Information and Communication Tech

Advanced Level Notes

2020

W. SWALLEH

WASSWA SWALLEH
 Information and Communication Technology-ICT

ACRONYMS
ALU – Arithmetic Logic Unit ASCII –American Standard Code for Information Interchange
BIOS – Basic Input Output System bps – Bits per Second
Bps – Bytes per Second CAD/M – Computer Aided Design/ Manufacturing
CAL – Computer Aided Learning
CAT 5 – 'Category 5' cable
CD – Compact Disc
CD-R – Compact Disc Recordable CD-ROM – Compact Disc Read Only Memory
CD-RW – Compact Disc Re- Writable
CPU – Central Processing Unit
CRT – Cathode Ray Tube
DBMS – Data Base Management System
DDR – Double Data Rate
DFD – Data Flow Diagrams
DOS – Disc Operating System
DSL – Digital Subscriber Line
DTP – Desktop publishing
DVD – Digital Versatile Disc
EFT – Electronic Funds Transfer
EULA – End User License Agreement
FAQ – Frequently Asked Questions
FIFO - First in First Out
FNF – First Normal Form
FTP – File Transfer Protocol
Gb – Gigabyte
GIF – Graphic Interchange Format
GIGO – Garbage In Garbage Out
GPS – Global Positioning System
GUI – Graphical User Interface
GW – Gateway
HCI – Human Computer Interaction
HTML – Hyper Text Mark-up Language
HTTP – Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
IC – Integrated Circuit
ICT – Information and Communication Technology
IP – Internet Protocol

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IRC – Internet Relay Chat

ISDN – Integrated Services Digital Network
ISP – Internet Service Provider JPEG – Joint Photographic Experts Group
Kb – Kilobyte
KH – KiloHertz
LAN – Local area network
LCD – Liquid Crystal Display
LED – Light Emitting Diode
LIFO – Last in First Out
MAN – Metropolitan Area Network
MICR – Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
MP3 – MPEG Layer 3
NIC – Network Interface Card
NOS – Network Operating System
OCR – Optical Character Recognition
OMR – Optical Mark Recognition
OMR – Optical Mark Reader
OOPL – Object Oriented Programming Language
OSI – Open Systems Interconnection
PCI – Peripheral Component Interconnect
PDA – Personal Data Assistant
POS – Point of Sale
PPM – Pages per Minute
RAM – Random Accesses Memory
ROM – Read Only Memory.
SCSI – Small Computer Systems Interface
SQL – Structured Query Language
TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
TFTP – Trivial File Transfer Protocol
TNF – Third Normal Form
URL – Uniform Resource Locator
USB – Universal Serial Bus
VGA – Video Graphics Array
WAN – Wide Area Network
WAP – Wireless Application Protocol

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INTRODUCTION

The education sector and the world of work require an individual to possess ICT knowledge
and skills. This is evidenced by the demand for computer literacy and computer skills for the
respective job vacancies being advertised today.
This book has been prepared to help the you acquire ICT knowledge and skills required to
meet the challenges of ICT applications in society.

Summative Assessment
This shall be done at the end of the two years of Advanced Level Education. Two papers will
be used to assess the subject as follows:

Subsidiary ICT Paper One: (2 1 /2 hours)

This paper will be based on basic ICT concepts and their application areas. The paper will
cover the entire syllabus with emphasis on application of ICT knowledge in a variety of fields
(Social, Economic, Political, Environmental, Informational).
This will be a written paper made up of 20 equally weighted compulsory questions. The
duration of the examination paper will be 2 Hours 30
Minutes.
The questions shall be structured and semi-structured requiring a short response, a phrase
or one or two sentences. Some of the semi-structured questions will require extended
responses of about three sentences.
All questions are to be answered in the spaces provided on the examination paper.
Topic Know. Comp. Appl. Analy. Total
Introduction to 1 1 2
Computers 1

Lab care, 1
Troubleshooting and
Maintenance

File management 1 1 2

Computer Hardware 1 1 1 3

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Computer Software 1 1 1 3

Internet and World 1 2 3

Wide Web

Data 1 1 2

Table of Specifications

Subsidiary ICT Paper Two (2 Hours 30 mins)

This will be a practical paper with five compulsory equally weighted questions each carrying
20 marks. The duration of the paper shall be 3 hours.

The questions will be drawn from the topics of word processing, electronic spreadsheet,
electronic presentation, electronic publication and databases. The paper will emphasize
application of ICT skills in the topics mentioned. Where applicable, support files will be
provided to supplement the set questions.

This paper will be based on the table of specifications below.

Table of Specifications
Content Area Know. Comp. Appl. Analy. Total
Topic 3 (Word 20% 30% 35% 15% 100%
processing)
Topic 6 20% 30% 35% 15% 100%
(electronic
Spreadsheets)
Topic 8 20% 30% 35% 15% 100%
(electronic
Presentation)
Topic 10 20% 30% 35% 15% 100%
(Databases)
Topic 11 20% 30% 35% 15% 100%
(electronic
AssessmentPublication)
Weighting
Paper one (theory paper) 40%
Paper two (Practical paper) 60%

Teaching Sequence

The teaching sequence should follow the order in which the topics have been arranged in
the teaching syllabus.

Senior Five Term One

Topic Sub topic

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Introduction to Computing  Introduction to Computers

 World of ICTs
 Implications of Using ICTs
(Advantages and Disadvantages)
Computer Management  Booting Process

 File Management
 Common Utilities
 Print Management
Computer Laboratory Care and  Computer Literacy
Maintenance  Secure Laboratory Environment
 Servicing and Maintenance
Computer Word Processing I  Introduction to Word Processing
 Working with Word Processing
 Software

Senior Five Term Two

Computer Hardware  Input Devices

 Output Devices
 Storage Devices
 Processor Components
Computer Software  System Software
 Application Software
Electronic Spreadsheets I  Introduction to Spreadsheets
 Working with Spreadsheets
 Managing Spreadsheets
 Formulas and Functions
Internet and World Wide Web  Introduction to the Internet
 Internet Services
 World Wide Web
Senior Five Term Three

Computer Word Processing II  Page Layout

 Date Tabulation
 Use of Objects
 Document Accuracy
 Mail Merge, Document
 Referencing and Printing
Electronic Presentation  Introduction to Electronic
 Presentation
 Working with Presentation

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 Software

 Developing a Presentation
 Charts
 Graphical Objects
 Presentation Output
 Slide Show

Senior Six Term One

Data Communication and Networking  Introduction to Data

 Communication
 Introduction to Computer
 Networks

Electronic Publication  Introduction to Electronic

 Publishing
 Publishing Basics
 Document Layout
 Document Enhancement
 Outputs
 Complete Publication
 Web Publishing
Senior Six Term Two

Electronic Spreadsheets II  Working with Charts

 Worksheet Page Layout
 Printing a Worksheet
Databases  Introduction to Databases
 Database Objects
Senior Six Term Three

System Security, ICT Ethical Issues and  Computer System Security

Emerging Technologies  Privacy and ICT Ethical Issues
 Emerging Technologies
 ICT industry

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TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING

Definition of computer
A computer can be defined as an electronic device that processes a user’s input (data), store,
and output (information) or retrieve information. The computer processes data by a set of
instructions called a computer program.
The characteristic of a computer
Speed: Computers work at very high speeds and are much faster than humans. A computer
can perform billions of calculations in a second. The time used by a computer to perform an
operation is called the processing speed. Computer speed is measured in Mega Hertz (MHz)
or Giga Hertz (GHz).
Accuracy: Computers can process large amounts of data precisely and exactly without
making any errors. Modern computers are capable of detecting mistakes and making
corrections once made by the user.
Diligence: Computers are diligent i.e. they have the ability to perform the similar task
without getting tired and bored e.g. in industrial robotics, like those in Car assembly lines.
Storage: A computer can store large amount of data permanently. A User can use this data
at any time. We can store any type of data in a computer. Text, graphics, pictures, audio and
video files can be stored easily. The storage capacity of the computer is increasing rapidly.
Processing: A computer can process the given instructions. It can perform different types of
processing like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. It can also perform logical
functions like comparing two numbers to decide which one is the biggest etc.
Communication: Most computers today have the capability of communicating with other
computers. We can connect two or more computers by a communication device such as a
modem. These computers can share data, instructions, and information. When two or more
computers are connected, they form a network.
Versatility: Computers can do computations with all kinds of input (data) including
alphabets, pictures, sound images, voice, etc.
Automation: Computers can receive and work on instructions given on their own
(automatically),

i.e. they do not need any supervision to do program routines.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI): Computers can respond to requests given to them and provide
solutions.
Basic Parts of a computer
The physical parts of a computer are made of a collection of different components that are
interconnected in order to function as a single entity. A typical desktop computer is basically
made up of a system unit and other devices connected to the system unit called peripheral
devices.
Peripheral devices are connected to the system unit using special cables called interface
cables that transmit data and information to and from the device. The cables are attached to
the system unit through connectors called ports. Examples of peripheral devices include;
Monitor/screen, keyboard, mouse.
System Unit: This is the part that houses the brain of the computer called the Central
Processing Unit (CPU). The system unit also houses other devices called drive. Drives are
used to store, record and read data.
Keyboard: The keyboard is the most common peripheral device that enables a user to enter
data and instructions in a computer.
Mouse: The mouse is a pointing device that enables the user to execute commands. It is
used to control an arrow displayed on the screen, the user moves the mouse which
consequently moves the pointer on the screen. Once the pointer is on the icon (Icon is a
small pictorial representation of a command), click one of the two mouse buttons.
Monitor: A monitor simply the screen is a television-like device used for displaying
information.
It is called a monitor because it enables the user to monitor or see what is going in the
computer.

THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

A computer system is a group of interconnected parts working together to complete a given
task.
Components of the computer system:
Hardware: This refers to the physical and tangible components of a computer.
Software: This refers to the electronic instructions that tell the computer how to perform a
task.
Human ware: Refers to the people who operate and initialize instructions to the computer
Communication: This is the process of transferring data between computer systems or
devices.
Data: This refers to raw facts and figures that are entered into the computer for processing.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified according to the physical size, purpose and functionality.

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Classification according to size

Based on physical size, computers can be classified into four main groups. Namely super
computers, main frame computers, mini computers and microcomputers.
Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the fastest, largest, most expensive and powerful computers available.
They are able to perform many complex operations in a fraction of a second. Because of
weight super computers are kept in a special room. Due to their huge processing power,
super computers generate a lot of heat and therefore special cooling system is required.
Supercomputers are mainly used for scientific research, which requires enormous
calculations. Applications that justify the use of supercomputers include aerodynamic design
and simulation, petroleum research, defense and weapon analysis among others. They are
mainly found in developed countries such as USA and Japan where they are used for
advanced scientific research and nuclear physics.
Mainframe computers
Mainframes are less powerful and less expensive than super computers. Mainframes are said
to be big size. They are used for processing data and performing complex mathematical
calculations.
They have a large storage capacity and can support a variety of peripherals. Mainframe
computers handle all kinds of problems whether scientific or commercial. They are mostly
found in government agencies, big organizations and companies such as banks, hospital,
airports etc.
Which have large information processing needs.
Minicomputers
Minicomputer resembles the mainframe but is slightly smaller. Thus, it is referred to as a
small-scale mainframe computer. Although it supports fewer peripheral devices and is not as
powerful and fast as the mainframe computer, it was developed as a cheaper alternative to
the mainframes for smaller organizations. They are used mainly in scientific laboratories.
Research institutions, engineering plants and places where processing automation is
required. They are used for functions such as accounting, word processing, database
management and specific industry applications.
Microcomputers
A microcomputer is the smallest, cheapest and relatively least powerful type of computer. It
is called a microcomputer because, its CPU is called a microprocessor, which is very small
compared to that of minicomputers, mainframe and supercomputers. Microcomputers are
commonly used in training and learning institutions, small business enterprises, and
communication centers among others. Today, technological advancement has seen the
development of smaller microcomputers. Examples include Desktop computer, Laptop or
Notebook computers, Personal digital assistant (PDA).
Classification according to purpose
Computers can be classified according to task they perform either as general or special
purpose computers.

