DETERMINANTS OF GIRL-CHILD ENROLMENT IN SOME

SELECTED FEMALE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN SOKOTO

METROPOLIS.

BY

ADEDURO OLUWABIYI JOSEPH

PDE/5519/2016

BEING A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO

CENTRE FOR CONTINUING EDUCATION,
SHEHU SHAGARI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, SOKOTO
IN AFFILIATION WITH AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY ZARIA

SEPTEMBER 2017

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 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project was carried out by me and has been read and duly approved as

meeting the requirements for the award of Professional Diploma in Education (PDE).

Mal. HARANDE Date

(Project Supervisor)

Dean Education Date

Director Date
Centre for Continuing Education

ExternalExaminer Date

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 DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to God Almighty, the source of our strength who has been a source of

guidance throughout this great academic pursuit and to my parents (MR & MRS ADEDURO)

for their moral, spiritual, who has been the source of inspiration and financial supports.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Myspecial gratitude goes to Almighty God, the beneficent and the merciful, who in his

grace and infinite mercy saw me through this one year programme and through this project.

A well deserve appreciation goes to my ever-loving parent (MR and MRS ADEDURO)

for their prayers and supports both spiritually, emotionally and morally. I shall forever be

grateful and pray you live to reap the fruit of your labour. You are the best parent ever.

Sincere appreciations goes to my indefatigableproject supervisor Dr. HARANDE for his

fatherly advice, constructive corrections, unflinching support and painstakingly guidance and
direction toward the success of this project. Also my appreciations goes to all lecturers who have
impacted positively in our life during this great programme.
I will like to appreciate my amiable brother Adeduro Adebowale M., Hannah, Taiwo, Kehinde,
Idowu and my lovely Royal family and all PDE students.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
Title Page
Certification…………………………………………………………………………………….....ii
Dedication…………………………………………………………………………………….......iii
Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………………..iv
Table of Content………………………………………………………………………………..v-vi
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………....viii
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………...ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study……………………………………………………………….....1
1.2 Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………………........4
1.3 Purpose of the Study………………………………………………………………….......4
1.4 Significance of the Study………………………………………………………….……...4
1.5 Research Questions………………………………………………………………….........5
1.6 Hypothesis………………………………………………………………………………...5
.1.7 Scope of Study…………………………………………………………………….….......5
1.9 Definition of Terms………………………………………………………….…………...6
CHAPTER TWO: Review of Related Literature
2.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………..7
2.2 Concept of Education ……………………………………………………………….......7
2.3 Women in Education…………………………………………………………………….7
2.4 Girl Child Education (Who Is a Girl)……………………………………………………8
2.5 Rights of the Girl-Child………………………………………………………………….8
2.6 Enrolment of Girl Child Students in Secondary School………………………………....9
2.7 Women Education in Sokoto Metropolis………………………………………………..9
2.8 Access to education……………………………………………………………………..13
2.9 Strategies for the implementation of balanced education in Nigeria……………………14
2.10 Relevance of Girl-child student Education……………………………………………...16
2.11 Problems of Girl-child student Education in Nigeria……………………………………20
2.12 Barriers to Girls’ Education……………………………………………………………...22

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 2.13 Girl Child Education in Nigeria……………………………………………………….....22
2.14 The Determinants of Girl Child Enrolment in Secondary School…………………….....23
2.14.1 Effects of Socio-economic factors of girl child enrolment in secondary schools…..........23
2.14.2 Effects of socio-cultural factors on girl child enrolment in secondary schools………….24
2.14.3 Religious factor affecting girl child enrolment in female secondary schools………...….25
2.14.4 Effects of parents level of education on girl-child enrolment on secondary schools…....25
2.15 Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………………………..26
2.16 Conceptual Frame Work…………………………………………………………...…….27
2.17 Summary of the Review of Related Literature..........................................................…....28
CHAPTER THREE: Research Methodology
3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………29
3.2 Research Design………………………………………………………………………….29
3.3 Sources of Data………………………………………………………………………..…29
3.4 Population and sample…………………………………………………………………...29
3.5 Instrument for data collection……………………………………………………………29
3.6 Validity of the Research Instrument………………………………………………….….30
3.7 Reliability of the Research Instrument…………………………………………………..30
3.8 Procedure for Data Collection…………………………………………………………...30
3.9 Method of Data Analysis………………………………………………………………...30
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSES
4.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………31
4.1 Analysis of Questionnaire Returned……………………………………………………..31
4.1.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents…………………………………………...31
4.2 Descriptive Analysis……………………………………………………………………..34
4.2.1 Answering of Research Question………………………………………………………..34
4.3 Hypothesis Testing………………………………………………………………………37
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..41
5.2 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………….41
5.3 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………….43
5.4 Recommendations and Suggestion……………………………………………………………44

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REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………..45
APPENDIX……………………………………………………………………………………....49

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Frequency and Distribution on Questionnaire Issued and Returned…………………..31
Table 2: Frequency Distribution and Percentage Equivalent on Gender………………………..32
Table 3: Frequency Distribution and Percentage Equivalent on Age…………………………...32
Table 4: Frequency Distribution and Percentage Equivalent of Religion……………………....32
Table 5: Frequency Distribution and Percentage Equivalent on Parental qualification………...33
Table 6: Frequency Distribution and Percentage Equivalent on parental occupation…………..33
Table 7: Economic factors influencing girl-child enrolment in Sokoto metropolis…………….34
Table 8: Educational background influencing girl-child enrolment in Sokoto metropolis……..35
Table 9: Religious factors influencing girl-child enrolment in Sokoto metropolis……………..36
Table 10: Cultural factors influencing girl-child enrolment in Sokoto metropolis……………..36
Table 11: Result of t-test statistical analysis on economic factors……………………………...37
Table 12: Result of t-test statistical analysis on parental educational background factors……..38

Table 13: Result of t-test statistical analysis on religious factors………………………………39

Table 14: Result of t-test statistical analysis on socio-cultural factors…………………………40

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 ABSTRACT

Enhancing girl-child enrolment in female secondary school is majorly based on socio-economic,

socio-cultural, educational background of the parent, religious factors. The study purposed to
establish the extent to which the determinants of girl-child enrolment in female secondary school
affect Sokoto metropolis. Four research questions were formulated to guide the study. Literature
reviewed was discussed in the light of the variables affecting girl-child enrolment in female
secondary school. The target population of the study was 200 girl-child from the selected
secondary school in the metropolis. The sampling was used to get from the four schools with 50
student each from selected randomly for the study.Descriptive statistics involving item
frequencies and percentage were used to answer the research questions and mean, standard
difference, sig. (2-tailed) and 95% confidence interval of the difference was used to test all the
four null hypotheses with the reliability coefficient of 0.71 which is high enough for the
study.Significant relationships were found between the dependent variable and each of the four
independent variables. It was recommended that government should keep updated records of
enrolment of the girl-child in all schools, and schools should be built in all localities for easy
access, government should enact laws against removal of girl-child from schools for marriage or
any reason before completion of school and parents should consider their economic capability in
planning their family size.
Finally, religious leaders, the society at large and traditional leaders have big responsibility of
directing and encouraging their subjects on the importance of girl-child enrolment into schools to
turn around these vices, send girls to school so as to be educated, certificated, be skilful and have
sources of income for sustainability and development.
.

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 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Education has a profound effect on women’s ability to claim other rights and achieve
status in society. According to Ondere (2012), girls’ child enrolment is beneficial as it
contributes to economic productivity, social development, intergenerational education, social
equity and sustainability of development efforts. Research evidence shows that education of the
female child is paramount to the development of a nation. Education in its general sense is a
form of learning, in which knowledge, skills and habits of a group of people are transferred from
one generation to the next through teaching training, research or simply through autodictatism
(Mbilingi, 1991). Education for girls is one of the criteria path or ways to promote social and
economic development (World Bank, 2009).
The introduction of the girl-child education and enrolment programme by the government
of the federal republic of Nigeria emerged as a result of increasing level of illiteracy among girls
child in developing countries. This however made it a thing of concern to persons concerned
with development in order to involve the female folk in the process of national development.
Considering that, Nigeria most populated country in Africa, it (Nigeria) shares same experience
in the high number of women illiterate particularly in the northern part of the country where
socio-economic, religious, parents’ level of education and cultural practices militate against
women development. Successive government in Nigeria developed several policies and
programmes to ensure that girls child in Nigeria are given the education every Nigerian ought to
get to make them functional in the societyMunkernchern (1996:1). This is however in line with
the child’s right UNICEF (1999) which stressed that;
“Every child (male or female) is entitled to receive free
end compulsory basic education and equal opportunity
for higher education based on individual ability”.
Historical development of the girl-child education in Nigeria has been that the female
child had all through been relegated to the background in the area of school enrolment,
attendance, completion and transition to higher school especially in the northern part of
Nigeria(Mangvwat and Abama 1999). In Nigeria, although there is free education policy at all
levels, access to education for all remains unattainable especially for female children and
women. Some of the Nigerian administrative states like Sokoto and Zamfara, the female literacy

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rate is low compared to boys. In addition, statistics obtained from the two states indicated a
wider gender disparity with 65.6% of male being literate against 39.5% literate females
(UNICEF 2009). The same research indicates that about 33% and 20% of female children were
enrolled in primary and secondary schools respectively in sub-Saharan Africa (UNICEF, 2009).
Magaji (2010) observed that even though education is regarded as a human right for the
realization of human dignity, many factors have been found to be responsible for the low
enrolment of girls into schools when compared to the enrolment of boys. Among these factors,
according to her, are poverty, culture, religious misinterpretation of Holy Book; societal negative
attitude to women education, early marriage and gender biases. These factors, of course, impede
the progress and development of women in society. UNESCO (2005) identified some attempts
by Nigeria to promote the girl child education. Such attempts include: - Universal Primary
Education (1976), the National Policy on Education (NPE) (1977); lowering of cut-off points for
admission of girls into female secondary schools; scholarships into Science/Technology and
Mathematics Education (STME); the promulgation of an edict banning the withdrawal of girls
from schools for marriage, the production of blue print on women education by the Federal
Ministry of Education (1987) and the declaration of free education for girls in many states in
Nigeria (1988). Yet, many girls have not gone to school or have withdrawn from school
especially in the northern Nigeria (Federal Ministry of Education (1987; 1988). This is why this
paper attempts to find out those factors that are contributory to girl-child enrolment in female
secondary schools problem in Sokoto metropolis and to recommend therapeutic ways of
eradicating those impediments.
Education provides for both males and females in the society development, poverty
alleviation and peace. Education is the first and foremost social tools that are imperative for the
continued survival and growth of human society. That is why it is believed that the principle
mechanism for developing human skills and knowledge is education (World Bank, 2008).The
education given to learners does not only benefit the individuals who receives it but also the
society in general, because it is the key to development of any nation (UNESCO, 2005).
Okafora (1971) and Ali (1988) explained that, education ideally trains manpower for the
economy. It also helps to fully develop the potentials of individuals and equally help such
individuals to gain employment opportunities. Thus, since education is a critical variable in
modern work situations, formal education enhances labour force participation of women. Saheed

