EE 467:

POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION &

CONTROL

Chapter 2: Frequency and Active Load

Control

Dr. E. K. ANTO
 Learning Objectives
• Understand the concept of automatic load-frequency control
(ALFC), and the dependence of power system frequency on active
(or real) power demand
• Appreciate the methods used to increase the transmittable
real/active power in transmission lines, i.e., how to increase the
transmission capacity
• Appreciate the control or management of active power in the
generation and transmission systems
• Understand the dependence of power system losses on load
flows, and how these losses can be reduced
• Solve examples on active power generation in plants, as well as
active power flows in lines
2
•Start of CHAPTER 2
 Chapter 2 – Contents
• Introduction – Objectives of Normal Power System Operation

• Active Power Management in The Generation System

• Active Power Management In The Transmission System

• Active Power Management In The Distribution Network

4
•INTRODUCTION
 2.1: Introduction – Objectives of NORMAL
Power System Operation
1. Maintenance of active power balance

2. Control of frequency

3. Maintenance of reactive power balance

4. Control of voltage profile

5. Maintenance of “optimum” generation schedule (economic

dispatch)

6. Maintenance of “optimum” power routing (load flow analysis)

6
 2.1: Introduction (2) – Guiding Equation
Between Generation, Demand and Losses
• In normal or steady-state power system operation, the following
equation must be maintained:
GENERATION = DEMAND + LOSSES

• Any IMBALANCE between this equation will affect EITHER

frequency regulation OR voltage regulation

• Under STEADY-STATE OR NORMAL conditions

FREQUENCY CONTROL is an issue of ACTIVE POWER BALANCE
between generation and demand
VOLTAGE CONTROL is an issue of REACTIVE POWER BALANCE
between generation and demand 7
•ACTIVE POWER (P-GENERATED)
MANAGEMENT IN THE
GENERATION SYSTEM
(For control of system frequency)
 2.2: Control of Frequency
• The CONTROL OF FREQUENCY is an issue of ACTIVE POWER
BALANCE between generation & demand

• As the active load of the power system varies, the speed of the
synchronous generators tends to change
This is due to the mechanical coupling between the generator rotor and the turbine, where an increase in load requires more mechanical power input to
maintain synchronous speed.

• This change in speed gives rise to a change in frequency of the

system in accordance with the relation

• The change in speed is sensed by the speed governors, which operate to

activate the controls
9
 2.2: Control of Frequency (2)
• The automatic control of power system frequency under normal state
of operation is closely intertwined with the problem of real power
balance between generation and demand.

• A sudden shift or change in frequency is a sure sign of real power

generation-demand imbalance

• The automatic load frequency control (ALFC) system is a control

system that is employed to accomplish the task of regulating/controlling
the frequency

10
•THE A.L.F.C. SYSTEM
 2.3 The ALFC System
-SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM-

• The parameter that best gives a clue about imbalance

between the real power generation and demand is the frequency.
• And so the generation-load control or regulation is initiated
by measuring the frequency
12
 2.3 The ALFC System (2)
-THE PROCESS-
• A frequency sensor-comparator senses the actual system frequency
and compares it with a reference frequency (50 Hz in Ghana).

• A frequency error signal is generated, and is given by

• A transducer amplifies the error signal into an actuating command

which is sent on to the input to prime mover, i.e., turbine

• The input may be EITHER steam valve (in case of thermal plant), OR
gate (in case of hydro plant)

• Three (3) GENERATION-DEMAND CASES may be considered: 13

2.3.1 Case 1: Demand EQUALS generation, i.e.

• If the load demand is practically met by the generation, there will be

no change in speed of the generating unit, and

• Hence the frequency does not change.

• thus implies the actual system frequency equals the

reference frequency and the demand is well balanced by
generation

• ACTION: In this case, NO CHANGES WILL NEED TO BE

EFFECTED in the generation 14
2.3.2 Case 2: Demand LESS THAN generation
(Generation Surplus), that is,

• If the demand is significantly less than generation (generation surplus),

then the generating unit will TEND to increase in speed

• Subsequently, the frequency will also tend to increase

• A positive error frequency signal thus indicates a reduction

in demand

• ACTION: corrective measure involves a REDUCTION IN THE

GENERATOR OUTPUT , i.e., closing of the steam valve (or gate). 15
2.3.2 Case 3: Demand GREATER THAN generation
(Generation Deficit), that is,

• If the demand is significantly more than generation (generation

deficit), the generating unit will TEND to decrease in speed

• Subsequently, the frequency will also tend to decrease

• A negative error frequency signal thus indicates an increase

in demand over generation.

