
is increased.

5.2.1 Sequential Vs. Concurrent engineering

Sequential engineering Concurrent engineering

1) Product development activities Product development activities
are in sequence. are in parallel.
2) No interaction between All departments interact with
departments. each other .
3) Design errors cannot be Design errors can be identified
identified easily. easily.
4) Design changes cannot be made Design changes can be made
easily. easily.
5) Cost of design change is more. Cost of design change is less.
6) Optimized design cannot be Optimized design can be
obtained obtained
7) Lead time for product Lead time for product
development is more. development is less.

5.2
5.2.2 Need of concurrent engineering
Increasing global competitive pressure.
Need for rapid response to fast-changing consumer demand.
Shorter product life cycle.
Large organizations with several departments working on
developing numerous products at the same time.
New and innovative technologies developing at a very high rate.

5.2.3 Benefits / Advantages of concurrent engineering

1) Optimized design can be obtained
2) Design errors can be detected and rectified easily
3) Reduced product development time
4) Reduced production cost
5) Increased productivity
6) Improved quality of product
7) Increased reliability
8) Improved customer-supplier relations

5.3 Quality Function Deployment (QFD)

Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a systematic approach to
translate the customers needs into product characteristics for each
stage of product development. The ‘voice of the customer’ is the term
used to describe these stated and unstated customer needs. The voice
of the customer is captured through direct discussion, surveys,
customer specifications, observation, warranty data, field reports, etc.

5.3.1 Phases in QFD

QFD consists of the following phases :
1) Product planning 2) Product design
3) Process design 4) Process control

1) Product planning
It involves the preparation of the product planning matrix or
house of quality. Relationships between customer requirements
and product requirements are developed.
Preliminary target values, importance ratings, difficulty rating
and interactions between product requirements are determined.
The matrix is analysed and the product plan is finalized.
5.3
2) Product design
The product requirements and the product specification are the
basis for developing product concepts. Product benchmarking,
brainstorming, research and development are sources for new
product concepts.
The various product concepts are evaluated against each
product requirement and the best concept is selected. It is
represented with block diagrams or a design layout.
3) Process design
Different manufacturing process approaches are evaluated
against the product plan. The best process is identified to
produce the product as per the customer needs.
More detailed planning related to process control, quality
control, set-up, equipment maintenance and testing are
prepared. Integration is made between Design and
Manufacturing department to achieve the target.

4) Process control
Performance indicators are created to monitor the process,
quality control, testing, equipment maintenance and training.
Control measures should be provided for most critical process
to prevent failures.
Integration is made between Quality assurance and
Manufacturing department for the smooth flow of QFD process.

5.3.2 House of Quality (HOQ)

House of Quality is a diagram used for defining the relationship
between customer needs and the product capabilities. It looks like a
house. It is also called as product planning matrix. The steps involved
in preparing HOQ :
1) State the customer needs on the left side of the matrix. For
each need, state the customer priorities using a 1 to 5 rating.
2) Evaluate prior generation products against competitive
products. Develop a product strategy considering the current
strengths and weakness relative to the competition.

5.4
 Interactions

Product
Requirements
Priority

Customer Competitive
Relationships
Requirements Evaluation

Technical Evaluation
Target Value
Technical Difficulty
Importance Rating

Fig.5.3 House of Quality

3) Establish product requirements to respond to customer

requirements.
4) Develop relationships between customer requirements and
product requirements. Use symbols for strong, medium and
weak relationships.
5) Perform a technical evaluation of prior generation products and
competitive products. Perform this evaluation based on the
defined product requirements.
6) Develop preliminary target values for product requirements.
7) Determine potential positive and negative interactions between
product requirements. Use symbols for positive or negative
relationships.
8) Calculate important ratings. Assign a weighting factor to
relationship symbols. Multiply the customer importance rating
by the weighting factor in each box and add each column.
9) Develop a difficulty rating for each product. Use 1 to 5 point
scale, 5 being very difficult.

5.5
 10) Analyse the matrix and finalize the product plans. Finalize
target values. Maintain the product planning matrix as customer
requirements or conditions change.
5.3.3 Advantages of QFD
Improves customer-supplier relations
Decreases midstream design change.
Reduces the development cost
Reduces the cycle time for new products
Improves team work
Creates data for proper documentation
improves quality of product
Reduces rejection and rework
Increases the sales revenue

5.3.4 Disadvantages of QFD

It needs a huge collection of data.
It is very difficult to create a true relationship between customer
needs and a product’s features.
It requires an active multi-functional team.
It ignores other factors such as cost, product life cycle, etc.
Customer needs change quickly

5.4 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) is methodology used
to identify potential failure modes, determine their effect on the
operation of the product, and identify actions to reduce the failures.

5.4.1 When to use FMEA?

FMEA can be used
During the development of a new product
Before changes are made to the product
After identifying an error in the product.
When new regulations are introduced.
When receiving number of complaints from customers.
When sales support cost is unusually high.

5.6
5.4.2 Steps in FMEA
The basic steps in FMEA are :
1) Create a block diagram of the product. It shows major
components as blocks connected together by lines.
2) Identify and list failure modes for function of each component
3) Describe the effects of failure modes. Establish a numerical
ranking for the severity of the effect. Use 1 to represent no
effect and 10 to indicate very severe.
4) Identify the causes for each failure mode. Assign the Probability
factor. Assign 1 to represent not likely and 10 to indicate
unavoidable.
5) Identify Current Controls. Current Controls are the mechanisms
that prevent the cause of the failure mode from occurring or which
detect the failure before it reaches the Customer.
6) Determine the likelihood of Detection. Detection is an
assessment of the likelihood that the Current Controls will detect
the Cause of the Failure Mode. Assign 1 to indicate the control is
absolutely certain to detect the problem and 10 to indicate the
control is certain not to detect the problem.
7) Calculate Risk Priority Numbers (RPN).
RPN = (Severity) x (Probability) x (Detection).
Rearrange the failure modes based on RPN.
8) Determine Recommended Action to reduce potential failures that
have a high RPN. These actions may be design changes to lower
severity or occurrence. They may be additional controls to
improve detection.
9) After these actions have been taken, re-assess the severity,
probability and detection and review the revised RPN’s. Update
and document the FMEA.

5.4.3 Benefits of FMEA

Improves product reliability and quality
Increases customer satisfaction
Improves team work

5.7
 Reduces product development time and cost
Minimizes late changes and associated cost
Reduces failure and warranty costs
Maximizes profit.

5.5 Value Engineering

Value engineering (VE) is a process of improving the value of
a product during its design stage by using an organized creative
approach. Value is defined as the ratio of function to cost. Therefore,
value can be increased by either improving the function or reducing
the cost.