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(1995) argued that women’s involvement in formal education broadens their experience and also
gives access to new resources and skills. To a very large extent, it should be understood that
education is the main tool for imparting skills and attitudes relevant to the contribution of the
individual concerned to natural development. Traditionally, Nigerian society does not see much
importance in women’s education but rather in the domestic tasks. In views of this, the women’s
role has come to be limited to sexual and commercial labour, satisfying the sexual needs of men,
working in the fields, carrying loads, tending babies and preparing foods (Hammond and
Jablav1992). Turning our historical lens on women involvement in formal education helps
demonstrate that discriminations against them sometimes overt and at other times quite
unawares, has led to limited expectations for where, how and why women should be enrolled and
participate in education. The belief that they would not be able to use advanced schooling led to
concern that their movement in certain fields was in appropriate or unfair to men. Invariably, this
goes against what Schaeffer (2005) argued that education depict individual involvement in
formal training for the purpose of acquiring basic knowledge and skills necessary for living a
meaningful impactful life, generally aims at the development of human beliefs. A society with
bias against education of females cannot be developed without the participation of women. In
both developed and developing countries, the education of female is closely linked to human
security, political involvement and a society built upon mutual respect, social justice, equality
and desire for peace. Therefore the education of girls is essential for the development of all and
for escaping from the vicious cycle of illiteracy and poverty (UNESCO, 2006). Education aims
at supporting girls to become confident, self-reliant, personally and emotionally secured,
positive, socially, competent, committed and independent but cooperative, imaginative, reality
oriented individuals with visions and goals to become productive members of the society (World
Bank, 2007). Although it is no longer a matter of debate whether girls and women should be
educated, some references to the gains to be made is required. Educated mothers are more likely
to adopt desirable health and nutritional practices than the uneducated ones (UNESCO, 2007).
More gains resulting from education of girls show that there is a relationship between a woman’s
education and economic gains. It has been revealed by research that each additional year that a
girl remains at school can result in a 10 to 20 per cent increase in post school earnings (UNICEF,
2005). By educating girls who become educated women and mothers their usefulness is
increased in many aspects including raising income productivity, improving health, providing

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better nutrition, enhancing longevity of the family, reducing family size and indeed ushering in a
more just and democratic society (World Bank, 2008). From the education of children, girls are
not usually given the opportunity to have better education in spite of the lucrative benefits which
society stands to gain in turns has an adverse effect on their overall performance in the society
(UNESCO, 2005).
1.2 Statement of the Problem
In Nigeria, girl’s access to basic education, especially in Northern states, has remained
low. The female decline into female secondary school has given rise to problems which could be
examined at both the societal and individual level. At the societal level there would be a
generation of illiterates and uneducated females which will lead to downward trend of the
economic, religious, educational level and socio-political dimensions of the society.
However, the study is interested in investigating thesocio-cultural, economic, religious
factors and level of parent education as a factor that determines girl-child enrolment in female
secondary school in Sokoto metropolis. It is hoped that the study will take a global look at this
problem (socio-economic, cultural, religious and level of parent education) especially in the
entire Sokoto metropolis and the Northern region where the problem is seriously pronounced.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study focuses on the determinants of girls-child enrolment in some selected
female secondary school in sokoto metropolis. It also investigate empirically the influence of
cultural, poverty (economic factors), level of parent education and religious factors affecting the
girl-child enrolment in Sokoto metropolis.
1.4 Significance of the Study
The study focuses on the determinants of girls-child enrolment in some selected female
secondary school in Sokoto metropolis.
The results of this study would be significant for a number of reasons:
i. This study will be of benefit to educate and as a source of enlightenment to female
students, parents, guidance on the values of educating the girl-child, thereby erasing all
the earlier beliefs about educating the girls and the government, principals and school
administrators on the development and improvement of female enrolment in schools and
standardization in Sokoto metropolis and Northern Nigeria educational system.

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 ii. It would become a reference point for decision makers and educational planners to realize
the socio-cultural, economic and religious factors affecting the enrolment of girl-child
education in Sokoto metropolis.
iii. It would sensitize governments and other agencies concerned with children education in
the state to be gender sensitive and ensure gender enrolment in admission, award of
scholarships and recruitment into various levels and positions.
iv. The results of this study would serve to save the girl-child from all discriminations, sharp
practices as well as exposure to diseases, HIV/AIDS, unwanted pregnancies, and other
forms of dangers.
v. It would serve as a point of advocacy for the rights of the girl-child to education and
equality in other spheres.
1.5 Research Questions
Based on the background to the study and the statement of the problem, the following research
questions were formulated in the study:
i. Does socio-economic (poverty) status influence girl child enrolment in female secondary
school in Sokoto metropolis?
ii. Does the educational background of the parents influence the education and enrolment of
girl-child enrolment into female secondary schools in Sokoto metropolis?
iii. Does religious factor have any influence on the girl-child enrolments in some selected
female secondary schools in Sokoto metropolis?
iv. Does cultural factor influence girl-child enrolment infemale secondary schools in Sokoto
metropolis?
1.6 Hypothesis
There is no significant difference between effects of economic, religious, cultural factors, parent
level of education, the opinion of elite and non-elite participants of male and female on the
socio-cultural, economic and religious factors affecting the girl-child enrolment in female
secondary school in Sokoto metropolis.
.1.7 Scope of Study
This study is limited to the determinants of girl-child enrolment in some selected female
secondary schools in Sokoto metropolis and factors such as economic factors, religious factor
and socio-cultural factor, educational level of the parent that determines girl-child enrolment in

14
some selected secondary school in Sokoto metropolis.The study covered only public girls’
female secondary schools.

1.9 Definition of Terms

 Enrolment:This the rate or number of admitting student into schools in Sokoto
metropolis.
 Determinant: These are determining factors or an element that determines the nature of
enrolling girl-child in schools in Sokoto metropolis.
 Metropolis: Base on this research metropolis is the major town in sokoto which
comprise of Sokoto north and Sokoto south in sokoto state.
 Girl-child: refers to the female between fourteen (14) years and twenty (20) years.
Typically these are the ages of girls who are supposed to be in secondary school.
 Female secondary school: This is the place of gathering of females or girls child where
they acquire knowledge and enrolled for education.

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 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This involves the reference to a review of written document already advanced in respect
of the area study. This chapter is organized to include the findings of past researchers and how
various scholars have looked at the problems of enrolment of girl child in secondary schools.
Some of the issues to be addressed include; concept of education, women in education, girls-
child education, enrolment of girls-child in secondary schools factors affecting girl-child
enrolment in female secondary schools, women education in Sokoto metropolis, (socio-
economic, socio-cultural, religious factors, and parents’ level of education), theoretical
framework and conceptual framework.
2.2 Concept of Education
Education is the process of providing information to an inexperienced person to help him/her
develop physically, mentally, socially, emotionally, spiritually, politically and economically. In
education parlance, it means that the individual has acquired adequate and appropriate
knowledge, skills and attitudes and values, known as cognitive, psychomotor and affective
behaviours to be able to function optimally as a citizen. These behaviours are the focus of
training individuals in institutions of learning. The planned and systematic training given in an
institution of learning is formal education. The programme or is organized, planned and
systematically implemented. In an informal education, there is no plan and the training is
haphazard and incidental.
Education is the process through which individuals are made functional members of their society
(Ocho, 2005). It is a process through which the young acquires knowledge and realizes her
potentialities and uses them for self-actualization, to be useful to herself and others. It is a means
of preserving, transmitting and improving the culture of the society. In every society education
connotes acquisition of something good, something worthwhile.
2.3 Women in Education

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 Since creation, women have been identified as the most important and essential tools and
ingredients necessary for the development of a nation because of the endowed gift bestowed
upon them. In the traditional society before the introduction of formal education, high premium
was placed on women and their unique qualities which placed them in conspicuous and
important position. In the family setting, women are looked upon as people of wisdom, though
they are not as powerful as their male counterparts. They (women) have been identified as
superior to men (Montague 1971). They are informally trained especially in preparation for their
marital life.
Women are over half of the world’s population, yet they do two-thirds of the world’s
work, earn one-tenth of the world’s income, and own less than one-tenth of the world’s poverty
(UN, 2007 in Akinpelu; 2007). The following statistic shows the plights of women worldwide.
The 1.3 billion people in poverty, 70% are women; women earn three-fourths of the income that
men earn in the non-agricultural sector; women occupy only 10% of the parliamentary seats and
only 6% of cabinet positions in 55 countries throughout the world; of the total burden of work,
women carry an average of 53% in the developing countries and 51% in industrialized countries;
of the world’s 900 million non-illiterate persons, 65% are women due to the lack of educational
opportunities; worldwide, 76 million more boys are enrolled in primary and secondary schools
than girls.
2.4 Girl Child Education (Who Is a Girl)
A girl-child can be seen as female children between the ages of 6 and 15. These categories of
children are expected to have free access to the free Federal Government provided Universal
Basic Education in Nigeria. Kofi Annan (2001) said in respect of Girl-Child Education that “No
development strategy is better than one that involves women as central players. It has immediate
benefits for nutrition, health, savings and re-investment at the family, community and ultimately,
country level. In order words, educating girls is a social development policy that works. It is a
long-term investment that yields on exceptionally high return”. The above statement represents a
call for girl-child education and enrolment. It is however, discovered that girl-child enrolment is
not easy to come by as it is usually proclaimed as many impediments stand in the way of the girl-
child. The rights of the girl-children are always being denied and this denial leads to lack of
access to education. Inaccessibility to education thus results in child labor, which deprives the
girl-child of her childhood potentials, dignity and joy. The resultant effect is poverty and the only

17
key to ending poverty among women-folk, as a whole is education of the girl-child because as
the saying goes “catch them young” for the young girl-child will grow to full woman in later
years.
2.5 Rights of the Girl-Child
According to Adedokun and Mery Olufunke (2010), every individual in the society is entitled
to some rights as citizens of that particular society. The same is true of the girl-child. She is
entitled to a lot of human rights but because she is regarded as being weak she is vulnerable to
the violations of these rights. Like any other person in the society, she likewise requires the right
to enjoy and exercise these rights. Some of the rights of the girl-child as stated by The People’s
Movement for Human Rights Education (www.humanrights/girledu...) include the following:-
 Right to freedom from discrimination based on gender, age, race, colour, language,
ethnicity or the status of the girl-child’s parents.
 Right to a standard of living adequate for a child’s intellectual, physical, moral and
spiritual development.
 Right to a safe, equal access to food, nutritionand healthy environment
 Right to freedom from cultural practices, customs and traditions harmful to the girl-child
including female genital mutilation.
 Right to education- free and compulsory primary education and freedom from all types of
discrimination at all levels of education. Linked with the above rights is the right to
information about health, sexuality and reproduction, protection form physical and
mental abuse.
2.6 Enrolment of Girl Child Students in Secondary School.
The enrolment of the girl child students in femaleSecondary schools is always lower
significantly than their male student counterparts. In the same vein, the rate of retention also
follows the same pattern. This ugly scenario calls for serious concern. Many factors have been
attributed for this negative trend. Cultural beliefs and religious beliefs beside the widespread
poverty level of most parents and guardians are responsible for this condition. It has been an old
time belief that the girl child should not be enrolled in school, but should be married out as it is
believed that the potential husbands will provide for their upkeep. Some religious beliefs also
frown at enrolling the female child especially in the Western school education. Poverty have
been argued as one of the main reason of the low level of girl child enrolment in female

