Cable access network: FDM, TDM and random access!

Internet frames, TV channels, control transmitted

downstream at different frequencies

cable headend

CMTS
…

splitter cable
cable modem
… modem
ISP termination system

▪ multiple downstream (broadcast) FDM channels: up to 1.6 Gbps/channel

▪ single CMTS transmits into channels
▪ multiple upstream channels (up to 1 Gbps/channel)
▪ multiple access: all users contend (random access) for certain upstream
channel time slots; others assigned TDM
Link Layer: 6-36
Cable access network:
MAP frame for
Interval [t1, t2]

CMTS Downstream channel i

Upstream channel j

cable headend
t1 t2 Residences with cable modems

Minislots containing Assigned minislots containing cable modem

minislots request frames upstream data frames

DOCSIS: data over cable service interface specificaiton

▪ FDM over upstream, downstream frequency channels
▪ TDM upstream: some slots assigned, some have contention
• downstream MAP frame: assigns upstream slots
• request for upstream slots (and data) transmitted random access (binary
backoff) in selected slots
Link Layer: 6-37
Summary of MAC protocols
▪ channel partitioning, by time, frequency or code
• Time Division, Frequency Division
▪ random access (dynamic),
• ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD
• carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire), hard in others
(wireless)
• CSMA/CD used in Ethernet
• CSMA/CA used in 802.11
▪ taking turns
• polling from central site, token passing
• Bluetooth, FDDI, token ring

Link Layer: 6-38

Link layer, LANs: roadmap
▪ introduction
▪ error detection, correction
▪ multiple access protocols
▪ LANs
• addressing, ARP
• Ethernet
• switches
• VLANs
▪ a day in the life of a web
▪ link virtualization: MPLS
request
▪ data center networking

Link Layer: 6-39

MAC addresses
▪ 32-bit IP address:
• network-layer address for interface
• used for layer 3 (network layer) forwarding
• e.g.: 128.119.40.136
▪ MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address:
• function: used “locally” to get frame from one interface to another
physically-connected interface (same subnet, in IP-addressing sense)
• 48-bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in NIC ROM, also
sometimes software settable
• e.g.: 1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
hexadecimal (base 16) notation
(each “numeral” represents 4 bits)
Link Layer: 6-40
MAC addresses
each interface on LAN
▪ has unique 48-bit MAC address
▪ has a locally unique 32-bit IP address (as we’ve seen)

137.196.7.78
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD

LAN
(wired or wireless)
137.196.7/24
71-65-F7-2B-08-53 58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
137.196.7.23 137.196.7.14

0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
137.196.7.88

Link Layer: 6-41

MAC addresses
▪ MAC address allocation administered by IEEE
▪ manufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to
assure uniqueness)
▪ analogy:
• MAC address: like Social Security Number
• IP address: like postal address
▪ MAC flat address: portability
• can move interface from one LAN to another
• recall IP address not portable: depends on IP subnet to which
node is attached
Link Layer: 6-42
ARP: address resolution protocol
Question: how to determine interface’s MAC address, knowing its IP
address?
ARP table: each IP node (host,
ARP
router) on LAN has table
137.196.7.78
ARP
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD • IP/MAC address mappings for
ARP some LAN nodes:
LAN < IP address; MAC address; TTL>
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
137.196.7.23
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
137.196.7.14 • TTL (Time To Live): time after
ARP 0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98 which address mapping will be
137.196.7.88
forgotten (typically 20 min)

Link Layer: 6-43

ARP protocol in action
example: A wants to send datagram to B
• B’s MAC address not in A’s ARP table, so A uses ARP to find B’s MAC address

A broadcasts ARP query, containing B's IP addr

Ethernet frame (sent to FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF)
1 • destination MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
• all nodes on LAN receive ARP query C Source MAC: 71-65-F7-2B-08-53
Source IP: 137.196.7.23
ARP table in A Target IP address: 137.196.7.14
…
IP addr MAC addr TTL
TTL
A B
1
71-65-F7-2B-08-53 58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
137.196.7.23 137.196.7.14

D
Link Layer: 6-44
ARP protocol in action
example: A wants to send datagram to B
• B’s MAC address not in A’s ARP table, so A uses ARP to find B’s MAC address

ARP message into Ethernet frame

(sent to 71-65-F7-2B-08-53)
C Target IP address: 137.196.7.14
Target MAC address:
ARP table in A 58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
…
IP addr MAC addr TTL
TTL
A B
2
71-65-F7-2B-08-53 58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
137.196.7.23 137.196.7.14