Aim of value engineering :

Reduce number of parts in a product
Reduce material cost by substitution without sacrificing the
functional use
Reduce maintenance cost
Improve quality and aesthetics
Improve effectiveness

5.5.1 Types of values

Cost value : It is the monetary measure of input efforts such as
material, labour and overhead required to produce a product.
Use value : It is the monetary measure of the properties and
functions of a product which contribute its usage.
Esteem value : It is the monetary measure of the properties and
functions of a product which contribute to its esteem demand. It
refers to the special features which makes one want to possess
the product.
Exchange value : It is monetary measure of the properties and
functions which contribute to its exchangeability for something
else. Normally, Use value + Esteem value ≥ Exchange value
Time value : It is a value determined by the time of availability
of the product.
Place value : It is a value of a product depends upon its
availability at a place where it is required.
5.8
5.5.2 Identification of poor value areas
Poor value areas are responsible for unnecessary costs. These
areas may be in the design of the product, purchase of raw materials,
handling and storage of materials, production processes, packaging
and distribution of final product, etc. They should be identified and
eliminated to reduce the product cost.

The following two techniques are used for this purpose :

1) Value tests 2) Function – cost matrix approach

1) Value tests
Value test is basically a questionnaire looking at the function
and cost of the product. Some of such questions are :
Is the component really necessary for performing the function?
Does the product need all the features to fulfil its function?
Can any of the component be produced by cheaper method?
Can two or more parts combined into one?
Are there newly developed materials available at lower costs?

The answers for the above questions will identify the poor value
areas and unnecessary features that can be eliminated.

2) Function – cost matrix approach

A function – cost matrix lists the components on one side of the
matrix and functions on the other side. This matrix is used to
collect, distribute and display function costs.

Component costs are distributed on the matrix at the

intersection of a component and its function. It indicates how
much of component’s cost is allocated to a function’s cost. The
value of each functions are determined using value analysis.

If the function is relatively less important but accounts for larger

percentage of cost, then it is potential area for poor value. The
value can be improved by determining alternative ways to
achieve that function at lower cost.

5.9
5.5.3 Benefits / Advantages of Value Engineering
1) Reduced unit cost.
2) Improved operational performance
3) Improved product quality
4) Reduced manufacturing costs
5) Elimination of wastage
6) Encourages team spirit and morale
7) Improved customer-supplier relations
8) Reduced number of parts in a product

5.6 Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFMA)

DFMA is a methodology used to simplify a product design and
manufacturing process to achieve cost savings.

Guidelines for DFMA

1) Minimize total number of parts A part that is eliminated
saves the costs to make, assemble, move, store, clean, inspect,
rework or service the part.
2) Develop a modular design : A module is a self-contained
component with a standard interface to other components. it
results in easier service and repair because the defective module
can be replaced by a new one. Modular design simplifies final
assembly because there are fewer parts to assemble.
3) Minimize part variations : The risk of quality problems are
reduced when part variations are kept to a minimum. A common
way to minimize part variation is to use standard components.
4) Design parts to be multifunctional : A good way to minimize
the number of parts is to design such that parts can fulfill more
than one function.
5) Design parts for multiuse : Design of parts for multiuse
reduces the cost per piece.
6) Design parts for ease of fabrication : Use manufacturing
processes that produce the part to near net shape. Secondary
processes such as finishing and painting should be avoided.

5.10
7) Avoid separate fasteners : The use of screws in assembly is
expensive. Snap fits should be used whenever possible.
8) Minimize assembly direction : All parts should be designed
so that they can be assembled from one direction. The need to
rotate in assembly requires extra time and motion.
9) Maximize compliance in assembly : The compliance features
such as generous tapers, chamfers, and radii should be provided
in the design for ease of assembly.
10) Minimize handling in assembly : Parts should be designed to
make the required position easy to achieve. Orientation can be
assisted by design features which help to guide and locate parts
in the proper position.

5.6.1 Benefits / Advantages of DFMA

1) Reduced number of parts in a product
2) Improved product quality
3) Reduced manufacturing costs and time
4) Elimination of wastage
5) Encourages team spirit and morale

5.7 Product development cycle

Concept

Service Design

Marketing Planning

Manufacture

Fig.5.4 Product development cycle

5.11
The product development cycle consists of the following :
Developing the product concept : Conceptual design is
developed using combinative ideas, morphological analysis and
insight are some of the methods for developing the product
concept.
Designing the product : The preliminary design involves the
structural development of the design concept. In detailed design
the dimensions, tolerances, and surface properties of all parts are
determined.
Planning : It involves preparation of a process sheet, planning
the work schedules, establishing the manufacturing methods, etc.
Manufacturing the part: The part is manufactured by means of
one or more processing and assembly operations.
Marketing : The economic success of the design depends on the
skill exercised in marketing the product.
Servicing : It involves the demonstration, periodic servicing and
repair of the product, etc.

5.7.1 Product life cycle

Annual Sales Volume

Time
Introduction Growth Maturity Decline

Fig.5.5 Product life cycle

The product life cycle consists of the following stages :

1) Introduction stage : The product is produced and introduced in

the market . The product has no competitors at this point. Sales

5.12
 may remain low because it takes time to accept the new product.
Marketing costs are high. At this stage, the company usually loses
money on the product.
2) Growth stage : The market has accepted the product. The sales
and profit begin to increase. This rapid growth can be continued
only by the maintenance of product quality. The company should
make improvements to the product to stay competitive. This
increased competition results in decreasing the product price.
3) Maturity stage : During this stage, sales will reach their peak.
The costs are decreased as a result of increased production
volumes. Other competitors enter the market with alternative
solutions. The company should spend increasing amount on sales
promotion.
4) Decline stage : In the decline stage, sales and profit will begin to
decline as the product reaches its saturation point. The product is
phased out of the market due to the decrease in sales, market
saturation, high competition, and changing customer needs.

5.7.2 New product development processes

The new product development process involves the following
steps.

Idea generation

Idea screening

Concept testing

Business analysis

Product development

Test marketing

Commercialization

Fig.5.6 New product development process

5.13
1) Idea generation : A number of new product ideas should be
generated through a systematic search. The major sources include
employees, customers, competitors, distributors and suppliers.
2) Idea screening : The ideas are carefully evaluated and rated
based on their relative merit. The product ideas should be
favourable to increase consumer satisfaction, profitability and a
good market share of the company. The unfavourable and
inconsistent ideas are rejected.

3) Concept testing : The ideas are developed into product concept. The
feedback about the concept is obtained from customers, employees
and partners by asking a set of questions. It helps the company to
choose the best among the alternative product concepts.

4) Business analysis : It involves estimation of sales, costs and

profits. It also involves a projection of future demand, financial
commitment and return. Financial specialists analyse the situation
by applying break-even analysis, risk analysis, etc.

5) Product development : The product concept is developed into a

physical product. Functional tests are conducted under laboratory
and field conditions. This determines whether the product
performs safely and effectively.

6) Test marketing : New products are introduced on a very small

scale in selected areas. The reactions of consumers are observed.
Test marketing helps to find out and rectify the product fault. Test
marketing reduces the risk of large-scale marketing.