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General purpose computers

General purpose computers have been designed to be able to perform a variety of tasks
when loaded with appropriate programs. They are the most common types of computers in
use today. Their flexibility enables them to be applied in a wide range of applications like;
document processing, performing calculations, accounting, data and information
management among others.
Special purpose computers
Special purpose computers are designed to serve a specific purpose or to accomplish one
particular task. Such computers can perform no other task except one they were designed
for. This means that the set of instructions, which drive a special purpose computer, are
limited in number at the time of manufacture. Examples of such computers include; robots
used in manufacturing industries, mobile phones for communication only and electronic
calculators that carry out calculations only.
Classification according to functionality
Computer can be classified into three types according to the type of data they process. Data
can either be in discrete or in continuous form.
Digital computers
Digital computers process data that is discrete in nature. Discrete data also known as digital
data is usually represented by numerical binary digits of 0 and 1. Most modern computers
such as desktop computers, laptop/notebook, personal digital assistant, digital cameras are
digital in nature.
Analog computers
This refers to computers that process data that is continuous in nature. Continuous data also
known as analog data is usually represented using a continuous waveform. Analog
computers are used in manufacturing process control like monitoring and regulating furnace
temperatures, pressures etc. They are also used in other applications like weather stations to
record and process physical quantities e.g. wind, cloud speed, temperature etc. examples
include Astrolabe, mechanical integrator, tide predictors, target data computer and slide rule.
Hybrid computers
Hybrid computers are designed to process both analog and digital data. Examples of the
hybrid machine are: ECG monitors, assembly lines, radar and sonar systems, process control -
industry, scientific weapons control.

DATA AND INFORMATION

Data is the representation of raw facts. They do not have meaning to the user and may
include: numbers, letters and symbols.
Data processing cycle
Refers to the sequence of activities involved in data transformation from its raw form to get
information. The four main stages of data processing cycle are:
1. Data collection: include data creation, data preparation

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2. Data input: include media conversion, input validation, sorting

3. Processing
4. Output Data collection

Output Data input

Data and information integrity (qualities of good

Processing
data and information)
Accuracy: accuracy refers to the close approximation, exactness, clarity, completeness to an
actual value for efficient results.
Timeliness: timeliness is the relative accuracy of data in respect to the current state of affairs
for which it is needed. If received late information may become meaningless to the user. E.g.
newspapers.
Relevance: data entered into the computer must be relevant in order to get the expected
output (decision making). Data must meet the requirements of the processing cycle.
Cost effectiveness: data must be within the means of firms’ income.
Information is the processed data. Its meaningful to the user. A computer is said to be
electronic because it utilizes electrical signal to process information.
Information processing cycle
The full set of operations that take place, from collection of input data to the availability of
output (information).

WORLD OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES (ICTS)

ICT is an acronym for Information and Communication Technology. It is defined as a
diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, create, store,
disseminate and manage information. ICT has become a very important part of the
educational delivery and management processes. ICT largely facilitated the acquisition and
absorption of knowledge and hence providing extraordinary opportunities.
Uses of ICTs
Business
Businesses have got their websites and networked computers used to advertise, market,
process orders, receipting purchased orders which facilitate the buying and selling of
goods &services by visiting the supplier’s websites, selecting the item and placing it in a
virtual shopping tray.
Electronic commerce/ e-business uses ICT in internet banking, electronic fund transfer
(EFT), mobile banking, on-line marketing (advertisement), processing customers
transaction by handing at electronic point-of-sale (EPOS) where computer terminal used
in retail stores to input and output data at the point where sales are transacted e.g. in
supermarket checkout counter. A set of standards that control the transfer of business
data & information among computers both within and among companies is called
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI).

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Models of e- commerce:
1) Business to consumer (B2C): This is a business transaction that occur over the internet
where a business sells goods to general public.
2) Consumer to consumer (C2C): This is where one consumer sells directly to another
consumer.
3) Business to business (B2B): This is where a business provides services & goods to
another business.
Education
Initially most educational institutions used computers for administrative tasks such as
compiling examinational reports, writing memos and accounting purposes. ICT plays an
increasingly important role in educational institutions by use of e-learning where lessons
and lectures are presented from a central site and presentation are transmitted to remote
conference terminal displayed on TV screen. Others include; educational research, computer
aided instructions (CAI), Computer aided learning (CAL) and computer-based simulations.
Health
Health professionals use ICT for diagnosis, keeping patients’ records, inventory control
etc. Computers are now being used in some health institutions where more specialized
computer systems referred to as expert systems have been developed to help medical
professionals diagnose illnesses more accurately in the absence of human expert.
Security
ICT is used greatly by law enforcement systems to carry out criminal investigations and
crucial crime detection by use of biometric analysis of the finger prints, voice, lips, facial
features like iris colors etc. some devices used are video CCTV cameras and biometric
scanners. ICT is used in security by military operations and space exploration science
through the Geographic positioning systems (GPS) to perform surveillance, enemy
position plotting and directing of missiles to targets in a precise manner.
Politics and governance
Politicians use ICT for soliciting of online votes and sending bulk SMS to voters. ICT is
used in governance for finance, planning, auditing, and monitor governments’ activities
like administrative work.
Entertainment, leisure and arts.
The advancement in ICT has promoted the use of multimedia technology in recreational
and entertainment. Some application areas of the computer in entertainment, leisure and
arts include:
- Playing computer games
- Watching movies and listening to audio
- Writing or composing music
- Used by the disk jockeys (DJs) to play, store and select music.

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Industrial, technical and scientific uses

Industrial simulation is used to enable the manufacturers to identify and correct the
weakness of the design and process control. ICT is used widely in variety of applications
in science, research and technology. E.g. weather forecasting, medical research and
military and space exploration sciences. In weather forecasting, it is used for weather
predictions which are more accurate and reliable.
 Searching the internet
Search engines are used to help the user easily search for information on the internet.
Example of the search engines are; Google, Alta vista, Excite and Yahoo.
How to search for information on the internet: -
Identify and open a search engine;
Enter the keywords in the search text box. Be precise as possible and click search
From the displayed search result, identify the site that contains the information you
want.
Implication of using ICTs
The era of information and communication technology (ICT) continues to influence our
lifestyle both positively and negatively as included below:
 Social/ethical
The rapid growth of information technology does not only provide us with different ways
of working, playing and thinking but also presents challenges to our moral and cultural
values. Information and communication technology have changed the way we talk,
affected our privacy, human rights and integrity. For example, internet users are exposed
to a form of communication called flaming. Flaming is writing on-line messages that
derogatory, obscene or dirty language. Also, through the internet, one can view
pornographic materials that affect moral values negatively. The free flow of immoral
information has negatively influenced the behavior of both the young and old in the
society.
To some extent, people with eroded integrity have used computers as a tool to
accomplish their vices. Take for example where a person would use a computer to forge
certificates, passport and other documents. This means that the person is cheating and
therefore his/her moral integrity has been compromised.
 Economical
The implication of ICT at work places has resulted into creation of new jobs, replacement
of computer illiterate workers and displacement of jobs that were formerly manual.
However, a number of manufacturing companies are using computers to automate their
production.
 Political
ICT is used for soliciting of online votes and sending bulk SMS to voters. Politically ICT is
being used to carry out voters’ registration and explaining of biometric persons using
such features as fingerprints, palm print, eye iris and voice.

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 Environmental (Green Computing)

Some of the environmental effects of information and communication technology
include energy consumption and radiation, pollution, paper consumption and disposal.
Initially computers consumed a lot of energy thereby generating a lot of heat and
emitting electromagnetic radiation and ICT has implication on environmental pollution.
For example, huge garbage damps of dead computer parts, printer, ink toner cartridges,
monitor and other computer accessories are disposed in landfills hence causing
environmental pollution.
 Security, reliability and resilience of computer system
It is easier to access private information, hence posing security concern. Reliability is
enhanced by features that help to avoid, detect and repair hardware faults. The ability to
provide and maintain an acceptable level of service is also an impact of using ICT. ICT
also help in fast recovery from a degraded system.

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TOPIC 2: COMPUTER MANAGEMENT

BOOTING PROCESS
Booting is the process of starting a computer.
Types of computer booting
1) Cold booting is the initial process of turning on a computer after it has been powered off
completely.
2). Warm booting: This is the process of restarting a computer which is already on.
It is also called soft boot.

FILE MANAGEMENT
File management refers to the fundamental methods for naming, storing and handling files.
Folders
A folder is a named storage location where related files can be stored. A folder also known
as directory in some operating systems, all folders or directories originate from a special
directory called root directory or folder. The root directory is represented by a back slash (\).
A folder or directory may be created inside another folder or directory. Such a folder or
directory is in units called a subfolder or a subdirectory.
Creating a new
folder To create a
new folder:
Using my computer icon, on the folder tree on the left pane, select the location
(desktop) in which you want to create a new
folder. 1. On the File menu tab, Click new
folder
2. Type a new name for the folder to Replace
the temporary name, then press Enter key
or click the icon once.
Or Right Click on the free space on the desktop,
Point to New, click folder. Type a new name for the folder
Renaming a folder or file
Renaming refers to changing the previous name to a new name. To rename a file or folder
proceed as follows:
1. Using My Computer icon, display the Explorer window.
2. On the folder tree on the left pane, select the file or folder to be renamed.
3. On the File menu, click Rename.

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4. Type the new name, and then press Enter key.

Deleting a folder or file
In windows, when you delete an item from the hard disk, it is temporarily held in a special
folder called the Recycle bin from where it can be restored if necessary.
The recycle bin is a default icon on the desktop therefore it cannot be removed.
Warning
1. One should not attempt to delete system and application files from the hard disk.
2. Items deleted from a removable storage are not held in the recycle bin and are
completely lost.
To delete a file or folder proceed as follows:
1. Using My computer icon, display the Explorer window.
2. On the folder tree on the left pane, select the item that is to be deleted.
3. On the File menu, click Delete.
4. A message appears on the screen asking whether you actually want to delete the item.
5. Confirm by clicking Yes.
Restoring deleted files and folders
To restore a file or folder from the recycle bin to its original location proceed as follows:
1. Double click the Recycle Bin icon.
2. Select the deleted item(s) to be restored.
3. Click File then Restore.
Emptying the recycle bin
To completely discard files and folders you deleted, you need to empty the Recycle Bin.
Deleted items take up the same amount of the disk space they occupied before you deleted
them. To free up the disk space occupied, you have to empty the bin.
To empty the Recycling Bin, proceed as follows:
1. Double click the recycle Bin icon on the desktop to open.
2. Choose Empty Recycle Bin from File menu.
3. Click Yes when prompted to confirm deletion of the files.
NB: You can also delete selected items in the recycle bin by clicking File then delete.
Copying and moving files and folders
Cut or copy command are used to move or create a duplicate of an item respectively. When
you cut or copy an item, it is temporarily held in a temporary storage location known as the
clipboard. To copy a file or folder:
1. Using my computer icon, display the Explorer window.
2. Select the file or folder to be copied.
3. On the Edit (organize) menu, click copy.
4. Select the drive or folder where you want the item to be copied.

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5. From the edit menu, click paste. Information or item is pasted to a new location. Copy
progress dialog will be displayed on the screen as shown below.

To move file or folder proceeds as follows:

1. Using My computer icon, display the Explorer
windows.
2. On the Edit menu, click Cut.
3. Select the drive or folder where you want the item
moved.
4. From the Edit menu, click paste.
5. Move progress dialog will be displayed on the screen.
Moving a folder
To move a folder to a desired location:
1. Click the folder and hold
2. Drag and drop to the desired location
Deleting a folder
To delete a folder
1. Right click on the folder, then click delete.
2. Or Select the folder, then press the delete (DEL) key on the keyboard.
3.
File
A file is a collection of related data given a unique name for ease of access, manipulation and
storage on a backing storage.
Creating a new file
Depending on the programs installed in your computer, you can create different types of
files such as drawings, text document etc. To create a new text document:
1. On the free space on the desktop, right click.
2. Point new, click Text Document. From the list available on application.
3. Type a new name for the new file to replace the temporary name and press Enter key.
NB: In windows, file name can contain up to 255 characters, including spaces but, with no
special symbols such as \|/: *?” <>.
Types of files
There are three types of files
namely: i). System files ii).
Application files iii). Data files
System files: contain information that is critical for the operation of the computer.

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Application files: holds programs and are executable.

Data files: contains user specific data.

