Decarbonization Steel
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Gv ReddyEnergy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
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Energy Research & Social Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/erss
Review
Decarbonizing the iron and steel industry: A systematic review o
sociotechnical systems, technological innovations, and policy options
Jinsoo Kim a, *, Benjamin K. Sovacool b, c, **, Morgan Bazilian d, Steve Griths e, Junghwan Lee a,
Minyoung Yang a, Jordy Lee d
a
Department o Earth Resources and Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University, Republic o Korea
b
Science Policy Research Unit (SPRU), University o Sussex Business School, United Kingdom
c
Center or Energy Technologies, Department o Business Development and Technology, Aarhus University, Denmark
d
Colorado School o Mines, CO, United States
e
Khalia University o Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The iron and steel industry is the largest coal consumer and the most greenhouse gas intensive industry. It
Climate change consumes about 7% o global energy supply, and conservative estimates report that it is responsible or 7–9% o
Climate mitigation global greenhouse gas emissions. Decarbonization o the iron and steel industry is thus vital to meet climate
iron and steel
change mitigation targets and achieve a sustainable uture or the industry. This paper presents a comprehensive
Industrial decarbonization
Energy policy
and systematic review that considered more than 1.6 million pieces o literature and analyzes in depth a shortlist
Sociotechnical system o 271 studies on the iron and steel industry's decarbonization. Applying a sociotechnical lens that investigates
raw materials, iron and steel making processes, steel products making and usage, and waste and recycling, the
review identies the climate ootprint o the iron and steel industry. The review also assesses current and
emerging practices or decarbonization, identiying 86 potentially transormative technologies. The benets o
decarbonizing the iron and steel industry are considered through energy and carbon savings, nancial savings,
and other environmental and public health benets. Barriers to decarbonization are considered across nancial,
organizational, and behavioral aspects. The review also discusses various nancial tools and policy instruments
that can help overcome the barriers. Lastly, research gaps are outlined.
1. Introduction India, ASEAN countries, and Arica will add to the demand trends
already exhibited by the US, Europe, and China. Iron and steel pro-
Modern lie is surrounded by iron and steel. Buildings, skyscrapers, duction will thereore play an essential role in ensuring that billions o
bridges, power transmission towers, airplanes, vehicles, and ships all use people will be able to improve their quality o lie in the coming decades.
signicant amounts o iron and steel in their construction. As a result, In the manuacturing o these essential goods, iron and steel, ne-
iron and steel demand has increased more than threeold since 1970, cessitates huge energy inputs. As Fig. 1 indicates, the iron and steel
and accounts or 95% o all metal produced annually in the world [1]. sector used 33.57 Exajoules o energy in 2018 [3], and energy cost
Iron and steel are also an essential ingredient or energy transitions and constitutes a signicant portion o steel manuacturing costs, ranging
decarbonization. Renewable energy sources such as wind turbines are rom 20% to 40% [4], which explains why many decarbonization op-
71–79% steel, and solar panels, geothermal plants, and electric vehicles tions are related to energy saving. Critically, the iron and steel industry
also depend heavily on iron and steel products. is the second largest consumer o coal, next to electricity generations.
As steel is essential or modern economies and developing technol- Coking coal is used or chemical reactions in urnaces to make steel rom
ogies, steel demand is expected to grow substantially in the coming years iron ore, so up to 75% o the energy content used in steel production is
due to its direct relationship to population, GDP growth, and overall consumed in the blast urnace. The remaining 25% oers heat at the
industrialization [2]. Economic expansion o emerging economies in sinter and coking plants [5].
* Corresponding author.
** Correspondence to: B.K. Sovacool, Science Policy Research Unit (SPRU), University o Sussex Business School, United Kingdom.
E-mail addresses: jinsookim@hanyang.ac.kr (J. Kim), B.Sovacool@sussex.ac.uk (B.K. Sovacool).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2022.102565
Received 27 November 2021; Received in revised orm 25 January 2022; Accepted 25 February 2022
Available online 8 March 2022
2214-6296/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 1. Energy demand and intensity o the global iron and steel industry (2000–2018).
Source: [3].
Thus, it is perhaps inevitable that the iron and steel industry is highly relatively young, around 12 years old on average [6], so replacing them
responsible or global greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions and thus with more ecient equipment is not economical.
contributions to climate change. The iron and steel sector emits 2.6 Gt The combination o iron and steel's importance in modern society
CO2e annually, which is 7% o the global emissions rom the energy use and the dicult o decarbonizing steel supply chains necessitate a
and 7–9% o global anthropogenic CO2 emissions—the highest among comprehensive review o decarbonization eorts within the iron and
heavy industries [6]. steel industry through a systematic review and rigorous interdisciplinary
Iron and steel are also considered as one o hardest industries to approach. It asks: Which options are available and promising or the
decarbonize due to high heat requirements, using carbon as a process decarbonization o the iron and steel industry, and thus make the in-
input, low prot margins, high capital intensity, long asset lie, and dustry more climatically sustainable? What are the key actors o the
trade challenges. There are no easy ways to create large amounts o heat industry's energy consumption and GHG ootprints? What are the ben-
energy or many iron and steel processes without also releasing CO2 ets rom the decarbonization o the iron and steel industry, and what
emissions, and coal is oten used both as a source o heat and as part o barriers will be aced? To answer these questions, we undertake a crit-
the production processes. Similarly, the decades-long lie cycles o iron ical, in-depth review o 269 studies shortlisted rom more than 1.6
and steel plants, the lack o clear nancial incentives or decarbon- million studies on the topic o iron and steel decarbonization. Based on
ization, and price volatility make it dicult to incorporate carbon the review results, we propose a new sociotechnical lens to examine the
reducing technologies. industry's decarbonization options—raw materials, iron and steel mak-
Many institutions, such as the International Energy Agency (IEA) [6], ing processes, steel products manuacture, recycling, and use—, and
European Steel Association [7], Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory identiy promising innovations, benets, barriers, policy options, and
[8], Boston Consulting Group [9], and WSP and Parsons Brinckerho/ uture agendas using this lens.
DNV GL [10], have published carbon mitigation options and technology Although there are insightul reviews or the decarbonization o the
roadmaps or the industry's decarbonization. iron and steel industry, ocusing on energy saving [17], blast urnace
When outlining their 2020 technology roadmap towards more sus- [18], and specic projects [19], or example, the systematic search and
tainable steelmaking, the IEA suggested our core technology groups; critical review process presented in Section 3 make our review more
carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS), hydrogen, direct elec- comprehensive. Moreover, the sociotechnical lens can provide an
trication, and bioenergy [6]. Hydrogen would be eective or CO2 organized perspective o the promising decarbonization options or the
mitigation in various iron and steel processes, such as BF (blast urnace), whole value chain o the industry and related society. Thus, our review
DRI (direct reduced iron), smelting reduction, and ancillary procedures can contribute to the literature by providing an inormative review
[11,12]. Electrolysis [13], torreed biomass [14], and charcoal [15] are ramework and extensive decarbonization innovations.
also good options or the decarbonization o steelmaking processes. Also, our review results identiy that many eective decarbonization
Because o the iron and steel industry's energy-intensive nature, options across the our sociotechnical systems can make the iron and
pursuing eciency and energy-saving has been the top priority o the steel industry carbon-neutral and sustainable. In particular, 86 emerging
industry. Unortunately, the iron and steel industry's potential or breakthroughs and transormative innovations (Section 5.5) and cross-
decarbonization is through process eciency alone is limited since cutting solutions (Table 10 and Fig. 26) have great potential or the
current iron and steelmaking processes have been eciently operated low carbon uture o iron and steel production. Still, there are
(rom an industry standpoint) close to their thermodynamic limits economical, organizational, and behavioral barriers (Section 7) to iron
[9,16]. Thus, it is quite natural that there is only a small room to and steel decarbonization despite being technologically easible and
improve energy eciency and related decarbonization. Moreover, having substantial benets (Section 6). We conclude our review by
Chinese blast urnaces, which account or over 50% o all ironmaking showing the interventions, benets, barriers, and policies or decar-
acilities, are heavily reliant on CO2-intensive coal electricity and are bonizing the iron and steel system in a single gure (Fig. 30).
2
J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 2. Iron and steelmaking routes.
Source: [5]. Note: BF is blast urnace, DR is direct reduction, BOF is basic oxygen urnace, EAF is electric arc urnace, OHF is open hearth urnace, and DRI is direct
reduced iron.
Table 1
Crude steel production by route (major steel producing counties, 2018).
Country Production (million tonnes) % o total production
BOF EAF OHF Total BOF EAF OHF Total
China 893.3 103.2 996.5 89.6 10.4 100
India 48.7 62.7 111.4 43.7 56.3 100
Japan 75.0 24.3 99.3 75.5 24.5 100
USA 26.6 61.2 87.8 30.3 69.7 100
Russia 45.9 24.1 1.7 71.7 64.0 33.7 2.3 100
South Korea 48.7 22.7 71.4 68.2 31.8 100
Germany 27.7 11.9 39.6 70.0 30.0 100
Total 1165.9 310.1 1.7 1477.7 78.9 21.0 0.1 100
Source: Compiled by the authors rom [22]. Note: BOF, EAF, and OHF are basic oxygen urnace, electric arc urnace, and open-hearth urnace, respectively.
Section 2 provides background or the iron and steel industry, while EAF [8,20]. BF/BOF accounted or about 65% o the world steel pro-
Section 3 summarizes the research design or a systematic literature duction in 2010, and the EAF route accounted or about 30% in 2010
review. Section 4 depicts energy and emission proles, and Section 5 [8]. In Europe, 58.3% o steel was produced by the BF/BOF, whereas
examines promising decarbonization options. Section 6 describes the 41.7% were rom the EAF [21]. Fig. 2 shows simplied iron and steel-
benets in three categories, and Sections 7 and 8 discuss barriers and making routes, and Table 1 presents crude steel production by the route.
policy instruments. Section 9 presents research gaps and uture agendas, Our review covers the iron and steel industry rom raw materials to
and Section 10 concludes. waste/recycling o steel products. It does not examine the mining in-
dustry or iron ore, coking coal, or alloying elements required or steel
2. Denitions and attributes of the iron and steel industry production. Although the overall GHG emissions rom mining industries
have little attention than the other heavy industries [23], there could be
2.1. Defnitions and terms eective options to mitigate carbon emissions, such as clean haul truck
powertrain technologies, shovel operator eciency improvements, and
Modern steelmaking procedures can be divided into our routes: blast high-pressure grinding rolls technology or iron mining. One study re-
urnace/basic oxygen urnace (BF/BOF), electric arc urnace (EAF, ported that applying these decarbonization technologies can reduce
direct reduction), smelting reduction, and direct melting o scrap in an 10% o the total cumulative GHG emissions rom the Canadian iron
3
J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Table 2
Overview o the iron and steel making processes.
Process Sub-components Description
Raw material Sintering Sintering is a combustion process with a mixture o iron ore nes, iron-bearing wastes, and coke dust. In a blast urnace (BF),
preparation the mixture is converted into coarse lumps (sinter) through incipient usion.
Pelletizing For the iron-rich ore preparation, the iron ore must be crushed and grounded to remove impurities in the pelletizing process.