7) Commercialization : The company introduces the new product

to the market on a huge scale. Advertising and promotion activities
are carried out to improve sales.

5.8 Augmented reality

Augmented reality (AR) is a technology that superimposes a
computer-generated input on a user's real world. By contrast, virtual
reality replaces the real world entirely with a simulated one. In
augmented reality, graphics, sounds, and touch feedback are added
into natural world.

5.14
Types of augmented reality

Marker-based AR : It is also called Image Recognition. It uses

a camera and a visual marker, such as QR code. It produces
result only when the marker is sensed by a reader.
Markerless AR : It uses a GPS, digital compass, or
accelerometer which is embedded in the device to provide data
based on the location. It is most commonly used in mobile
applications for mapping directions and finding location.
Projection based AR : It works by projecting artificial light
onto real world surface and sensing the human interaction. It is
also used to project a 3D interactive hologram into mid-air.
Superimposition based AR : It replaces the original view of
an object with a newly added view of that same object. Object
recognition plays a vital role in this case.

AR hardware
Hardware components include processor, display, sensors and
input devices. Smartphones and tablet computers contain a camera
and sensors such as accelerometer, GPS, and solid state compass.
Display devices : Head-mounted display, eyeglasses, Google
Glass, HoloLens, Contact lenses, Virtual retinal display.
Input devices : Speech recognition system, gesture recognition
system and touch input.

AR software
Augmented Reality Markup Language (ARML) is a data
standard used to describe the location and appearance of virtual
objects in the scene. A few Software development kits such as
CloudRidAR, ARToolKit, Mobinett AR, Wikitude, and Meta are used.

5.8.1 Applications of AR
Architecture : Superimposing omputer-generated images of a
structure into a real life local view.
Visual art : Artistic multidimensional experiences.

5.15
Education: Superimposing of text, graphics, video and audio
into a student’s real time environment, visualize different
systems of the human body in three dimensions, SkyView for
studying astronomy, etc.
Video games : Get On Target, AR air hockey, Titans of Space,
Pokémon Go, etc.
Industrial design : Experiencing a product's design and
operation before completion, comparing digital mock-ups with
physical mock-ups for finding discrepancies, etc.
Medical : Virtual X-ray and ultrasound views, visualizing the
position of a tumor, viewing a fetus inside a mother's womb, etc.
Military : Locating people or points of interest, communicating
battlefield data onto a soldier's goggles, etc.
Broadcast : Weather visualizations, sports telecasting,
interacting viewers with the programs they are watching.
enhancing concert and theater performances, etc.

5.16
 Review Questions

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS :

1) Differentiate sequential engineering and concurrent engineering.
2) Define concurrent engineering? State the need of CE.
3) List out the benefits of CE.
4) List out the advantages and disadvantages of QFD.
5) What is FMEA? When it is used?
6) List out the benefits of FMEA.
7) What is Value engineering? State its aim.
8) Briefly explain the types of values.
9) List out the benefits of value engineering.
10) Explain the stages in product life cycle.
11) Briefly explain Augmented Reality.

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS :

1) Explain concurrent engineering.
2) Define Qualify Function Deployment. Explain the phases in QFD.
3) What is HOQ? Explain the steps in preparing HOQ.
4) Explain the basic steps in Failure Mode and Effects Analysis.
5) Explain the techniques used for identification of poor value areas.
6) Explain the important guidelines for DFMA.
7) Explain product development cycle.
8) Explain the new product development process with a sketch.
9) Explain the applications of Augmented Reality.

 

5.17
Q & A.1
 Unit – I
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
1. Define CAD.
Computer Aided Design (CAD) may be defined as the use of
computer system to help in the creation, modification,
analysis, and optimization of a design.
2. List out the steps involved in Shiley’s design process.
1) Recognition of need 2) Definition of problem
3) Synthesis 4) Analysis and optimization
5) Evaluation 6) Presentation
3. List out the various activities of CAD.
1) Geometric modelling 2) Engineering analysis
3) Design review and evaluation 4) Automated drafting
4. What are the benefits of CAD?
1) Productivity improvement in design.
2) Shorter lead time.
3) More flexibility in design.
4) Fever design errors.
5) Improved design analysis.
6) Standardization of design, drafting and documentation.
7) Easier creation and modification of design.
8) Easier visualization of drawings
5. Mention the important CAD software packages.
AutoCAD, Pro/E, IDEAS, UniGrpahics, CADian, SolidWorks,
CADKey, CATIA, ArchiCAD, Autodesk Inventor, etc.
6. What is point plotting?
Point plotting is a process of converting a single pixel position
into appropriate operations for the output device.
7. Mention any two algorithms used to plot lines.
1) Digital Differential Analyser (DDA) algorithm
2) Bresenham’s algorithm

Q & A.2
8. What are the drawbacks in DDA algorithm?
1) Floating-point operations and rounding off are time
consuming.
2) Due to the accumulation of round-off error, the calculated
pixel positions may drift away from the true line path for
long line.
9. What is transformation?
In computer graphics, the drawings can be modified by
performing some mathematical operations on the coordinates
of geometric elements. These operations are called
transformations. Translation, scaling, and rotation are the
basic transformations.
10. Define translation.
Translation involves moving the geometric elements from one
location to another. In matrix notation, it can be represented as
(x', y') = (x, y) + T
Where, x', y' = Coordinates of the translated points
x, y = Coordinates of the original point
m, n = Movement in the X and Y direction respectively.
T = Translation matrix = (m, n)
11. What is scaling?
Enlarging or reducing the size of a graphic element is known
as scaling. The points of an element can be scaled by the
scaling matrix as follows:
(x', y') = (x, y) S

Where, S = Scaling matrix = q r

m 0
0 n
12. What is rotation?
It involves the rotation of an object about its origin by an angle θ.
The object is moved while rotating. In matrix notations, the
procedure will be as follows:
(x', y') = (x, y) R
cos θ sin θ
Where, R = Rotation matrix = q r
–sin θ cos θ

Q & A.3
13. Write down the rotation matrix for rotating an object
about X-axis.
The rotation about X-axis by an angle θ in three-dimensional
space is represented in matrix notation as follows:
(x', y', z') = (x, y, z) Rx
cos θ 0 sin θ
Where, Rx = Rotation matrix about X axis = q 0 1 0 r
–sin θ 0 cos θ
14. Define concatenation.
Concatenation is the process of combining the single
transformations as a sequence of transformations. The
combined transformations are called concatenated
transformations. Concatenated transformations are generally
performed during the editing process in a graphic model.
15. What are the techniques of geometric modelling?
1) Wireframe modelling
2) Surface modelling
3) Solid modelling
16. List out advantages of wireframe modelling.
1) It is easy to construct.
2) It needs less memory space.
3) It takes less manipulation time.
4) It is best suitable for manipulations as orthographic,
isometric and perspective views.
17. List out various types of surfaces.
1) Ruled surface 2) Surface of revolution
3) Tabulated cylinder 4) Bezier surface
5) B–spline surface 6) NURBS
7) Coons surfaces 8) Swept surface
9) Fillet surface 10) Offset surface
18. List out the applications of surface modelling.
1) Checking for interference between mating parts.
2) Generating cross sectional views.
3) Generating finite element meshes.
4) Generating NC tool paths for continuous path machining.