18
secondary schools. Due to the poverty level of most parents or guardians, they can only enroll
their male children in school at the expense of the girl child who is compelled to hawk or do
domestic work to complement the meagre income of her parents.
2.7 Women Education in Sokoto Metropolis
Before now, when a woman acquires western education, she is labeled “western” and
“immoral”. When she tries to improve herself, she is said to be invading male domain and this
has helped in creating difference and so the gap between men and women keeps widening by the
day. This situation was particularly fostered by the colonial authorities in Nigeria because
specific choices were made at the detriment of the woman. The woman in this case was made the
“other”, the “inessential”, the “suffix” while the man was elevated to the post of the “essential”,
the “subject”, the “ultimate.” If one considers the woman to be marginalized, the remedy could
come through the re-education of the woman. Re-education is the word in the sense that she is
already educated in the ways of the land through the eyes of her mother so re-education is what
the woman needs now to surmount oppression and victimization. The woman needs education
that liberates, education that empowers, education that will conscientize her, that will make her
see that her problems stem from a larger social structure. Safiyanu (1977) gives the ratio of one
girl to five boys in primary schools in the northern states and there is little or no significant
change in the ratio even at present even though there is so much awareness as to the importance
of western education to the girl-child in Sokoto metropolis. Very few girls in the North, when
compared with school-age girls in the South, take advantage of the opportunity of going to
school (Ahmed, 1977). In Northern Nigeria, as in other parts of the country, women are
considered secondary citizens and as such their education does not receive the same priority as
that of the boys. Haroun (1973) in an article in the Daily Times looked at the problems of
educating girls in the North and cited the following religious, social and economic reasons which
impede the full participation of girls in education:
(1) Traditional antagonism of Moslems toward Western education.
(2) Marriage customs and seclusion of women, purdah (Kulle), in the Hausa Muslim Society.
(3) Fear of moral laxity in the schools.
(4) Paucity of post-primary institutions.
(5) Lukewarm support by the political leadership.

19
 In this sense, it is discovered that Parents are reluctant to send girls to school and those who
go are often withdrawn before completion. So many factors which bestow this second-class
citizenship on girls in the North and impede their full participation in the free Universal Primary
Education scheme will be looked into. Islam, according to Fafunwa (1974) predated Christianity
in Nigeria but western education is generally synonymous with Christianity and for this reason
and many others, western kind of education was and is still to some extent being resisted today
by Northerners particularly for fear that it will disrupt the Islamic way of life and the preference
for the Hausa language. Parents also do not want their daughters to mix with boys in the “new”
school system. They question the value such education could confer on their daughters because
to such parents, this kind of education could be counter-productive for their daughters, most
especially with the cultural contamination. Western education for girls was therefore looked
upon as a subversive force against paternal authority and Hausa-Muslim traditions. But
researches have shown that education in all its ramifications is empowerment but women in this
part of the country often base their claims to education and employment on Islamic principles
and this act is viewed by the western world as oppressive. If education is truly empowering as it
is often said, men in Sokoto metropolis will have to emulate the great leader and scholar, Usman
Dan Fodio who sent his children particularly his daughter Nana Asma'u, to school. Nana Asma’u
was known to have founded a movement of educated women, traveling from place to place
teaching other women with the belief that Education will help the woman challenge the social
structures that have hitherto kept her at the background. Happily, this is slowly happening today
as the woman is being connected to her larger society for as Junaidu (1996:17) states, education
is a right and should not be denied anyone whether one is a male or female and irrespective of
“ones circumstances of birth, religion, tribe, ideological learning, parental socio-economic
background and sex”.
Since education is a tool par excellence and a fundamental human right, no particular person
should be denied this right. The question is, are women really given the right or equal share in
this respect? From this research, it is observed that there are more boys in school than girls, there
are also more male schools in Sokoto metropolis than female schools even though it has been
noticed that the population of the female is greater than that of the male in Nigeria. In spite of
advocacy for equality, what one finds is a great deal of disparity in Sokoto metropolis which
probably brings Sakkwato et al (1996:102) to mind when they advocate for equality and that

20
education should not be made a scarce commodity but this is not the case in the target schools
and numerous factors are responsible for this disparity. They include:
1. Ignorance of the parents who feel that “when a girl is born, she is a guest” and “when a boy
is born, he is a person”. For this reason, it is a waste educating a girl-child because she
will eventually get married and bear another man’s name.
2. Parents also feel that western education is bad for their daughters as it will make them
disrespectful to their parents and their husbands.
3. Parents feel that western education will make their girls western in that they will embrace
western culture and this will make them not to be responsive to their traditional roles as
mothers and wives.
4. Parents are also ignorant of the aims and objectives of western education and so they refuse
to send their daughters to school. Western education for women to them is not Islamic.
5. Parents see formal education system as occupation-oriented which may be detrimental to
women’s traditional roles.
But from studies carried out, one finds out that Islam is never against girl-child education, rather,
the religion encourages the education of women even though the prophet (PBUTH) in chapter
33:34 of the Qu'ran says “And stay in your houses with dignity, and do not show off yourselves
like the showing off in the former days of ignorance, and observe prayer.. “it is good to note also
that the same Quran, chapter 33:35 makes it very clear that believers (both male and female)
have complete spiritual equality. Chapter 35:20 says that “only those of His servants who are
learned truly fear God”. Prophet Mohammed (PBUTH) says “seek ye knowledge even if it takes
you as far as China”, but what is evident is a distortion of what this “knowledge” is as most
people take it to mean only Islamic “knowledge”, no more, no less. But happily new teachings
and interpretations are erasing this traditional belief. Even with this development, it is
disheartening to see that parents still withdraw their daughters from school for one reason or the
other. Dan Yari Zaria advocates for mass education of women and Aminu Kano’s efforts in his
life time was on the education of women.
Women as builders of homes should be given special place in society, as rockers of cradles,
they have always enriched the land hence the education of the woman is vital to national
development, as lifters of their men’s spirit, women should be accorded due respect, as carrier of
God’s virtue and nature, they should be treated as special creatures and not deprived basic things

21
of life. Marginalization and oppression of the woman will definitely not augur well for the
development of the nation. The earlier everyone realizes the position of the woman in society,
the better for the generality of the people and one must recognize that, to be eliminated from vital
aspects of human endeavour such as education means that one is buried alive very much like the
slave girl in Buchi Emecheta’s The Slave Girl. To be denied vital tools of progress such as
quality western education is to be denied power. If the society truly believes in a constant
change, then disparity in the education of boys and girls, men and women must be addressed and
urgently too, especially owing to the findings of this research in Sokoto metropolis. The Sokoto
society guilds her girl-child jealously but from this study, it is discovered that this is not done out
of love for the girl-child per se or for her welfare but it is done primarily out of selfishness, the
protection is to shield her from male view and contamination. A girl in this society, from birth is
indoctrinated into believing that the only role for her is that of a mother and wife hence at the
tender age of eleven (11), she is in her husband’s house. This is done in such a way that the girl
begins her menstrual period in her husband’s house to prevent another man from “knowing” her
first. The society is mindless of the girl-child’s yearnings for a better tomorrow.
2.8 Access to education
Access simply means the right to education. It is also the opportunity provided for the
girl-child student to be educated. Access deals with the availability, convenience and ability to be
educated. It is true that many governments make provision for the education of their citizens, but
the provisions most of the time do not take cognizance of the peculiarities of the girl-child
student. In that case the girl-child student may not have access to education, which is a
fundamental human right. Research has shown that millions of girls do not have access to school
despite the concerted efforts to push the cause forward. Okeke, Nzewi and Njoku (2008)
identified child labour, poverty and lack of sponsorship, quest for wealth, bereavement, truancy,
broken home, engagement of children as house helps, as factors or the clog in the wheel of
children’s access to education in the UNICEF A-Field made up of Abia, Akwa Ibom, Anambra,
Bayelsa, Benue, Cross River, Ebonyi, Enugu, Imo and River states of Nigeria. World Bank
(2003), More than 350 million people, over half Africa’s population, lives below the poverty line
of one dollar a day. This implies that poverty, too excludes children, including the girl-child
student, from school. It has been reported in BBC News (2006), that African patiarchical societal
viewpoint favours boys over girls because boys maintain the family lineage. Additional reasons

22
why girls do not have adequate access to education in Africa include the fact that many have to
stay home to nurse relatives with diseases. Furthermore, some families do not believe in
educating girls, that their mothers were not educated is another reason that makes them feel that
their daughters do not need education.
In Kenya, girl-child student education is elusive. Mwangi (2004) wrote that a
combination of poverty, disease and backward cultural practices continued to deny the girl child
student her right to education. Even with the introduction of free primary education, access to
education is still remaining a wide dream to many Nigeria children. Despite the introduction of
free primary education in the country which accounted for an increase in enrolment, a sizeable
number of children, especially girls, still find themselves out of school owing to a number of
reasons. These reasons are: demands for their labour in the homes such as assisting in looking
after their young siblings; child marriage, doing house chores, death of mother, and looking after
the sick member of the family. Some of the girls are given to marriage against their wish and
when they refuse, they are threatened with death. The children are given to marriage at a tender
age in quest of dowry from the husbands. But how much is the amount and for how long does it
last? The girls lament that because of the setbacks they still did not escape from poverty and their
parents had nothing to show for the dowry received. Some parents justify the denial of girls of
their right to education to prevent them from bringing shame to the family through early
pregnancy. Yet others believe that women who are at the same level of education as the men are
a disgrace to the community because more often than not, they will not get married and if they
do, it will be to a foreigner. For such parents, early marriage is the best way to prevent this and at
the same time preserve traditions.
2.9 Strategies for the implementation of balanced education in Nigeria.
 Federal government should enforce the implementation of appropriate legislation which
support girls’ education and forbid early marriage of school-age girls. Legislation
forbidding other forms of violence against girls should be enacted and vigorously
enforced with – stiff penalties for violation.
 The free and compulsory nine-year Universal Basic Education already introduced by the
Federal Government should be sustained and vigorously monitored to correct issues of
imbalance in access to education between boys and girls.

23
 Local Governments should encourage non-government organizations having grassroots
contact to support and promote the education of females/girls. Such organizations should
be assisted by other well-meaning individuals and agencies.
 Young Nigerian girls in rural areas should be made to disregard the wrong notion that
their education ends in the kitchen. The girl-child student needs education that will
empower her to face the challenges of tomorrow.
 Government should ensure the eradication or elimination of harmful or worst forms of
child labour, which infringes the right to education.
 Government should ensure that girls have equal opportunities to be exposed to science
subjects as boys e.g. by establishing many more Science Secondary Schools for girls.
 Female students who show outstanding performance or make noticeable contributions to
science and technology should be awarded scholarship/grants.
 Functional education should be intensified in order to make women self-reliant and
resourceful in gainful employment.
 Government, non-governmental organizations and other stakeholders should organize
massive enlightenment campaigns to sensitize the public on the plight of girl child
through production of jingles and documentaries.
 Government should encourage increased female participation in educational opportunities
to serve as role models.
 Government should intensify action on revision of school curriculum to discourage and
eliminate stereotyping.
 Government should ensure the implementation of laws, prohibiting withdrawal of girls
from school for marriage or for any reason before completion of Junior Secondary
Education. Girls who drop out of school as a result of pregnancy should be encouraged
and provided opportunity to continue with their education after delivery.
 There should be establishment of many more well-equipped women model centres in
states and FCT to provide training for women and girls in traditional skills and income
generating activities.
 Many more craft centres should be establishes for women and girls to be trained in life
skills programmes.