Ater removing impurities, the iron-rich ore is mixed with a binding agent, and heating them makes durable marble-sized
pellets. We can use these pallets in both BFs and direct reduction.
Coke Making Coke, made by the thermal distillation process o coal at high temperatures without air, has a high carbon content. Coke is a uel
in a BF, while provides a reducing atmosphere.
Ironmaking Blast Furnace (BF) Iron ore, coke, and limestone are ed into the top o a giant shat urnace, blast urnace. The materials constitute “alternating
layers” in the BF supported by an intense coke bed. Iron is rened in the BF by the ollowing processes: Hot air passes through
the porous bed rom the urnace's bottom to the top, and the air ignites the coke, which produces additional heat and carbon
monoxide (CO) gas. The high heat melts the materials, and the CO gas eliminates the iron ore's oxygen, making hot metal. The
hot metal, fowing to the bottom o the BF, is regularly tapped, and transported to the basic oxygen urnace, and then rened
into steel.
Direct Reduction Direct reduction is the process that removes oxygen rom solid-state iron ore. Natural gas and coal are common reducing agents,
but dierent reducing agents, eedstocks, and urnaces could be utilized or direct reduction. Direct reduced iron (DRI) is the
end-product o this process.
Smelting Reduction As an alternative to the BF, smelting reduction iron (SRI) produces liquid iron. SRI can also reduce energy-intensive materials
such as coke and sinter. Instead, smelting reduction is aimed at using coal and iron nes. COREX, FINEX, and ITmk3 are
representative examples o SRI.
Steelmaking Basic Oxygen Furnace The transported hot liquid metal rom the BF is converted into steel in the BOF. Oxygen is added to eliminate carbon rom the
(BOF) hot liquid metal in the process. There are extensive metallurgical processes or BOF to improve steel quality.
Electric Arc Furnace When producing steel rom DRI, pig iron, or errous scraps (recycling), an electric arc urnace (EAF) is mainly applied. Carbon
(EAF) electrodes in the urnace roo move up and down to provide the necessary energy in the EAF. The EAF consumes much lower
energy (electricity) than the other processes since the energy-intensive iron ore reduction is not required. The EAF can also be
utilized or various scrap types.
Casting, Rolling, and The crude, molten steel rom BOFs or EAFs is transerred to the (continuous) caster and ormed into semi-nished steel. In
Finishing rolling or nishing mills, this semi-nished steel is processed into nal steel products, such as coil, sheets, or strips (see Fig. 3).
Source: Authors compilation and modication rom [6,8,20].
mining industry or 2018–2050 [24]. Korea, and Germany. The top seven producer countries account or
Table 2 oers an overview o the our classications o iron and steel about 79% o global production [22]. Fig. 5 illustrates existing iron and
production and their sub-components. steel making inrastructure by production route and region. This China-
The “crude steel” in Fig. 2 is the steel in its rst solid orm ater dominated production split is a natural result o the act that over 50% o
casting in the nal urnace—BF or EAF. As shown in Fig. 3, liquid steel is the existing production equipment is in China, ollowed by India at
commonly continuously cast into slabs (semi-nished steel products cut around 5%. Fig. 5 also depicts the average age o iron and steelmaking
into various lengths, fat products), billets (semi-nished steel products equipment, and shows that Chinese blast urnaces, which account or
with a square cross section up to 155 mm × 155 mm), and blooms (semi- over 50% o all acilities, are relatively young at around 12 years on
nished steel products with a square cross section above 155 mm × 155 average [6]. This is because the expansion o the iron and steel industry
mm) [25]. These semi-nished products may be transported to other in China began around 20 years ago, and thus replacing the urnaces and
sites or urther processing, or converted to nished steel products in equipment with new, ecient equipment would not be economically
processing plants, oten in a separate acility or company. Conversion to viable.
nished products can involve various processes such as rolling, orming,
pressing, cutting and bending, with some nished products requiring 2.3. Distinguishing attributes
more steps than others (or example, successive rounds o rolling—hot
and cold—and coating). Key nished products include coil, sheets, Apart rom its energy and carbon intensive nature, the iron and steel
strips, wire, bars, rods, tubes, pipes, rail and plated/coated versions o industry is distinguished rom other industries by our eatures. It is a
each o these products [6]. consolidated industry, produces intermediate goods or other sectors,
has a high recycling rate, and needs high temperatures compared to the
2.2. Industry revenues and structure other manuacturing industries, including primary metals [30].
The iron and steel industry has economies o scale that oten require
The iron and steel sector is a globally extensive, and massive socio- consolidation and agglomeration [10,31]. This increasing returns to
technical system with a signicant impact on our modern lie. It directly scale attribute makes the industry consolidated. Consequently, most iron
employs more than six million people and engages a total o 40 million and steel is coming rom only a ew players/countries, as shown in
indirect jobs i counting supportive positions throughout the whole Fig. 5. The top 50 companies in the industry produced 58.5% o crude
supply chain [27,28] with 5.8– 7.9 multipliers or jobs [29]. The iron steel (1060.2 million tons) in 2019 [32].
and steel industry generates about $2.5 trillion in global revenue, which Typically, end-users do not consume the iron and steel products—-
is 3.0% o global Gross Domestic Product [6]. Also, steel products are crude steel, slab, billet, or bloom—directly. These steel products are
one o the most widely traded commodities in the global market. Fig. 4 supplied to automobile, shipbuilding, plant, pipeline, and building and
depicts steel production by product and demand segment, indicating construction sectors as intermediate goods. Thereore, the iron and steel
that buildings and inrastructure account or about hal o steel demand industry's decarbonization has great potential to reduce indirect emis-
[6]. sions rom those other industries [33,34].
As presented in Table 1, China accounts or over 53% o the world A high recycling rate is another distinguishing attribute o the iron
steel production, ollowed by India, Japan, the USA, Russia, South and steel industry [35–37]. According to World Steel Association [38],
4
J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 3. Iron and steelmaking routes.
Source: [26].
Fig. 4. Global steel production by product and demand segment in 2019.
Source: [6].
the recovery rates o steel are estimated at around 90% or automotive industries.
and machinery, 85% or construction, and 50% or electrical and do-
mestic appliances, globally. In the U.S., or example, 33.1% o steel 3. Research design and conceptual approach for a
wastes (70.9% o steel cans) were recycled, which is third ater paper sociotechnical review
and paperboard (68.2%) and other nonerrous metals (67.3%, including
lead) in municipal wastes [39]. This high recycling rate can yield various 3.1. Critical and systematic review approach
benets in terms o economy and environment, and we will visit this
issue in Chapter 6. Similar to our previous review or the decarbonization o ood and
Lastly, the industry needs very high temperatures, unlike those in- beverages [42] and F-gases [43], we characterize this review as critical
dustries that use low-grade heat, such as machinery or electrical and systematic. A critical review aims to demonstrate that a “research
manuacturing. From Raw Material Preparation to Casting, Rolling, and team has extensively scoured the literature and critically evaluated its
Finishing, all processes require very high temperatures. For example, a quality.” [44]. We've made this review systematic, ollowing the
low-temperature in sintering means “lower than 1,300 ◦ C,” [40] and guidelines rom [45,46]. A critical review includes evaluation o pieces
BOF and EAF are generally operated around 1500– 1600 ◦ C [41]. This o evidence quality and research gaps derived rom the literature. It
attribute makes the iron and steel industry energy- and carbon- oers [42]:
intensive, resulting in it being the most carbon-emitting among
5
J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 5. Geographic distribution and the average age o iron and steel making equipment by production routes (top panel) and regions (bottom panel).
Source: [6].
• a chance to “take stock” and evaluate what is o value within a given • a ocused exploration, which avoids excessively wide-ranging discussion
feld, or across varying bodies o evidence, in relation to a particular topic and inconclusive results;
or research question; • the avoidance o the selective and opportunistic selection o evidence;
• both a “launch pad” or conceptual novelty, as well as an empirical • replicability through the documenting o study inclusion;
“testing” ground to judge the strength o evidence. • the ability to discriminate between sound and unsound studies, thus
assessing methodological quality; and
Unortunately, a critical review is not necessarily systematic. That is • increased transparency, which reduces subjectivity and bias in the
why we try to make our review systematic as well as critical. A sys- reporting o results.
tematic approach can minimize any unintentional bias, such as sel-
citations or reviewing only or riendly groups, while promoting a re- For these reasons, the systematic review has also been widely applied
view's diversity. It also oers [43]: in energy, environmental, and climate change elds [47,48]. As intro-
duced in the ollowing subsections, we developed a searching protocol,
Fig. 6. Summary o critical and systematic review search terms and parameters.
Source: Authors.
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J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Table 3
Summary o critical and systematic review search results and nal documents.
Database Main topical area o database Initial search Deemed relevant ater Deemed relevant Number o Total
results screening titles, ater scanning ull duplications
keywords and abstracts study
ScienceDirect General science, energy studies, geography, business 139,812 344 128 – 128
studies
JSTOR Social science 21,204 22 12 0 12
Project Muse Social science 20,129 7 3 0 3
Hein Online Law and legal studies 28,766 30 9 0 9
PubMed Medicine and lie sciences 1000 29 12 5 7
SpringerLink General science, business and area studies 106,534 62 38 1 37
Taylor & Francis General science 27,726 24 14 0 14
Online
Wiley Blackwell General science, area studies 33,448 26 15 0 15
(Wiley Online
Library)
Sage Journals General science, area studies 5079 8 2 0 2
National Academies General science 383,167 6 3 0 3
Publications (nap.
edu)
Targeted internet White papers, reports, grey literature (e.g., International 48,588 41 28 0 28
searches Energy Agency, International Renewable Energy Agency,
World Bank, UN agencies, and the online OECD library)
Google scholar General science 837,257 148 34 21 13
Total 1,652,708 745 296 27 271
Source: Authors.
analytical parameters, and an analytical rame o sociotechnical systems specic topics o decarbonization), and Originality (results ater elimi-
to keep our review systematic and critical. nating duplicates). We cite many o these studies throughout the review.
3.2. Searching protocol and analytical parameters 3.3. Analytical rame o sociotechnical systems
As Fig. 6 summarizes, we utilized three explicit classes o search The analytical rame o sociotechnical systems is applied or those
terms or the critical and systematic review. This resulted in 240 distinct 271 nal studies to help guide and structure the review results [49,50].
search combinations or twelve separate databases or repositories pro- Although a sociotechnical system or the iron and steel industry
duce 2880 search strings in total. This systematic search protocol can would be less complicated than the other sectors or consumer goods,
capture state-o-the-art research in terms o academic and policy. such as ood and beverages [42] and glass [citation, i possible], it in-
Table 3 displays our results. Since the “iron and steel” with “in- cludes not only iron and steelmaking processes, including material
dustry” and “carbon” is a widespread word in academic or policy arti- preparation, but also raw materials such as iron ore and coal, waste and
cles, the generic search result is counted in more than 1.6 million recycling, and even the ways o steel use and regulations, including e-
potentially relevant documents. However, ater applying three screening ciency and saety (see Fig. 7). To be clear, Fig. 7 visualizes elements o
protocols, which are identical to our previous review [42,43], that the system in a non-hierarchical way. That is, we do not argue that each
enormous number ell into a shortlist o 271 studies. The three screening dimension o the system is on the same level, but they are all a part o the
protocols are Recency (published ater 2000), Relevance (address the system in some way.