• ACTIONS: Three (3) CORRECTIVE MEASURES are possible 16

2.3.2 Case 3: Demand GREATER THAN generation
(2)-Corrective ACTIONS/MEASURES

1. Increase in generator output, through increase in fuel input, i.e.,

opening steam valve (thermal) or gate (hydro)

2. Importation of power (from neighbouring country – provided

power is available; this also reinforces the essence of power
system interconnection)

3. Load shedding (as last resort!!!)

17
•THE TURBINE-GOVERNOR
CONTROL SYSTEM
 2.4 Turbine-Governor Control System for
Real Load Regulation
• Let an increase in turbine mechanical power result from an increase
in the reference power setting , and a decrease in frequency

• For small and slow (static or steady-state) increments, we can write

• (Eqn1)

• R is referred to as regulation or droop constant

• Two (2) NETWORK CASES may be considered

19
 2.4.1 Case 1: INFINITE NETWORK
(ideal network)
• An INFINITE NETWORK is a network whose frequency is
independent of changes in power output of individual generator

• In other words, frequency is hypothetically or ideally assumed to

be constant, that is,

• The turbine-governor control Eqn (1) reduces to

20
 2.4.1 Example 1: Infinite Network

• A 100 MW generator is operated into an infinite network. How

would you make this generator increase its turbine power by 5 MW?

• Solution 1:
• Since the network is infinite,

• Thus from the Eqn 1,

• IMPLICATION: Simply give A RAISE SIGNAL OF 5 MW to the

speed-changer motor
21
 2.4.2 Case 2: FINITE NETWORK
(real network)
• A FINITE NETWORK is one whose frequency is variable.

• However, the speed-changer setting is kept constant, that is,

• The turbine-governor control Eqn 1 reduces to

22
 2.4.2 Example 2: Finite Network
• Consider the 100 MW generator of Example 1. It has a regulation parameter of 4%
(0.04 pu). By how much will the turbine power change, if the frequency drops by 0.1 Hz
with the reference power setting unchanged?
• Solution 2:
• Reference power setting is unchanged (finite system) implies that
• Thus,
• NOTE: R is given in per unit, and must be changed to actual Hz/MW value, so
•

• Substituting,

• Hence,

• IMPLICATION: For a 0.1 Hz frequency DROP in a finite network, the turbine power
must INCREASE by 5 MW 23
 2.4.2 Example 3: Finite Network
• Two generators are supplying power to a finite system. Their power ratings
are and . The frequency is 60 Hz and the generator is
half-loaded. The system load increases by 110 MW, and as a result, the
frequency drops to 59.5 Hz. What must the individual regulations be, if the
two generators should increase their turbine powers in proportion to
their ratings?
• Solution 3:
• (a) For a finite system, . Furthermore, generators should increase
their turbine powers in proportion to their ratings. Thus

24
 2.4.2 Example 3: Finite Network (2)
But

Solving (*) and (**) simultaneously, and

NOTE: The two generators must pick up extra 10 MW and 100 MW

respectively

(b) Regulation constant for smaller Unit 1 is

Expressed in per unit,

25
 2.4.2 Example 3: Finite Network (3)
(c) Regulation constant for bigger Unit 2 is

Expressed in per unit,

NOTES:
(i) If we express the regulation in per unit, then regulation constant
is the same for both units
(ii)Generators working in parallel on the same network ought to
have the same per unit regulation (expressed in per unit of their
own ratings), in order to SHARE LOAD changes IN
PROPORTION TO THEIR SIZE OR RATINGS.
26
 •ACTIVE POWER (P-FLOW)
MANAGEMENT IN THE
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
(For Maximizing Transmittable
Power/Transmission Capacity AND
Minimizing Line Losses)
 2.5: Active Line Power Flow and Its Control
• Consider the simplified model of a transmission line (assumed lossless)
• We refer to the known active power flow equation between two ends of a
line, having voltage V1 and V2 and separated by a reactance X:

• DEDUCTIONS:
i. The active power flow depends on the PRODUCT of the magnitude of
the end-point voltage phasors
ii. Because the product of the two voltages is always positive, active power
flow will always be positive
iii. That is, active line power flow will always be from sending-end to
receiving-end 28
 2.5: Active Line Power Flow and Its Control
(2)

• DEDUCTIONS (CONTINUED)
i. A positive , that is, leading , results in megawatt flow in
direction left to right, i.e., from the sending-end to the
receiving-end.
ii. But if leads , the power becomes negative, that is, power is
transmitted in the reverse direction from right to left, i.e., from the
receiving-end to the sending-end.
iii. In short, real power flow is FROM the point with the most
leading angle TO the point with the most lagging angle
29
 2.5: Active Line Power Flow and Its Control
(3)

• DEDUCTIONS (CONTINUED)
iv. Real power (MW) and reactive power (VAR) flows need not be in
the same direction
v. The maximum transmittable real power flow is given as

vi. This maximum value is also called the static stability or thermal
limit of the line
30
 2.5.1: Example 4: Maximum Permissible
Active Power Flow
• Find the maximum transmittable power over a 20-km line transmitting 1000
MW power at a transmission voltage of 20 kV. Assume the line reactance
, and neglect line resistance.
• Solution 4:
• Assuming no change in the sending-end and receiving-end voltages, the
maximum 3-phase transmittable power is
•

• NOTES:
i. This value is well below the intended power of 1000 MW to be
transmitted.
ii. What it means is that one cannot wheel a bulk power of 1000 MW
through this 20 kV LV line.
iii. It would rather require an HV line (over 100 kV & 100 km) 31
 •Maximizing Transmittable
Power/Transmission Capacity
 2.6: How to increase the static stability limit

1. Increasing the transmission voltage

i. change of transmission voltage will demand change of line insulators,
tower heights, switchgear, etc
ii. expensive to undertake

2. Reducing the line reactance through

I. installation of another parallel line (Issues: right-of-way ROW,
availability of funds?)
II. conductor bundling
III. series compensation – addition of capacitance in series with line
33
•ACTIVE LINE LOSSES & ITS CONTROL
 2.7: Active Line Power Losses & Its Control
• Refer to the deduced active line power loss equation:

• This loss formula reveals the following:

i. both real and reactive line power flows contribute to the active power
losses
ii. real line power losses are proportional to the sum of the squares of
the line flows (both real and reactive flows)
iii. Real power losses are inversely proportional to the square of the
voltage magnitude
iv. There is thus a double reason for the use of high transmission
voltages.
35
•Minimizing Line Losses
 2.8: Measures to Reduce Active Line Power
Losses
• Refer again to the deduced active line power loss equation:

1. Minimize the line flows (P-flow & Q-flow)

P-flow minimization – via distributed generation (localized
generation, as opposed to centralized generation) with use of
renewable energy sources (RES) like solar PV systems, wind plants, mini-hydro
plants, etc.
Q-flow minimization – via local compensation

2. Increase transmission voltage

3. Reduce line resistance – practically through reconductoring / use of bigger

37
conductor sizes
 •ACTIVE POWER (P-DEMAND)
MANAGEMENT IN THE
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
(Use of so-called Brownout Effect)
 2.9: Voltage and Frequency Dependency of
Loads
• An important feature characterizing all loads is their
dependency on voltage and frequency.

• During faults and other abnormal situations, the voltage may

vary greatly, resulting in major load fluctuations.

• Even minor changes in voltage and frequency can cause load

changes of practical significance.

• We shall discuss two important load types, namely, impedance loads

and motor loads. 39
•VOLTAGE DEPENDENCY OF
IMPEDANCE LOADS
 2.9.1: Voltage Dependency of Impedance
Loads
• Lighting, heaters and similar loads fall under the category of
impedance loads,
• It is desired to know by how many percent the real load will
change if the voltage on an impedance load is changed by a
certain percentage.
• Consider the relevant power equations:

• Clearly, the real and reactive loads are proportional to the

square of the voltage magnitude. 41
 2.9.1: Voltage Dependency of Impedance
Loads (2)
• For a small voltage change , we have for the real power

• OR

• (Eqn 2)