Table below shows some file extension and whether it is a system, application or a data
file.
Extension File type Description
.doc Data Microsoft Word document file.
.xls Data Microsoft Excel document file.
.ppt Data Microsoft PowerPoint document file.
.pub Data Microsoft Publisher document file.
.accdb Data Microsoft Access document file.
.txt Data A plain text file created using note pad editor
.exe Application files The file that launches a particular application, e.g.
winword.exe
.bat System files Files containing a series of commands loaded
during boot up.
.sys System files System files that perform fundamental operations
in a computer.
Every file has the following details:
1. A unique name and an optional extension. The name and extension are separated by a
period (.) e.g. Jeff.doc. In this case, the file name is Jeff and the extension is doc.
Extension are used to identify the type of a file, for example:
 doc is a word processor file;
 txt is a plain text file;
 sys is a system file;
2. The size, date, and time the file was created or modified.
Saving a file
After typing the content of the file in the work area, click file and then click save. Otherwise,
the file will be saved with a different name or
location then:
1. Click File menu and then Save As
2. From the Save As dialog box, select where the
document is to be saved then type its name.
3. Click the save button

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Deleting files
1. Using My computer icon, display the Explorer window.
2. On the folder tree on the left pane, select the Item that is to be deleted.
3. On the File menu, click Delete.
4. Confirm by clicking Yes.
Customizing the Desktop
Windows lets the user change desktop appearance, background and resolution. To
customize the desktop, right click the desktop to display properties dialog box as shown
below.
Make the appropriate changes by clicking each tab.
Theme and background. To apply a new theme or
wallpaper
1. Click the theme/background tab.
2. Select theme or wallpaper of your choice.
3. Click wallpaper when using windows 7,8
Setting the screen saver
If the screen saver is set, it starts displaying on the
screen if the computer is left idle for a period of
time without interrupting the keyboard or mouse.

To set a screen saver.

1. Click the screen saver tab.

Background is the workspace area on the monitor on which icons and running tasks are placed.
Windows lets the user to customize the desktop background by applying favorite themes and
wallpapers as seen above.
2. Select a screen saver style from the screen saver list. i.e. 3D Text, Blank, Bubbles, Mystify
etc.
3. Click apply to see the changes.
4. Click OK to close the dialog box.

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Changes the screen appearance

This will change the appearance of windows items such as icon size, border colors, highlights
etc.
Desktop features
Once a computer is turned on, windows is loaded into the main memory and finally the
desktop showing that the computer is ready for use. The three main features of the desktop
are background, icons and the taskbar. This explains the major icons on the desktop.
Icon
An icon is a graphical representation of a software or hardware component on the screen.
Icons are mostly manipulated using a pointing device e.g. the mouse. Some of the common
icons on the desktop are My computer, recycle bin, internet Explorer, and My documents.
Taskbar
The taskbar enables the user to easily switch between different programs and tasks that are
currently running. Whenever the user starts a program or opens a file, its button appears on
the task bar and stays there until the user exits the program.
Star
button
task manager System tray/notification area
The task bar has at least three main parts:
Start button: The left most button on the taskbar that the user clicks to display the start
menu.

Task manager:

This is the band where the buttons of currently running task are displayed. For example, the
task manager shows the tasks currently running. You can switch between various tasks by
clicking their respective buttons on the task manager.
System tray/Notification area:
This is at the right part of the taskbar. It has icons of tasks running in the background but are
not displayed on the screen. Examples are, the time and calendar, an antivirus program,
volume control etc. to display such a task, simply click its icon in windows 7.

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The start menu items

When you click the start button, a list of choices appears called the start menu. The items on
the menu may vary depending on the version of windows you are using.
Programs menu
Programs or All programs menu display a list of programs installed in the computer. The
menu has a small solid arrow. When you point the arrow, a submenu called a sidekick menu
is displayed.
My recent documents
My recent documents list the last fifteen recently accessed files. You can open any of the
listed files from a storage device by clicking its name provided that the device is accessible.
Control panel
The control panel is the computer maintenance and configuration “Toolbox”. It provides
tools used to maintain and make changes to the computer setup. It is important not to
tamper with this menu because you may interfere with the computer functionality.
Utility programs
Definition of a utility program
Utility program is a system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or
maintain a computer.
Common utility programs
 Search utility
Search utility is used to locate a file or folder by name located on any of your hard drives
in less than a second. It is also known as file viewer which looks for a range of files in a
computer.
 File compression utility
File compression utility reduces the amount of space on files or folders they occupy on a
drive while compressing drive decreases the amount of space used by all of the files and
folders stored on that drive.
 Disk defragmenter
Disk defragmenter consolidates files scattered (fragments) so that each file occupies a
single, contiguous space on the drive.
 Backup utility
It enables the user to create copies of data and programs (on separate storage devices)
that helps a user to avoid losing important data and program files in case the storage
device or the computer fails. It is a good practice to keep backups away from the
computer room to ensure security of the information in case of a calamity such as fire.
 Antivirus program.
Antivirus program scans, detect, prevent and remove viruses from the storage and
memory.

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 Diagnostic utility
It compiles technical information about computer hardware and certain system software
programs.
 Screen saver
It prevents CRT and plasma LCD from burnt out by blanking the screen. It is used
primarily for entertainment or security.
 Disk partitions
Disk partitions divide drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own file system
which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive.
 Disk Cleanup
Disk cleanup is a computer maintenance utility designed to free up disk space on a
computer's hard drive. The utility first searches and analyzes the hard drive for files that
are no longer of any use, and then removes the unnecessary files.

Antivirus Program
Anti-virus program is a software used to prevent, detect, scan and remove malware, such as
computer viruses from storage devices and memory.
Examples of the antivirus program include: Kaspersky, Avast, AVG Anti-virus, Avira,
BitDefender, F-Secure, Norton Anti-virus, McAfee VirusScan, Panda security, Clam Anti-virus,
ESET nod32. etc.
Uses of anti-virus programs
Real-Time Scanning
Anti-virus programs provide real-time scanning, which means the program is always on and
checking for viruses as you perform tasks. This is important because a virus scanner works
after the fact and may not remove the virus completely which attach to websites, email,
storage device etc.
Protection
Antivirus software can provide real-time protection, meaning it can prevent unwanted
processes from accessing your computer while you surf the Internet.
Cleanup
Antivirus software allows you to scan your computer for viruses and other unwanted
programs, and provides you with the tools to get rid of them.
Alerts
Antivirus programs can alert you when something is trying to access your computer, or when
something in your computer is trying to access something on the Internet.
Updates
Antivirus programs can update themselves, keeping your computer's protection up to date
without you having to manually update it.

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Further Protection
If antivirus software finds an infected file that cannot be deleted, it can quarantine the file so
that it cannot infect other files or programs on your computer.

Print Management
Print management is to produce a printed copy of a document on a paper.
To print a document;
1. Click file or office button
2. Click print. This will bring the print menu
3. Select the printer name i.e. HP Laser jet P1102 series. And change the necessary details
A4 paper size, properties for advance setting.

Click OK

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TOPIC 3: COMPUTER LABORATORY CARE AND MAINTENANCE

Computer laboratory management refers to taking proper care of all hardware & software
installation in the computer laboratory.
Computers need special care & attention in order to perform properly and safely.
This is done through observation of computer ethics integrity

Computer ethics are the human values & moral conducts for the computer users.
It is also referred to as the right or wrong behavior exercised when using the computers.
Computer integrity refers to the loyalty/ faithfulness to the principled set of laws regarding
computer use.

COMPUTER LITERACY
Computer literacy refers to the ability and skills to use the computer. Computer literacy also
refers to having knowledge & understanding of computers & their uses.
Computer literacy involves having both the basic skills & intermediate skills.
Basic skills include;
1. Ability to start / switch on a computer (boot)
2. Ability to use the mouse & interact with screen objects
3. Being able to use the computer key board
4. Ability to open & locate files
5. Ability to shut down a computer properly. etc.
Intermediate skills include;
1. Functional knowledge of word processing
2. Functional knowledge of spreadsheets
3. Functional knowledge of presentation software.
4. Ability to use the email
5. Ability to use the internet
6. Ability to install and uninstall software.

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Booting process
Booting refers to the process of starting a computer for use. The computer is powered, then
it undergoes power on self-test (POST) and finally the operating system is loaded.

Types of booting
There are two types of computer booting namely: warm booting and cold booting.

Warm booting; refers to the process of restarting a computer that is currently on.
Cold booting; refers to starting a computer which initially is off.
The process of cold booting a computer
The system unit is switched on from the power button then the monitor. The computer goes
through power on self-test with the help of BIOS (Basic Input-Output system). The operating
system is then loaded.
The possible ways of warm booting a computer
Using the restart / reset button.
Press CTRL+ ALT + DEL on the keyboard
Using the operating system command

Application programs are the software programs used to solve specific end user needs.
Examples of application programs include;
word processors, database, presentation software, spreadsheets etc.
To open an application software;
Click start>all programs> Microsoft office> click at the desired application program

CONCEPT OF A COMPUTER PROGRAM

Computer program refers to a set of computer instructions created using a programming
language.
Programming is the process of writing computer instructions or statements to enable a
computer accomplish a particular task.
Programming language is a set of characters and symbols that are used to create a
computer instruction.
Program syntax refers to a valid sequence or order of writing characters or statements in a
programming language.
Types of language translator
The three common types of language translator include; Assembler, Compiler and
Interpreter. Assembler: It is language translator that is used to convert assembly language
program to machine code.
Compiler: it is a language translator that is used to convert a high-level programming
language to machine- readable format. It converts the entire code to object code before
execution.

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Interpreter: a language translator that is used to convert high level programming

language program to object code. It converts and executes one line of code at a time.

Difference between an interpreter and a compiler

Interpreter Compiler
Does not store the object code in the computer Stores the object code in the computer memory
memory
Translates and executes a source code one line Translates the entire source code into machine
at a time. code before execution.
Translates program run at every runtime. Translation is done once at compilation and no
additional translation is done at each time.
Machine languages and Assembly languages is often referred to as a “low level language”
since the code directly manipulates the hardware of the computer.

By contrast, high level languages such as “C”, C++, Pascal, COBOL, FORTRAN, ADA and Java
are called “compiled languages”. In a compiled language, the programmer writes more
general instructions and a compiler (a special piece of software) automatically translates
these high-level instructions into machine language.
Difference between Low level and high-level programming languages
Low level High level
Machine-dependent Machine independent
They are executed faster by the CPU since They are not executed faster since their
their syntax is closer to Machine architecture. source code must be translated.
They are not easy to use and learn. They are user Friendly and are easy to use
and learn.
Debugging is not easy Debugging is easy
They are not portable They are portable

A large portion of software in use today is programmed in high level programming language.
A good programing language must have the characteristic of highly legible code, easy
maintenance of the code, re-usability of code, faster program development, easy
identification of errors and debugging. Debugging refers to identifying and removing errors
from the computer hardware and software.
Some popular interpreted languages include Basic, Visual Basic, Perl, Python, and shell
scripting languages such as those found in the UNIX, Linux and MacOS X environment.
Shutting down the computer

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To properly shut down the computer,

a) Save all you are doing,
b) Close all the running program/ active windows.
c) Click on the start button
d) Click turn off computer
e) Click turn off / shut down

SECURE LABORATORY ENVIRONMENT

Computer laboratory
Computer laboratory is a room equipped with computing facilities to enable efficient
teaching and learning activities to take place.
Function of each lab equipment
a) Air conditioner: Regulates room temperature
b) Bugler proofing: Prevents un authorized access in the computer laboratory.
c) Woolen carpet: Absorbs dust & Shock.
d) Toolkit: Used to store necessary tools required for computer maintenance.
e) Dust blower: Used to blow off dust from system unit components.
f) Routers, modems gateways: connect the computers to the network.
g) A gaseous fire extinguisher: To prevent fire from spreading in case of a power
outbreak.
h) Surge protector: This is an appliance that protects a computer from voltage spikes.
i) Curtains: These protect computers from direct sunlight.
j) Water proof covers: Safeguards computer hardware from contact with water &
moisture
k) Lightening conductor: prevent lightening from striking the computers.
l) CCTV camera (closed circuit television camera): Monitor security of the laboratory.
m) Mouse pads: allows proper movement of the mouse as well as preventing dust from
entering the mouse sensor.