Fig. 7. Framing iron and steel as a sociotechnical system.
Source: Authors.
7
J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Table 4 energy source in iron and steel making processes.
Final energy use in iron and steel making in 2015. The primary sources o CO2 emissions in the iron and steel making
Source Energy use (EJ/year) Share (%) processes are raw materials, including cokes, and uel combustion.
Ovens, boilers, stoves, urnaces, and other miscellaneous equipment in
Coking coal and coke 24.1 70.0
Other coal 6.1 17.6 the processes rom the sintering to the nal steel product manuacturing
Blast urnace gas and coke oven gas 3.3 9.6 in Table 2 can be CO2 emissions sources. Fig. 8 depicts the prole o CO2
Natural gas 2.3 6.7 emissions in a typical BF/BOF integrated steel plant. Among 1.8 t CO2
Oil 0.4 1.2 emissions per ton o rolled coil in a typical integrated steel plant, 1.7 t
Biomass 0.1 0.4
Electricity 4.0 11.8
CO2 is associated with coal use, and the remaining 0.1 t CO2 is respon-
Heat 0.6 1.9 sible or lime use [8].
Total 34.4 100.0 Three reasons make the DRI carbon content critical when used in an
Source: [52,53]. Note: Negative energy use represents recovered energy in the
electric arc urnace: 1) the presence o carbon is necessary to complete
iron and steel making processes. the metallization o the iron in the EAF, 2) carbon represents an addi-
tional source o energy in the EAF because burning the carbon by
injecting oxygen reduces the electricity consumption, consequently
Although not all studies in our sample all under this rubric o a
enabling a aster melting o the charged materials, 3) carbon enables the
sociotechnical system, we utilize it throughout the study to organize
ormation o a oamy slag in the EAF [15].
results and return to it in the conclusion.
4. The energy and climate impacts of iron and steel industry 4.2. Estimating greenhouse gas emissions
In 2020, the IEA projected global steel demand will increase by more The most o carbon ootprints in the iron and steel industry are
than a third by 2050, particularly as emerging economies continue to energy-related emissions. The IEA predicted the iron and steel industry
grow, industrialize, and require more energy [6]. The COVID-19 would account or about 25–30% o direct industrial carbon emissions
pandemic gives a demand shock in the iron and steel industry, result- by 2050, even in the IEA Sustainable Development Scenario in which the
ing in 5% decrease in global crude steel output in 2020 [6] (see Section GHG emissions o the iron and steel sector are reduced by 54% by 2050.
9.3 or more discussions). However, the steel industry is also projected As presented in the right side o Fig. 9, Asia Pacic is the key region
to return to a robust growth path in IEA [6]'s baseline projections ater because o this dramatic reduction o carbon emissions [6].
overcoming the demand slump in the near term. Thus, without adequate Our review nds many articles assessing country-specic GHG
measures and innovations to reduce GHG emissions rom the industry, emissions in the iron and steel sectors. For example, one study revealed
the emissions are projected to 2.7 Gt CO2 per year by 2050, which is 7% direct and indirect GHG emissions in the Chinese iron and steel industry
higher than today [6]. using the Material Flow Analysis. The work showed that China emitted
77.2% o GHG emissions directly in 2011, and most o them were coal-
4.1. Energy and carbon intensive processes in the iron and steel sector red emissions (Fig. 10).
Other studies examined the CO2 emissions projections o the iron and
When investigating the industry's climate impacts, describing the steel sector or the UK perspective [56,57], Japan's pathways towards
energy-intensive processes in the industry is the rst and ecient way 2030 [58], China with carbon audit evaluation [59], Thailand by 2050
or a review. The iron and steel industry emits GHGs rom raw materials [60], Europe considering uture scenarios on energy eciency [61],
and processes, combustion sources, and indirect emissions, such as Taiwan [62], or even or global projections [63,64]. Recent estimation
electricity consumption in EAFs [51]. Table 4 shows the share o each o GHG emissions rom Chinese stainless steel production shows 1.44–
Fig. 8. CO2 emissions rom a typical steel mill.
Source: [54].
8
J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 9. The contribution o the iron and steel sector to direct industrial CO2 emissions by scenario.
Source: [6]. Note: STEPS is the IEA Stated Policies Scenario and SDS is the IEA Sustainable Development Scenario.
Fig. 10. The ratio o GHG emissions rom iron and steelmaking systems o China in 2011.
Source: [55].
Fig. 11. Sociotechnical options or decarbonizing the iron and steel industry.
Source: Authors.
9
J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 12. Recycling o waste materials or a metallurgical plant.
Source: [66].
1.76 kg CO2 per kg stainless steel in terms o lie cycle emissions [65]. As making process and thereore has excellent potential or CO2 reduction.
shown in these studies, the energy- and carbon-intensive nature o the Many steel producers are trying to develop this option. We can identiy
iron and steel industry has aroused continuous interest to appraise the ollowing initiatives [52]:
decarbonizing technologies and resulting GHG emissions.
• The hydrogen subproject o the ULCOS (Ultra-Low CO2 steelmaking)
5. Current and emerging technologies and practices for program, run mostly rom France (Université de Lorraine) [67,68]
decarbonization • Hybrit project, SSAB, Sweden [69]
• SuSteel, VoestAlpine, Austria [70]
Five distinct classes o technological practices and innovations or • Salcos-Macor, Salzgitter, Germany [52]
the decarbonization o the iron and steel industry are described in this • ArcelorMittal Midrex plant, Germany [21]
section. Fig. 11 depicts an overview or the our classes—raw materials • Flash iron making, the United States [71]
or the iron and steel making, iron and steel making processes, steel
products making and usage, waste and recycling o iron and steel—and Decarbonization potential using hydrogen in the iron and steel in-
the th class, 86 emerging breakthrough and potentially transormative dustry is substantial. A simulation result indicates that the hydrogen-
technologies, is described in Section 5.5. based direct reduction process can reduce up to 91% o direct CO2
emissions relative to using natural gas [21]. Moreover, hydrogen-based
5.1. Options or raw materials technologies are a representative cross-cutting option or decarbon-
ization [72] (see Section 9.2). It is, however, noticeable that the
The iron and steel sector uses carbon intensive raw materials or steel hydrogen production routes have a diverse nature, such as green, blue,
production. It is the largest consumer o coal, and DRI needs hydrogen, and grey, and their carbon intensities are also widely ranged. Thus, the
typically via natural gas, as a reducing agent. Thus, substantial amounts decarbonization o the iron and steel industry via hydrogen must be
o carbon rom the raw materials can be mitigated by using low-carbon supported by the hydrogen produced rom a low-carbon route (see
hydrogen solid recovered uels, or bioenergy sources, as the reducing Section 5.5 and Fig. 18).
agent. Sintering is the second largest energy-consuming process in the iron
Manuacturers can use solid recovered uels (SRF) in steel production and steel industry [73]. Thus, it is quite natural that there have been
instead o reducing agents such as coke, coal, or natural gas. Using SRF continuous eorts to decarbonize sintering, and energy saving by process
may not be eective to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but it could optimization is one o those eorts. Process optimization by integrating a
reduce landll waste disposal, which is one o the major sources o hybrid just-in-time learning sot sensor [73] and thermodynamic opti-
methane emissions. Also, SRF has good properties or iron and steel mization [74] could be applied or saving energy during the sintering
making as it contains high carbon and hydrogen contents, which are process.
necessary or strengthening steel. The steel plants in Austria, Germany,
and Japan have used SRF as reducing agents [66], and Fig. 12 presents 5.2. Options or iron and steel making
the fows o recycled wastes usage in a metallurgical plant.
Hydrogen could also be used directly as a reducing agent in the steel The iron and steel making processes are the major carbon emissions
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J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 13. A carbon fow chart or BF/BOF steel processing.
Source: [79].
source in the iron and steel industry. According to China's example o in chemical products, or example. This decomposed carbon fow iden-
2004, the iron making process is the most energy-consuming process tied that enhancing power generation eciency using the combined
among all steel industry processes, accounting or 70% o the total en- cycle could eliminate 134.43 kg CO2 [79].
ergy use o the iron and steel sector [75]. Because o the complexity and Other studies also presented energy eciency options, impacts, and
dierent steelmaking routes, there are many options or decarbonizing case studies, such as energy ecient technologies dissemination or the
iron and steel making processes. They include energy eciency, adop- German steel industry [80], energy eciency potential in India [81],
tion o renewable sources or uel switching, waste heat recovery tech- and an EU27 case study considering dierent payback periods o e-
nologies, process integration and optimization, carbon capture and ciency investment [82].
storage, and hydrogen use. The adoption o renewable sources or uel switching rom ossil uels in
Energy efciency is vital or the sustainable uture o the iron and steel the iron and steel making processes can reduce substantial greenhouse
industry. As mentioned in the Introduction, energy cost takes 20– 40% gas emissions. Adopting biomass in the processes is the rst option or
o steel manuacturing costs [4], and, naturally, there is a strong the iron and steel industry [83,84]. Biomass could replace ossil-based
incentive to save energy consumption in the process. Many countries reducing agents and has the potential to decrease CO2 emissions up to
have tried to improve the energy and resource eciency o iron and 50% in the integrated steelmaking process [14]. Biochar can be used in
steel production. The U.K. steel sector has recorded a steady improve- the sintering process, and charcoal is a promising substitute in blast
ment in resource eciency but suered a decline in the economic output urnaces [84]. Besides biomass, the other renewable sources can also
per energy consumption [76]. One study reveals that the Swiss metals mitigate carbon emissions since the industry uses electricity and heat or
sector, which is responsible or about 14% o the industry's total nal steel making [85–87].
energy demand, has the maximum energy eciency potential at 19% Due to the energy intensive nature o steelmaking processes, the
with the current best available techniques. The economic potential, integration o lower-emission energy sources in high-producing
however, decreases in the range o 11%–15%, and the corresponding geographic regions can also signicantly lower global steel emissions.
CO2 abatement potential is 6% [77]. Another study [78] suggested that Coal currently accounts or 60% o China's electricity generation, which
the whole iron and steel-making process energy utilization eciency raises embodied steel emissions relative to regions that have integrated
was 47.6%, which means 52.3% o total purchased energy was lost in the lower-emission electricity sources and renewables [85–87]. Similarly,
process. A case study or China [79] gives us an excellent picture o the almost one-th o all steel is expected to come rom India by 2050
overall carbon fow in the iron and steel process (Fig. 13). According to (compared to around 5% today), who's electricity gird is also heavily
this case study, producing one ton o crude steel emits 1418.78 kg o dependent on coal [88]. Renewable-based electricity and heat supply
carbon dioxide. The study decomposed this direct CO2 emission by combining low-carbon hydrogen and CCUS could be a powerul option
process—422.75 kg rom uel gas dissipation, 28.00 kg in slag, 62.94 kg or decarbonization [86,89], especially as these nations continue to
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J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 14. Roadmap o ecient use o energy in iron and steel industry (top panel (a): main concepts, bottom panel (b): general summarization).