2 B replies to A with ARP response,

giving its MAC address
D
Link Layer: 6-45
ARP protocol in action
example: A wants to send datagram to B
• B’s MAC address not in A’s ARP table, so A uses ARP to find B’s MAC address

C
ARP table in A
IP addr MAC addr TTL
TTL
137.196. 58-23-D7-FA-20-B0 500
A B
7.14

71-65-F7-2B-08-53 58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
137.196.7.23 137.196.7.14

3 A receives B’s reply, adds B entry

into its local ARP table
D
Link Layer: 6-46
Routing to another subnet: addressing
walkthrough: sending a datagram from A to B via R
▪ focus on addressing – at IP (datagram) and MAC layer (frame) levels
▪ assume that:
• A knows B’s IP address
• A knows IP address of first hop router, R (how?)
• A knows R’s MAC address (how?)

A B
R
111.111.111.111
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55 222.222.222.222
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110
CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 222.222.222.221
88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F
Link Layer: 6-47
Routing to another subnet: addressing
▪ A creates IP datagram with IP source A, destination B
▪ A creates link-layer frame containing A-to-B IP datagram
• R's MAC address is frame’s destination
MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
MAC dest: E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222

IP
Eth
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55 222.222.222.222
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110
CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 222.222.222.221
88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F
Link Layer: 6-48
Routing to another subnet: addressing
▪ frame sent from A to R
▪ frame received at R, datagram removed, passed up to IP

MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55

IP src: 111.111.111.111
MAC dest: E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222

IP IP
Eth Eth
Phy Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55 222.222.222.222
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110
CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 222.222.222.221
88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F
Link Layer: 6-49
Routing to another subnet: addressing
▪ R determines outgoing interface, passes datagram with IP source A, destination B
to link layer
▪ R creates link-layer frame containing A-to-B IP datagram. Frame destination
address: B's MAC address
MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222

IP
Eth
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55 222.222.222.222
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110
CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 222.222.222.221
88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F
Link Layer: 6-50
Routing to another subnet: addressing
▪ R determines outgoing interface, passes datagram with IP source A, destination B
to link layer
▪ R creates link-layer frame containing A-to-B IP datagram. Frame destination
address: B's MAC address
MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
▪ transmits link-layer frame MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
IP Eth
Eth Phy
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55 222.222.222.222
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110
CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 222.222.222.221
88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F
Link Layer: 6-51
Routing to another subnet: addressing
▪ B receives frame, extracts IP datagram destination B
▪ B passes datagram up protocol stack to IP

IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222

IP
IP Eth
Eth Phy
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55 222.222.222.222
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110
CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 222.222.222.221
88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F
Link Layer: 6-52
Link layer, LANs: roadmap
▪ introduction
▪ error detection, correction
▪ multiple access protocols
▪ LANs
• addressing, ARP
• Ethernet
• switches
• VLANs
▪ a day in the life of a web
▪ link virtualization: MPLS
request
▪ data center networking

Link Layer: 6-53

Ethernet
“dominant” wired LAN technology:
▪ first widely used LAN technology
▪ simpler, cheap
▪ kept up with speed race: 10 Mbps – 400 Gbps
▪ single chip, multiple speeds (e.g., Broadcom BCM5761)

Metcalfe’s Ethernet
sketch
https://www.uspto.gov/learning-and-resources/journeys-innovation/audio-stories/defying-doubters Link Layer: 6-54
Ethernet: physical topology
▪ bus: popular through mid 90s
• all nodes in same collision domain (can collide with each other)
▪ switched: prevails today
• active link-layer 2 switch in center
• each “spoke” runs a (separate) Ethernet protocol (nodes do not collide with
each other)

bus: coaxial cable switched

Link Layer: 6-55

Ethernet frame structure
sending interface encapsulates IP datagram (or other network layer
protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
type
dest. source data (payload) CRC
preamble address address

preamble:
▪ used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates
▪ 7 bytes of 10101010 followed by one byte of 10101011

Link Layer: 6-56

Ethernet frame structure (more)
type
dest. source data (payload) CRC
preamble address address

▪ addresses: 6 byte source, destination MAC addresses

• if adapter receives frame with matching destination address, or with broadcast
address (e.g., ARP packet), it passes data in frame to network layer protocol
• otherwise, adapter discards frame
▪ type: indicates higher layer protocol
• mostly IP but others possible, e.g., Novell IPX, AppleTalk
• used to demultiplex up at receiver
▪ CRC: cyclic redundancy check at receiver
• error detected: frame is dropped
Link Layer: 6-57
Ethernet: unreliable, connectionless
▪connectionless: no handshaking between sending and
receiving NICs
▪unreliable: receiving NIC doesn’t send ACKs or NAKs to
sending NIC
• data in dropped frames recovered only if initial sender uses
higher layer rdt (e.g., TCP), otherwise dropped data lost
▪Ethernet’s MAC protocol: unslotted CSMA/CD with binary
backoff