Q & A.4
19. State the applications of surface modeling.
1) Less confusing than wireframe model.
2) Hidden line and surface algorithms give realism to the model.
3) Shading algorithms are also available.
20. List out the schemes available for solid modelling.
1) Constructive solid geometry (CSG)
2) Boundary representation (B–rep)
3) Pure primitive instancing
4) Generalized sweep
5) Cellular decomposition
6) Hybrid scheme
21. List out the various solid modelling entities.
1) Block 2) Cylinder 3) Cone
4) Sphere 5) Wedge 6) Torus
22. What is the basic difference between CSG and B-rep?
In CSG, solid model is built from solid graphic primitives.
In B-rep, solid model is obtained by creating the outline or
boundary of the object.
23. What is hybrid scheme?
Hybrid scheme is the combination of both constructive solid
geometry and boundary representation approach. It makes
use of the relative benefits of both approaches overcoming
their relative weaknesses.
24. List out the applications of solid modelling.
1) Creating hidden line drawings, sections, and shaded images.
2) Calculating mass properties such as total surface area, volume,
centre of gravity, moments of inertia, radius of gyration, etc.
3) Kinematics analysis of solid assemblies.
4) Dynamics interference analysis.
5) Process planning for manufacture.
6) CNC tool path simulation and program verification
25. What are the advantages of solid modelling.
1) Solid model is complete and more understandable.
2) Solid models can be created easily.

Q & A.5
 3) It gives information about interior details.
4) It stores more information about geometry of the object.
5) It is best suitable for mass properties calculation.
26. What is graphic standard?
The standards used in CAD for exchanging data are called
graphics standards.
27. What are the needs for graphics standard?
1) Application program portability
2) Picture data portability
3) Text portability
4) Object database portability
28. List out the common graphics standards.
1) GKS (Graphical Kernel System)
2) OpenGL (Open Graphics Library)
3) IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification)
4) DXF (Drawing Exchange Format)
5) VDI (Virtual Device Interface)
6) VDM (Virtual Device Metafile)
7) WMF (Windows Meta File)
29. What is GKS? State its objectives.
Graphical Kernel System is a set of procedures that can
be called by user programs for carrying out certain
generalized functions.
Objectives of GKS :
1) To provide the complete range of graphical facilities.
2) To control all the graphic and display devices.
3) To be small enough for a variety of programs.
30. List out the subsection in IGES format.
1) Start section 2) Global section 3) Directory entry section
4) Parameter data section 5) Terminate section
31. What are the advantages of DXF?
1) The DXF file format is the most compatible vector file type.
2) DXF files are used to exchange data between different CAD
programs.

Q & A.6
 3) It can be viewed and edited in any CAD/CAM software.
4) It is easy to process DXF files and divide it into small
components.
5) The DXF file specification is freely available in public.
32. Define FEA?
Finite element analysis (FEA) is a computer simulation
technique used in engineering analysis to determine the
behaviour of structures and components under a variety of
conditions.
33. Mention the basic steps in FEA.
1) Pre-processing
2) Analysis (Computation of solution)
3) Post processing (Visualization)
34. List out the applications of FEA.
Determination of stresses and displacements.
Heat transfer
Solid state diffusion
Reactions with moving boundaries
Fluid dynamics
Electromagnetism
35. What are the advantages of FEA?
Increased accuracy
Enhanced design
Better insight into critical design parameters
Virtual prototyping
Fewer hardware prototypes
Faster and less expensive design cycle
Increased productivity
Increased revenue

Q & A.7
 Unit – II
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
1. Define CAM.
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) may be defined as the
effective use of computer technology in manufacturing,
planning, and control.
2. List out the functions of CAM in manufacturing planning.
Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)
Computer assisted NC part programming
Computerized machinability data system
Development of work standard
Cost estimating
Production and inventory planning
Computer aided line balancing
3. List out the functions of CAM in manufacturing control.
Process monitoring and control
Quality control
Shop floor control
Inventory control
4. List out the benefits of CAM.
1) Greater flexibility in design
2) Increased productivity
3) Greater flexibility in operations
4) Shorter lead time
5) Improved reliability
6) Reduced maintenance
7) Reduced scrap and rework
8) Better management control
5. Define CIM.
Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) includes all of the
engineering functions of CAD/CAM and business functions that
are related to manufacturing.

Q & A.8
6. What is the concept of CIM?
The CIM concept is that all of the firm’s operations related to
manufacturing are incorporated in an integrated computer
system to assist, improve and automate the operations.
7. What is CIM wheel?
CIM wheel shows the components of a CIM system.
8. List out the benefits of CIM.
1) Increased machine utilization
2) Reduced direct and indirect labour.
3) Reduced manufacturing lead-time.
4) Lower in-process inventory.
5) Greater scheduling flexibility.
6) Reduced scrap and rework.
7) Increased factory capacity.
8) Safer working environment.
9. What is integrated CAD/CAM?
The product design and manufacturing functions are
integrated by using CAD/CAM technology. This is termed as
integrated CAD/CAM.
10. What is Group Technology (GT)?
Group Technology (GT) is a manufacturing philosophy used to
reduce the overall production cost by grouping the parts. The
grouping is based on similarities in design or manufacturing
process.
11. What is part family?
A part family is a group of similar parts. They are similar in
geometric shape and size, or similar in processing steps
needed for manufacture.
12. List out the design attributes used in GT.
1) Basic external shape 2) Basic internal shape
3) Material type 4) Part functions
5) Major dimensions 6) Minor dimensions
7) Tolerances 8) Surface finish

Q & A.9
13. List out the manufacturing attributes used in GT.
1) Major processes 2) Minor operations
3) Operation sequence 4) Major dimension
5) Surface finish 6) Machine tool
7) Fixture required 8) Cutting tools
14. What are the applications of parts classification and
coding?
1) Design retrieval 2) Machine cell design
3) Automated process planning
15. What are the coding structures used in GT?
1) Hierarchical structure or Monocode structure
2) Chain type structure or Polycode structure
3) Hybrid structure or Mixed mode structure
16. List out the parts classifications and coding systems.
1) Opitz system 2) MICLASS system
3) The CODE system 4) DCLASS system
5) COFORM system 6) The KK–3 system
17. List out the benefits of Group Technology.
1) Retrieval of existing design from the database is easy.
2) It helps in design standardization.
3) The production rate is increased.
4) The inventory and work–in–process can be reduced.
5) The material handling and movement is reduced.
6) The scrap is reduced.
7) The machine utilization is increased.
8) Manufacturing lead-time is reduced.
9) The overall plant efficiency is increased.