Source: [17].
account or larger percentages o steel production [90]. amount o water. POSCO, the steel company in the Republic o Korea,
Waste heat recovery technologies also have great potential or the developed an energy-ecient technology to recover slag heat in 2012. It
decarbonization o the iron and steel industry. Coke oven gas (COG) or recorded a 50% recovery rate at a temperature o 460 ◦ C in a eld test o
coke gas is a byproduct o the coke-making process in the iron and steel a prototype [98].
industry. COG is a complicated mixture o CO, CO2, H2, CH4, and N2, and Process integration and optimization is another good option to decar-
volatile coal produces COG in the coking process. COG also contains bonize the iron and steel industry. Various optimization techniques have
around 30 wt% tar [91]. COG, including tar, has very high energy been applied or the iron and steel sector, such as an integrated steel
content that could meet approximately 4.1% o the global demand or plant system [99], energy intensity optimization [100], and material-
power generation [92]. Thereore, the hot COG utilization (recovery) energy nexus fow combination [101]. One study [17] illustrated the
can contribute considerable energy savings. concept o mass-thermal network optimization and summarized their
Various COG utilization approaches, such as power generation [93], classications, which gives us valuable insights into the decarbonization
H2 production [94], and methanol [95] or CH4 production [96], have options (Fig. 14). As shown in this gure, process optimization can
been developed. The integrated COG-based DRI plant is another prom- reduce energy demand as well as recover energy use. Thus, the optimal
ising and ecient option. In this process, the hot DRI reacts with sulur integration o various process optimization techniques has excellent
(in-situ desulurization) beore the uel is injected into the reormer. potential as a promising decarbonization option or the iron and steel
Puried COG can also be converted into a reormed gas that can produce industry, and that's why a practical roadmap is necessary.
DRI [91]. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) or Carbon capture, utilization, and
Molten slag is another promising source or waste heat recovery. It is storage (CCUS) technology is one o the key options to mitigate carbon
exhausted with a very high temperature around 1450–1550 ◦ C [97]. For emissions and hence could be helpul or the iron and steel industry
the heat recovery rom molten slag, traditional technologies, such as [91]. For example, there are vigorous eorts to develop eective sor-
water quenching, is not appropriate because it consumes a considerable bents or CCS rom materials and by-products o the iron and steel
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J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Table 5
Lie cycle GHG emissions or lightweighting scenario. (unit: kg CO2-eq.).
Options Production Use End o lie Total
Low Mid High Low High Low High
Baseline vehicle 1670 3590 4100 38,248 57,753 147 40,065 62,000
6% lightweight HSS 1620 3630 4200 35,547 54,178 138 37,305 58,516
19% lightweight HSS 1563 3700 4820 29,500 44,544 100 31,171 49,472
Source: [113]. Note: HSS represents high-strength steel.
making process, such as a mixture o magnetite (Fe3O4) and iron (Fe) CCS can be applied or most processes in the sector: sintering, pellet-
[102] and direct gas-solid carbonation o steel slag [103]. Also, CCUS izing, coking, iron and steel making, and casting and rolling [104].
includes “o-gas hydrogen enrichment and/or CO2 removal or use or An increase in CO2 costs in the market, i.e., the EU Emission Trading
storage,” “converting o-gases to uels,” “converting o-gases to Scheme, can make CO2 capture options economically easible in the iron
chemicals” or blast urnaces (BF), and “natural gas-based with CO2 and steel industry. Note that iron and steel manuacturing is an extensive
capture” or direct reduced iron (DRI). Because o its versatile nature, production process with high CO2 concentrations and recoverable heat
Fig. 15. Steel scrap recycling and the expansion o secondary steel.
Source: [116].
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J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Table 6
86 commercially available, emerging, and experimental innovations or the iron and steel industry.
Level o Commercially available but not yet widely Emerging soon with working prototypes (as o 2020) Experimental and likely only ater 2025
sociotechnical utilized (as o 2020)
system
Raw materials 1. Solid recovered uels or use as reducing 1. Primary Energy Melter 1. Low-carbon hydrogen-based direct
agents reduction
2. Heat recovery rom sinter cooler 2. Charcoal in the sintering process
3. Single-chamber-system coking reactors 3. Torreed biomass
Iron and steel 4. Use o recuperative burners 2. Advanced control o heating walls in coke ovens 4. Plasma blast urnace
making 5. Replacing existing equipment with 3. Hot oxygen injection 5. O-gas hydrogen enrichment (BF)
more ecient ovens, burners, kilns, 4. Tecnored 6. CO2 removal or use or storage (BF)
and urnaces 5. Cyclone converter urnace 7. Electrolytic H2 blending (BF)
6. Process modication o kilns 6. Continuous horizontal sidewall scrap charging 8. Natural gas-based DRI with high levels o
7. Optimization o urnace 7. Converting o-gases to uels (BF) low or zero-carbon electrolytic H2
8. Waste heat recovery 8. Converting o-gases to chemicals (BF) blending
9. Use o ceramic ladles instead o cast 9. Natural gas-based DRI with CO2 capture
iron pipes 10. DRI based solely on low or zero-carbon
10. Ecient ladle preheating electrolytic H2
11. Radiation recuperators or ladle 11. Paired straight hearth urnace
urnace 12. Molten oxide electrolysis
12. Coal moisture control 13. Suspension hydrogen reduction o iron
13. Coke dry quenching oxide concentrate
14. Injection o pulverized coal 14. Ironmaking using biomass and waste
15. Top-pressure recovery turbines oxides
16. Recovery o BF/BOF gas 15. New scrap-based steelmaking process
17. Charging carbon composite 16. In-situ real-time measurement o melt
agglomerates constituents
17. Continuous steelmaking or EAF
Steel products 18. Near net shape casting (thin slab) 9. Energy monitoring and management system in casting 18. Smelting reduction with CCUS
making and usage 19. Bottom stirring/stirring gas injection 10. Preventative maintenance in steel mills or EAF plants 19. low or zero-carbon H2 or high-
20. Use o oamy slag practices 11. Variable speed drives or fue gas control, pumps, ans temperature heat (ancillary processes)
21. Use o oxy uel burners in integrated steel mills 20. Next-generation system or scale-ree
22. DC arc urnace 12. Cogeneration or the use o untapped coke oven gas, steel reheating
23. Scrap preheating and continuous blast urnace gas, and basic oxygen urnace-gas in 21. Thermochemical recuperation or steel
charging integrated steel mills reheating urnaces
24. Flue gas monitoring and control 13. Additive manuacturing 22. Oxygen-rich urnace System
25. Eccentric bottom tapping 23. Integrating steel production with mineral
26. Improved process control sequestration
27. Ultra-high-power transormer
28. Twin shell urnace
29. Hot charging
30. Recuperative or regenerative burner
31. Use o ceramic low thermal mass
insulators or reheating urnace
32. Controlling oxygen level and variable
speed drive on combustion air ans
33. Ecient drives in rolling mill and
machining
34. Waste heat recovery (cooling water,
annealing, and compressor)
35. Reduced steam use or pickling
36. Automated monitoring and targeting
systems
37. Thermal insulation or plating bath
38. Automated bath cover
39. Compressed air network modication
40. Reducing air extraction across heating
solution
41. Ecient compressors
42. Optimizing the process solution
temperature
43. Use o high-strength steel
Waste and recycling 44. Rotary hearth urnace dust recycling 14. Recycling basic oxygen urnace slag 24. Geological sequestration o carbon
system 15. Recycling o stainless steel dust dioxide using slags
45. Injection o plastic waste 16. Regeneration o hydrochloric acid pickling liquor
17. Recycling o waste oxides in steelmaking urnace
Note: The detailed description o each innovation is presented in Table A1: in the Appendix.
Source: Authors compilation and modication rom [8,18,21,66,77,113,124–139].
[105,106]. Higher carbon price thus makes the CCS applications in the practices have already reached close to their maximum thermodynamic
iron and steel industry economically easible. limits [9,16] and emerging decarbonization options are primarily
Despite the challenges to meet economic easibility, it is evident that ocusing on incrementally lowering emission, carbon capture is one o
CCS will be (and must be) an eective and cross-cutting option or the the ew technologies to oer scalable reductions that rival steel's eco-
decarbonization o the iron and steel sector. As many steelmaking nomic importance and need or decarbonization. Several studies discuss
14
J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
its technical concept [106,107], application design [108,109], and po- primarily based on the electricity grid o the country that is responsible
tential [110,111] as a promising decarbonization option. or recycling the steel [90], the steel process route, and is heavily
dependent on the availability o scrap steel. Because o this dependency,
5.3. Options or steel products and usage and steel's use in products with long lietimes, the use o recycled steel
has not been able to match growing steel demand, although many o the
Steel products making, rom crude steel to the nished products such IEA's ambitious climate scenarios show large increases in the creation o
as coil, sheets, strips, wire, bars, or pipes, also require substantial energy scrap-base steel [6] and a decline in blast-urnace primary steel
inputs. Similar approaches—process control and optimization, ecient production.
burners and urnaces, heat recovery technologies, and carbon capture
and storage—could also be applied or decarbonization. However, the 5.5. Emerging breakthroughs and transormative innovations
practical application o those approaches diers rom that in iron and
steel making since they are “distinct” processes (see Table 6, or The last category o decarbonizing options or the iron and steel in-
example). dustry is breakthrough and emerging innovations. Our systematic review
The World Steel Association launched a global initiative to exchange revealed possibly transormative options or the near uture, as sum-
knowledge rom regional activities, entitled “CO2 Breakthrough Pro- marized in Table 6. Likewise the ormer review on the decarbonization
grams,” in 2003 [112]. The research and investment covered in these options or the other industries [42,43], we classied the 86 innovations
programs are taking place in [91]: or the iron and steel industry across the sociotechnical system into three
groups—commercially available but not yet widely diused (as o
• The EU (ultra-low CO2 steelmaking, or ULCOS I and ULCOS II) 2020); emerging soon with working prototypes; and those at the
• The US (American Iron and Steel Institute) experimental and likely only ater 2025. Interestingly, more innovations
• Canada (Canadian Steel Producers Association) are commercially available (45) than are both emerging (17) or in
• South America (ArcelorMittal Brazil) experimental stages (24).
• Japan (Japanese Iron and Steel Federation) The decarbonization innovations, including the emerging ones
• South Korea (POSCO) above, could also be categorized using a decision tree (Fig. 16) or by the
• China (Baosteel) and Taiwan (China Steel) and popularity in the reviewed literature (Fig. 17). I we consider decar-
• Australia (BlueScope Steel/One Steel CSIRO coordination) bonization o the iron and steel industry using just existing materials and
uels, then recycling more and enhancing resource/material eciency
Considering the local constraints and cultures, the decarbonizing would be the sole options [140]. Considering new materials and uels as
innovations, economic easibility, technical easibility at various sca- well, however, expands the decarbonization options and existing pro-
les—rom lab scales to commercial implementations—were discussed in cesses can be kept or changed with more ecient equipment or entirely
the CO2 Breakthrough Programs [112]. new techniques, such as hydrogen-based direct reduction.
One good option to mitigate CO2 emissions is the weight lightening o Fig. 17 depicts the requency o decarbonization options among the
vehicles with high-strength steel products. Lightweight vehicles will reviewed literature in this study. The requency and level o academic
consume less energy than heavier cars per vehicle-mile traveled. Table 5 interest could be an indicator o promising innovations, although it does
reveals that the lie cycle GHG emissions o vehicles made with 19% not necessarily represent the true potential o each technology. We
high-strength steel (HSS) are 20.2– 22.2% lower than a or a baseline organized the requency by the iron and steel industry's value chain and
vehicle [113]. assigned colors or the type o each innovation.