24
  There should be more public awareness campaign, rallies, conferences, seminars, etc on
the importance of girls’ education.
 More technical capacity building workshops should be organized for schools to develop
girl-friendly school environment. This would communities to sustain girls’ education.
 Employment of more female teachers in schools to serve as role models and increase
parents’ confidence that their female children will not face sexual harassment in school
 Government in collaboration with all stakeholders including non-governmental
organizations should give urgent priorities to ensuring access to and improving the
quality of female and girl-child student education. The existing curriculum and teaching
materials should he reviewed from time to time for gender sensitivity.
2.10 Relevance of Girl-child student Education
Girls’ education does not only bring the immediate benefit of empowering girls, but is
seen as the best investment in a country’s development. Educated girls develop essential life
skills, including: self-confidence, the ability to participate effectively in society, and protect
themselves from HIV/AIDS, sexual exploitation. Girl’s education also helps cutting children and
maternal mortality rates, contributing to national wealth and controlling disease and health status.
Children of educated women are more likely to go to school and, consequently, this has
exponential positive effects on education and poverty reduction for generations to come.
Education of girls is a vital factor in dealing with root causes of poverty and
underdevelopment. That girls’ education directly contributes to sustainable development is no
longer an issue. It is now documented that educating the girls and women is the single most
important investment that yields maximum returns for development (FAWE, 2001). Infant
mortality rates decrease, children have a higher probability of getting a good education and most
importantly, women become income generators, which increase the economic powerbase of the
family. There is overwhelming evidence that there is a direct relationship between education and
development. The more developed countries show high levels of participation in education for
both males and females. Health is an important development indicator. Better health for a nation
implies better quality of live and more productivity. UNICEF (2004) has documented that
women who are educated provide better nutrition for their families and more children survive the
early years. An educated mother will realize the need for maternity, pre-natal and post-natal care.
According to UNICEF (2001) “poor and uneducated parents lack the information needed to

25
provide optimum care for their children, increasing the risks of childhood illness and childhood
mortality”. Educated mothers will almost always want their children, both girls and boys to
acquire better education than they themselves received.
Nigerian women generally are yet to occupy their positions in the Nigeria educational set
up, for example many studies have confirmed that there is disparity in male and female
enrolment at the primary, secondary and tertiary institutions in favor of males. Some of such
studies were conducted by UNESCO (1986), several studies have clearly shown a glaring
imbalance and inequality in the enrolment, attendance and completion rates of education at all
levels of the Girl-child student in northern Nigeria. The National Net Primary School enrolment
in the North as at 2006 indicated 72.10% enrolment in the North-Central for, 41.5% in the
Northeast and a lowly 38.6% for Northwest. The retention and completion rate has equally been
dismal with a 15% drop out rate in North-Central, 32% in Northeast and 40% in Northwest.
However, from the mid 1970’s to mid-1990’s primary school enrolment showed some promise in
the North, rising from 1½ million to over-million in the mid 1980’s and jumping to nearly 8
million by 1993. In those two decades, reports also show a steady increase in education quality.
The remarkable build-up in primary enrolment was mainly attributed to government intervention
particularly the launch of the Universal Primary Education (UPE) in 1976. Despite the apparent
increase in enrolment in primary schools, as it fails far short of the national target ratio of 100%
enrolment. It is instructive to note, that one of the critical factors that impeded enrolment was
gross deficiency in female participation. Only in the year 2000, the Agenda for Action of
Northern Education Research Project, Arewa House, in an attempt to improve enrolment in
schools in Northern Nigeria, proposed the following:
 Mobilization and Sensitization of Communities and relevant agencies for enrolment
drive. The mobilization was targeted at some local governments’ emirates and traditional
councils, NGOs, CBOs, community leaders and mass media.
 Enrolment drives to register at least 35% of all out-of- school children by 2001, 30% by
2002, 20% by 2003 and 15% by 2004.
A UNICEF publication released a few years ago, entitled “progress for children” reporting on
progress made on primary education, showed that the rate of progress in Nigeria was inconsistent
towards achieving gender parity and subsequent universal primary education by 2015. A year to
this release, the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, in its observation of the second report

26
submitted by Nigeria, expressed concerns that universal education has not been realized in
Nigeria, partially because it is neither free, nor compulsory, despite the constitutional guarantee.
Also underlined, was the high illiteracy among girls and women and the gender and regional
disparities in school enrolment.
Recommendation was made to prioritize equal accessibility to educational opportunities for
girls and boys from urban and rural areas. Girls are still disadvantaged in their access to
education, as a result, all do not register for school and those who register do not attend regularly
and eventually drop out or learn very little. The gender gap favouring boys has remained
consistently wide over the last ten years. To address this issue, UNICEF supported the “25 by
2005” global initiative, for the acceleration of girls’ education in order to achieve gender parity
in 25 countries by 2005. Nigeria was one of the 25 countries selected for this fast track action. In
2003, the Ministry of Education adopted the strategy for accelerating Girl’s Education in
Nigeria. In 2004, the ministry also launched also the girls’ education project supported by
UNICEF and DFID, in order to focus interventions on states with lowest enrolment rate for girls.
In West Africa and some parts of the north and south of Nigeria ironically where families
struggle to get food to stay alive and even keep out of various violent crimes, basic education
especially for the girl, is least of the worries or priorities. At secondary school level, the North
seems to have witnessed reasonable growth in secondary education. Records shows significant
increases in enrolment between the mid 1970’s and mid 1980’s the latter being higher than
Nigeria’s total enrolment recorded ten years earlier. There was also a corresponding increase in
female enrolment and retention at this level. The periods of 1975/6, 1985/6 and 1988/9 witnessed
a systematic increase in pupil’s enrolment from 106,234 to 710875 to 974,140 respectively. This
represents a percentage increase of 15.0%, 25.4%, and 35.7%. It is pertinent to note that the rapid
expansion of secondary education in the North from the 1980’s was as a result of the expansion
of primary schools launched through the Federal Government-sponsored Universal Free Primary
Education, (UPE) in the mid 1970’s. The products of this expanded primary school system
progressed unto secondary schools, many of which were provided by the various state
governments through the introduction/creation of Day Secondary Schools. The gender of action
embarked by NEP at Secondary level to increase enrolment focuses on:
 Increasing female enrolment so as to reduce gender disparities in secondary education by
at least .25% each year.

27
  Increasing the transition rate into JSS by at least 25% each year, so as to attain the target
set by the UBE scheme.
State Ministries of Education were empowered to take action. The first action was geared
towards completely eliminating gender disparities in secondary education by 2005 while the
second was aimed at achieving 100% transition rate by 2005. Again, just like the initiative for
primary enrolment, little success has been achieved to stimulate increased secondary enrolment.
UNICEF (2003) reported that in sub-Saharan Africa, the number of girls out of school each year
has risen from 20 million in 1990 to 24 million in 2002 of the 25 selected countries studied,
fifteen (15) were in sub-Saharan Africa. The criteria studied were, low enrolment rates for girls,
gender gaps of more than 10 percent in primary education, countries with more than one million
girls out of school, countries include on the World Bank’s Education For All Fast Track
Initiative and countries hard hit by a range pf crises that affect school opportunities for girls,
such as HIV/AIDS and conflict. Some of the fifteen countries included Chad, Nigeria, Sudan,
Tanzania, Eritrea, Ethiopia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
UNICEF noted that in the area, as few as 15 percent of school aged children were in
school and girls represented only one quarter of the number. Empower them to participate in
their own development process. Through educational training women gain the power which
enables them to take part in making decisions that affect their own lives, their children’s lives
and the society as a whole. Only educated women not illiterate ones can effectively serve in
various capacities on community organization, government councils, advisory boards,
legislature, non-governmental organizations etc and influence policies that are made and are thus
integrated into the development process. Function optimally in the modem world. To effectively
fit and function optimally in today’s technological world, women need to be literate, for instance,
many services such as banking, registration into educational institutions, etc are provided
through the internet which only literate persons can enjoy. To effectively perform their civic
responsibilities such as voting, and to enjoy some of their rights like contesting a political post
education as necessary for individuals. Effectively perform their roles as care-givers and home-
managers. Even in performing the natural role of being a mother and/or a wife, education is very
important. Adequate knowledge of nutrition; hygiene, child development will undoubtedly make
a mother a better one. Many studies have shown that the physical health and intellectual
development of children is directly related to their mother’s level of education. Achieve higher

28
productivity in income-generating activities. Many women make significant contribution in the
informal sector through processing of agricultural products; manufacture of local products,
trading etc. Through vocational training such women can improve their skill, achieve higher
productivity, and gain greater self-sufficiency. It has been recognized that poverty in inversely
related to education. Actually the larger number of women among the poverty stricken in our
societies is directly related to their having lower levels of education. Thus education can help
women to achieve economic empowerment, raise their social status through educating women
can gain higher self-esteem that enable them improve their social standing in their communities.
Education empower women to effectively challenge and check traditional practices that are
harmful such as irrational widowhood practices, female genital mutilation, domestic violence,
child abuse, sexual harassment etc. Through education women can come together and attempt to
change negative attitudes of their communities towards them. Thus education can ensure the
social empowerment of women.
2.11 Problems of Girl-child student Education in Nigeria
This is why for every nation that seeks development, education of the citizenry is a
serious business. Given this scenario, Nigeria ought to be one of the serious nations that should
be at the fore front of the quest to give their citizenry education preparatory to getting them
contribute to the development process. But experience has shown that there can be no significant,
sustainable transformation of the nation and no significant reduction in poverty until the girl-
child student receives basic education she needs to take her rightful place as equal partners in
development. Based on this, United Nations Children Education Fund (UNICEF) has advocated
investment in girls’ education as a way for all children to fulfill their right to a quality basic
education. A singular focus on getting girls into school works would bring down the barriers that
keep all children out of school. Removing these barriers often involves addressing issues of
wider community development, such as water and sanitation and early childhood care.
According to UNICEF current statistics, Nigeria is among the West African countries that have
highest number of girls that were out of school. “More than 75 per cent of the 3.4 million
children out of school are girls, representing a challenge of putting 1.5 million children in school
in the next two years. In some parts of the country, more than 10 percent gap exists between the
number of boys and girls in school’’, UNICEF noted. Due to this high number of girls out of
school, UNICEF has been investigating the cause. Carol Bellamy has been struggling to get to