The areas of laboratory security include:

• Physical Security: This include the burglar proofing of the room with fitting grills on
doors, windows and the roof, to deter forceful entry into a computer room. Installation of
an intrusion detection alarm system and employing security guards also increases the
level of security alertness against theft of computers and accessories.
• Electric power security: Computers are delicate devices that require providing a
stable source of power. To protect the computers from being damaged due to power
instabilities such as power surges or under voltage, connect the computer to

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Uninterruptible Powers Supply (UPS) than connecting it directly to the main electricity
supply.
• Security Cameras: to secure the facility in the computer lab, the use of CCTV
cameras for active detection of any removal of computer accessories such as mouse,
keyboard, hard disk, RAM can be secured from the control system which monitor and
store the video information hence increasing the security alertness.
• Fire prevention and control equipment: installing fire prevention equipment such
as smoke detectors, gas fire extinguishers for putting out fire in case of fire breakout due
to short circuit. The first aid boxes should be in place to reduce the risk.
• Air conditioning: To control dust, dampness and humidity, the computer laboratory
should be fitted with good window curtains and air conditioning system that filters dust
particles from the air entering the room. Also, computers should be covered with dust
covers when not in use.

Safe use of the laboratory

For the safe use of the laboratory, the measure that protects the user while in the computer
lab.
- All cables should be insulated: to avoid the danger of electric shock to users.
- Cables should be laid away: from user paths to avoid tripping on them.
- Providing standard furniture: to avoid poor posture, this may lead to strain injury
and limb fatigue.
- Providing antiglare screens: to avoid eye strain and fatigue caused by over bright
cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors. However, modern flat panel displays such as liquid
crystal display (LCD) should be used since they do not strain the eye.
- The room should be properly ventilated: to avoid dizziness caused by lack of
enough oxygen and to allow computers to cool.
- Overcrowding: in the computer room is not allowed. This may cause suffocation.

Laboratory rules and regulations

For safety, security of computer and data, students using the computer laboratory should
adhere to the following rules.
1. Do not use any other school administrator computer account (even with the manual
bypass or permission).
2. Do not disclose their own network security code for Wi-Fi or attempt to discover any
other computer user’s password and configure in your own password.
3. Do not copy, disclose or transfer any of the computer software without permission of
the user or the system administrator.
4. Do not use any school computer facilities to violate the terms of any software license
agreement, or copyright provisions.

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5. Do not copy, rename, change, examine or delete files and information belonging to
some other user.
6. Do not deliberately use-computing facilities to harass others, or to interfere with their
work for example to send obscene, abusive, threatening or repetitive messages to a
user(s).
7. Do not attempt to modify system facilities, illegally obtain extra resources, and
degrade the performance of any system.
8. Do not tamper with terminals, microcomputers or any other associated equipment,
all faults should be reported to the system administrator.
9. Do not eat or drink around terminals, microcomputers or another computer
equipment.
10. Always cover your computers and its peripherals to protect them from damage
caused especially by dust and moisture.
11. Always close all the tasks running before shutting down the computer and follow the
systematic procedure of shutting down the computer.
Servicing and maintenance of computer Systems
Computer maintenance refers to the special care & attention given to computers in order to
perform properly and safely.
It is very important to keep your Computers maintained to avoid downtime and the safety of
your data/information. The following are some of the ways to maintain your computer.
• Cleaning of the computers: physical removal of dirt, dust and debris from the
interior or exterior parts of computer peripherals such as keyboard, mouse, monitor and
system unit. This can be done by use of a clean soft clothing or compressed air to blow
out the debris from the intake slot and fan.
• Updating of software:
Provides bug fixes for features not working properly and minor software enhancements,
and sometimes include new drivers to support printers or DVD drives. A software update
is sometimes called a patch because it is installed over current software already in use.
This helps to improve performance and safeguard against malware by updating
programs e.g. anti-virus and computer programs.
• Upgrading software: Is a purchase of a newer version of software for current use.
This helps in replacement of older version to the current version which supports various
compatibility.
• Software installation:
Installation of a computer program is the act of making the program ready for execution.
Helps in creating more applications for use and improves the system performance of the
computer with various computer programs for use.
• Fine-tuning the system: Fine tuning refers to the circumstance where the parameter
of a model must be adjusted precisely to agree with the observation. Example adjusting
the screen resolution and appearance.

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Importance of Servicing and maintenance of a computer

• Detects earlier problems that may cause system start-up errors, hanging applications
and warm booting.
• Keeping the computer healthy and running smoothly by protecting it from viruses,
malware, and spyware that can be difficult to remove and cause computer to run slowly.
• Helps to keep the computer clean from dirt, dust and debris.
• Helps to keep the computer in a good working condition that can work for a long
time with new upgrades and updates which will make the computer work fast.

Trouble shooting a computer

Trouble shooting refers to identifying a problem in a computer system and solving it.
The various trouble shooting technique used in computer management include;
a) Use of diagnostic utility
b) Scan disk utility
c) Starting the computer from an external device
The computer laboratory personnel
1. Computer technicians
2. Computer instructors
3. Programmer
4. Web masters
5. System administrators
6. Database administrator
7. System analyst
Roles performed by each personnel
Responsibilities of a computer technician
1. Troubleshooting computer hardware and software related problems.
2. Ensuring that all computer accessories such as printers, modems, storage media etc.
are working properly.
3. Assembling and upgrading computers and their components.
Computer instructors / trainer: This is a person employed to teach learners on how to use
computers and other related devices
Responsibilities
1. Training people on how to use a computer & various application program.
2. Developing training reference materials.
3. Guide learners on how to acquire knowledge through carrying out research.
4. Advising learners on the best career opportunities in the broad field f ICT.
Programmer: this is a person who designs & creates computer software.
Responsibilities
1. Writes applications programs & system programs
2. Customize commercial application package to suite the organization needs.

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3. Test, debug, install and maintain programs developed or customized for the
organization.
Web masters: this is a person who designs, creates and maintains websites.
Responsible for;
1. Developing and testing websites.
2. Updating & modifying information on the websites to meet new demands by the
users.
Monitoring the access & use of internet connection by enforcing security measures
Network administrators: this is a person in charge of a computer network.
He is responsible for installing, managing & controlling a network.
Database administrator: this is a person who manages, updates and supervises a
company’s database.
System analyst: The is a person responsible for analyzing a company’s needs then designs
& develops a computer-based information system.

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TOPIC 4: COMPUTER WORD PROCESSING

Word processing is the art of creating, saving, editing, formatting and printing text and
graphic documents using an electronic word processor.
An electronic word processor is application software that enables the user to create, edit
format and print text documents. Examples of common word processors include Microsoft
word, Corel WordPerfect, Lotus Word Pro, Apple Works 9, LibreOffice Writer, AbiWord, and
OpenOffice Writer.
Text editors are simple word processors that are generally used to type without any special
formatting.
• Text editors are mainly used to create small notes, memos and programs. Examples
of common text editors are: Notepad, Notepad++, Gedit etc.
Terms in relation to word processing
1. Cut and paste: This refers to removing an item like text from its original location and
inserting into a new location in a document.
2. Copy and paste. This refers to making a duplicate copy of an item into a new
location
3. I beam: This is the shape which the mouse pointer takes up when it reaches any text
entry area.
4. Header: This refers to text that appears in the top margin of all pages in a document.
5. A table: This is the arrangement of data in rows and columns
6. A cell: This is the intersection of a row and a column in a table.
7. Word Wrap: This is a word processing feature which automatically sends a word that
does not fit within the page margin settings onto the next line.
8. Clip board: This is a temporary storage location where items which are copied or cut
in a document are held before they are pasted to another location in a document.
9. Paragraph spacing: This is the vertical distance between one paragraph and the next
paragraph on a page. (It
10. is measured in points)
11. Drop cap: This is a word processing feature which creates a large letter at the
beginning of a paragraph falling over two or more lines of text.
12. Line Spacing: This refers to the vertical distance between two lines on a page

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13. Indent This is the amount of white space set in between the margin and the
beginning of text. examples of indents include the first line indent, hanging indent
and right indent.
Advantages of electronic word processor
• Store document for future which may not require retyping.
• Easier for typing text-based document and more efficient accurate.
• Most of word processors have superior editing tools such as thesaurus, autocorrect,
spelling and grammar checkers.
• Electronic word processors provide predefined features for generating headers,
footers, indexes, footnotes and references.
• Word processors have superior document formatting features. Formatting refers to
the art of making the document more attractive and appealing to the eye. Such features
include underlining, boldfacing, italicization, color etc.
• Most word processors have the ability to create and import tables, text and graphics
from other programs.
• It is possible to print multiple copies once.
Disadvantages of word processors
 Word processors cannot be used without Electricity.
 They have led to Unemployment of typists
 Many people are Computer illiterate, and cannot use the program.
 Computers have Viruses, which lead to loss of data in soft copies
 Using word processors on light emitting computer monitors for long leads to eye
disorders, which isn’t the case with type writers
 Word processors require purchase of hard ware like printers in order to obtain hard
copies yet with typewriters, whatever is typed is permanent and instantly available as
a hard copy: there is no delay for printing or risk of unintended file deletion
 Word processors require purchase of hard ware like printers in order to obtain hard
copies yet with typewriters, whatever is typed is permanent and instantly available as
a hard copy: there is no delay for printing or risk of unintended file deletion.

Features of word processors

• Word Wrap: this feature automatically sends a word that does not fit within the
margin settings onto the next line, without the user pressing Enter key.
• Find: allows the user to locate all occurrences of a particular character, word or
phrase.
• Replace: allows the user to substitute existing characters, words or phrases with the
new ones.
• Spell checker: allows the user to check spellings of the whole document at one time
or to check and even correct the spelling of individual words as they are typed
(Autocorrect)

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• Grammar checker: this reports grammatical errors, usually by a wavy green line, and
suggests ways to correct them.
• Thesaurus: suggests alternative words with the same meaning (synonyms) for use in
the document.
• Mail Merge: This is feature used to create similar letters to be sent to several people.
The names and addresses of each person can be merged with one single main
document.
• Automatic page numbering: numbers the pages automatically in a document
• Tables: allow users to organize information into rows and columns.
• Multi-columns: arranges text into two or more columns that look similar to
newspaper or magazine
• Drop cap – Formats the first letter in paragraph to be dropped across two or more
lines.
• Clip art: refers to pre-made images about various subjects used to illustrate concepts
in documents.
• Templates: establish the initial document layouts and formats for various document
types.
• Printing: allows a user to obtain a hard copy of a document from the printer.
• Word Count: Establishes the number of words, characters, paragraphs, etc. in a
document.
• Headers and Footers: Used to insert text in the top and bottom margin through the
document
• Footnotes and Endnotes are used as references that provide additional information
about a word or phrase within a document.
• Insert and Delete allows a user to add and remove portions of text while editing
document
•
Main features in word processors
 Title bar- indicates the task currently running. On its right, it has a control button
Maximize/restore
Close

which includes minimize, maximize/restore and close buttons. Minimize

 Menu bar- provides the user with group of commands. Each command has a drop-
down list with command used to create or manipulate a document.

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 Toolbars- consists of button of commands (icons) that provide shortcuts to

commands available in the menu bar. The two default toolbars are the standard
formatting tool bars.
 Document window- a paper like electronic work area where a document is created.
 Status bar- the communication channel between the user and the application
program. It displays the current page number and the section.
Purpose of word processing
Most word processors are used for writing letters, reports, projects, books, essays, memos,
curriculum vitae, etc.
Starting Microsoft office word
To create a document using word processor, proceed as follows.
1. Click start , and point to All program
2. Point Microsoft office, and then click Microsoft office Word i.e. 2003, 2007, 2013,365
latest.

Fig. Microsoft office word 2007

Most of the features of word processor include title bar, menu bar, toolbars, document
windows and status bars, task pane, scroll bars or buttons.

Working with word processor document

New document
To create a new document based on a template.
1. Click File menu then select New.
2. On the task pane displayed on the right, under Templates, click on My computer.

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3. On the templates dialog box, click on the table that contains a template you wish to
use.
4. Select a template from templates window.
5. Replace the general content with your own content.

Different word document templates for word 2013.

Saving a document
Saving refers to copying the data from a temporary area to a more permanent storage
medium.
To save a new document for the first time proceed as follows.
1. On the file menu, click Save As. Save As dialog box is displayed as shown below.