18. What is process planning?

Process planning involves determining the most appropriate
manufacturing and assembly processes and the sequence in
which they should be done to produce a product as per the
specifications.

Q & A.10
19. What are the requirements for process planning?
1) Annual demand of the product or batch size.
2) The list of parts in the product.
3) Available stock sizes.
4) Details of available equipments.
5) Tools, dies, moulds, fixtures and gauges requirements.
6) Accuracy and surface finish requirements.
20. What is CAPP?
Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) is a means to
automatically develop the process plan with the help of
computer programs.
21. What is the difference between variant approach and
generative approach of CAPP?
Variant approach uses a Group Technology (GT) code to
select appropriate process plan from the existing master
process plans. It edits the master plan to suit the
requirement of the part.
In generative approach, a process plan is created from
the beginning for each part without human intervention.
22. List out the benefits of CAPP.
1) More logical and optimal process plans.
2) Lower manufacturing costs and higher product quality.
3) The productivity of process planners is increased.
4) The lead-time for process planning is reduced.
5) Computer prepared route sheets are neat and easy to read.
23. What are the objectives of PPC?
1) Ensure safe and economical production process
2) Effectively utilize the resources
3) Ensure proper delivery of products
4) Ensure optimum inventory
5) Reduce the production time
6) Improve the quality of product
7) Control the wastage of raw material
8) Reduce the production cost

Q & A.11
24. What is master production schedule?
Master production schedule is a very specific schedule of
individual products in the aggregate plan. It is a list of products
to be manufactured, when they should be completed and
delivered and in what quantities.
25. What are the objectives of MPS?
1) To make the best use of the resources such as equipment,
material and labour.
2) To maintain the inventory as low as possible.
3) To maintain the proper delivery of finished products.
26. What is capacity planning?
Capacity planning is concerned with determining the labour
and equipment resources needed to meet the current master
production schedule as well as the long–term future
production requirements of a company.
27. What is MRP?
A material requirement planning (MRP) is a computational
method that converts the master production schedule into a
detailed schedule for the raw material and components used
in the end products.
28. List out the benefits of MRP.
1) Reduction in inventory.
2) Quicker response to changes in demand.
3) Improved customer service. Q
4) Reduced setup and product changeover costs.
5) Better machine utilization.
29. What is MRP-II?
Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP-II) is a computer
based system for planning, scheduling and controlling the
materials, resources and supporting activities needed to meet
the master production schedule.

Q & A.12
30. What is shop floor control?
Shop floor control is concerned with the release of production
orders, monitoring and controlling the progress of the orders,
and collecting current information on the status of the orders.
31. Define JIT.
Just-In-Time (JIT) is a philosophy of manufacturing based on
planned elimination of all wastes and continuous improvement
of productivity.
32. What is ERP?
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is one of the MRP-II
softwares used for developing an optimum manufacturing
solution.

Unit – III
CNC PROGRAMMING
1. Define Numerical Control (NC).
Numerical control of machine tools may be defined as a method
of automation in which various functions of machine tools are
controlled by letters, numbers and symbols.
2. Define CNC.
Computer numerical control is defined as a NC system that
utilizes a dedicated microcomputer to perform some or all of
the basic numerical control functions.
3. What are preset tools and qualified tools in CNC?
Preset tools : A presetting device is used to preset axial and
radial position of the tool tip on the tool holder.
Qualified tools : The cutting edge of the tool is maintained
at a fixed distance from reference surface of tool holder.
4. List out the components in CNC tooling system.
1) CNC work holding devices 2) CNC cuttinng tools
3) Indexable inserts 4) CNC tool holders
5) Automatic tool changer (ATC) 6) Tool magazines

Q & A.13
5. What is CNC part program?
CNC part program is a detailed list of instructions that need to
be executed by the machine control unit (MCU) to achieve the
final component shape.
6. List out the data required for part programming.
1) Specification of coordinate system
2) Specification of axes
3) Specification of machines
4) Specification of reference points
5) Specification of tools
6) Method of holding work pieces
7) Data tables and books
8) Sequence of operation
7. How axes are specified in NC system?
Z-axis : The Z-axis motion is along the spindle axis or
parallel to the spindle axis.
X-axis : The principal motion direction of cutting tool or the
work piece is designated as X–axis.
Y-axis : It is perpendicular to both X and Y-axes, and the
direction is identified by the right hand Cartesian
coordinate system.
8. Define zero point.
The origin of the coordinate system is considered as zero
point.
9. Differentiate : Fixed zero point and floating zero point.
Fixed zero point may be located at a fixed place and cannot
be changed.
Floating zero point may be established by moving the slides
so that the cutting tool is placed in the desired position.

10. What is machine zero point or machine datum?

It is a fixed point on a machine specified by the manufacturer.
This point is the zero point for the coordinate system of the
machine controller.

Q & A.14
11. What is workpiece zero point?
Workpiece zero point determines the work piece coordinate
system in relation to the machine zero point. This point is
chosen by the part programmer and input to the machine
controller.
12. What is tool zero point?
The reference point in the tool turret is known as tool zero
point.
13. What is machine reference point or home position?
It is the point used for calibrating and controlling the
measuring system of the slides and tool movements. It is
determined by the manufacturers.
14. Mention the two types of NC dimensioning.
Absolute dimensioning: In absolute dimensioning, the
coordinates of a point in a work piece are always defined
with respect to the origin.
Incremental dimensioning: In incremental dimensioning, the
coordinates of a point in a work piece are always defined
relative to the previous point.

15. What are G-codes(preparatory functions)?

G-codes are preset function associated with the movement of
machine axes and the associated geometry. It prepares the
machine control unit for the instruction and data contained in
the block.
16. What are modal and non-modal G-codes?
Modal G-codes behave as settings to the control. Once
given they remain operational till cancelled by another G-
codes from the same group.
Non-modal G-codes remain operational in the block in
which they are programmed.
17. What are miscellaneous functions?
Miscellaneous functions operate some controls on the machine
tool and thus affect the running of the machine.

Q & A.15
18. Write the functions of the G-codes G21, G28, G71, G76.
G21 – Metric Input system; G28 – Return to Zero (Home)
G71 – Multiple turning cycle; G76 – Multiple thread cutting cycle
19. Give the functions of the M-codes M06, M30, M70, M98.
M06 – Tool change ; M30 – Program end and rewind;
M70 – X axis mirror ON; M98 – Subprogram Call
20. What is diameter programming?
Diameter programming is a programming method used in
turning centres in which all the movements of the tool along
X–axis is doubled to represent the diametral movement rather
than radial movement.
21. Define tool offset.
The difference between the tool tip position and the turret
datum is termed as tool offset.
22. Give the syntax for tool (T-word) function.
The T word has the format Tmmnn. The first two digits (mm)
specify the turret station and the last two digits (nn) specify
the location of the tool offsets.
23. What are the methods of specifying spindle feed in NC
programming?
1) G97 – Constant surface speed 2) G98 – Constant RPM
Example:
G96 S200 (Spindle speed is set at 200 m/min)
G97 S2500 (Spindle speed is set at 2500 rpm)
24. How feed is specified in NC programming?
Feed rate can be specified in two formats
1) G98 – Feed in mm/min 2) G99 – Feed in mm/rev.
Example:
G98 F2.5 (2.5 mm / minute)
G99 F1 (0.01 mm / revolution)
G99 F1.0 (1.00 mm / revolution)
G99 F100 (1.00 mm / revolution)
25. What is the difference between G00 and G01?
G00 is used for rapid positioning simultaneously in all the axes.
G01 is used for linear interpolation at a given feed rate.