• Eqn (2) shows that a small relative change in voltage results in

twice the relative change in active power.
42
 2.9.1: Voltage Dependency of Impedance
Loads (3) – Example 5
• Example 5
• Consider an inductive load of impedance . By how many percent will the
real load drop if the voltage is reduced by 1%.
•
• Solution 5

•
• HENCE: a 1 % drop in voltage causes a 2 % drop in active load.
43
•FREQUENCY DEPENDENCY OF
IMPEDANCE LOADS
 2.9.2: Frequency Dependency of Impedance
Loads
• The reactance depends on the frequency according to the relation
• Thus from Eqn (2), we have

• Or,

45
 2.9.2: Frequency Dependency of Impedance
Loads (2)
• Rearranging the last expression, we obtain

• Noting that,

• The equation reduces to Eqn (3)

• NOTE:
The negative sign in Eqn (3) indicates that a relative increase in
frequency leads to a relative decrease in active load demand, and
vice versa.
46
 2.9.2: Frequency Dependency of Impedance
Loads (3) – Example 6
• How would a 1% drop in frequency affect the real load in the previous example,
if the load is assumed to have a power factor of 0.8?
• Solution 6:
• Using the relevant eqn,
•
• For a power factor, then
• Thus

• HENCE: a1 % drop or reduction in frequency results in a 0.72 % increase in

load.
47
•VOLTAGE DEPENDENCY OF
MOTOR/MOTIVE LOADS
 2.9.3: Voltage Dependency of Motor Loads
Example 7
• Induction motor load dominates the group of motor loads.

• Its dependence upon voltage and frequency is somewhat more

complicated to analyse.
•
• We demonstrate it better with an Example 7.

• A 480 V 3-phase induction motor powers a compressor whose torque is

assumed to be speed-independent. The motor runs at an initial speed
corresponding to a per-unit slip of . How will the motor load
change, if the voltage drops by 1 %? 49
 2.9.3: Voltage Dependency of Motor Loads
Solution 7
• The equivalent per-phase circuit of the induction motor is shown below,
neglecting the magnetizing impedance.

50
 2.9.3: Voltage Dependency of Motor Loads
Solution 7 (2)
• The developed motor torque is

• For a constant power output, the relationship between different slips for
different voltages is given by the equation

• From the data, , ,

• The new slip is

• The real power drawn from the network equals 51

 2.9.3: Voltage Dependency of Motor Loads
Solution 7 (3)
• The stator (input) current is obtained as

• Using the numerical values given for the equivalent circuit, we obtain

• NOTES:
i. The 1 % voltage drop causes a 0.84 % current rise, quite a typical
situation in the case of an induction motor.
ii. Remember the opposite situation in the case of an impedance
load.
52
 2.9.3: Voltage Dependency of Motor Loads
Solution 7 (4)
• Finally, we obtain the following:

• NOTES:
i. The motor will reduce its power drain by only (0.002x100%)=0.2 %
power reduction in case of motor load for a 1% voltage drop. This is
the so-called brownout effect
ii. Compare the 2 % power reduction in the case of an impedance load. 53
 2.9.3: Voltage Dependency of Motor Loads
Solution 7 (5)

• NOTES:
iii. Impedance loads thus give a better power reduction than motor
loads under such brownout conditions.

iv. Explanation of “BROWNOUT EFFECT”:

The brownout effect is the phenomenon of intentional or
unintentional slight drop or reduction in system voltage, which
primarily has the effect of reducing power demand on the system,
and also results in reduced illumination (brownout)
54
•EXERCISES
 2.10: EXERCISES
1) Discuss, with the aid of a schematic diagram, how the control of the power system
frequency is achieved by regulation of the generator output.
2)State any FOUR aims of power system operation.
3)Explain the relevance of series and shunt compensations in a power system
4)Two generators rated and are supplying power to a 50 Hz
finite system. If the system load increases by 180 MW, resulting in a drop in frequency
to 49.85 Hz, and the two generators should increase their turbine powers in
proportion to their ratings, determine the respective
i. generations of the two machines to accommodate the load increase .
ii. regulation constants of the machines.
5)Using (don’t deduce) the appropriate equations, explain how
iii. transmission capacity of a line can be increased
iv. losses in a line can be reduced
6) Explain the “brownout effect” 56
 End of CHAPTER 2

Jan 2014