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2. In the File name box, type a unique name for the document.
3. Select a location or drive you want to save in by clicking the down arrow on the right
of save in list box.
4. To save the file to different format or type such as Word 97-2003 template, so that
any word can open. Click the down arrow on the right of Save as type list box and choose
a file type.
5. Click the Save button. The file will automatically be saved as Microsoft word
document.
Alternatively press Ctrl + S or F12, Click
Protecting a document with a password
A password is a combination of characters that prevents other users from opening and
changing a document without permission. If the document is protected by a password, only
the person who knows the password can open the document or edit it. However, in case you
forgot your password download is unshared password remover. To save a document with a
password:
1. Open the document you want to protect.
2. On the File menu, choose Save As.
3. Click the down arrow on the Tools button in the save as dialog box.
4. Click General option. Type in a password in the password to open. This prompts the
user to enter password when opening a document.
5. To protect against modification, type in a password in the password modify text box,
and the click OK.

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Closing the current document

Closing a document means unloading the current active document from memory so that the
user can create or open another without necessarily exiting from word. To close a document:
1. On File menu, click Close. Alternatively Press Ctrl + F4 or Alt + F4.
2. Click the close tab at the top right corner.
3. Save document changes if prompted.
Opening an existing document
1. On the File menu, click open command or the standard toolbar, Click the Open
button. Alternatively press Ctrl + O key combination on the keyboard. The open dialog
box shown appears.
2. Select a drive or folder where the file is saved.
3. In the file name box type or select the name of the document you want to open.
4. If the document is in another format supported by word, select the file format in the
file of type list.
5. Click the open button.

You can also open a file from recently used file list on the File menu. Word keeps a list of
recently used file drop down menu.

Exiting from word

1. To exit from word, save changes to your document.
2. On File menu, click exit. Alternatively press Alt + F4.
Editing Word documents
Editing refers to making necessary changes to an existing document. Apart from manual
editing using delete, insert and overtype/overwrite commands, Microsoft Word provides the
user with inbuilt tools such as spelling and grammar checker, thesaurus, undo and redo, find
and replace etc.
Block operations
Highlighting a block of text

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The purpose of selecting or highlighting text is to enable the user to manipulate the selected
block of text. You can either select a block of text using the mouse or keyboard.

Selecting with a mouse

1. To select a word, place the insertion point on the word then, double click it.
2. To select the entire line, position the mouse pointer on the left margin until it
changes to an arrow, then click once.
3. To select a paragraph, place the pointer at the beginning or end of the paragraph.
Notice that the pointer changes to I-beam. Now drag the I-beam over the text to be
selected and release the mouse button at the end of the text you wish to work on.

Selecting with the keyboard

1. To select one word, move the insertion pointer to the beginning or end of the word
then press Shift+ Ctrl + Right or left arrow.
2. To select one-line press shift + home or end keys respectively.
3. To select an entire page, press Shift + page Down or Shift + page Up
4. To select the entire document, then press shift + Ctrl + End.
Editing modes
There are two editing modes in word processor that assist the user in editing individual
characters in text document. These are the Insert and Type mode.

Deleting text
To delete a character or word from the right to the left:
1. Place the insert pointer on the right of the word.
2. Press the backspace key.
To delete a character to the right of the cursor position:
1. Place the insertion pointer on the left of the word.
2. Press the delete/Del key
To delete block of text:
1. Highlight the text to be deleted.
2. Press the delete/del key

Restoring deleted text

To restore text that has just been deleted in the current word processing session: click the
Edit menu, then the Undo command.

Copying and moving text and objects

Copying means creating a duplicate of text or an object, while moving means changing the
position of text or an object in a document. In Microsoft word, you can copy or move a block
of text.

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To copy a block of text:

1. Highlight the text.
2. Click copy command in clipboard or press Ctrl + C to copy on keyboard shortcut.
3. Position the insertion pointer where you want to copy the text.
4. Click Paste or simply click Paste button on the standard toolbar.
To move text and objects:
1. Highlight the text
2. Click Cut or press Ctrl + X to cut on keyboard shortcut.
3. Position the insertion pointer where you want the text to be placed.
4. Click paste or press Ctrl + V on keyboard shortcut.
Find and replace
Find and replace is used when you want to search and replace a word or phrase in a
document.
To find and replace a word or phrase:
1. On the editing menu, click find or Replace. Click the replace tab or Press Ctrl + F on
keyboard shortcut to find.
2. In the find what box, type the word or phrase to find.
3. In the “Replace with” box, type the word or phrase to replace the target or phrase.
4. Use the buttons replace, replace all or find Next to navigate through the search
process.

Proofreading
Proofreading refers to checking whether the document has typographical or grammatical
errors. Microsoft word has proofing tools such as spelling and grammar checker and
Autocorrect.

Spelling and grammar checker

The spelling and grammar checker is an inbuilt tool that helps the user to correct spelling
errors and incorrect grammar structures. However, the checker can only recognize errors of
those words whose correct spelling is in its dictionary.
To check the accuracy of spelling and grammar:
1. Click Tools menu option
2. Click spelling and grammar on the drop-down menu.
3. Enter choose one of the following buttons: change, change all, ignore, ignore all and
add. Alternatively, right click on the word with spelling error click options from the list.

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Undo and redo

Undo reverses the most recently executed command while redo reverts back to the cancelled
action.
To undo or redo:
On the Edit menu, click Undo or redo. Alternatively, press Ctrl +Z to undo, or Ctrl + Y to
Redo.

Formatting word documents

Formatting refers to enhancing the appearance of a document. You format text, paragraphs,
pages or the entire document.
Formatting text attributes
Text formatting refers to features such as changing fonts (type, style and size of characters),
changing text colour, underlining, bolding, italicizing, making a character(s) superscript or
subscript. To format text, use the formatting toolbar. Format menu or keyboard shortcut
keys.
To format existing text using the format menu:
1. Highlight the text to be formatted.
On the Format menu, Click the Font command, a dialog box with all text formatting features
is displayed.

TOPIC 5: COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer Hardware: are the physical or tangible components that make up a computer
system. They are classified into four categories namely input devices, output devices, storage
devices and processor components (processing devices).
INPUT DEVICES
Input devices convert user input which is in human readable form to machine language that
a computer can process. These devices are identified as basic input devices and they include;

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Keyboards, mouse, digital cameras, barcode readers, microphones, scanners, touchpad and
joystick;
Mouse: is a pointing device used for controlling a pointer cursor on the screen. Apart from
the mouse other pointing device include; trackball, joystick, and light pen. Mouse has three
types these include Standard or traditional mouse using a ball underneath, Optical mouse
and cordless mouse that uses infrared waves or wireless connection to the system unit.
Digital cameras: capture images and store in a digital form. Pictures are mostly stored on
a memory card instead of a film. The stored images can be edited, printed or uploaded to
the internet.
Barcode readers: are used to capture data coded lines of varying thickness known as bar
codes or Universal Product Code (UPC). Barcodes hold manufacturer’s details and the
product code but not the price details because prices vary from one place to another.
Microphones: is a voice input technology used to enter data inform of speech into the
computer. Voice input has limitations in that it does not fully support speech related aspects
such as accents, inflections and tones.
Touchpad: is a technology that allows the user to touch the screen using a finger or stylus in
order to write or select an item. The screen consists of infrared light crisscrossing behind it.
When the user touches a location on the screen, the finger interrupts the infrared light and
the output is displayed on the screen.
Joystick: is an input device that looks like a lever used to control a pointer on the screen. It is
purposely used for playing computer games. The user controls game actions by varying the
pressure, speed and direction of the joystick.
Interactive whiteboard: is a large interactive display that connects to a computer. It is also
known as a smart board. The computer display is projected onto the board’s surface, where
users control the computer and write using a pen or a finger. The board is typically mounted
to a wall or on the floor stand. Smart boards are used in places such as classrooms, seminars,
broadcasting studios and corporate board rooms.
Categories of input hardware
According to the type of data they input, input devices can be grouped into the following:
a) Text input devices
b) Pointing input Devices
c) Imaging input Devices
d) Gaming input Devices
e) Audio input Devices
f) Biometric input Devices and

Text input devices

Text is a general word for all characters such as letters, numerical digits, symbols and marks
that combine to form words & sentences.
Text input devices are the devices used to enter text into the computer.
Examples of text input devices

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1. The keyboard,
2. Voice Recognition Equipment
3. Optical mark reader (OMR)
4. Barcode readers
5. Optical character reader (OCR)
6. Magnetic ink character readers (MICR) readers
7. RFID readers
8. Magnetic Strip Card Readers, etc.
Keyboard: is a keying device that converts typed numbers, letters and special characters into
machine readable form before processing takes place. The keyboard has many types such as
Traditional keyboard, flexible keyboard, Ergonomic keyboard and Braille keyboard.
Ergonomic keyboard is designed to provide comfort and alleviate wrist strain. Braille
keyboard is a keyboard designed for use by the blind
Voice Recognition Equipment: This is a device which converts spoken words to text.

Computers with Speech recognition do not actually understand speech, but they are
programmed to recognize a vocabulary of words, which can range from two words to
millions of words.
Optical mark recognition (OMR): Optical mark recognition (OMR) devices read hand-
drawn marks such as small circles or rectangles.
Barcode readers: A bar code reader is an input device that uses laser beams to read bar
codes that are printed on items usually in super markets.
A bar code is an identification code that normally consists of a set of vertical lines and spaces
of different widths.
Optical character recognition (OCR): Optical character recognition (OCR) is a technology
that involves reading typewritten, computer-printed, or handwritten characters from ordinary
documents and translating the images into a form that the computer can understand.
MICR readers: A magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR) reader is used to read text
printed with magnetized ink.
RFID readers: Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is a technology that uses radio waves
to transfer data from an electronic tag, attached to an object, through a reader for the
purpose of identifying & tracking the object.
Magnetic Strip Card Readers: This is a device that reads the magnetic stripe on the back of
credit cards, bank ATM cards, and other similar cards.
Pointing Devices:
A pointing device is an input device, which allows users to move a pointer and make
selections on the computer screen.
Pointing device input spatial data into a computer.
Examples of pointing devices:
1) Stylus pen & digitizing tablet
2) Cordless Mouse

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3) Trackball
4) Touchpad
5) Light pen
6) Touch Screen
7) A Track Point

Imaging Devices:
These are input devices used to enter images such as still photos, motion pictures, graphics
& video etc. into the computer for processing.
Examples of Imaging devices:
1. Image scanner
2. Digital Camera
3. Digital video (DV) camera
4. Camcorder
5. Web cam

Audio input devices:

These are devices used to enter sound into the computer.

Examples include;
1. Microphone
2. Dictaphone
3. Sound cards
4. MIDI devices

Biometric input Devices:

This is a device that proves an individual’s identity by reading their biological characteristics
in order to gain access to a system or networks.

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PROCESSING DEVICES
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is a physical component within the system case whose
major purpose is to process data. Hence the name processor
The CPU is also called the brain of the computer.
Being one of the most important components, a computer without a CPU is just like a
television set which cannot process data.
The process of turning data (raw facts) into information is called data processing.
The greatest company in the production of processors is Intel.

Terminologies related to the processor:

1. Multi-core processor: this is a single chip with two or more separate processors. The
common Multi-core processors used today include: the dual-core and the quad-
core.
2. The dual-core: is a chip that contain two separate processors
3. The quad-core: Is a chip that contain four separate processors or cores.
4. Multiprocessing.

Functions of the CPU

1. It controls devices under its care
2. It helps in all stages of data processing
3. It performs logical computations & comparison of data
4. It determines how fast a computer performs a function
5. It is used as a yardstick to determine the type & the model of the computer

Types of processors
The higher the processing power, the better the computer.
– 80286
– 80386
Pentium I (80556)
– Pentium II
– Pentium III
– Dual core
– Quad core
– Core i 3
– Core i 7
Components of the CPU.
A CPU has 3 major parts namely;
1. The Control Unit,
2. The Arithmetic Logical Unit
3. The registers

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Functions of each component.

1. The control unit:
Directs and coordinates most of the computer operations and activities that take place
within the processor.
2.The arithmetic logic unit:
Performs arithmetic operations (+, *, - and /) involving integers and logic operations such as
comparing data or determining whether a specific operation is true or false
3. Registers:
These are small high-speed memory chips within the computer processor to temporarily
store data during processing.
Common types of registers:
1. Program counter: holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched.
2. Instruction register: holds the current instruction fetched from memory.
3. Instruction decoder: interprets the instruction currently held in the instruction register.
4. Accumulator: holds the data item to be processed & the result of the arithmetic and
logical operations.
5. Status register: holds collection of condition flags which describe the status of the most
recent operation carried out by ALU.