Similarly, according to the World Steel Association, advanced and One early stage but promising and powerul decarbonization option
ultra-high-strength steel can reduce steel applications' weight by up to is low-carbon Hydrogen. Hydrogen rom renewable or other low-carbon
40%. It also reduces the number o raw materials and energy used to sources could be used as a reducing agent in the steel making process
produce steel products. HISTAR® by ArcelorMittal, or example, weighs and has the potential to mitigate more than 3 Gton o CO2 annually at a
32% less than a standard grade steel beam o the same length and cost o less than USD$ 60/ton CO2 mitigated [141]. HYBRIT, one o the
thickness, saving around 30% on material [114]. companies developing hydrogen-based DRI has urther shown that each
ton o hydrogen used in a DRI process that replaces a blast urnace saves
5.4. Options or waste and recycling 24–32 kg o CO2 [142].
A simulation result indicates that the hydrogen-based direct reduc-
Reducing wastes in the steel making processes and recycling steel tion process can reduce up to 91% o direct CO2 emissions than the
products can substantially reduce energy use in the iron and steel sector reduction using natural gas [21]. Incorporating a biomass-based poly-
[115]. The World Steel Association reveals that the steel industry has generation system in the iron and steel making process could also be a
globally recycled over 22 billion tons o steel since 1900, resulting in the good option or the iron and steel industry's sustainable uture. One
iron ore (28 billion tons) and coal (14 billion tons) consumption study suggested a 34.15% reduction o carbon emissions and a 1.81%
reduction globally [114]. Another study showed that global secondary enhancement o the annualized capital cost in the best scenario [137].
steel using steel scrap may expand to 38% o total steel production by Considering its impact, potential [72,143], and developers, such as
2050 (Fig. 15) [116]. Since steel production rom scrap uses much lower SSAB [144], POSCO [19,145], ArcelorMittal [146], Voestalpine [147],
energy than the primary steel rom iron ore [117,118], the expansion o Salzgitter Flachstahl [52], hydrogen-based DRI would become the long-
secondary steel can be an impactul decarbonization option. term winner or low/zero carbon steel.
Iron recovery rom metallurgical slags is also noteworthy and E- The ULCOS (Ultra-Low Carbon Dioxide Steelmaking) project also
wastes, such as rerigerators, computers, and TV, also provide secondary presents hydrogen as a breakthrough technology or the iron and steel
errous resources or recycling [119]. Comminution (or size reduction sector [67]. It suggests replacing coal with hydrogen and electricity in
and surace area increase) and separation [120], carbothermic smelting hydrogen reduction. A pure hydrogen-based steel making process is also
reduction [121], carbothermic reduction, fotation, or leaching [122], possible. Many studies have developed practical models with pure H2 as
and aluminothermic smelting reduction [123] technologies have been a reducing agent in the direct reduction process [11,148–150].
applied or the iron recovery rom slags. Hydrogen could also be combined with CCS technologies [151] and CCU
Recycling steel or use as a raw input, or or the creation o recycled technologies [152] to reduce carbon emissions in steel making processes
steel through EAF production routes can also lower the emissions in- (Fig. 18).
tensity o steel by 62–90%. The amount o emissions reduced is The cost reduction o renewable electricity could be a game-changer
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J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 16. Decision tree o decarbonization choices or the iron and steel industry.
Source: Authors modication based on the ramework in [130].
Fig. 17. Promising decarbonization innovations by
value chain.
Note: Crosscutting options, such as hydrogen and
CCUS, are incorporated in processes or equipment.
For example, hydrogen and CCUS can be applied in
both direct-reduced Iron and Electric Arc Furnace.
Orange color denotes the options related to heat, blue
indicates the one or process/equipment, and green is
or material/uels.
Source: Authors.
or low-carbon hydrogen production. One study suggested that Australia 6. The benets of decarbonizing iron and steel industry
could supply hydrogen or East Asia, especially Japan and Korea, at USD
3.23 per kg by 2025. This study also revealed that the 2025 export po- Decarbonizing the iron and steel industry gives clear benets that we
tential o 25– 345 PJ could grow to 621– 3180 PJ in 2040, with the categorize into three areas: energy and carbon savings, cost savings, and
production cost range o USD 1.70– 4.95 per kg H2 [52]. Electrolysis other environmental co-benets.
eciency is currently at around 77%, and approximately 85% is the
thermodynamic limit [153]. Electricity cost is thus the driver o
renewable hydrogen production cost. 6.1. Energy and carbon savings
Molten oxide electrolysis (MOE) is another potentially game
changing technology as it completely changes the steel manuacturing Although steelmaking processes operate close to their thermody-
process [19]. Unlike traditional steel production, MOE produces no namic limits using current technologies [9], our review reveals
carbon emissions and can be zero-carbon i powered by zero-carbon compelling decarbonization innovations (see Table 6). Those in-
electricity sources (Fig. 19). novations can yield nancial benets rom energy and carbon savings
across multiple levels o the sociotechnical system.
Regarding emissions reductions, one study reveals that energy saving
technologies, such as coal moisture control and high temperature air
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J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 18. Green hydrogen production and its applications in steel production.
Source: [152].
Fig. 19. Molten oxide electrolysis.
Source: [154].
combustion, can reduce almost hal o the CO2 emissions rom the 6.2. Cost and fnancial savings
Chinese steel sector, reducing the emissions rom 1469 Mt in 2015 to
710 Mt by 2050 [155]. Another case study assessed that the cost- Because o the iron and steel industry's energy-intensive (uses high-
eective energy saving potential o the German iron and steel industry temperature) nature, reduced energy inputs will result in signicant
is up to 11.7% or uel, 2.2% or electricity, and 12.2% or CO2 emissions nancial savings as well as social cost savings through reduction o the
when applying a plant-specic bottom-up approach [156]. negative externalities imposed by coal and natural gas consumption
Despite the act that decarbonization o the iron and steel industry [158]. One study, or example, estimated that ecient technologies or
would be a challenging journey, a sustainable uture in terms o the integrated casting and rolling would reduce operations and maintenance
environment and economic output could be achieved through eective costs by 20–25% [136]. Another study presented 14 eciency measures
technologies and policies. According to Hasanbeigi [7], the maximum in the industry that could save $0.11–$6.27 per tonne o steel [159]
decarbonization potential would be about 15% between 2010 and 2050, (Table 7). Thus, taking the total global steel production, 1477.7 million
considering the CO2 intensity decrease o power sectors and the increase tonnes in 2018 (Table 1), into account, 14 eciency measures could
in scrap availability. Fig. 20 gives valuable insight into investigating save a total o $26.76 billion per year.
where the energy savings by decarbonization technologies originated.
This case study indicates that traditional production processes, such as 6.3. Other environmental co-benefts
hot rolling, blast urnaces, and coke ovens (top three in Fig. 20), have
great potentials or energy saving in China when applying uel changes Many o the decarbonizing options reviewed in this paper can also
and low-carbon devices [157]. Well-known decarbonization options, save water usage, minimize wastes, and make other positive benets,
such as regenerative burners and pulverized coal, identied in Section such as air quality improvements [162–164]. One study noted that the
5.5, are also eective or China's iron and steel industry. Quantiying the optimization o water usage and recovery could yield considerable water
contribution to energy savings o each innovation via scenario analysis and energy savings in the iron and steel making processes. For example,
could support development o a decarbonization policy. case studies on the optimizing the water network o steel plants in China
and Italy resulted in reduced reshwater intake in the plants by 20%
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J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 20. Energy savings contributed by each technology in China's iron and steel industry.
Source: [157]. Note: Positive values denote energy savings, and negative values represent energy increments.
[165]. Another study also reveals that decarbonization o China's iron recycling ratio is mainly or economic reasons, it gives us other envi-
and steel industry can signicantly improve the ecological environment ronmental benets that include less energy use and ewer carbon
o the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, Yangtze River Delta region, Henan, emissions. The scrap-based EAF is greener than the other steel making
and other places that have requently suered rom pollution haze processes starting rom raw materials. The 4-Rs “circular economy”
[166]. concept by the World Steel Association successully depicts the co-
As discussed already, the recycling ratio o steel is very high, close to environmental benets o reuse and recycling (Fig. 21).
95%, making steel the most recycled material [165]. While the high Applying decarbonization options or the iron and steel industry can
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J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Table 7 high capital cost and long investment cycles, limited nancing, risk
Fourteen eciency measures in the iron and steel industry and productivity o not meeting required product quality or changing character, risk
benets. o production disruption, shortage o skilled labor, shortage o
Eciency measure Productivity benet Cost saving demonstrated technologies, and lack o reliable and complete
(US$/tonne) inormation.
Electric steelmaking
The barriers to energy eciency investments and improvements can
Oxy-uel burners Reduces tap-to-tap times 1.00
Scrap preheater—FUCHS Reduces electrode consumption, 0.80 be categorized into seven dimensions—technology related, inormation
shat urnace improves yield, saves waste related, economic, behavioral, organizational, competence related, or
handling costs awareness related [168] or using simplied three groups—market
Bottom stirring—stirring gas Improves yield, cuts need or inert 0.22
related barriers, organizational and behavioral barriers, and policy
injection gas purchases
Improved process control Reduces electrode consumption, 0.90
barriers [169]. Our review also identied three distinct barriers to
improves yield, saves maintenance decarbonizing iron and steel industry: nancial and economic, organi-
costs zational and managerial, and behavioral.
DC-arc urnace Reduces electrode consumption, 0.13
reduces tap-to-tap time
Scrap Reduces electrode consumption, 0.38 7.1. Financial and economic barriers
preheater—CONSTEEL improves yield
Scrap preheater—twin shell Reduces tap-to-tap time 0.11 Although the benets are evident, the decarbonization o the iron
Foamy slag Reduces tap-to-tap time 0.63
and steel industry needs substantial initial investment [108,170]. For
many metals companies, it is extremely dicult to justiy large upront
Integrated steelmaking capital costs or decarbonization projects that have limited deployment
Injection o natural Decreases coke use; O&M and 0.36
and proven operational data [171]. The long lie-cycles o steel plants
gas—140 kg/thm material cost savings at the coke
battery (Fig. 5) and price volatility also make it dicult to integrate decar-
Pulverized coal injection— Decreases coke use; O&M and 1.43 bonization eorts into steel operations when sites and projects are being
130 kg/thm material cost savings at the coke initially built and developed [10]. Retrotting operations is similarly
battery
dicult, as overhauling processes to accommodate new technologies
Pulverized coal Decreases coke use; O&M and 0.27
injection—225 kg/thm material cost savings at the coke
without widely accepted carbon costs or a low-carbon steel market make
battery it dicult to justiy increased operational costs. Steelmakers in 2021
Adopt continuous casting Saves equipment/handling costs, 5.36 already aced challenges regarding supply chain disruptions, which
reduces material losses added $200–250 per ton to steelmaking costs [172].