29
the root of the matter through a collective effort of the Funds research in the areas of ‘out of
school girls in Nigeria” One may wonder why UNICEF is this concern about lack of education
for the Nigerian girl-child student. According to the fund’s findings, girls make up the majority
of the nearly 120 million children who are out of school. An even greater majority of those who
get the opportunity to education do not reach the fifth grade. Girls, more often than boys, are
consistently denied opportunities to go to school for an array of reasons including those related
to HIV/AIDS, gender discrimination, domestic demands, traditional practices, safety concerns
and inappropriate physical and learning environment at school.
Girls need a safe and supportive environment, free from abuse, with separate toilet
facilities, safe drinking water, equal attention with boys and a gender sensitive curriculum. The
school curriculum also needs to be revisited, to ensure gender and cultural sensitivity and to
include life skills, HIV/AIDS education, citizenship and conflict resolution. According to
UNICEF records, many states in Nigeria have developed their own Child Friendly School
through strategic plans for Universal Basic Education. The Fund has also found out that
introduction of Non-Formal Education (NFE), Access and Child Protection in schools will help
in accelerating girls’ education in Nigeria, pointing out that recognition of NFE is an integral part
of education system and a way of main streaming basic education. “Non-formal education,
essential to increasing access for out-of school girls, needs to be accredited as a complementary
means of learning. Nomadic and Koranic forms of education require our support, towards
building a more effective and comprehensive curriculum. Child protection measures also need to
be implemented to prevent the exploitation that all too often keeps children especially girls, away
from school,” UNICEF stated. “The unique and far-reaching benefits of educating the girl-child
student include the proven fact that educating her is the best investment for societal
development”. The short and long term benefits to girls are based on the evidence that educated
girls develop essential life skills, including self-confidence, the ability to participate effectively
in society and protect themselves from HIV/AIDS infection, sexual exploitation and pressures
for early marriage and childbirth. In its quest to ensure child-to-child sanitation awareness and
promotion and make the school more friendly and hygienic, UNICEF has provided a total of
4,972 schools with environments facilities and empowered about 73 schools with leaning
materials. Population Reference Bureau (PRB, 1981 data sheet), it is essential that Nigeria has

30
6% female literates this is pathetic. Observation, studies and literature point out some factors
responsible for the constrain to women’s education in our society.
Llyod (1999) discerned both the elements of continuity and change in Nigeria disposition
towards female schooling. He observed a gradual progress on one hand while at the same time
drawing attention to emerging opposition from a hard core of men who feel threatened by the
new educated female elites. Some parents allowed their daughters to complete only primary
schools. Women had many problems in education. This was supported by Menketi in Chinwe
(2008) who carried out her project in Zamfara State. This strategy according to her was designed
to address the communities’ fears that women education for girls is harmful to the Islamic belief
especially as it affects marriage and the role of women under the Sharia
Ahuru (1971) classified the problems of girl-child student education in three dimensions:
social, economic and religious. Secondly, boys were considered superior to girls, they were
always considered first class; and there was also shortage of post primary institutions for girls in
the state, these therefore discouraged parents from sending their girl-child student to school. On
economic premise, Ahuru revealed that parents in that area could not afford to pay school fees.
Therefore, they withdrew their brilliant daughters and got them married in order to get the pride
price and pay the boys school fees. Religiously, most of the schools were missionary schools and
majority of Muslim parents did not want to send their daughters to mix boys.
2.12 Barriers to Girls’ Education
Why are girls in Nigeria not attending school? Poverty and economic issues, early
marriage and teenage pregnancy, inadequate school infrastructure and cultural and religious
misinterpretation are the main issues that prevent girls from going to school.
With almost 70 per cent of the Nigerian population living below the poverty line, girls are often
sent to work in the markets or hawk wares on the streets. Early marriage and teenage pregnancy
also prevent girls from going to school. A lot of girls drop out of school before reaching primary
class six. Most schools lack adequate classroom space, furniture and equipment, and are often
too remotely located. Water, health and sanitation facilities are usually inadequate while pupil-
teacher ratios could be as high as 1:100 in urban slums. Many Nigerian parents, especially in
large families with limited resources, enroll their boys in school rather than girls. Some parents
also keep their daughters out of school due to misinterpretation of Islamic religion.

31
Boys are generally known to be given more opportunities to ask and answer questions, to use
learning materials, and to lead groups. Research shows that girls are often given less time on task
than boys in primary and secondary school science classes.
2.13 Girl Child Education in Nigeria
According to UNESCO (2003) Nigeria, Africa’s most populous country has 4 million
people and more than 250 ethnic groups. Although Nigeria has had a National Policy on
Education since 1981, it has not been implemented effectively and efficiently due to rapid
population growth, insufficient political will, a long period of undemocratic governance, and
poor management of scarce resources. Women and girls have been most affected by these
negative factors. The national literacy rate for females is only 56%, compared to 72% for males,
and in certain states the female literacy, enrolment and achievement rates are much lower. For
example, girls’ net enrolment in Sokoto, one of the six target states under the UNICEF African
Girls’ Education Initiative, is 15%, compared to 59% for boys.
The most important issue in any country is the number of girls that have access to
education and quality of education they receive as measured by levels of retention and
performance. Despite several efforts to increase enrolment and reduce gender gap,.
Significant increase in access to education still show declines in the overall proportion of girls
enrolled at different levels of education system. The gender gap has not narrowed across the
continent of Africa. Some countries including Nigeria, Zambia, Uganda, Tanzania and many
others, though have made significant progress in reducing the gender gap, still they have low
enrolment for girls at all levels of education. Overall in sub-Sahara, more than two-thirds of
eligible children are out of school, a majority of whom are girls (Forum for African Women
Education, 2001).
Forum for African Women Educationists (FAWE), a pan African non -government
organization, that seeks to promote the education of women and girls in Africa had done a lot to
improve the education of the girl children in Nigeria and other African countries. One of it
programmes in Nigeria is the “Nigerian Girls into Sciences” (NIGIS) which is an actionoriented
performance enhancement programme for girls at junior secondary level in Nigeria. Its primary
goal is to expand interest, and improve performance in science among Nigerian girls. NIGIS
project prompted the development of teaching manual in learning Science by Doing, based on
the syllabus of Junior Secondary science in Nigeria, to Learn Science by Doing (LSD) is a guide

32
for teaching integrated science in schools. Education is essential for improving women’s living
standards and enabling them to exercise greater voice in decision making in the family the
community, the place of paid work and the public arena of politics. Basic literacy and other basic
skills are absolutely vital to women’s empowerment, and without the skills acquired in secondary
education, women cannot obtain better paid employment.
2.14 The Determinants of Girl Child Enrolment in Secondary School
2.14.1 Effects of Socio-economic factors of girl child enrolment in secondary schools
Low income is a function of poverty. The level of family income is one of the most
influences on demand on girl child enrolment in secondary school and translates the girl child
participation of secondary enrolment (FAWE, 2009). Education of a girl is seen as an economic
waste by most parents in that immediately she finishes school, she gets married. Parents expect
to marry their daughters’ at an early age and have their son-in-law help towards working on the
farm. But on the other hand, some parents felt that if they send their daughters to school, they
will receive higher bride price in compensation for the money they spend on their daughter’s
education. The payment of school fees was another factor hindering the parents from taking their
children to school. Poor families would certainly find it difficult to pay fees for girls and even
carter for pocket money besides the basics like sanitary towels, clothes among others. Poor
families tend to have a large population of siblings as opposed to high income families
(Chepchieng, 2004). In many areas parents were reluctant to send their daughters to school for
fear of losing income. Their schooling was not seen to add any value to bride wealth but instead
lowered it making girls to be denied education even in wealthy households; they were valued and
categorized as part of household property (Mbilingi & Mbughuni, 1991).
2.14.2 Effects of socio-cultural factors on girl child enrolment in secondary schools
The socio-cultural factors refer to the people’s way of life as expressed throughout their
attitudes, virtual beliefs, values and pedagogy systems from generation to generation through the
community’s socialization systems, (Brock and Cammish, 1991) Girl child network (GCN,
2004) mentioned culture and traditions as inhibiting factors affecting girls’ enrolment and the
main aspects being Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) and early marriages. Sokoto state is
culture enveloped and tradition friendly especially when it pertains to the female sex “women
should seen not heard” which gives them a perpetual position in the kitchen. The world belongs
to the men folk. These are some of the humiliating traditional sayings directed to females. Right

33
from the onset girls and females is placed in a domestic servant status where they perform such
duties such as farm works, fetch firewood, cook for the family and do petty trading to sustain
their families and given out early in marriage, while the boy child go to school just because of
the cultural traditions and practice of the parents. Socio-cultural factors affecting the girl child
education in the metropolis also shows that participants rated all the socio-cultural items high.
Hence, fear of public criticism of sending girls to school, cultural condemnation of mixing boys
and girls together in schools, females being culturally meant for domestic works, lack of girls
rights were considered as the socio-cultural factors influencing the girl-child enrolment in sokoto
metropolis. However, among these factors, females being culturally meant for domestic works
and positive attitude towards boys’ education were rated higher than the others. The above
findings support the conclusion of Federal Government of Nigeria (2006), World Bank, 2001)
and UNESCO (2001) that there is a lot of disinterest and ignorance concerning the enrolment of
girl child. They observed that many Nigerian girls suffer the society’s neglect of their education;
such children have become vulnerable to various ills in the society.
The socio-cultural factors and its influence on the enrolment of girls child in secondary
schools had been expressed well in (Mbiti, 1981) who alludes that there are four major reasons
that lead to girls child enrolment in the education system which include greater demand made on
girls by their families in connection with household duties, pre-arranged marriages leading to no
enrolment or drop-out of girls from school, the girls who were circumcised become rude to
teachers seeing female teachers as their equals and uncircumcised teachers (female and male) as
children thus affecting girls’ enrolment in secondary schools in sokoto metropolis. Once the girls
undergo FMG, they were made to feel that they had become adults and mature. In school they
become shy and uninterested and most of them get married and others simply drop out of school
and stay at home awaiting marriage.
2.14.3 Religious factor affecting girl child enrolment in female secondary schools
Religious factors like lack of religious obligation to western education, parental
commitment to the girl-child marital life, moral condemnation of girl-child education, lack of
religious legal action for girl-child education, fear of early pregnancy, love of Qura’anic
education, non-recognition of western education, fear of conversion to other religion, and undue
exposure of girls to western education were rated high by participants. These were the religious
factors revealed by the participants. These findings support the earlier conclusions of Usman