The central processing unit (CPU) machine cycle

Machine cycle: This refers to the four sets of basic operations performed by the CPU for
every computer instruction.
Machine cycle is also referred to as e-time
These include:
1) Fetching: is the process of obtaining a program instruction or data item from internal
memory or RAM
2) Decoding: is the process of translating a program instruction into commands
(signals) the computer can understand / execute.
3) Executing: is the process of carrying out a command
4) Storing: is the writing of the executed results into internal memory or RAM.

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COMPUTER MEMORY
Computer memory refers to the storage location in a computer where files and programs
reside.
Computer memory is measured in bytes.
Types of computer memory
1. Primary memory:
2. Secondary memory
Primary memory
This is a temporally storage that holds data and program instructions waiting to be
processed by the computer.
Primary memory is the main computer storage area where data is stored for quick access by
the computer’s processor.
Primary memory can alternatively be called;
 Main memory
 Internal memory
 Random access memory
 Immediate Access Memory
Examples of Computers primary storage
1. Registers: These are primarily used by the processor to handle calculations used to
operate the program.
2. Cache Memory (CPU Memory): This is a high-speed memory which holds frequently
used instructions by the CPU.
3. RAM (Random Access Memory): This is a primary memory which stores information being
processed temporarily. Types of RAM;
1. Dynamic RAM
2. Static RAM.
3. Flash RAM / flash memory chip:
4. Magneto resistive RAM (MRAM)
4. Read Only Memory (ROM): This is a type of memory that can be read on by the computer
but not altered or changed by the computer processor. Types of ROM;
1) Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM);
2) Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)
3) Electrically Erasable programmable Read Only Memory. (EEPROM):
4) Electrically Altered Programmable Read Only Memory (EAPROM):

Secondary storage
Refers to as auxiliary storage, are devices that provide alternative long-term storage for
programs, data and information. They are regarded as secondary because unlike primary
storage, they are not directly accessible by the CPU. Secondary storage devices can be
classified according to:

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a) Portability as removable and fixed

b) Technology used to store and retrieve data as magnetic, optical, magneto-optical and
solid state.
In this section, we balance the two devices by indicating whether a device or media is
removable and the technology used to store data on it.

Removable storage
Removable storage media are those that are not housed inside the computer. Data is read
and written into the media using a device known as drive. Examples of removable storage
include magnetic tapes, floppy disk, optical disks and solid-state devices.

Magnetic tapes
A magnetic tape is made using a thin ribbon of Mylar coated with a thin layer of magnetic
material composed of iron oxide. The tape resembles the music cassette used in home tape
recorders. Data is read from or written using a tape drive. Examples of magnetic tapes
include: reel to reel tapes, cassette tapes and cartridge tapes.

Disadvantages of using magnetic tapes

1. Magnetic tapes are slow because of the linear storage of data records on the tape.
This means that you have to access the proceeding records before you get what is
required.
2. There is a space between successive data records called inter-record Gap (IRG), which
results in wastages of storage space.

Floppy disks
A floppy disk or simply a diskette is made up of small flexible round disk coated with
magnetic iron oxide. This disk is covered with a plastic protective case. However, it is
important to note that diskettes are becoming unpopular due to the entry into the market of
affordable mass storage media such as flash disks and memory cards.

Zip disk
A zip disk is a high capacity magnetic diskette that resembles a floppy disk. However,
compared to a 3.5 floppy disk, a zip disk has a higher storage capacity and is physically
thicker. A zip disk can hold as much as 250MB. Zip disk come with separate portable external
drives.

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Jaz disks
Jaz disks resemble zip disks in every sense only that they can hold as much as 2GB. Data is
read or written using internal or external jaz drives.

High capacity floppy

High capacity floppy disks simply known as HiFD disk are high capacity diskettes that can
store up to 200MB of data. HiFD drive can also read the magnetic 1.44MB diskette. Laser
servo 120 Super disks
Laser servo 120 super Disk technologies (LS-120), is a diskette that resembles the 3.5-inch
diskette but uses optical technology. It has a greater storage capacity and speed of data
retrieval (it can store up to 240 MB). The LS-120 drive can read and write both the 3.5-inch
floppy disk and the 120MB Super disk.
Care of magnetic storage media
To avoid accidental loss of data or information held on magnetic media, the following rules
must be observed:
1. Do not expose a magnetic media to strong magnetic fields. This would dis-orient the
magnetic dipole causing erasure of recorded data.
2. Do not expose a magnetic media or excessive heat. Heat energy leads to loss of
magnetic strength in materials, hence magnetically recorded data can easily get lost.
3. Do not drop magnetic media on the ground because the impact weakens magnetism.
4. Do not bend or fold a magnetic media or put heavy weights on them to avoid
breaking or damaging it.
5. Do not touch the magnetic surfaces.
6. Do not remove a media from the drive when it is still being accessed by the computer
because this may result to data loss.

Optical Storage media

Optical storage media are so called because data is written and read from them using a laser
beam. A laser beam is a very strong concentrated light. Two reasons why optical storage
media are used:
1. They store very large volumes of data.
2. Data stored in them is more stable and more permanent than the magnetic media.

Compact disk (CD)

Compact disk holds large quantities of data and information. One disk can hold as much as
700MB. They are mostly used to store data and information that requires a lot of space such
as video clips, software, sounds etc. Currently compact disks are available in three forms
namely:

Compact disk-read only memory (CD-ROM): Compact disk read only memory contains data
that can only be read but cannot be written on. To record data the recording surface is made

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into pits and lands (bumps). When a laser beam falls on the land, this is interpreted as 1,
otherwise a zero is recorded.

Compact disk-recordable (CD-R): Compact disk recordable (CD-R) are coated with a special
dye which changes colour to represent data when burned using a laser beam. Once data is
burned on a CD-R it becomes read only.
NB. CD-ROMs and CD-Rs are referred to Write Once Read Only Many (WORM). Data is only
recorded once but can be read as many times as possible. CD-Rs can also allow adding of
data records on the Compact disk recordable but does not allow erasing of data.
Compact disk-rewritable (CD-RW): unlike the CD-Rs, these types of compact disk allow the
user to record, erase and rewrite new information just as one would with floppy disks.

Digital Versatile disks

Digital Versatile Disk (DVD), also known as digital video disk resemble compact disk in every
aspect. The only difference is that they have a higher storage capacity of up to 4.7GB. They
are suitable for recording motion pictures such as videos because they offer better sound
and picture quality than the CDs.

Optical card
An optical card resembles an MICR card but data is read and written optically on a stripe.
These types of cards are mostly used in banking and other business organizations to record
customer details.

Optical tape
This is similar to magnetic tape only that data is stored y using optical technology.

Solid state storage media

Solid state is a non-volatile storage that employs integrated circuits rather than mechanical,
magnetic or optical technology. Examples of solid-state devices are memory stick and flash
disk.

Fixed storage media

The hard disk is mounted inside the computer; therefore, it is referred to as fixed disk.
However, this is not absolutely the case because some hard disks are removable i.e. external
hard disk (backup). The hard disk is also known as hard drive and it is made up of metallic
disk platters together with a read/ writes head, housed in a protective metal case. The hard
disk has the highest storage capacities in all storage devices up terabytes (TB).
The read/write head floats just above the surface of the rapidly rotating disk to read or write
data.

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Most computer hard disk is connected to the motherboard via a channel called controller.
Some of these controllers are Integrated Drive Electronic (IDE), enhanced IDE or SATA (Serial
Advanced Technology Attachment).
OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices are peripheral devices that a computer uses to give out information
produced after the processing operations. These devices can be classified into two categories
namely soft copy and hard copy output devices.

Softcopy refers to a readable form of data, information or instructions that can be seen or
heard; such as screen display and sound are intangible. Examples of such devices include
monitors, LCD projectors and speakers.
Hardcopy refers to a copy of data that has been printed on paper. Hardcopy is tangible.
Examples of hardcopy output include printers, plotters and facsimile (fax). Examples of
output devices such as visual display units, printers, analog devices for speech generation
and speakers are explained below.

Monitor
A monitor, also known as Visual Display Unit (VDU) or the screen, is used to display
information in the form of text, pictures and video, enabling the user to monitor what is
going on in the computer. There are three common types of monitors namely Cathode Ray
Tube (CRT), Liquid crystal Display (LCD) and Gas plasma Display (GPD) monitors. LCDs and
gas plasma display are generally referred to as flat panel displays.

Cathode ray tube monitors

A cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitor consists of a long glass tube with an electron gun on one
end and a screen on the other. The electron gun shoots electrons to illuminate the screen
and is coated with tiny red, green and blue to make a pixel.

Liquid crystal Display (LCD) monitors

A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is made of a special liquid crystal. Unlike CRTs, LCDs are less
bulky, consume less power and have little strain effect on the eyes. Due to this reason, LCDs
are gradually replacing the CRT monitors on desktop computers.

Gas plasma displays

Gas plasma displays resemble LCDs only that they make use of gas instead of liquid crystals.
They contain millions of pixels that are illuminated by charged neon gas. Unlike LCDs, images
displayed on gas plasma do not suffer from angle distortion. Currently the technology is
mainly used to produce high definition TVs (HDTV), and wall display screens.

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Data projectors
Projectors are used to display output from a computer on a plain white screen like a wall or
whiteboard. It is a creative way of presenting computer output to an audience. This
technology is gradually replacing the traditional overhead projectors.

Speakers
Speakers are sound output devices which produces sound such as beeps, audio or digital.
Some computers come with inbuilt speakers, hence eliminating the need to connect external
speakers.

Printers
Printers are primarily used to produce information on a piece of paper. The quality of a
hardcopy depends on the printer’s printing mechanism. Printers are classified according to
different printing mechanism. The two categories are impact and non-impact printers.

Impact printers
Impact printers print using striking mechanism. This means that they strike the paper in order
to form an imprint on it. Two examples of impact technologies are dot matrix and daisywheel
printers.

Dot matrix printers: Dot matrix printers have a set of pins on the printer’s head which
strikes on an ink ribbon placed over the paper.

Daisy wheel printers: Daisy wheel printers have a removable flower-like wheel consisting of
spokes with embossed characters. When printing, the wheel is rotated to align the required
character and the characters are hit with a hammer.

Although impact printers are cheaper to run and print for long periods without breaking,
they produce low quality printouts.

Non-impact printers
Non-impact printers are faster and quiet than the impact printers. They print using ink,
thermal or laser mechanisms. The four types of non-impact printers are inkjet, thermal, laser
and photo printers.

Inkjet printers: Inkjet printers print by spraying tiny ink droplets onto a paper to create an
image. A colour inkjet printer may have black and tricolor cartridges that contain cyan,
magenta and yellow (CMY) compartments. The cartridge has nozzles that do the actual
spraying of ink on the paper.
Although inkjet printers are cheaper to purchase and produce better quality printouts, they
are more expensive to run due to high cost of replacing the cartridges.

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Thermal printers: Thermal printers use thermal technology to heat ink which is normally in
wax or resin form to melting point before fusing it onto the paper. Thermal printers are
mostly used in point of sale terminals to print receipts and barcodes.
Although thermal printers produce high quality printouts, they are expensive to purchase
and run.
Laser printer: Laser printers operate by shining a laser beam to create an image on the
rotating drum. As the beam hits the drum, it ionizes some regions which attract ink toner
particles. The toner is fused onto a piece of paper through heating.
Laser printers are very fast compared to the inkjet and thermal printers. They are cheaper to
run and produce high quality printouts. However, they are expensive to purchase.

Photo printer: Photo printers are special purpose printers designed to print photos.

Plotters
A plotter is a large type of hardcopy output device. Plotters are mostly used for printing
geographical, architectural and engineering drawings e.g. maps, advertisement posters to be
placed on billboards, machine parts etc.

Factors to consider when purchasing a printer

The choice of purchasing a printer depends on a number of factors which include:
1. Print quality: dot matrix printers are good for bulk printing or draft documents; laser
printer is good for printing official documents while thermal printers are good for
checkout counter receipts.
2. Initial cost: Though the prices of printers have come down, laser and thermal
printers are still expensive compared to inkjet printers.
3. Running cost: The cost of maintaining an inkjet printer is higher than that of
maintaining laser printers.
4. Speed: the speed of a printer is measured in pages per minute.
5. Colour printing: most printers support black and colour printing. However, colour
printers, especially lasers are relatively more expensive.