Q & A.16
26. List out the various interpolation methods in NC.
Linear interpolation
Circular interpolation
Helical interpolation
Parabolic interpolation
Cubic interpolation
27. What is linear interpolation?
Linear interpolation is used for creating straight-line path. G01
is used for linear interpolation at a given feed rate.
28. What is circular interpolation? Give its syntax.
Circular interpolation is used for generating circular arc.
Syntax: G02 X_ Z_ R_ F_ (or) G03 X_ Z_ R_ F_
G02 – Circular Interpolation (Clockwise)
G03 – Circular Interpolation (Counter-clockwise)
X, Z – Coordinate values; F – Feed rate; R-Radius
29. What is canned cycle?
Canned cycle or fixed cycle may be defined as a set of
instructions, inbuilt or stored in the system memory, to perform
a fixed sequence of tool movements. Canned cycles are used
for repetitive and commonly used machining operations.
30. Mention the syntax for threading cycle.
Syntax : G92 X_ Z_ F_
G92 – Thread cutting canned cycle
X, Z – Coordinate values; F – Feed rate (pitch of the thread)
31. Give the syntax for stock removal cycle.
Syntax : G71 U_ R_
G71 P_ Q_ U_ W_ F_
G71 – Stock removal cycle (or) Multiple turning canned cycle
U = Depth of cut of each pass
R = Distance by which the tool will be withdrawn.
P = The sequence number of the first block.
Q = The sequence number of the last block.
U = Finishing allowance in X direction.
W = Finishing allowance in Y direction.
F = Feed rate

Q & A.17
32. Mention the syntax for multiple threading cycle.
Syntax : G76 X_ Z_ A_ I_ K_ D_ F_
G76 – Multiple thread cutting canned cycle
X = Core diameter of the thread
Z = Length of the thread
A = Angle of the thread
I = Thread taper (usually zero)
K = Total depth of the thread in microns
D = Depth of first cut in microns
F = Feed rate (pitch)
33. What is peck drilling?
The G74 code is used for peck drilling in Fanuc controller
system. We simply position the drill to a safe starting point
and then call the drilling cycle. The drill then drills to each
incremental peck depth and then retracts to clear the chips.
34. Give the syntax for peck drilling cycle.
Syntax : G74 X_ Z_ K_ F_
G74 – Peck drilling canned cycle
X = Finish diameter
Z = Finish Z – depth
K = Peck depth
F = Feed
35. What is tool length compensation?
The tools are measured in the assembled state using a tool
presetter. The difference in length of the tool from a fixed
datum is called tool length compensation.
36. What is subprogram?
Subprogram is an independent program with all the features
of a usual part program. The fixed sequence or frequently used
procedures are stored as subprograms under separate
program number.
37. What is the difference between subroutines and macros?
Subroutines are subprograms that are temporary in
nature and will be specific to a particular main program.

Q & A.18
 Macros are subprograms that are permanent in nature and
stored permanently in the controller memory. Therefore
macros can be called by any program.
38. Give the syntax for subroutine calling.
Syntax : M98 Prrrnnnn
M98 – Subroutine calling
rrr - number of times the subroutine is to be repeated.
nnnn - identification number of the subroutine.
39. How macros are called in NC program?
Syntax : G65 P4322 A_ B_ C_ . . . . . .
P4322 specifies the subprogram number to be called
A, B, C, etc. are word addresses used for assigning arguments.
40. What is mirror imaging?
In the part program for symmetric geometries, the blocks in
the program are repeated with small changes. The program
can be simplified by using the mirror imaging facility which
changes the sign of the dimensions of the particular axis
whose mirroring is specified.
41. Define pocketing.
Pocketing or pocket milling is the process of removing the
material inside a closed boundary on a flat surface of a work
piece to a specified depth.
42. What is Rapid Prototyping (RP)?
Rapid prototyping is the automatic construction of physical
objects using subtractive or additive manufacturing
technology.
43. What is subtractive manufacturing?
It is a process by which 3D objects are constructed by
successively cutting material away from a solid block of
material.
44. What is additive manufacturing?
It is a process by which 3D objects are constructed by
successively adding layers of liquid, powder, or sheet
material and joining them together to create the final shape.
Q & A.19
45. List out the various prototyping technologies.
Selective laser sintering (SLS)
Fused deposition modelling (FDM)
Stereolithography (SLA)
Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
Electron beam melting (EBM)
3D printing (3DP)
Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)
46. List out the materials used in rapid prototyping.
Metal powders, Thermoplastics, Photopolymer, Paper,
Titanium alloys, etc.
47. List out the applications of rapid prototyping.
Rapid manufacturing Visualization
Metal casting Architecture
Education Geospatial
Healthcare Entertainment
Retail Biotechnology
Jewelry Footwear
Industrial design Automotive
Aerospace Archaeology
Dental and medical industries
48. List out the advantages of rapid prototyping.
1) Easier to find the design errors.
2) Design changes can be made easily.
3) Gives the fair idea about the final product.
4) Development time and cost are reduced.
5) Product quality is improved.
6) Better communication between user and designer.
49. Define virtual machining.
Virtual machining is the simulation of the machining program
on the computer to verify the program.

Q & A.20
 Unit – IV
FLEXIBILE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS,
AUTOMATIC GUIDED VEHICLE,
AS/RS AND ROBOT
1. What is FMS?
Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) is a highly automated
GT machine cell. It consists of a group of machine tools,
interconnected by automated material handling and storage
system, and controlled by a central computer.
2. List out the components of FMS.
1) Processing stations or work stations
2) Material handling and storage system
3) Computer control system
4) Human labour
3. List out the various FMS layout configurations.
1) Inline layout 2) Loop layout 3) Ladder layout
4) Open field layout 5) Robot centered layout
4. State the difference between inline layout and loop layout?
In inline layout, the machines and handling system are
arranged in a straight line.
In loop layout, the workstations are arranged in a loop that
is served by a part transport system in the same shape.
5. How FMS is classified?
1) Flexible turning cell (FTC)
2) Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC)
3) Flexible Transfer Line (FTL)
4) Flexible Machining System (FMS)
6. What is flexible turning cell?
Flexible turning cell consists of one CNC turning centre
combined with a parts storage system.