34
(2007), Bagudo (2007), Giwa and Abdulmalik (2006) and Daiyabu (2008) that many Muslim
parents in the metropolis do fear that the involvement of girls in education might bring moral
decadence. Such may include female promiscuity, exposure of female bodies, inducement by
opposite sex, pre-marital pregnancy, and abortion or illegitimate children. They also observed
that girl-child enrolment will threaten girl-child chances of legitimate, cultural and religious
marriage which the parents believe would deprive girls’ Islamic moral training and orientation.
2.14.4 Effects of parents level of education on girl-child enrolment on secondary schools
The parents’ level of education has exceeding role to play in principals’ influence on girl-
child enrolment in secondary school. Okwara (1992) observes that those girls whose parents had
received formal education tend to have positive attitude in girl child enrolment in secondary
school than those girls whose parents did not go to school at all. Mworia (1993) comments that
for a child to make the most of his/her educational needs she/he should have an easy access to
the basic instruments of education like books, newspapers, light and silence for convenient study
and all these needs could only be understood by those parents who had undergone formal
education; the home environment must be supportive towards girl child academic participation
for a positive self-esteem. The likelihood that girls would remain in school could also be
influenced by cultural attitudes with the family. Parents who themselves were educated other
things being equal were highly positive to impart a view of schooling among their children.
Studying in other parts of less industrial world, almost invariably report that the educational
experience and outlook of parents was transmitted to their off springs in many instances, parental
education was more significant predictor than any other factor. A study of the determinants of
girl child enrolment in secondary school among a large sample as the rural population of
Botswana in 1974 for example found that the education of the household was the single most
important determinants factor (Chernichorsky, 1985).
Borrow (1984) backs this by his research that revealed a relationship between students’
socio-economic status in terms of their parents’ level of education and type of occupation. The
study confirmed that there was a strong relationship between students’ occupation aspirations
and their parents’ socio-economic status as well as parents’ level of education. Essentially,
parents tend to become role models for their children and therefore it is not surprising that
students tend to take careers resembling those of their parents.
2.15 Theoretical Framework

35
 Theoretical frame work used in this study was based on the liberal feminism and radical
feminism theory. The liberal feminism theory is based on natural justice, human right and
democracy. It emphasizes on equal opportunities in accessing education, enrolment and
employment. Moreover the theory supports affirmative action’s as a strategy for women and girls
in schools, family and employment (Chege, 2006). Radical feminism theory focuses on
dismantling the foundation upon which patriarchal structures are anchored. They challenge the
oppressive structures by men to women based on gender. Based on this perception, the theory
argues that women are oppressed by men because they have power over them sexually and
materially. Changing the situation of women means contesting and eventually breaking this
power (Chege, 2006) According to liberal feminism theory boys and girls should be given equal
opportunities in education both at home and in school/classroom. In addition, girls should not be
discriminated and forced into early marriages, household chores and allowed to choose the
subjects of their study depending on their capability (Nyaga, 2010).
2.16 Conceptual Frame Work
The study shows the determinants of girl-child enrolment in some selected female secondary
school in sokoto metropolis.In the conceptual framework depicted in Figure 2.1 the following
factors was consider; socio-economic, socio-cultural, parents’ level of education and distance
from school affect the girl-child participation in secondary education.

Socio-economic factors
 Parents’ economic income
 Girl-child labor  Regular
 HIV/AIDS pandemic -Lack of personal attendance of
effects school
Socio-cultural factors  High motivation
 Son preference and aspiration of
 Traditional and cultural practices girl child.
 Early marriages Girl-child  Hard work in
 Feeling of being adult after initiation Enrolment education
Parents’ level of education In  High demand for
 Parents perception and attitude secondary secondary
towards girl-child education School education
Education  Reduced school
 Girls access to basic instrument of
education e.g. books dropout rate
 Girls supportive home  Increased girls’
environment for education turn up rate for
secondary
Distance from school factor
education
 Sexual harassment by teachers ,
boys and others
 Exposure to rape cases 36
 Fatigue due to long distance
 (Source: Oguta Gervas Ouma, 2010)

Determinants of girl child enrolment in attendance, turn up for education, reduced drop-
out rate, motivation and aspiration, expectations in life and even the girl-child total participation
in secondary education. The conceptual frame work was developed by the researcher after the
review of factors affecting enrolment of girl-child in female secondary school education

2.17 Summary of the Review of Related Literature

The literature review had identified a number of factors affecting girl–child enrolment in
secondary schools. The factors include socio-cultural, socio-economic, socio-religious factors
and parents or family level of education. This research was meant to investigate the determinants
of girl-child enrolment in secondary school in sokoto metropolis and possibly come up with way
forward on how to improve in their attitudes for them to enroll larger percentage and even more
than that of the boys. Most researchers have done much on girl-child retention, access and
performance but very little has been studied on girl-child enrolment in female secondary schools.
The low girl-child enrolment may have been attributed to low girl-child or women
empowerment. This has been noted in gender disparity due to patriarchal system of men
dominance in most African communities. The poor infrastructure and unconducive environment
both at home and in school should be addressed with urgency and enrolment of girl child in
secondary schools be compulsory to girls. It is from this point of view that Ministry of
Education in collaboration with its partner can developed gender policy to address critical issues
related to gender and enrolment of girl child in secondary school.

37
 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The Methodology presents the method that would be employed in this study, it was
discussed under the following sub- headings: Research design, Sample and Sampling Technique,
Research Instrument, Validation of the Research Instrument, Sources of Data and Procedure for
Data Collection, population and sample, reliability of the study and Data Analysis Technique.
3.2 Research Design
This research design was adopted the descriptive survey research type. This design is
suitable for the study because the study attempted a survey and description of the opinions of a
large number of people on the factors affecting the girl-child enrolment in some selected female
secondary schools in sokoto metropolis.
3.3 Sources of Data
For this study, the data will be through questionnaires that would be administer to the
respondents in their schools.
3.4 Population and sample
The population of the study comprise of two local government female secondary schools

in sokoto metropolis (i.e sokoto North and South). The target population for this study consist of

two schools in the south and north, the in the sokoto metropolis. This sample will be selected

from four purposefully selected schools in the study area using a simple random selection in the

38
study area. The reason for the purposive selection was to allow the inclusion of schools where

the practices of negative attitude towards girl-child enrolment are most predominantly practiced.

In each of these schools, 50 subjects will be used as subjects of the study; which will gave a total

of 200 subjects for the whole study. The subjects were made up of teacher and the student in.

3.5 Instrument for data collection

The proposed instrument to be use in the data collection is self-designed questionnaire
“titled “determinants (factors affecting) of girl-child enrolment into secondary schools in sokoto
metropolis. The questionnaire will consist of two sections. Section A demands for personal data
of the respondents. While sections B are meant to tap information on socio-cultural, religious,
economic and level of education of the parent as determinant or factors affecting girl-child
enrolment in the metropolis underreview
3.6 Validity of the Research Instrument
The content validity of the study was made by the project supervisor who examined each
item of the questionnaire to determine whether the instrument can actually measure what it was
supposed to measure. After making the necessary amendments based on the expert’s constructive
criticisms, the content validity of the instrument was thus established. The instrument for this
research will be validated by an expert in the field of the study. The instrument will be certified
by the experts as very adequate for the conduct of this study.
3.7 Reliability of the Research Instrument
This describes the consistency of the instrument in measuring the factors affecting girl-
child enrolment in some selected female secondary schools.Reliability is a measure of the degree
to which a research instrument yields consistent results after a repeated trial.
3.8 Procedure for Data Collection.
The questionnaires will be administered in four schools by the researchers with the
support of some trained research assistants. With the permission of authorities in each school, the
administration of the questionnaire will be done within a period of one week. It should be noted
that the researchers will administer 200 copies of the questionnaire. The reliability of the
instrument was established by the researcher using the test-retest method. The reliability
coefficient was 0.71. Which was considered high enough for this study?
3.9 Method of Data Analysis

39
 A descriptive survey method will be used in the research study, this implies that; the
research study aimed at collecting data, analyzing them and describing in a systematic manner
the characteristics, features or facts about the given population. Table of percentage and
descriptive method will be used to analyze the data. Data will presented in tables, charts or
graphs with emphasis to frequencies and percentages then results will be reported by restating
objectives on selected variables. Data collected will be analyzed by using the frequency and
percentage count table while t-test statistical method be used for the testing of the hypothesis.The
questionnaire will check to identify those items responded to, spelling mistakes in the responses
and any blank spaces left unfilled by the respondents.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the data analysis including its discussion of results. The chapter
includes a total of 200 sampled respondents (representing 100%) whose responses form the data
analysis of this study using percentage distribution for section A and t-test statistical method for
the hypothesis testing. The respondents are the junior and senior students of female secondary
schools from some selected secondary school in sokoto metropolis. The first section A of this
chapter presents the demography (Bio data) variables analysis by means of frequencies and
percentages, while the second section B answers the research questions using frequencies and
percentages each item by each of the respondents and t-test method for the hypothesis.
4.1 Analysis of Questionnaire Returned
Questionnaire of 205 were distributed to the students. The number of returned questionnaire was
a total of 200 questionnaires. An equivalent of 100% was obtained s showed in the table below.
Table 1: Frequency and Distribution on Questionnaire Issued and Returned
Schools Numbers issues Number Percentage
returned Equivalent
Kofar Marke G.D.S.S girls only, Sokoto 50 50 25%
North, Sokoto state
Nana girls secondary school, Mabera 50 50 25%
Government girls college, Mabera, 50 50 25%

40
 Sokoto south, Sokoto state
Asmau Girls and Islamic College, 50 50 25%
Federal Housing Estate Caatin Danji
Sokoto North Sokoto State.
TOTAL 200 200 100%

4.1.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

The demographic details of the respondents as indicated in the questionnaires included age of the
girls, the gender and their parents’ qualification, occupation and religion

Table 2: Frequency Distribution and Percentage Equivalent on Gender

Gender Frequency Percentage Equivalent
Male -- --
Female 200 100%
TOTAL 200 100%
According to table 2, it indicated that no male was involved in the study as a result of the
researchers focus on female secondary schools only in the study area. 200 female respondents
responded to the questionnaire administer by the researcher with percentage equivalent of 100%.
Table 3: Frequency Distribution and Percentage Equivalent on Age
Age Frequency Percentage Equivalent
9-12 25 12.5%
13-16 75 37.5%
17-20 70 35%
21-24 20 10%
25 and above 10 5%
TOTAL 200 100%
The study required the respondents to indicate their age bracket. From the findings, out of the
195 respondents who responded to the questionnaire, 75 (37.5%) of the girls were aged between
13 to 16 years, 70 (35%) of them were aged between 17to 20 years, 25 (12.5%) of them were
aged between 9 to 12 years, 20 (10%) of them were aged between 21 to 24 whereas 10 (5%)of

41
them indicated that they were aged 25 years and above. This is an indication that respondents
joined school at the right age as shown in Table 3 above.
Table 4: Frequency Distribution and Percentage Equivalent of Religion
Religion Frequency Percentage Equivalent
Christian 75 37.5%
Islam 125 62.5%
Other specify - -
TOTAL 200 100%
A total of 125 of the respondents representing 62.5% are of Islamic religion, while 75 (35.5%)
are of the Christianity religion and non respondent tick the other specify
Table 5: Frequency Distribution and Percentage Equivalent on Parental qualification
Parent Qualification Frequency Percentage Equivalent
Farmer 20 10%
Arabic scholar/poster 25 12.5%
Primary Certificate 5 2.5%
Secondary Certificate 5 2.5%
National Diploma ND 35 17.5%
Higher National Diploma HND 28 14%
National Certificate on Education NCE 40 20%
Degree 32 16%
Ph.D. 10 5%
TOTAL 200 100%
The respondents parental educational background as shown in the above table 5 revealed that 40
(20 %) are from parents with National Certificate on Education (NCE) background as 35 (17.5%)
of the respondent parents have National Diploma (ND) while 32 (16%) are from Degree
qualification parental background as 28 (14%) with Higher National Diploma (HND) parental
background while 25 (12.5%) are from Arabic scholar/poster parental background as 10 (5%) of
the respondent are from Ph. D. qualification parental background and the rest 5 (2.5%) said their
parents have secondary and primary school education.
Table 6: Frequency Distribution and Percentage Equivalent on parental occupation
Parent Occupation Frequency Percentage Equivalent