Hot charging Reduces material losses, improves 0.25
Existing eorts to transition towards a sustainable iron and steel
productivity
industry in Central-East Europe, including Russia and Ukraine could
already ace a nancial barrier. For example, Russia has abundant and
Both electric and integrated
Thin slab casting Improves productivity, reduces 6.27
cheap ossil uels and is the only country that uses OHF among major
material losses steel producing countries (see Section 2.2), although the share o steel
production in OHF dropped rom 22% in 1992 to nearly zero today
Source: [160]. Note: kg = kilogram. THM = tons o heavy metal. “Tap-to-tap”
[173]. Thus, it is not a simple matter to simply restructure the iron and
time is the time rom the beginning o charging to the end o tapping (emptying)
the urnaces [161].
steel industry with modern, more ecient equipment or Russia (we
return to this issue in Section 9.1). Thanks to the cost-saving benets o
the iron and steel sector's decarbonizing measures, there are economical
and impactul options in the industry, such as continuous casting,
also reduce air pollutants, such as particulate matter. One study inter-
cogeneration, and recuperative burners. However, many robust decar-
estingly ormulated the relationship between CO2 reductions, PM2.5
bonization measures—coke dry quenching and heat recovery annealing,
reductions, and related costs through a triangular diagram [167]
or example—are still expensive and are beyond carbon prices in current
(Fig. 22). It is noteworthy that the balance between cost, carbon emis-
ETS markets [174] (Fig. 23).
sions reduction and particulate emissions reductions varies by technol-
ogy combinations with the BF-BOF being inexpensive but very
environmentally unriendly and the combination o EAF-CCS-abric l- 7.2. Organizational and managerial barriers
ter and desulurization being expensive but very environmentally
riendly (color is the gure). The iron and steel sector is a consolidated industry (see Section 2.3).
A ragmented industry is inclined to have organizational and managerial
7. The barriers to decarbonizing iron and steel industry barriers such as diculties in sharing innovations and best practices
[42]. One might think that giant, multinational rms can readily
The potentially attractive benets identied in the previous section implement innovations or decarbonization. However, the capital
may give enough incentives to invest in the decarbonization innovations intensive and oligopolistic nature o the iron and steel sector hinders the
or the iron and steel industry. Unortunately, those benets are oten low-carbon transormation o the industry, although it is true that the
vague to decision-makers, whereas the investment cost or decarbon- companies can invest in big research and development projects
ization is regarded as an impending salient loss. Also, we usually ace an [175,176].
insidious set o barriers and challenges exist disturbing that can disturb One study categorized the steel industry in India, the world's third-
the achievement o decarbonizing investments. As the authors' o a largest producer, as “low” market concentration but “high” government
previous review [42] addressed, the UK Department o Energy and concentration rom a GHG emissions perspective. In terms o techno-
Climate Change, and Department or Business, Innovation and Skills economic assessment, India's iron and steel industry has access to so-
identied a number o general barriers to industrial decarbonization called “best available technologies” or decarbonization, but they are
[10]: not economical without urther support measures [177]. This is one
piece o evidence that the iron and steel sector's decarbonization is a
matter o organizational and economic easibility and not just techno-
logical or market related.
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J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 21. Steel in the circular economy: the 4Rs.
Source: [114].
Uncertainty and risks also prevent an active investment or decar- 8. Policy instruments to overcome the barriers
bonization. One study revealed that decision-makers in large steel pro-
ducers o Bangladesh are concerned with “high perceived risk due to Because o the consolidated nature o the iron and steel industry,
uncertainty about uture energy prices, slow rate o return and others,” relatively ew players and countries provide the majority o global steel
“poor inormation quality regarding energy eciency opportunities,” supply. The top six steel producing countries produce approximately
“uncertainty regarding hidden costs,” and “technical risk” when they 80% o steel globally, and the top 50 companies in the industry made
decide on decarbonization or energy eciency investments [178]. 58.5% o the crude steel in 2019 (see Table 1 and Section 2). Conse-
quently, there has been little attention to developing eective nancing
and business models or decarbonization since big players have enough
7.3. Behavioral barriers capital to invest i the measures and innovations oer attractive returns.
However, there is a need or policy instruments to overcome the
Urbanization, modern city liestyle, skyscrapers, and even wind barriers and harness the dissemination o innovative, cross-cutting op-
turbines need more steel than in the past. We cannot blame the industry tions or the industry's low-carbon uture. Table 8 presents a collection
or this nal class o barriers—convenient, sae, and even clean lie o policy instruments rom the literature to address the challenges to
generally take us in the direction o becoming more carbon intensive, decarbonizing the iron and steel industry [6,179–187].
rather than less. Moreover, steel products are durable—have a relatively UK Climate Change Committee's recent report o net zero [188]
long lietime relative to other consumer goods. We may wait a hundred suggests more proactive policy eorts as well as other well-known
years or more to recycle or replace the steel in buildings, bridges, and measures, such as energy and resource eciency and CCS, across a
inrastructure. Fig. 24 well describes the predominance o long service mix o dierent industries, including iron and steel. Carbon taxes and
lie steel products around us [114]. Only some metal products or daily regulatory standards could also be an eective measure or the decar-
lie, such as steel cans and iron bars, have short service lie. Thus, bonization o the iron and steel industry [189,190] (Table 9), and
recycling, replacement, and secondary steel naturally have a time lag border-tari adjustments could minimize the risks o leakage and give a
and hence are limited in their ability to serve as decarbonization op- signal to other sectors, resulting in the price increase o carbon-intensive
tions, although they have signicant overall potential.
20
J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 22. Relationship between CO2 reductions, PM2.5 reductions, and related costs o the iron and steel sector.
Source: [167].
Fig. 23. Energy conservation supply curve with the discount rate 20%.
Source: [174].
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J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 24. Steel products and durability.
Source: [114].
imported goods. One UK ERC study [192] reported the steel industry in the Republic
Research & development o low-carbon technologies is an excellent o Korea as a representative example o policy-driven innovation.
answer to mitigate the climate crisis. For example, there is still potential POSCO, a state-owned company in the past (not now), has adopted in-
to cut down the energy intensity in China's errous metal industry, novations in the iron and steel industry based on a clear strategy, R&D
especially in the S&P (smelting and pressing o errous metals) subsec- support or a university (POSTECH) and a research institute (RIST), and
tor. Compared with the international average standard, the energy in- market creation under the Korean government's strategy [193]. Also,
tensity in the S&P industry is relatively high. Specically, several active transer o innovative decarbonization technologies is essential.
measures can be used to reduce the energy intensity o China's FMI, i.e., As one study [194] stated, a policy ramework to support energy and
increasing R&D subsidies or energy-saving and climate-riendly tech- industry transition could enable the environment or the transer, such
nologies and encouraging the diusion o advanced equipment and as hydrogen-based steel making. Simulations and assessments o the
technologies [191]. One research study also assessed decarbonization anticipated results or the decarbonization policies could also support
pathways or iron and steel through the 40 reviewed roadmaps and investment and government intervention. One study presented the
pathways (Fig. 25) [170]. Similar to our diagram or promising decar- economic and environmental eects o China's national energy e-
bonization options (Fig. 17), urnaces related to heating are the most ciency target [195], and another study appraised the economic benets
mentioned topic or decarbonization R&D o the iron and steel sector. o the “STeel Environmental Assessment Program” in Japan [196].
Table 8
Policy mechanisms or the industrial decarbonization o iron and steel sector.
Instrument Description
Carbon pricing National and/or regional pricing on carbon emissions, including direct carbon taxes and emissions trading schemes to establish markets
or carbon permits that can also be traded and sold, with some ree allowances given
Voluntary and mandatory energy National and subnational programs and voluntary initiatives intended to promote energy eciency practices and processes
eciency schemes
Regulations on GHG emissions Emission restrictions, such as relining ban o blast urnaces
Renewable energy incentives and Direct government incentives or industrial scale renewable energy applications such as heat pumps, biogas, or biomass
guarantees
Creation o low-carbon markets Government created markets to oer premium prices or low-carbon products
Border-tari adjustments Restrictions placed on traded and imported carbon intensive goods, intended to carbon reduce leakage
Industry roadmaps The creation o industry roadmaps to guide rms with decarbonization eorts
Source: Compiled by the authors. Note: Any general renewable energy support policies (i.e. FITs) are not included.
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J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Table 9
Policy evaluation criteria or the iron and steel sector.
Criteria Existing Clean Development Harmonized Incremental emissions tax or Regulatory
Mechanism (CDM) carbon tax intensity-based rewards standards
1. Short term: improve eciency and CO2 intensity o coal + ++ + ++
DRI and BF/BOF units
2. Medium term: encourage shit rom coal DRI and small + ++
BF to large ecient BF units
3. Long term: encourage substitution o steel with low- + N/A
carbon-intensive materials
4. Overall eectiveness ++ ++
5. Ease o implementation + ++ +
6. Ease o monitoring and verication ++ + +
Source: [189]. Note: +++ is very good and — means worst.
Fig. 25. Decarbonization R&D pathways or manuacturing industries.
Source: [170]. Notes: Orange color denotes the options related to heat, and green indicates alternative eedstock or uels. Blue is the technology about chemical and
mechanical processes, and CCS/gas recycling is marked in grey.
9. Gaps and future research agendas and steel industry in Section 5 are narrowly ocused on a single process
such as sintering or blast urnaces. Also, because o the industry's
The last nding o our systematic review considers gaps in current concentrated nature—the top seven countries account or about 79% o
research. Three distinct areas—cross-cutting solutions, interconnection global production—most o the research is only or limited players and
to other systems, and the long-term impacts o COVID-19—are devel- countries [22] (see Table 1). Consequently, just a ew studies attempted
oped to discuss gaps and uture research agendas. to identiy cross-cutting measures that generally seemed across dierent
subsectors or countries. Table 10 presents those cross-cutting options
9.1. Identifcation and pursuit o cross-cutting solutions and examples specied.
A relatively short list o seven options in Table 10 and the visualized
The decarbonizing practices and innovations collected or the iron relationship between those options and the sociotechnical system
Table 10
Crosscutting options or the decarbonization o the iron and steel system.
Crosscutting option Relevant or Example(s) Identied by
Energy eciency Raw material preparation, iron and Ecient ovens, burners, kilns, urnaces, and compressors, ecient ladle [56,78,136]
steelmaking, steel products making, use o preheating, top-pressure recovery turbines, ecient drives in rolling mill and
steel products machining
Fuel switching Raw material preparation, iron and Substituting coal and oil with renewables or natural gas [66,197,198]
steelmaking, steel products making
Process control and Iron and steelmaking, steel products making Process modication o kilns, optimization o urnace, fue gas monitoring and [17,73,74,99]
optimization control, improved process control, optimizing the process solution temperature,
preventative maintenance
Heat recovery Raw material preparation, iron and Waste heat recovery rom cooling water, annealing, and compressors [91,199,200]
steelmaking, steel products making
Recycling and resource All processes and systems o the iron and Solid recovered uels or a reducing agent, injection o pulverized coal, rotary [114,201,202]
eciency steel sector hearth urnace dust recycling system, hot oxygen injection, recycling basic
oxygen urnace slag, recycling o stainless steel dust, new scrap-based
steelmaking process
Hydrogen Raw material preparation, iron and Low-carbon hydrogen-based direct reduction, o-gas hydrogen enrichment, [52,72,203,204]
steelmaking, steel products making electrolytic hydrogen blending, natural gas-based with high levels o
electrolytic hydrogen blending, hydrogen or high-temperature heat (ancillary
processes)
Carbon capture, Raw material preparation, iron and CO2 removal or use or storage (BF) [91,102,104,111,128]
utilization, and steelmaking, steel products making Natural gas-based with CO2 capture (DRI)
storage Smelting reduction with CCUS
Source: Compiled by the authors.