Q & A.21
7. What is flexible manufacturing cell?
Flexible manufacturing cell consists of two or three CNC
machine tools interfaced with automated material handling
and automatic tool changers.

8. What are the applications of FMS?

1) Machining operations such as milling, turning, drilling, etc.
2) Assembly of parts 3) Sheet metal press working
4) Forging & Welding 5) Inspection and testing
9. List out the benefits of FMS.
1) Increased machine utilization
2) Fewer machines are required
3) Reduced human intervention
4) Reduced work-in-process inventory
5) Reduced manufacturing lead time
6) Improved quality and reduced scrap rate
7) Reduction in factory floor space requirements
10. What is intelligent manufacturing?
Intelligent manufacturing system is one in which computer
based Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques are used for
manufacturing products.
11. Define Artificial Intelligence (AI)?
Artificial Intelligence is the ability of a device to perform
functions that are normally associated with human
intelligence. These functions include reasoning, planning and
problem solving.
12. What is an expert system?
An expert system can be defined as an interactive computer
program with an expert-like performance in a particular
problem-solving area.
13. Define AGV.
An automated guided vehicle (AGV) is a material handling
equipment, which can be independently operated and guided
along defined pathways in the factory floor.

Q & A.22
14. List out the components in AGV.
1) Vehicle guidance system 2) Vehicle routing system
3) Traffic control system
15. Mention the technologies used for guidance in AGV.
Guide wire method
Paint strip method
Self guided vehicles
16. List out the types of AGV.
1) Towing vehicles 2) Unit load carriers
3) Pallet trucks 4) Fork trucks
5) Light load vehicles 6) Assembly line vehicles
17. List out the applications of AGV.
1) Driverless train operations 2) Storage and distribution
3) Assembly line application 4) Flexible manufacturing system
5) Office mail delivery 6) Hospital material transport
18. List out the benefits of AGV.
1) Better resource utilization
2) Increased control over material flow and movement
3) Reduced product damage
4) Less material movement noise
5) Flexibility in routing
6) Reduction in floor space
7) Reduced work-in-process inventory
8) Reduction in direct labour requirements
19. What is AS/RS?
Automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS) is used to
control inventories, keep track of parts and materials in
process or transit.
20. What are the types of AS/RS?
1) Unit load AS/RS 2) Deep-lane AS/RS
3) Miniload AS/RS 4) Man-on-board AS/RS
5) Automated item retrieval system
6) Vertical lift storage moules (VLSM)

Q & A.23
21. List out the benefits of AS/RS.
1) Better space utilization 2) Less direct and indirect labour
3) Reduced inventories 4) Less energy consumption
5) Less product damage 6) Less equipment damage
7) Better management control
22. Define robot.
Robot is a programmed multi-function manipulator designed to
move material, parts, tools or special devices for the
performance of variety of tasks.
23. What are the basic elements in robot?
1) Base 2) Manipulator 3) End effectors
4) Actuators 5) Transmission elements 6) Control system
7) Sensors 8) Interfaces
24. What are end effectors?
End effector is a device attached with the robot’s wrist to
perform specific task. The end effectors may be a gripper or a
tool.
25. List out the various robot configurations.
Polar coordinate configuration
Cylindrical coordinate configuration
Cartesian coordinate configuration
Jointed arm configuration
SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) configuration
26. Mention the various robot motions.
1) Vertical traverse 2) Radial traverse 3) Rotational traverse
4) Wrist swivel 5) Wrist bend 6) Wrist yaw
27. Mention the methods of robot programming.
1) Manual method 2) Walkthrough method
3) Leadthrough method 4) Off-line programming
28. List out the advantages of off-line programming.
Production time is not lost due to delays in teaching the robot.
Programming can be done while the robot is still in operation.
Higher utilization of the robot and the equipment.

Q & A.24
29. List out the various robot sensors.
1) Vision sensors 2) Tactile sensors
3) proximity sensors 4) Voice sensors
30. What are the uses of vision sensors?
Retrieve parts which are randomly oriented.
Recognize parts which are intermixed with other objects
Perform visual inspection tasks
Perform assembly operations which require alignment
31. What are the uses of tactile and proximity sensors?
Tactile sensors are useful in assembly and inspection
operations.
Proximity sensors are used to sense when one object is
close to another object.
32. What are the types of grippers used as end effectors?
1) Mechanical grippers 2) Vacuum grippers
3) Magnetic grippers 4) Expanding grippers
5) Adhesive gripper 6) Hook gripper
33. List out the tools used as end effectors in robot.
Spot welding gun, arc welding tool, spray painting gun,
rotating spindle for drilling, grinding, and similar operations,
assembly tool, heating torch, ladle, water jet cutting tool, etc.

34. List out any three motion commands used in robot

porgramming.
MOVE A – Moves the robot to the location specified by the
variable A.
DEPART 40 – Moves the tool back from its current position to
40mm along Z-axis.
ALIGN – Aligns the tool Z-coordinate to the nearest robot
world coordinate system.
SPEED 40 – Specifies the speed of robot motions.
35. List out any four commands used to control program
execution in robot programming.
EXECUTE PRG1 – Executes the program named PRG1.

Q & A.25
 GOTO 80 – Transfers the control of the program to label 80.
GOSUB PICK1 – Go to subprogram PICK1.
EXIT – Exits the program
DELAY 20 – Makes the robot idle for 20 seconds.
36. List out the characteristics of robot applications.
Hazardous work
Repetitive work cycle
Difficult handling
Multishift work
Infrequent changeovers
37. List out the industrial applications of robot.
1) Material transfer 2) Machine loading 3) Welding
4) Spray coating 6) Assembly 6) Inspection

Unit – V
CONCURRENT ENGINEERING,
QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT,
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT CYCLE,
AND AUGMENTED REALITY
1. Define sequential engineering.
Sequential engineering is a traditional method of product
development in which product design, development of
manufacturing process, quality and testing activities are
carried out one after another.

2. Define concurrent engineering.

Concurrent engineering is a method by which several teams
within an organization work simultaneously to develop new
products.