42
 Farmer 20 11.5%
Trader 50 25%
Civil Servant 87 43.5%
Politician 20 10%
Self-Employed 23 10%
TOTAL 200 100%
The table 10 above revealed that majority of the respondents numbering 87 representing 43.5%
are from civil/public servant parental occupational background while 50 (25%) are from parents
that are traders as against 23 (11.5%) are from parents that are farmers while 20 (10%) are from
politician an self-employed parental occupational background.
4.2 Descriptive Analysis
4.2.1 Answering of Research Question
Research Question One: Does socio-economic (poverty) status influence girl child enrolment in
female secondary school in sokoto metropolis?
Table 7: Economic factors influencing girl-child enrolment in Sokoto metropolis
S/N Items SA A UD D SD
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
1 The believe of parents in 80 105 5 10 0
sokoto metropolis is that girls (40%) (52.5% ) (2.5%) (5%) (0%)
can generate income they are
involving in hawking and
trading
2 In sokoto metropolis parent 95 46 7 47 5
sees schools as non-money (47.7%) (23.6%) (3.5%) (23.5%) (2.5%)
making venture
3 In sokoto metropolis girls 45 56 (28%) 17 45 20
engaged in early marriage (22.5%) (8.5%) (22.5%) (10%)
thereby discouraging their
education
4 Low socio-economic status 47 120 8 20 5

43
 (i.e financial status) of parent (23.5%) (60%) (4%) (10%) (2.5%)
discourage girl-child
enrolments in schools
Table 7 shows the analysis of participants’ perception on economic factors influencing girl-child
enrolment in Sokoto metropolis. From this table, it is revealed that majority of the participants
believed that the four factors identified significantly affect the girl-child enrolment in this study.
However, items 1,2, 3 and 4 revealed that financial status of the parents affect enrolment thereby
discouraging girl-child education and the believe by parents that school is not a money making
venture that does not yield immediate benefit thereby leading to the involvement of girls in
hawking and other means of generating income. They are the major economic factors affecting
girls’ enrolment in Sokoto metropolis.
Research Question Two:Does the educational background of the parents influence the
education and enrolment of girl-child enrolment into female secondary schools in sokoto
metropolis?
Table 8: Educational background influencing girl-child enrolment in Sokoto metropolis
S/N Items (Educational SA A UD D SD
background of the parent) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Non education parents do not 45 85 20 35 15
1. support girls enrolment (22.5%) (42.5%) (10%) (17.5%) (7.5%)
positively as they support
boys compared educated
parents in sokoto metropolis
2. Low educational level of 75 110 12 3 0
parents make them lack the (37.5%) (55%) (6%) (1.5%) (0%)
ability to pay school fees
promptly thus their girls are
more likely to be out of
school in sokoto metropolis
3. Girl-child from highly 98 89 3 0 10
educated parents is likely to (49%) (44.5%) (1.5%) (0%) (5%)
be enroll in schools in sokoto

44
 metropolis
4. Educated parents enrolled 102 92 1 5 0
their girl child to school than (51%) (46%) (0.5%) (2.5%) (0%)
the non-educated parents in
sokoto metropolis
Table 8 indicates that parents’ level of education/educational background in sokoto metropolis
had a lot of effect on girl child enrolment in secondary education due to respondent
perception.Highest proportion of the respondent generally agrees that it affects enrolment. This
meant that educated parents know the need for educating their girls and the role it plays in thus
improving the girls’ level of participation in secondary schools.
Research Question Three:Does religious factor have any influence on the girl-child enrolments
in some selected female secondary schools in sokoto metropolis?
Table 9: Religious factors influencing girl-child enrolment in Sokoto metropolis
S/N Items SA A UD D SD
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
1 Islam encourage girl-child 64 135 1 0 0
education in Sokoto metropolis (32%) (67.5%) (0.5%) (0%) (0%)
2 Islam religion discourage girl- 83 80 9 16 12
child western education in (41.5%) (40%) (4.5%) (8%) (6%)
Sokoto metropolis
3 Parents in sokoto metropolis 46 94 6 29 25
valued Qura’nic knowledge for (23%) (47%) (3%) (14.5%) (12.5%)
girls than western education
4 Parents in sokoto have the fear 43 89 13 35 20
of sending their girl-child to (21.5%) (44.5%) (6.5%) (17.5%) (10%)
acquire western education
Table 9 shows the religious factors affecting girl-child enrolment in Sokoto metropolis. Items 2,
3, and 4 been considered the most criteria’s among religious factors affecting girl-child
enrolment in this study thereby drawing the attention of many of the participants. Invariably, all
the items are considered important as factors affecting the girls’ enrolment in sokoto metropolis
by the participant.

45
Research Question Four: Does cultural factor influence girl-child enrolment in female
secondary schools in Sokoto metropolis?
Table 10: Cultural factors influencing girl-child enrolment in Sokoto metropolis
S/N Items SA A UD D SD
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
1 Public criticism against parent 60 51 14 28 19
that involved their girl-child (30%) (25.5%) (7%) (14%) (9.5%)
into western schools
discourage the parent not to
enroll their daughter again
2 Parents in Sokoto metropolis 81 67 0 34 18
encourage/ involved their girl- (40.5%) (33.5%) (0%) (17%) (9%)
child into early marriage than
sending them to acquire
western education
3 In Sokoto metropolis parents 70 79 11 26 14
belief traditionally that girl (35%) (39.5%) (5.5%) (13%) (7%)
are only useful at homes there
by discourages enrolment of
girl-child to schools
4 Parents in Sokoto metropolis 65 70 12 45 30
believe culturally that girl- (32.5%) (35%) (6%) (22.5%) (15%)
child are meant for trading
and hawking in other to meet
family needs
Table 10 shows the analysis of participant’s perception of the socio-cultural factors influencing
the girl-child education in Sokoto metropolis. From this table, it is revealed that majority of the
participants believed and agreed that all factors except item identified significantly affect the
girl-child enrolment in the metropolis
4.3 Hypothesis Testing

46
Four null hypotheses were raised and tested in this study in addition to the research questions.
The hypotheses were tested using the t-test statistical method. The tables are presented below:
Hypothesis 1: There is no significance difference between the effect of economic factors and
determinant of girl-child enrolment in female secondary schools in Sokoto metropolis.
Table 11: Result of t-test statistical analysis of economic factors
One Sample Test
Economic factors items Test value=0
t df Sig. (2- Mean 95% confidence
tailed) difference interval of the
difference
Lower Upper
The believe of parents in sokoto
metropolis is that girls can generate 65.280 199 .000 1.055 1.02 1.09
income they are involving in hawking
and trading
In sokoto metropolis parent sees 40.018 199 .000 1.300 1.24 1.36
schools as non-money making venture
In sokoto metropolis girls engaged in
early marriage thereby discouraging 43.951 199 .000 1.550 1.48 1.62
their education
Low socio-economic status (i.e
financial status) of parent discourage 42.320 199 .000 1.200 1.14 1.26
girl-child enrolments in schools
Conclusion: We accept the null hypothesis H0 that says there is no significance difference
between the effect of economic factors and determinant of girl-child enrolment in female
secondary schools since the t-value (ranging from 1.02 and 1.62) across all factors considered is
lower than the critical t-value of 1.96 at 0.05 level of significance.
Hypothesis 2: There is no significance difference between the effect of parental educational
background/ level of parent education factors and determinant of girl-child enrolment in
female secondary schools
Table 12: Result of t-test statistical analysis of parental educational background factors
Parental educational background Test value=0
items t df Sig. (2- Mean 95% confidence
tailed) difference interval of the
difference
Lower Upper
Non education parents do not support 39.985 199 .000 1.305 1.24 1.37

47
 girls enrolment positively as they
support boys compared educated
parents in sokoto metropolis
Low educational level of parents make
them lack the ability to pay school fees 40.313 199 .000 1.400 1.33 1.47
promptly thus their girls are more likely
to be out of school in sokoto metropolis
Girl-child from highly educated parents
is likely to be enroll in schools in 42.313 199 .000 1.500 1.43 1.48
sokoto metropolis
Educated parents enrolled their girl
child to school than the non-educated 65.280 199 .000 1.055 1.02 1.09
parents in sokoto metropolis
Conclusion: We accept the null hypothesis H0 that says there is no significance difference
between the effect of parental educational background and determinant of girl-child
enrolment in female secondary schools since the t-value (ranging from 1.02 and 1.48) across all
factors considered is lower than the critical t-value of 1.96 at 0.05 level of significance.
Hypothesis 2: There is no significance difference between the effect of religious factors and
determinant of girl-child enrolment in female secondary schools in sokoto metropolis.
Table 13: Result of t-test statistical analysis of religious factors
Religious factors items Test value=0
t df Sig. (2- Mean 95% confidence
tailed) difference interval of the
difference
Lower Upper
Islam encourage girl-child education in 51.725 199 .000 1.100 1.06 1.14
sokoto metropolis
Islam religion discourage girl-child western 42.320 199 .000 1.200 1.14 1.26
education in sokoto metropolis
Parents in sokoto metropolis valued
Qura’nic knowledge for girls than western 39.985 199 .000 1.305 1.24 1.37
education
Parents in sokoto have the fear of sending 40.723 199 .000 1.250 1.19 1.31
their girl-child to acquire western education
Conclusion: We accept the null hypothesis H0 that says there is no significance difference
between the effect of religion factors and determinant of girl-child enrolment in female

48
secondary schools since the t-value (ranging from 1.06 and 1.37) across all factors considered is
lower than the critical t-value of 1.96 at 0.05 level of significance.
Hypothesis 3: There is no significance difference between the effect of socio-cultural factors
and determinant of girl-child enrolment in female secondary schools in sokoto metropolis.
Table 14: Result of t-test statistical analysis of socio-cultural factors
Cultural factors items Test value=0
t df Sig. (2- Mean 95% confidence
tailed) difference interval of the
difference
Lower Upper
Public criticism against parent that
involved their girl-child into western 41.116 199 .000 1.450 1.38 1.52
schools discourage the parent not to
enroll their daughter again
Early marriage is encourage by parents
than sending their girl-child to schools 40.601 199 .000 1.120 1.16 1.28
to acquire western education in sokoto
metropolis
In sokoto metropolis parents belief
traditionally that girl are only useful at 40.723 199 .000 1.250 1.19 1.31
homes there by discourages enrolment
of girl-child to schools
Parents believe culturally that girl-
child are meant for trading and 39.946 199 .000 1.355 1.29 1.42
hawking in other to generate income
for the family
Conclusion: We accept the null hypothesis H0 that says there is no significance difference
between the effect of socio-cultural factors and determinant of girl-child enrolment in female
secondary schools since the t-value (ranging from 1.16 and 1.52) across all factors considered is
lower than the critical t-value of 1.96 at 0.05 level of significance.