PERIPHERAL DEVICE INTERFACES

Peripheral device interfaces refer to connecting a peripheral device to a computer through
ports using either cables or wireless connectivity. Examples include Parallel interface, serial
interface, Universal serial bus (USB) interface, Small computer system interface (SCSI),
Personal system 2(PS/2) interface, video Graphics Array (VGA) interface, Audio interface, Fire
wire interface, Infrared and Bluetooth and power interface.
Parallel Interface
Parallel cables transmit information simultaneously using a set of many conductors (wires).
For example, if a cable uses 8 lines to transmit data at the same time, it is said to be an 8-bit

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parallel cable. The advantage of using such cable is that they transmit data faster over a short
distance.
A parallel cable connects to a parallel interface port commonly referred to as Line Printer
(LPT). Parallel cables are used to connect printers, optical scanners and some removable
storage drives such as zip drive.
Serial interface
Serial ports also known as COM or RS232 ports, support transmission of data one bit at a
time, hence it is slower than the parallel port. Although they are slower, they are more
reliable than parallel ports because they can support data transmission to devices connected
15m away. Serial cables are generally used to connect devices such as the mouse and some
printers.
Universal serial bus (USB) interface
Universal serial bus is a new standard serial interface that is set to replace the conventional
parallel and serial cables and ports. Currently, most peripheral devices from printers to
mobile phones are coming with USB as the default interface. Although it transmits only 1-bit
at a time, it provides high-speed and quality data transmission over distances of
approximately 5metres. The two types of USBs namely low speed USB (1.1) and a relatively
faster high-speed USB (2.0). A USB port can be used to connect as many as 127 peripheral
devices to a computer daisy chained to a single port known as the root hub.
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
Small computer system interface port and interface cables transmit data in parallel but are
faster than the parallel cables. Another advantage of the SCSI port is that one SCSI port
allows us to connect to multiple devices.
Personal system 2 (PS/2) interface
Originally, most computers use the 5-pin DIN to connect a keyboard to the system unit but
the smaller 6-pin mini-DIN also known as PS/2 interface has replaced this technology.
Currently most desktop computers come with two PS/2 ports, one for mouse and the other
for the keyboard.

Video graphics array (VGA) Interface

Video graphics array (VGA), is used to connect a monitor or a data projector. It is shaped like
a letter D with 15 pins.
Audio Interface
Audio interface is used to connect speakers and microphone.
Fire wire interface
Fire wire or IEEE 1394 has the same features as the USB but transmits data faster than USB. It
is mostly used for streaming video from a digital video camera.

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Infrared and Bluetooth

Infrared, also referred to as infrared, Data Association (IrDA) is a wireless interface that uses
infrared to connect to infrared-enabled devices. On the other hand, Bluetooth is also wireless
interface that uses short range radio broadcast to connect to any Bluetooth- enabled device.
Power supply
The power supply unit and adapter are used to convert AC to DC current. Though computers
are connected to AC power supply, internal components require DC power. Desktop PCs use
power supply unit mounted on system unit casings. You connect the power supply using a
power cable.

The table below shows summary of standard symbols used to denote an interface.

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TOPIC 6: COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Computer software. It is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides
instruction to computer hardware. Alternatively, computer software is a set of programs that
directs the operation of computer hardware.

Computer processes data and is guided by a set of instruction known as program. Software
and programs are used interchangeably, however the term software does not only mean
program but also user guides documentation.

CATEGORIES OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Generally, computer software is designed to manage the hardware and accomplish specific
tasks. Therefore, software may be classified as either system software or application
software.
System software
System software performs a variety of fundamental operations that avails computer resource
to the user. System software can further be subdivided into four-categories namely;
1. Operating system
2. Firmware
3. Utility software
4. 4. Networking software.

Operating Systems
An operating system consists of set of complex programs that work together to control
execution of user programs called applications and act as an interface between application
and computer hardware.
Operating system manages input, output and storage operations in a computer. Examples of
common operating systems are Microsoft windows (2000, XP, Vista, 7 and 8), UNIX, Linux
and Macintosh (Mac OS), MS DOS.
O/S relies on device drivers to manage computer devices.
A device driver is a small program that tells the operating system how to communicate with
the computer devices.

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Functions of the operating system

1. Booting the computer and making sure that all the hardware elements are working
properly.
2. Performing operations such as retrieving, loading, executing and storing applications.
3. Storing and retrieving files.
4. Performing a variety of system utility functions.
5. Manage and allocate computer resources.
6. Controls input and output devices
7. Manages computer memory usage
8. Provides a working environment for all computer applications.

Types of operating system

Operating systems are classified /categorized basing on:
a) The types / number of computers they control.
b) According to the number of users that can be logged in at a time.
c) The number of tasks an operating system can perform concurrently.
d) How users enter data and instructions into computer (user interface)
e) The processing mode

Classification according to number of computers controlled.

1) Standalone operating system
This is a type of operating system that runs only one machine when installed.
This type of operating system cannot support a network environment.
2) Networked operating system
This is a type of operating system that can manage all computers when installed on one as
long as the other computers are linked to form a network e.g.
1) Windows NT Server,
2) Windows Net Server
3) Windows 2008,
Classification according to the user interface.
There are two types of user interfaces which include;
1). Command line interface (CLI)
This is user interface where a key board is used to issue commands to the computer.
The instructions are normally issued or typed at a command prompt. (C:\>-.)
2). Graphical user interface (GUI).
This is a type of operating system that uses icon to issue (enter) commands into the
computer.
An icon is a graphical representation of a program or a file.

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Factors to consider when choosing an operating system

1. The Human–computer interface
2. The Applications intended for the computer.
3. The Cost of the operating system.
4. Its availability on the market.
5. Reliability of the operating system.
Firmware
Firmware is a combination of software and hardware recorded permanently on electronic
chips. Firmware is also called stored logic. Usually, a firmware is read-only memory chip that
is mounted or plugged into the motherboard. Firmware may hold an operating system,
utility programs, language processes etc.

Utility software
Utility software is a special program that performs commonly used services that make certain
aspects of computing to go on smoothly Or These are general purpose programs that
enhance/ boost the performance of a computer.
Examples of utility programs
a) Backup utility
b) Antivirus utility
c) Data compression utility
d) Screen savers
j) Disk defragmenter
k) Disk repair utility
l) Computer language translators
m) Disk partitioning software
n) Disk compression utilities
o) File managers
Types of Utility software
1. System-level utility: This helps the user to work with the operating system and its
functions. For example, utility software tells the wrong command and gives suggestions
how the error can be corrected.
2. Application-level utility: These make application programs run more smoothly and
efficiently. Such utility programs are commonly purchased separately or be part of
operating system.

Programming Languages
A programming language is a set of commands used to write computer software. Computer
programmers use these languages to develop new software and controlling computers.

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In essence, programming languages are translators that take words and symbols and convert
them to binary codes that the CPU can understand.
Basically, programming languages are classified into two i.e. high-level programming
languages and low-level programming languages.

Examples of programming languages include JAVA, FORTRAN (Formula Translator), PASCAL,

C, C++, BASIC (Beginners All-purpose symbolic Instruction Code), PHP (hypertext
Preprocessor), and PERL (Practical Extraction and Report Language), ASP and C#.
Networking software
This type of software is mostly used to establish communication between two or more
computers by linking a communication channel like cables to create a computer network.
Networking software enables the exchange of data in a network as well as providing data
security. Network software may come as independent software or integrated in an operating
system. An example of networking software is novel NetWare.

Application software
Application software is designed to help the user accomplish specific task. Examples of
common application packages include,
1. Word processor e.g. MS Word, Lotus WordPro, open Office writer
2. Spreadsheet e.g. MS Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Open Office Calc, Libre Office Calc.
3. Desktop publishing e.g. MS Publisher Adobe PageMaker, Photoshop, CorelDraw,
Adobe InDesign.
4. Computer aided design e.g. AutoCAD.
5. Databases e.g. MS Access, MySQL, FoxBASE, Paradox

Table showing summary of application software and their uses

Software Uses

Word processors Typing documents like letters, memo, reports etc.

Spreadsheets Calculating budgets and pay bills for organization

Desktop publishing Designing publications like newspapers and books

Computer aided design Used for drawing architectural building plans, car engine

Databases Keeping records and files

Graphic software Designing and manipulating graphics like books,

brochures

Application software can be classified according to acquisition as in-housed developed or

vendor off-the-shelf software

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In-housed developed software/custom developed software

These are programs that are uniquely designed and tailored to meet a particular user’s
needs. For example, a bank or a school may decide to manage its financial operations using
a unique program developed by hired programmers. These programs are not available in
shops once developed for a company and a need to be customized to meet the need of
other users.
Vendors off-the shelf software
Vendor off-the shelf software are developed by software engineers, packaged and then
made available for purchase through a vendor, a distributor or directly from the developer. A
developer may bundle more than one but closely relate software into package to form a
suite of integrated software as opposed to single-purpose software. Examples of application
packages include Microsoft-office and Corel word perfect while those of single purpose are
QuickBooks and Sage pastel.

Advantages of standard software over the in-house developed programs

1. They can easily be installed and run.
2. They are cheaper than in-house developed software.
3. They are readily available for almost any task.
4. Minor or no errors since they are thoroughly tested.
5. They can be modified to meet user’s needs.
Drawbacks of the off-the-shelf software
1. They may have some features not needed by the user which may take extra storage.
2. They may require the user to change processes and hardware for compatibility which
may in turn be expensive.
3. They may lack some features required by the user.

Freeware/Open source software

Freeware refers to software whose source code (programmed set of instructions) is freely
made available to users. The users are encouraged to use, modify and distribute the
modified product. Software may also be classified according to End-User-License (EUL) as
open source, proprietary or freeware. An example freeware is Grisoft antivirus software
known as AVG Free Edition.

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TOPIC 7: ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEET

An electronic spreadsheet is an application software used to calculate, organized and analyze

numerical data. It consists of rows and column similar to ones of the manual spreadsheet.
Examples of electronic spread sheet are Microsoft Excel, Open Office Calc, Lotus 1-2-3 and
Corel Quattro Pro.
Advantages of electronic spreadsheets
1. Utilizes the powerful aspects of the computer like speed, accuracy and efficiency to
enable the user quickly accomplish his/her tasks.
2. Offers a large virtual sheet for data entry and manipulation.
3. Utilizes the large storage space on computer storage devices to save and retrieve
documents.
4. Enables the user to produce neat work.
5. Have a better document formatting capability.
6. Have inbuilt formulae called functions that enable the user to quickly manipulate
mathematical data.
7. Automatically adjust the result of a formula if the values in a worksheet are changed.
This is called the automatic recalculation features.

Features of spread sheet

A spreadsheet has three main components namely; worksheets, database, and charts.
Worksheet
A worksheet is the work area made up of rows and columns where data is entered. Each row
is labelled using a number while each column is labelled with a letter as shown below.

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Cell is the intersection between a row and a column. Each cell is referenced using the column
header label followed by the row label. In the work sheet the active cell is A1.
Database
A database is a collection of related data items organized so as to provide a consistent and
controlled access to items. In spreadsheets, a worksheet list may contain related data,
organized into rows that can be manipulated using database functions that enable the user
perform functions such as sorting, filtering, validation subtotaling, pivot tables and
consolidation.

Graphs
A graph is a pictorial representation of the base data on a worksheet. Most spreadsheet
refers to graphs as charts. A chart enables the user to present complex data elements from a
worksheet in a simple easy to understand format. Examples of charts are pie charts, line
charts and bar charts and bar charts.

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Application areas of spreadsheet Statistical analysis

Spreadsheets provide a set of data analysis tools that can be used to perform simple analysis
such as computing mean, mode, and standard deviation as well as complex statistical
analysis. However, some of these statistical functions are quite complex and requires a
deeper understanding of knowledge in statistics.

Accounting
Accountants find electronic spreadsheets useful tools for analyzing financial transactions
such as computing totals, consolidating financial records, as well as predicting future
business trends. Most spreadsheet packages have inbuilt functions used to analyze financial
data.
Mathematical and scientific
Spreadsheets are used to solve mathematical and scientific problems such as arithmetic and
trigonometric.
Forecasting
A feature known as “What if” analysis, is used to make future predictions. Forecasting is an
import function used for predicting economic trends budgeting, stock portfolio analysis, cost
analysis and cash flow analysis.

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Working with spreadsheet

Microsoft excel has a number of versions this include Excel 97, Excel 200, excel XP, excel
2003, Excel 2007, Excel 2010 and Excel 2013.