Link Layer: 6-58

802.3 Ethernet standards: link & physical layers

▪ many different Ethernet standards

• common MAC protocol and frame format
• different speeds: 2 Mbps, 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1Gbps, 10 Gbps, 40 Gbps
• different physical layer media: fiber, cable

MAC protocol
application
and frame format
transport
network 100BASE-TX 100BASE-T2 100BASE-FX
link 100BASE-T4 100BASE-SX 100BASE-BX
physical

copper (twister pair) physical layer fiber physical layer

Link Layer: 6-59
Link layer, LANs: roadmap
▪ introduction
▪ error detection, correction
▪ multiple access protocols
▪ LANs
• addressing, ARP
• Ethernet
• switches
• VLANs
▪ a day in the life of a web
▪ link virtualization: MPLS
request
▪ data center networking

Link Layer: 6-60

Ethernet switch
▪ Switch is a link-layer device: takes an active role
• store, forward Ethernet frames
• examine incoming frame’s MAC address, selectively forward frame
to one-or-more outgoing links when frame is to be forwarded on
segment, uses CSMA/CD to access segment
▪ transparent: hosts unaware of presence of switches
▪ plug-and-play, self-learning
• switches do not need to be configured

Link Layer: 6-61

Switch: multiple simultaneous transmissions
▪ hosts have dedicated, direct
connection to switch A
▪ switches buffer packets C’ B
▪ Ethernet protocol used on each 1 2
incoming link, so: 6
3
• no collisions; full duplex 5 4
• each link is its own collision
domain B’ C
A’
▪ switching: A-to-A’ and B-to-B’ can transmit
simultaneously, without collisions switch with six
interfaces (1,2,3,4,5,6)

Link Layer: 6-62

Switch: multiple simultaneous transmissions
▪ hosts have dedicated, direct
connection to switch A
▪ switches buffer packets C’ B
▪ Ethernet protocol used on each 1 2
incoming link, so: 6
3
• no collisions; full duplex 5 4
• each link is its own collision
domain B’ C
A’
▪ switching: A-to-A’ and B-to-B’ can transmit
simultaneously, without collisions switch with six
interfaces (1,2,3,4,5,6)
• but A-to-A’ and C to A’ can not happen
simultaneously
Link Layer: 6-63
Switch forwarding table
Q: how does switch know A’ reachable via
interface 4, B’ reachable via interface 5? A
C’ B
A: each switch has a switch table, each
entry: 1 2
6
▪ (MAC address of host, interface to reach 3
5 4
host, time stamp)
▪ looks like a routing table! B’ C
A’
Q: how are entries created, maintained
in switch table?
▪ something like a routing protocol?
Link Layer: 6-64
Switch: self-learning
Source: A

▪ switch learns which hosts Dest: A’

A A’
can be reached through A
which interfaces C’ B
• when frame received, switch 1 2
6
“learns” location of sender: 3
5
incoming LAN segment 4

• records sender/location pair B’ C

A’
in switch table
Switch table
MAC addr interface TTL (initially empty)
A 1 60

Link Layer: 6-65

Switch: frame filtering/forwarding
when frame received at switch:
1. record incoming link, MAC address of sending host
2. index switch table using MAC destination address
3. if entry found for destination
then {
if destination on segment from which frame arrived
then drop frame
else forward frame on interface indicated by entry
}
else flood /* forward on all interfaces except arriving interface */

Link Layer: 6-66

Self-learning, forwarding: example Source: A
Dest: A’

▪ frame destination, A’, A A’

location unknown: flood A
C’ B
▪ destination A location
1
known: selectively send 6A A’
2

on just one link 3

5 4

B’ C
A’ A A’

MAC addr interface TTL

A 1 60 switch table
A’ 4 60 (initially empty)

Link Layer: 6-67

Interconnecting switches
self-learning switches can be connected together:

S4

S1
S3
A S2
F
D I
B C
G H
E

Q: sending from A to G - how does S1 know to forward frame destined to

G via S4 and S3?
▪ A: self learning! (works exactly the same as in single-switch case!)

Link Layer: 6-68

Self-learning multi-switch example
Suppose C sends frame to I, I responds to C
S4

S1
S3
A S2
F
D I
B C
G H
E

Q: show switch tables and packet forwarding in S1, S2, S3, S4

Link Layer: 6-69

Small institutional network

mail server
to external
network
router web server

IP subnet

Link Layer: 6-70