49
 CHAPTER FIVE: INTRODUCTION
5.1 Summary
This study was conducted with a view to examine determinants of girl-child enrolment
in female Secondary Schools in Sokoto metropolis. Specifically, the study indentifies four
objectives to determine socio-economic, level of parent education, religion and socio-cultural
factors in Sokoto metropolis as it affect girl-child enrolment in secondary school.
The first research question was on the economic factors influencing the girl-child
education in Sokoto metropolis. The study discovered that factors such as parents’ belief that
girls can generate income thereby involve in hawking and trading, girls involves in early
marriage, sees school as non-making ventures and low socio-economic status (financial status)
of parent were considered as the economic factors influencing girl-child enrolment in secondary
school in sokoto metropolis which hinder the economic development of the country. These
findings confirm the earlier concern of Ikwen (2006) and Abolarin (2010) that poverty is a
major factor that hinders the girl-child access to education. To them, parents look-up to income
generating activities involving girls to sustain their families. They observed that parents see
school as non-money making venture and girls are often engaged in works that could generate
financial benefits for the family. The study also revealed level of education parent that affect
girl-child enrolment in sokoto metropolis. Factors like Non-education parents do not support
girls enrolment positively as they support boys compared educated parents, Low educational
level of parents make them lack the ability to pay school fees promptly thus their girls are more

50
 likely to be out of school, Girl-child from highly educated parents is likely to be enroll in
schools, Educated parents enrolled their girl child to school than the non-educated parents in
sokoto metropolis. These findings was supported by Okwara (1992) that observes that those
girls whose parents had received formal education tend to have positive attitude in girl child
enrolment in secondary school than those girls whose parents did not go to school at all.
Mworia (1993) comments that for a child to make the most of his/her educational needs she/he
should have an easy access to the basic instruments of education like books, newspapers, light
and silence for convenient study and all these needs could only be understood by those parents
who had undergone formal education; the home environment must be supportive towards girl
child academic participation for a positive self-esteem.
Also, the study found out that some religious factors like Islam religion discourage girl-
child western education, valued Qura’anic knowledge, fear of sending their girl-child to acquire
western education were rated high by respondents/participants. These were the religious factors
revealed by the participants. These findings support the earlier conclusions of Usman (2007),
Bagudo (2007), Giwa and Abdulmalik (2006) and Daiyabu (2008) that many Muslim parents in
the Northern part of Nigeria do fear that the involvement of girls in education might bring
moral decadence. Such may include female promiscuity, exposure of female bodies,
inducement by opposite sex, pre-marital pregnancy, and abortion or illegitimate children. They
also observed that girl-child education will threaten girl-child chances of legitimate, cultural
and religious marriage which the parents believe would deprive girls’ Islamic moral training
and orientation.
The third finding of this study on the socio-cultural factors affecting girl-child enrolment in
sokoto metropolis shows that participants rated all the socio-cultural items high. Hence, public
criticism against parent that involved their girl-child into western schools discourage the parent
not to enroll their daughter again,Parents in sokoto metropolis encourage/ involved their girl-child
into early marriage than sending them to acquire western education Parents in sokoto metropolis
encourage/ involved their girl-child into early marriage than sending them to acquire western
education, In sokoto metropolis parents belief traditionally that girl are only useful at homes there
by discourages enrolment of girl-child to schools, Parents believe culturally that girl-child are
meant for trading and hawking in other to meet the family need were considered as socio-cultural
factors influencing the girl-child enrolment in secondary schools in Sokoto metropolis. The above

51
findings support theconclusion of Federal Government of Nigeria (2006), World Bank (2001) and
UNESCO (2001) that there is a lot of disinterest and ignorance concerning the education of girls.
They observed that many Nigerian girls suffer the society’s neglect of their education; such
children have become vulnerable to various ills in the society.
The result of hypothesis one in the study reveals that there is no significant difference
between the effects of economic factors anddeterminant of girl-child enrolment in female
secondary schools. This findings support earlier conclusion of Ikwen(2006) and Abolarin(2010)
that poverty is a major factors that hinders the girl child access to education. To them, parents
look up to income generating activities involving girls to sustain their families. They also
observed that parents see school as non- money making venture and girls are often engaged in
works that could generate financial benefits for the family.
The result of the second show that there is no significant difference between effects of
parental educational background/level of parent education and determinant of girl-child
enrolment in female secondary schools in sokoto metropolisas supported by Okwara (1992) that
observes that those girls whose parents had received formal education tend to have positive
attitude in girl child enrolment in secondary school than those girls whose parents did not go to
school at all. Mworia (1993) comments that for a child to make the most of his/her educational
needs she/he should have an easy access to the basic instruments of education like books,
newspapers, light and silence for convenient study and all these needs could only be understood
by those parents who had undergone formal education; the home environment must be
supportive towards girl child academic participation for a positive self-esteem.
The result of the third hypothesis shows that there is no significant difference between the
religious factor anddeterminant of girl-child enrolment in female secondary schools in sokoto
metropolis. This findings support the earlier conclusion of Usman (2011) that the greatest
problems that present themselves in women’s education are mostly based on their home
background and religion as well as the social community sanctions. He observed that children are
brought up right from the beginning with some feelings against western education.
The result of the four hypothesis shows that there is no significant difference between religious
factor anddeterminant of girl-child enrolment in female secondary schools in sokoto
metropolis.The findings also support findings of Federal Government of Nigeria (2006), World
Bank (2001) and UNESCO (2001) asserted that there is a lot disinterest and ignorance concerning

52
the education of girls. They observed that many Nigeria girls suffer the society’s neglect of their
education; such children have become vulnerable to various ills in the society
5.2 Conclusion
This study discovered that parents have negative attitude towards girl-child enrolment in Sokoto
metropolis. Parents especially in large families with limited resources send girls to generate
income by hawking, getting involved in some immoral dealings with the opposite sex, having
early marriage and teenage pregnancy. To turn around these vices, parents should be encouraged
to send girls to school so as to be educated, certificated, be skilful and have sources of income for
sustainability and development.
5.3 Recommendation and Suggestion
In the light of the above importance of educating the girl-child, the following
recommendations were made:
 Gender balanced curriculum and education policies should be established. Such curriculum
must consider the interest of the girl-child so that she is motivated to learn.
 Girl-child hawking should be stopped through public enlightenment and legislation.
 Parents should be educated on the values of modern education to the girl-child and also
take advantage of the UBE programme and educate their girl-children.
 Awareness should be made to sensitize people on the fact that an end can only come to
poverty cycle through educating the girl-child. The reality is that an uneducated girl that
marries early also gives her child in marriage very early; so she becomes a grandmother
who eventually has to fend for her grand-children who could not be adequately supported
by (her daughter) their mother. Thus, the unmerciful cycle of poverty continues.
 Religious leaders and traditional leaders should preach the encouragement of equal
education for both male and female children among their followers and subjects.
 The government at all levels should legislate the rights of the girl-child and as well NGOs,
media houses should be involved in awareness programme on the education of the girl-
child.
 Creating more chances for women employability and empowerment so as to serve as
encouragement to later generations.
 Enactment of legal policy against parents refusing girl-child enrolment in schools (to
certification level).

53
  Girls who excel in exam should be publicly acknowledged and rewarded by sending them
to any foreign institution of their choice to encourage other girls in their education
 Encouraging women cooperative societies and empowering women with soft loans for
small scale industry and other enterprising ventures in urban and rural areas.

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APPENDIX I
SHEHU SHAGARI OLLEGE OF EDUATION
CENTRE FOR CONTINUING EDUCATION IN AFFILIATION WITH
AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA

Dear Correspondent,
QUESTIONNAIRE

Introduction
The purpose of this questionnaire is to collect data on the Determinant enrolment of girl-
child in female secondary schools in sokoto metropolis in fulfilment for the requirement of
the award of Professional Diploma in Education.
a) Please do not write your name in the questionnaire
b) The information will be treated with a lot of confidentiality
c) Please be honest when giving your answers
Please kindly answer all the questions to the best of your ability, by ticking [√] as appropriate
box for each of the items below.
Thanks in anticipation of your cooperation.

57
 SECTION A: BIO-DATA
Age
(a)9-12 [ ] (b) 13-16 [ ] (c) 17-20 [ ] (d) 21-24 [ ] (e) 25 and above
[ ]
Religion
a)Islam [ ] (b) Christianity [ ] Others Specify…………………………………….
Parental Qualification
(a)Farmer [ ] (b) Arabic scholar/poster [ ] (c) primary certificate [ ]
(d) Secondary certificate [ ] (e) National diploma ND [ ] (f) Higher National Diploma
HND [ ] (g) National Certificate Education NCE [ ] (h) Degree [ ] (i) Ph.D. certificate
[ ]
Parental Occupational
(a)Farmer [ ] (b) trader [ ] (c) civil servant [ ] (d) politician [ ] (e) Self-employed [ ]
SECTION B
Please kindly answer all the questions by ticking [ √ ] in appropriate box for each of the items
below.
SA= Strongly Agree, A=Agree, UD= Undecided, D=Disagree, SD=Strongly Disagree
Table 1: Economic (poverty) status/factor influencing girl child enrolment
S/N Economic factors SA A UD D SD
1. The believe of parents in sokoto metropolis is that
girls can generate income they are involving in
hawking and trading
2. In sokoto metropolis parent sees schools as non-
money making venture
3. In sokoto metropolis girls engaged in early
marriage thereby discouraging their education
4. Low socio-economic status (i.e financial status) of
parent discourage girl-child enrolments in schools

Table 2: Educational background of the parents of the parent is a factor influencing girl-
[child enrolment in sokoto metropolis

58
 S/N Educational background of the parent SA A UD D SD

1. Non education parents do not support girls enrolment

positively as they support boys compared educated parents in
sokoto metropolis
2. Low educational level of parents make them lack the ability
to pay school fees promptly thus their girls are more likely to
be out of school in sokoto metropolis
3. Girl-child from highly educated parents is likely to be enroll
in schools in sokoto metropolis

4. Educated parents enrolled their girl child to school than the

non-educated parents in sokoto metropolis

Table 3: Religion is a determinant in girl-child enrolment in sokoto metropolis

S/N Religious factors SA A UD D SD
1. Islam encourage girl-child education in sokoto
metropolis
2. Islam religion discourage girl-child western
education in sokoto metropolis
3. Parents in sokoto metropolis valued Qura’nic
knowledge for girls than western education
4. Parents in sokoto have the fear of sending their
girl-child to acquire western education
Table 4: Socio-cultural factors
S/N Socio-cultural, factors SA A UD D SD
1. Public criticism against parent that involved their girl-
child into western schools discourage the parent not to
enroll their daughter again
2. Parents in sokoto metropolis encourage/ involved their
girl-child into early marriage than sending them to
acquire western education

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3. In sokoto metropolis parents belief traditionally that
girl are only useful at homes there by discourages
enrolment of girl-child to schools
4. Parents believe culturally that girl-child are meant
for trading and hawking in other to meet the family
need

SA= Strongly Agree, A=Agree, UD=Undecided, D=Disagree, SD= Strongly Disagree

60