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J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 26. Visualizing crosscutting options or the decarbonization o the iron and steel system.
Source: Authors.
(Fig. 26) indicate a clear insight—we already have practical and widely
applicable options to achieve the decarbonization o the iron and steel
industry. Policymakers, stakeholders, and investors can make a vivid
vision or decarbonization based on these cross-cutting solutions as well
as commercially applied options now. Table 10 is not exhaustive but
rather a starting point or a better understanding o options moving
orward. We thus believe “more work on cross-cutting options” should
be pursued.
In particular, CCUS plays an essential role as a crosscutting option or
iron and steel systems' decarbonization [86,205]. Ramírez-Santos et al.
[126] give us great insight into the progress o gas separation technol-
ogies in the iron and steel industry. The largest CO2 emission source in
an integrated steel plant would be a power plant. The power plant can
receive all kinds o available residuary gases. However, the study also
indicated that the original source o most o the CO2 emissions is BF,
around 69% o the overall CO2 emission [126].
9.2. Interconnection to other systems and industries
The global iron and steel system does not exist alone. Like many
other industries, it is coupled to other sociotechnical systems [42].
Fig. 27 depicts the interconnections between the iron and steel industry
and the other noticeable sociotechnical systems. The energy system
including ossil uels and renewables, transport, military and aerospace,
buildings, mining, civil inrastructure, machinery, electronics, and even
Fig. 27. Compelling interconnections o iron and steel to other sociotechnical
waste (scraps) needs iron and steel products. systems.
These interconnections can create compelling dependencies, but also Source: Authors.
result in synergies that are rarely examined in research. Material Flow
Analysis (MFA) [206] and Lie Cycle Assessment (LCA) [207] ap- [6–10] highlight the importance o EAF and iron/steel scrap. Thereore,
proaches could be helpul to elaborate the synergies. For example, one the interconnections between the iron and steel industry and the other
study assessed the easibility o material and technical eciency noticeable sociotechnical systems can highlight the uture viability o an
improvement in the lie cycle o steel products [118] by combining MFA EAF based system, the availability o scrap steel, and steel's general
and LCA. Applying the hybrid approach suggested in [118], the impact ability to meet shiting sociotechnical needs.
o synergies could be assessed, such as an HSS regulation in inrastruc- In terms o sectoral carbon emissions, one study reveals that the
ture. We note, however, that signicant data collection and modeling embodied carbon emission o the steel bar and other steel products are
would be necessary or the analysis. the largest component o total embodied carbon emissions or the resi-
The importance o exploring these synergies is also evident in the dential buildings in China with an estimated at 25– 31% share [208].
growing role that electric arc urnaces and recycled scrap play in steel Another study claimed that the construction sector was the largest
production and decarbonization eorts. Many o the institutions that embodied energy consumption sector with a gure o 842.6 million tons
have published carbon mitigation options and technology roadmaps
24
J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 28. Compelling total green energy spending by country and sub-archetype (Unit: billion US$).
Source: [210], Global Recovery Observatory. Notes: For each sub-archetype, the largest contributors are listed by name, with smaller spenders categorized as “other.”
AU: Australia, CA: Canada, CN: China, DE: Germany, DK: Denmark, ES: Spain, FI: Finland, FR: France, KR: South Korea, PL: Poland, NO: Norway, UK:
United Kingdom.
o CO2e, accounting or 52.7% o total embodied emissions in China allocated to hydrogen inrastructure with Germany and France leading
[209]. the way. A urther USD$3.5B has been invested in CCS inrastructure
with Norway and the UK each contributing more than USD$1 billion.
9.3. Research into the long-term impacts o COVID-19 Stimulus spending on R&D or industrial sustainability is also an
opportunity. As shown in Fig. 29, USD$29 billion has been committed to
A novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) emerged in early 2020 with sig- “green” R&D as part o stimulus packages, with USD$5.5 billion ocused
nicant demand and even production impacts on the iron and steel in- on industry [210]. As shown in Fig. 29, South Korean leads this in-
dustry as well as the overall energy sector. vestment, which is consistent with the country's ocus on “Innovation in
A multitude o actors contribute to uncertainty in the global outlook the Green Industry” as part o its Green New Deal COVID-19 stimulus
or the steel industry, aecting orecasters' ability to anticipate prices, eorts [211]. One would expect the iron and steel industry to benet
uture levels o demand, employment and many other aspects. Many o rom this stimulus given that South Korea is a major global steel pro-
these actors are persistent, such as uncertainty about the uture rate o ducer and, as noted previously in this paper, serves as an example o a
growth in the global economy, or the levels o consumer demand in a country that has undertaken policy-driven innovation in the iron and
given downstream market. But the current levels o uncertainty or the steel industry.
short-term outlook or the sector, like all other sectors o the economy, The need or target COVID-19 stimulus in the iron and steel industry
may well be unprecedented, largely relating to the unknown uture has been highlighted by the IEA with particular ocus on direct electri-
impacts o the Covid-19 coronavirus pandemic. cation o primary steelmaking [212]. We've discussed in this paper the
The outbreak triggered a series o connement procedures, and breakthrough potential o molten oxide electrolysis to eliminate the
several downstream industries (construction, automotive etc.) have seen need or direct use o ossil uels in steel production and perhaps COVID-
reductions in output. However, China's crude steel output has remained 19 will lead to the necessary support or the technology to reach broad
robust, with a 2.2% year-on-year increase to 503 Mt per year (in the rst deployment.
hal o 2020). Stagnating and declining demand levels in its domestic
and export markets indicate a signicant accumulation o inventory 10. Conclusion
during this period o strong production growth.
In production centers elsewhere the virus has had a much more Our modern lie is built on iron and steel products. We are working
proound impact on production levels. In the rst hal o 2020 steel and living in buildings and skyscrapers, and we need airplanes, vehicles,
production in Europe declined by 13% relative to the same period in and bridges to move. Even in the sustainable, low-carbon uture, there
2019, by 17% in North America and 24% in India [6]. still are buildings, transport, inrastructures, and devices using iron and
The longer-term impacts o the virus outbreak are even more un- steel. This essential iron and steel industry is the most carbon-emitting
certain. The way that other countries besides China respond to the sector among heavy industries and has been eciently operated close
outbreak, in terms o the duration and extent o connement policies, to its thermodynamic limits. Thus, to break the limit, innovative
and the level to which demand in various economies is restor- decarbonization eorts are necessary. This is why we have done a crit-
ed—including the extent to which stimulus packages are aimed at ical and systematic review o the sociotechnical systems o iron and
inrastructure and other steel-intensive sectors—are the key deter- steel. Fig. 30 summarizes our review showing interventions, benets,
mining actors that will aect the steel industry's outlook in the coming barriers, and policies or decarbonizing the iron and steel system.
years [6]. Fig. 30 also reveals practical low-carbon interventions (shown in
Although stimulus packages have been generally disappointing green). These range rom material substitution in raw materials to reuse
regarding allocation o unds to sustainability-related investments, o steel products are part o the broader circular economy. These
several European countries have earmarked investment or hydrogen available technologies and approaches can coexist with no less than 86
and CCS, both o which are cornerstone technologies or iron and steel current and breakthrough technologies and cross-cutting solutions such
decarbonization [210]. As shown in Fig. 28, USD$18.5 billion has been as hydrogen-based steel production and CCUS technologies (see Section
25
J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Fig. 29. Total green R&D spending by country and sub-archetype (Unit: billion US$).
Source: [210], Global Recovery Observatory. Notes: For each sub-archetype, the largest contributors are listed by name, with smaller spenders categorized as “other.”
AU: Australia, DE: Germany, DK: Denmark, ES: Spain, FR: France, KR: South Korea.
Fig. 30. Interventions, benets, barriers, and policies or decarbonizing the iron and steel sociotechnical system.
Source: Authors.
9.1). Declaration of competing interest
Although there are barriers (shown in grey) at many levels to
decarbonizing the iron and steel industry—nancial, organizational and The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial
managerial, and behavioral—the benets (shown in red) o the decar- interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to infuence
bonization are also considerable. Direct benets rom carbon reduction, the work reported in this paper.
energy savings, and nancial savings, as well as environmental co-
benets, will shorten the payback period o decarbonization in- Acknowledgments
vestments. Also, indirect benets rom the interconnected industries
(Fig. 27) and policy instruments, nancing solutions, and business The authors thank the anonymous peer reviewers or very helpul
models (shown in orange) can help tackle the barriers. comments on earlier drats o this manuscript. They would also like to
When the policymakers, business, and research community begin to acknowledge support rom the Industrial Decarbonisation Research and
address the decarbonizing options, barriers, and solutions more actively, Innovation Centre (IDRIC) in the United Kingdom, unded by the UKRI
and perhaps with the COVID-19 pandemic as an added catalyst, immi- and EPSRC via Grant Number EP/V027050/1. Also, one o the authors
nent problems by greenhouse gas emissions rom the iron and steel o this paper (Sovacool) is the Editor-in-Chie or Energy Research &
system can be resolved and turned into another opportunity. Social Science. He was not involved in managing the peer review or
editorial process or this article.
26
J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Appendix A
Table A1
Description o emerging and potentially transormative innovations or the iron and steel industry.
Innovation Description
Solid recovered uels or use as reducing agents Recovered wastes, such as plastics or granulated rubber, could be used as reducing agents
(producing CO and H2) in blast urnaces.
Heat recovery rom sinter cooler There are two potential reusable waste heat in sinter plants—exhaust gas rom sintering
machines and the cooling air heat.
Single-chamber-system coking reactors Single-chamber-system (SCS) coking reactors are huge coke ovens with widths o 450–850
mm. The SCS reactors have independent process-controlled modules that allow thinner
heating walls to improve heat transer and design fexibility.
Use o recuperative burners A recuperator, a gas-to-gas heat exchanger in the recuperative burner o a urnace, can
reduce uel consumption about 10–20% than the urnaces without the recuperative burner.
Process modication o kilns Process modications o kilns, such as green balls heated and cooled in a grate-kiln, can cut
energy use and CO2 emissions.
Optimization o urnace Furnace optimizations using computational fuid dynamics, simulation (virtual urnace),
and X-ray diraction analytical techniques can improve energy eciency and productivity.
Waste heat recovery We can recover waste heat in blast urnaces, such as molten slag heat, in three orms—hot air
or steam recovery, conversion to chemical energy, and thermoelectric power generation.
Use o ceramic ladles instead o cast iron pipes In the iron and steel making processes, ladles are oten uncovered because lids are heavy and
too hot to manage. Thus, closing the lid by using ceramic ladles can save signicant energy.
Ecient ladle preheating Heat losses in the ladle preheating can be reduced by temperature controls, installing hoods,
ecient ladle management, or oxyuel burners.
Radiation recuperators or ladle urnace Installing recuperators or the ladle can improve uel eciency.