Q & A.26
3. What is the need of concurrent engineering?
Increasing global competitive pressure.
Need for rapid response to fast-changing consumer demand.
Shorter product life cycle.
New and innovative technologies developing at a very high
rate.
4. List out the benefits of concurrent engineering.
1) Optimized design can be obtained
2) Design errors can be detected and rectified easily
3) Reduced product development time
4) Reduced production cost
5) Increased productivity
6) Improved quality of product
7) Increased reliability
8) Improved customer-supplier relations
5. Define Quality Function Deployment (QFD) ?
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a systematic approach to
translate the customers needs into product characteristics for
each stage of product development.
6. What are the phases in QFD?
1) Product planning 2) Product design
3) Process design 4) Process control
7. What is House of Quality (HOQ) ?
House of Quality is a diagram used for defining the relationship
between customer needs and the product capabilities. It looks
like a house.
8. List out the advantages of QFD.
Improves customer-supplier relations
Decreases midstream design change.
Reduces the development cost
Reduces the cycle time for new products
Improves team work
Creates data for proper documentation
improves quality of product
Reduces rejection and rework
Increases the sales revenue

Q & A.27
9. What is Failure Modes and Effects Analysis?
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) is methodology
used to identify potential failure modes, determine their effect
on the operation of the product, and identify actions to reduce
the failures.
10. When to use FMEA?
During the development of a new product
Before changes are made to the product
After identifying an error in the product.
When new regulations are introduced.
When receiving number of complaints from customers.
When sales support cost is unusually high.
11. What is RPN?
RPN stands for Risk Priority Number which is used FMEA to
rank the failure modes.
RPN = (Severity) x (Probability) x (Detection).
12. List out the benefits of FMEA.
Improves product reliability and quality
Increases customer satisfaction
Improves team work
Reduces product development time and cost
Minimizes late changes and associated cost
Reduces failure and warranty costs
Maximizes profit.
13. Define value engineering.
Value engineering (VE) is a process of improving the value of
a product during its design stage by using an organized
creative approach.
14. Define value.
Value is defined as the ratio of function to cost. Value can be
increased by either improving the function or reducing the cost.
15. List out the types of values?
1) Cost value 2) Use value 3) Esteem value
4) Exchange value 5) Time value 6) Place value

Q & A.28
16. Mention any two techniques used for identification of
poor value areas.
1) Value tests 2) Function – cost matrix approach
17. List out the benefits of value engineering.
1) Reduced unit cost.
2) Improved operational performance
3) Improved product quality
4) Reduced manufacturing costs
5) Elimination of wastage
6) Encourages team spirit and morale
7) Improved customer-supplier relations
8) Reduced number of parts in a product
18. Define DFMA.
Design for Manufacture and Assembly is a methodology used
to simplify a product design and manufacturing process to
achieve cost savings.
19. List out the benefits of DFMA.
1) Reduced number of parts in a product
2) Improved product quality
3) Reduced manufacturing costs and time
4) Elimination of wastage
5) Encourages team spirit and morale
20. Mention the activities in product development cycle?
1) Developing product concept 2) Designing the product
3) Planning 4) Manufacturing the part
5) Marketing 6) Servicing
21. List out the stages in product life cycle.
1) Introduction 2) Growth 3) Maturity 4) Decline
22. List out the stages in new product development
process.
1) Idea generation 2) Idea screening
3) Concept testing 4) Business analysis
5) Product development 6) Test marketing
7) Commercialization

Q & A.29
23. What is Augmented Reality?
Augmented reality (AR) is a technology that superimposes
a computer-generated input on a user's real world. Graphics,
sounds, and touch feedback are added into natural world.
24. List out the display devices used in AR.
Head-mounted display, eyeglasses, Google Glass, HoloLens,
Contact lenses, Virtual retinal display.
25. What are the software used in AR?
Augmented Reality Markup Language (ARML) is a data
standard used to describe the location and appearance of
virtual objects in the scene. A few Software development kits
such as CloudRidAR, ARToolKit, Mobinett AR, Wikitude, and
Meta are used.
26. List out the important fields of application of AR.
1) Architecture 2) Visual art 3) Education
4) Video games 5) Industrial design 6) Medical
7) Military 8) Broadcast

Q & A.30
 COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
MODEL QUESTION PAPER – I
Time: 3 Hrs. Max Marks : 100

[N.B: (1) Answer all 10 questions from PART – A. Each question

carries 3 marks.
(2) Answer division (a) or division (b) of each question in
PART-B. Each question carries 14 marks.]

PART – A

[10 × 3 = 30 Marks]

1. Define CAD.
2. What are the advantages of solid modelling?
3. What are the benefits of CAM?
4. Write short notes on JIT.
5. What are G-Codes and M-Codes?
6. What are the applications of rapid prototyping.
7. Write short notes on FTC.
8. What are end effectors?
9. Compare sequential Vs concurrent engineering?
10. Describe product life cycle.

PART – B

[5 × 14 = 70 Marks]

11.(a) Briefly explain 2D and 3D transformations. (14)

(Or)
(b) (i) Explain DDA algorithm. (6)
(ii) Explain IGES graphics standard. (8)

QP.1
12.(a) (i) Explain the concept of CIM. (7)
(ii) Explain material requirements planning. (7)
(Or)
(b) Briefly explain any two part classification and
coding systems. (14)

13.(a) Explain with an example, the ISO designation of

tooling in CNC. (14)
(Or)
(b) Explain the stock removal canned cycle with an
example. (14)

14.(a) (i) Explain the types of AS/RS. (6)

(ii) Explain various robot configurations. (8)
(Or)
(b) Briefly explain FMS layouts. (14)

15.(a) (i) What are the needs of concurrent engineering? (6)

(ii) Explain the guidelines for DFMA. (8)
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain quality function deployment. (7)
(ii) Explain AR concepts and its applications. (7)

QP.2
 COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
MODEL QUESTION PAPER – II

Time: 3 Hrs. Max Marks : 100

[N.B: (1) Answer all 10 questions from PART – A. Each question

carries 3 marks.
(2) Answer division (a) or division (b) of each question in
PART-B. Each question carries 14 marks.]

PART – A

[10 × 3 = 30 Marks]

1. What is GKS? State its objectives.

2. What are the advantages of FEA?
3. Define part families.
4. Describe material requirements planning.
5. What is meant by peck drilling. Give an example.
6. Define virtual machining.
7. List out the benefits of AS/RS.
8. Explain about vacuum grippers in robot.
9. State the advantages of DFMA.
10. What are the applications of AR?

PART – B

[5 × 14 = 70 Marks]

11.(a) Explain the Bresenham’s circle algorithm with an

example. (14)
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain the activities of CAD. (7)
(ii) Explain constructive solid geometry. (7)
QP.3
12.(a) (i) Define group technology. Explain the various coding
structures. (6)
(ii) Explain the generative type CAPP. (8)
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain master production schedule. (7)
(ii) Explain shop floor control. (7)

13.(a) (i) Explain the NC dimensioning methods. (7)

(ii) Explain mirroring with an example. (7)
(Or)
(b) Explain the canned cycle programming used in
thread cutting with an example. (14)

14.(a) Explain the working principle of AGV. (14)

(Or)
(b) (i) Explain intelligent manufacturing system. (7)
(ii) Briefly explain the industrial applications of robot. (7)

15.(a) (i) Explain the various types of values. (6)

(ii) Explain the steps in FMEA. (8)
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain the techniques for identification of poor
value areas. (6)
(ii) Explain the product life cycle. (8)

QP.4
KINDLY EXTEND YOUR
SUPPORT BY ORDERING
PRINTED BOOKS IN

KAL
PATHIPPAGAM
!
THANK YOU !