Coal moisture control Moisture control o eed coal in the coke making process improves coke quality and
productivity.
Coke dry quenching Coke dry quenching (CDQ) reduces dust emissions, enhances coke quality, and recovers
sensible heat rom the high-temperature coke.
Injection o pulverized coal Coke making process can be skipped by injecting pulverized coal. Fine coal granules are
injected into the blast urnaces to supply carbon sources. Skipping energy-intensive coke
making process means substantial energy saving and CO2 emission reduction.
Top-pressure recovery turbines I the top gas pressure o blast urnaces is high enough to generate electricity, then applying
top-pressure recovery turbines will be an economically easible option.
Recovery o BF/BOF gas Carbon monoxide and hydrogen in the blast urnace gas are potential energy sources and can
be used as a uel through enrichment with natural gas or coke oven gas.
Charging carbon composite agglomerates Applying the carbon composite agglomerates, the mixtures o ne iron ore and
carbonaceous materials, in blast urnaces and electric arc urnaces can improve reduction
rates and save uels.
Near net shape casting (thin slab) Near-net-shape casting is the integrated process o casting and hot rolling. This integration
reduces reheating the steel beore rolling and thus saves energy.
Bottom stirring/stirring gas injection Injecting an inert gas to increase stirring in the bottom o the electric arc urnaces can make
the heat transer ecient and save electricity consumption.
Use o oamy slag practices Heat losses in electric arc urnaces can be reduced by covering the arc and melt surace o
urnaces with oamy slag.
Use o oxyuel burners Oxy-uel burners in electric arc urnaces can increase heat transer (reduces heat losses),
help to remove impurities, such as phosphorus and silicon, and reduce electrode
consumption.
DC arc urnace Direct current (DC) based electric arc urnace has high productivity, uses less electricity,
consumes less electrode, and needs lower maintenance costs than conventional urnaces.
Scrap preheating and continuous charging Ecient scrap preheating and continuous charging, such as Consteel, can improve the heat
recovery rate and reduce handling costs and time.
Flue gas monitoring and control Flue gas (oxygen and carbon monoxide) monitoring and control enable the optimization o
uel and air mixture, and this can improve the energy eciency o the process.
Eccentric bottom tapping Eccentric bottom tapping in electric arc urnaces enables slag-ree tapping and reduces tap-
to-tap time and electrode consumption.
Improved process control Improved process control o electric arc urnaces includes process optimization via (real-
time) monitoring and controlling systems with sensors. Optimized steel bath temperature
and carbon levels can reduce electricity consumption in the process.
Ultra-high-power transormer Applying ultra-high power (UHP) transormer or the urnace operation can reduce energy
losses and increase productivity.
Twin shell urnace The twin shell urnace is based on shat technology. A double (two identical) shat
arrangement can improve the eciency o preheating.
Hot charging Charging slabs at a high temperature (hot charging) in the reheating urnaces o the rolling
mill can reduce energy use and material losses and improve steel quality and productivity.
Recuperative or regenerative burner Recuperative or regenerative burners can be utilized not only or iron and steel making
processes but also in steel product manuacturing.
Use o ceramic low thermal mass insulators or reheating urnace Compared to conventional insulation materials, ceramic low thermal mass insulation
materials can reduce heat losses in reheating urnaces.
Controlling oxygen level and variable speed drive on combustion air ans The optimal oxygen (air) level in a combustion process is essential to improve energy
eciency. We can nd the optimal level by applying variable speed drives o air ans in the
reheating urnace.
Ecient drives in rolling mill and machining Replacing the air conditioning drives in a rolling mill and machining with high-eciency
motors can save electricity consumption.
Waste heat recovery (cooling water, annealing, and compressor) We can recover the waste heat rom cooling water, annealing, and compressors o the steel
product manuacturing processes, such as hot strip mills.
Reduced steam use or pickling Installing lids and foating balls on the top o the bath in the acid pickling line can prevent
heat losses via evaporation.
(continued on next page)
27
J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Table A1 (continued )
Innovation Description
Automated monitoring and targeting systems In a cold strip (rolling) mill, an automated monitoring and targeting system can reduce
energy demand and efuents.
Thermal insulation or plating bath, Automated bath cover Automated bath cover and thermal insulation o plating bath can reduce energy losses in
strip mills.
Compressed air network modication Modiying (optimizing) a compressed air network and motor systems in steel product
manuacturing can reduce waste heats and energy use.
Optimizing the process solution temperature A heat treatment process and thermal optimization in steel product manuacturing, such as
continuous casting, can reduce energy consumption or the process.
Use o high-strength steel High-strength steel (HSS) consumes less raw materials compared to standard steel products
at similar specications. Also, light product weight, especially or vehicles, needs ewer uels
to move the same distance. Thus, in terms o liecycle, the HSS signicantly less emits
greenhouse gases.
Rotary hearth urnace dust recycling system Recycling steelmaking dust, including iron and zinc dust, can save raw materials inputs.
Injection o plastic waste Plastic wastes can replace coke or the reduction reaction in blast urnaces. Although plastics
cannot replace all coke unctions, such as moving the gases and liquids, we can save
substantial energy through the replacement at a certain level.
Primary Energy Melter Primary Energy Melter (PEM) enables the melting o low-quality scrap and charges it
together with hot metals. PEM can thus reduce energy and material consumption.
Advanced control o heating walls in coke ovens Advanced control o heating walls, such as individual control and diagnostic system, can
improve energy eciency in coke ovens.
Hot oxygen injection Injecting high-temperature oxygen directly in the blast urnace blowpipe and tuyere can
oer better coal dispersion at high oxygen concentrations. Thus, the injection o pulverized
coal accompanies hot oxygen injection or optimal perormance.
Tecnored The Tecnored, a Brazilian process, uses agglomerated pellets or briquettes or iron making.
With the fexibility o using various types o solid uels, the Tecnored process can reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.
Cyclone converter urnace The cyclone converter urnace is made o a cyclone or the pre-reduction o the iron ore.
Combining this pre-reduction unit with the nal reduction process can reduce heat losses.
Continuous horizontal sidewall scrap charging Continuous horizontal sidewall scrap chargers can mitigate the problems in conventional
scarp preheaters, such as requent maintenance, space constraint, and the need or a post-
combustion burner.
Energy monitoring and management system in casting Energy monitoring and management system in the casting process can make the process
more energy-ecient through energy assessment and optimization.
Preventative maintenance in steel mills or EAF plants Preventative maintenance in steel mills or EAF plants through sensors and data analysis can
improve the productivity o the mills and reduce overall energy consumption per unit
production.
Variable speed drives or fue gas control, pumps, ans in integrated steel mills Variable speed drives mentioned above can be applied or not only reheating urnaces but
also pumps and (ventilation and combustion) ans in integrated steel mills.
Cogeneration or the use o untapped coke oven gas, blast urnace gas, and basic Cogeneration (or combined heat and power) or the gases in integrated steel mills is an
oxygen urnace-gas in integrated steel mills energy-ecient way to use heat and electricity.
Additive manuacturing A digitalized production process, additive manuacturing, can minimize material losses and
acilitate lighter-weight parts design in steel product manuacturing.
Recycling basic oxygen urnace slag The recycling o slags can reduce the landll disposal o byproducts rom blast urnaces and
basic oxygen urnaces. However, it still aces many technical and economic challenges.
Recycling o stainless steel dust The stainless steel dust in electric arc urnaces can also be recycled by re-injection into the
urnaces and improve the energy eciency o the steelmaking.
Regeneration o hydrochloric acid pickling liquor The pickling process generates considerable spent pickle liquor, and regenerating it can
reduce wastes and energy use because the acid spent pickle liquor should be disposed o ater
chemical neutralization.
Recycling o waste oxides in steelmaking urnace Recycling waste oxides in steelmaking urnaces and mills, such as blast urnaces, electric arc
urnaces, and rolling mills, can save raw materials and energy.
Low-carbon hydrogen-based direct reduction Hydrogen-based steelmaking routes oer great potential or decarbonization. However,
note that they strongly depend on the carbon ootprint o hydrogen production.
Charcoal in the sintering process Charcoal is an attractive alternative to coke breeze in the sintering process.
Torreed biomass Torreed biomass, biochar, can be used as an auxiliary reductant.
Plasma blast urnace Plasma technology can be used or heat support or cupola and blast urnaces.
CO2 removal or use or storage, Natural gas-based DRI with CO2 capture CCS and CCUS technologies can be applied to iron and steel making processes. Please see the
reerences in the main body o the text.
Electrolytic H2 blending (BF), Natural gas-based DRI with high levels o low or zero- Also, low or zero-carbon hydrogen produced by electrolysis (green hydrogen) can be applied
carbon electrolytic H2 blending, DRI based solely on low or zero-carbon electrolytic to iron and steel making processes.
H2
Paired straight hearth urnace Paired straight hearth (PSH) urnace is more productive than conventional urnaces. The
PSH urnaces are charged with “eight” cold-bonded sel-reducing pellets, whereas the
traditional rotary hearth urnaces use only two or three.
Molten oxide electrolysis Molten oxide electrolysis (MOE) could be a game-changer o the steelmaking process. Unlike
traditional steel production, MOE produces no carbon emissions i powered by zero-carbon
electricity sources.
Suspension hydrogen reduction o iron oxide concentrate Flash smelting uses hydrogen as a reductant. Iron ore concentrates react with reductants,
such as hydrogen, natural gas, or synthetic gas.
Ironmaking using biomass and waste oxides Replacing ossil uels, especially coal, in the ironmaking processes with biomass and waste
oxides can curtail energy use and CO2 emissions.
New scrap-based steelmaking process A new, ecient scrap-based steelmaking process, such as a counter-current reactor, can
reduce primary energy use in the scrap heating and melting steps.
In-situ real-time measurement o melt constituents O-line molten material analysis to check the composition o melt constituents is time-
consuming and expensive. In-situ real-time measurement thus saves time and energy.
Continuous steelmaking or EAF
(continued on next page)
28
J. Kim et al. Energy Research & Social Science 89 (2022) 102565
Table A1 (continued )
Innovation Description
The continuous steelmaking, continuous process rom crude steel to the casting mold in EAF,
can improve energy eciency and productivity.
Smelting reduction with CCUS Carbon capture, utilization, and storage technologies can be applied in a smelting reduction
process (i.e., HIsarna process, ULCOS).
Low or zero-carbon H2 or high-temperature heat The coal-based high temperature or the iron reduction can be replaced with green hydrogen
(ancillary processes).
Next-generation system or scale-ree steel reheating Scale ormation hinders gas fow and heat transer and compromises steel quality. During
the steel reheating process, 1–2% o steel orms scale on the steel surace and urnaces. Thus,
scale-ree steel reheating can reduce the energy and costs o the process.
Thermochemical recuperation or steel reheating urnaces Thermochemical recuperators (air heat exchangers) can improve the steel reheating
eciency by recovering sensible heat in the fue gases.
Oxygen-rich urnace system A low NOx burner with oxygen enrichment can reduce CO2 emissions in the urnaces.
Integrating steel production with mineral sequestration CO2 sequestration in the orm o solid carbonate can be integrated into the steelmaking
process. The iron oxides rom peridotite ores can chemically bind CO2.
Source: Authors. The relevant reerences are provided in the main body o the
text.
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