Starting Microsoft Excel 2007

1. Click on start menu and point to programs/All programs.
2. Point to Microsoft office.
3. Click Microsoft Office Excel 2007
Main features of Microsoft office excel Formula bar
Formula bar is where a cell entry or formula is displayed before being entered into the
selected cell.
Worksheets
A worksheet is the work area made up of rows and column where data is entered.
Cells
A cell is an intersection between a row and a column. A column is a vertical arrangement of
cells labelled A, B, C… while a row is the horizontal arrangement labeled 1,2,3…
Active cell pointer
A cell pointer indicates the current active cell. The active cell pointer is highlighted with a
dark, green outline.
Cell address
The cell address is the combination of a column header and a row header that indicate the
location of specific cell. For example, G4 is the active cell address.
Worksheet tabs
Worksheet tabs are located at the bottom of a spreadsheet. They show the number of
worksheets in the workbook. A workbook is a spreadsheet file that consist of one or more
related worksheets. One worksheet may consist of one or several pages.

Entering data into a worksheet

As you type an entry, it is displayed in the formula bar. To place the content into the active
cell press, enter key, an arrow key or click into another cell.

Cell data entries

Entries into a worksheet can be classified into four categories namely:
1. Labels
2. Values
3. Formulae
4. Functions

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Labels
Any text or alphanumeric characters entered in cell are views as labels by the spreadsheet
program. Labels are used as row or column headings usually describe the contents of the
row or column.
Values
These are numbers that can be manipulated mathematically. They may include currency,
date, numbers (0-9), Special symbols or text that can be manipulated mathematically by the
spreadsheet.
Formulae
Formulae are mathematical expression that creates a relationship between cells to return a
new value. In Excel, a formula must start with an equal sign. For example, the formula
=A1+B1 adds the contents of B3 and D4 and returns the sum value in the current cell. Excel
formulae use cell addresses and arithmetical operators; addition (+), subtraction (-),
multiplication (*) and division (/).
Using cell address, called referencing, enables Microsoft excel to keep calculations accurate
and automatically recalculates results of a formula in case the value in a referenced cell is
changed. This is called automatic recalculation.
Functions
There are inbuilt predefined formulae that the user can quickly use instead of having to
create a new one each time a calculation has to be carried out. Microsoft excel has many of
these formulae that covers the most common types of calculations performed by
spreadsheets. For example, to add contents of cell B3+D3 type =Sum (B3:E3)

Saving a workbook
To save a workbook:
1. Click File menu option, then select save as command. Alternatively, click the save
command on the standard toolbar. The Save as dialog box is displayed.
2. Select the location in which your workbook will be saved in the save in box, then type
a unique name for the workbook is selected under the save as type box.
3. Click the save button to save.
Opening a workbook
1. On the file menu or standard toolbar, click Open.
2. Click the look in drop down list arrow and select the drive or folder where the
workbook was saved.
3. Double click the workbook icon that you want and the worksheet.

Closing a workbook and exit

On the File menu click close. This closes the current workbook but does not close the
application. To exit from Excel, on the file menu, click Exit or press Alt +F4.

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Formulae and Functions

Formula is a mathematical expression used to solve mathematical problems while a function
is an inbuilt formula used to perform calculations. In excel formula or function must start
with an equal sign (=).
Arithmetic operators
Arithmetic operators mostly follow the rule similar to mathematical concept of BODMAS.
This means multiplication and division are evaluated form left to right while addition and
subtraction are evaluated last.
Summary of operators used to create formulae
Symbol Description Example
/ Division =A6/B6
* Multiplication =A6*B6
+ Addition =A6+B6
- Subtraction =B6 -A6
Relational operators
A relational operator returns either true or false depending on the magnitude of the value
being evaluated.

Summary of a rational operator

Symbol Description Example
= Equal to =A2/B2
> Greater than =A2>B2
< Less than =A2<B2
<> Not equal to =A2<>B2
<= Less than or equal to =A2<=B2
>= Greater than or equal to =A2>=B2

Operators Precedence

If several operators are used in a single formula, Microsoft Excel performs the operations in
the order shown in table below. A formula with operators that have same precedence i.e. if a
formula contains both multiplication and division, operators are evaluated from left to right.
Enclosing part of the formula to be calculated in parentheses or brackets makes that part to
be calculated first.
Operator Name Precedence
- Negation as in -1 1
% Percent 2
^ Exponentiation 3

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*and/ Multiplication and division 4

+and- Addition and subtraction 5
=,<>,>,<,<=,>= Rational 6
Cell referencing

There are three types of cell referencing used when creating formulae and manipulating
cell(s) content.

Relative referencing

When you copy a formula that contains cell references, say A3, the references adjust to their
new location. For example, if C1 containing a formula = A1+B1 is copied to C2, the reference
changes to A2+B2.

Absolute referencing

The reference is made to a specific address and does not change even if the formula is
copied to another cell. In Excel an absolute cell reference is made by placing a dollar sign
before the- reference e.g. $A$2. For Example, if the result in C1 is 170, if absolute reference is
used, 170 will be copied to C2.
Mixed cell referencing

This is a combination of relative and absolute references, e.g. $A3 or A$3. In the first case the
column reference is absolute while the row is relative, in the second case the column
reference is relative while the row reference is absolute.

Using in-built functions

A function must start with an (=) sign followed by the function name and arguments.
Arguments are numeric, logical values or text enclosed in parenthesis. For example, in =SUM
(A3:F3), SUM is the function that adds the range A3 to F3 which is the argument.
In Microsoft Excel, functions are categorized according to the nature of problems they work
on. We shall look at the following categories of in-built functions:
• Mathematical
• Statistical
• Logical
• Date and time

The use of a function from any category:

1. On the Formulas menu, click insert function. Alternatively click the fx button or drop
down of the AutoSum ∑. And click more Functions.
2. In the function dialog box is displayed.
3. In the function list box, select a function.
4. Specify the function argument the click OK.

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Mathematical functions
Some commonly used mathematical functions are:
• SUM () Adds all the value in the selected range of cells. For example, if A3, B3 and C3
contains 20,50, and 80 respectively, =SUM (A3:C3) Returns 150.
• ROUND () rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places. Zero rounds off
the number to the nearest integer. For example, =ROUND (79.969,2) returns 79.97 while
=ROUND (79.969,0) returns 50.
• SUMIF () Conditionally adds the specified cells according to the set criteria. =SUMIF
(A3:A10, “>=500”) returns a value is greater than or equal to 500.
• PRODUCT () Multiplies all the values in the argument. For example, =PRODUCT
(40,3,2) returns 240.
Statistical functions
Some commonly used statistical functions are:
• AVERAGE () Returns the arithmetic mean of its arguments. For example, =AVERAGE
(A2:D2).
• COUNT () Counts the number of cells

TOPIC 8: INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB

INTERNET
The term Internet refers to the global interconnection of computer networks for the purpose
of communication and resource sharing.
Computers within an office or building can be connected together using transmission media
such as cables to communicate with one another. Such interconnection of computers is

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referred to as networking. Internet enables millions of computers from different

organizations and people to communicate and share resources globally.
Intranet
An intranet is a private network inside a company or organization that uses the same
software as the public internet, but it is only for internal use. An intranet may be on the
internet or on the network.
It is mainly used to share private or confidential information across an organization or a
company.
Development of the internet
In 1969, a research body in the USA called advanced Research projects Agency (ARPA) set up
a computer network that connected four universities and was given the name ARPAnet. This
network is viewed as the forerunner of today’s internet. The aim was to allow sharing of data
and information between computers. The main benefit was that there be fast communication
between researchers through electronic mail (e-mail)
ARPA’s goal was to allow multiple users to send and receive information at the same time.
The network used a special data transmission technique called packet switching which was
later adopted for the internet. A computer would send packet that contained data,
destination address information, error detection control information and packet sequencing
information. By 1973 e-mail was the most common service on the internet.
By 1987, competitors arose among software and hardware manufacturers as they came up
with new technology to meet internetworking needs after Microsoft developed its internet
explorer. Today, internet has grown and covered the whole world. Governments, private
organizations and individuals are using the internet in all daily life to research, send
electronic messages and conduct e-learning and e-business.
Internet connectivity requirements
1. Data terminal equipment/communication device; data terminal are devices used
to process, host and transmit data on a network. Examples are computer mobile phones
and personal digital assistants (PDAs).
2. Transmission media; transmission media are physical or wireless pathways used to
transmit data and information from one point to another. Examples of transmission
media are the telephone lines, radio waves, microwaves and satellite.
3. Telecommunication lines; a computer is connected to the internet using a
telephone line.
Internet service providers (ISP) are companies that offer internet services to end users.
Examples are Orange, MTN (Mobile telecom network), UTL, Airtel, smile etc.
4. E-mail software; to access the internet services, a computer must be installed with
an Internet protocol, a browser and e-mail client software. E-mail client is software that
enables the user to receive, compose and send e-mails examples are Microsoft outlook,
Gmail, Yahoo, Eudora etc.
5. Browsers; a browser is a program that lets the user surf or browse the internet.
Examples include Internet explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Netscape, Google chrome, Opera etc.

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Implication of the internet

Using the internet to search for information has some advantages and drawbacks as included
below.
Advantages of the using internet
• Interactive communication; internet offers personal connectivity to friends through
emails, chatting, instant messaging, audio and video conferencing, online telephone calls
etc. Internet relay chatting (IRC) is a virtual meeting place where people from all over the
world can meet and talk.
• Resource sharing; data, information, software programs and printers can be shared
and downloaded from the internet.
• Research; internet helps in conducting research using books online, encyclopedia,
audio and video tutorial to answer research questions. Information are linked to different
articles in the field of knowledge hence saving time.
• Entertainment tools for leisure; through on-line games, online chats, multimedia
(audio and video music) and animals’ zoos. etc.
• Online services; internet offers online services like e-business, e-commerce and e-
learning.
• Offers news updates (information Retrieval) for politics, social events, climate and
weather, and sports. These usually in form of live radio, live TV, online newspapers and
magazines, educative short films, etc.
• Telecommuting. Through internet connectivity and interactivity one can now work
from home and communicate with the office through networked computers and
telephone facilities.
Disadvantages of the using internet
• Accessibility to dirty sites; such as pornography by the young students hence
affecting their morals. This has resulted into early premarital sex, drug and substance
abuse. The remedy to this problem is to restrict the known offensive sites using filter
programs such as Cyber Patrol, Cyber sitter, or Net Nanny.
• Security and privacy violations; Internet has made it easy for criminals to illegally
access organizations and private information, hence posing security concerns. To
improve on security, install a firewall and anti-spyware program.
• Spread of malicious software; these include viruses like Trojan horse and worm.
These result to frustrations and loss of data. Install internet security programs and update
them regularly.
• High cost implications for both initial and maintenance costs.
Internet services
1. Electronic mail and fax; an electronic mail is the message transmitted electronically
over the internet. It is simply referred to as e-mail. To send and receive e-mail you may
need a computer and e-mail account or an ordinary fax machine.

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2. Instant messaging; this is a more enhanced messaging service that allows two or
more people to communicate directly. To get the services you must first register with an
instant messenger such as Yahoo! Messenger.
3. Electronic commerce (e-commerce); many companies are increasing using the
internet to sell and buy goods and services. This new business strategy where goods and
services are sold over the internet is called electronic commerce (e-commerce). One
advantage of e-commerce is that, a company can access customers all over the world
and is not limited by space and time. Hence, they enjoy benefits of reduced operating
costs and increased sales like international vehicle dealers.
4. Electronic learning; lessons and lectures are presented from a central site and the
presentation is transmitted to remote conference terminals or displayed on the TV
screens. The learner can access learning materials made available on the internet, sit for
online examinations and received results through e-learning platform.
5. Newsgroups; newsgroups are organized group of internet users who wish to share
ideas and interests. Once you join a newsgroup, you can participate in discussion forum
and debates.
6. Chatting; chatting allows two or more people who are simultaneously connected to
the internet to hold a live interactive conversation. Examples include social media like
skype, Facebook, WhatsApp, Viber, Messenger, Yahoo messenger etc.
7. Searching; search engines are specialized programs that help the user easily search
for information on the internet. Examples are; Google, Bing, Alta vista, Excite and Yahoo.

E-mail services
E-mail is an electronic message sent from one computer to another. Messages can be sent
and received with attachment such as pictures or formatted document. To send and receive
an email, one must have an e-mail address/e-mail software, internet connectivity, data
terminal equipment, telecommunication line, browser etc.
An e-mail address determines the destination of the e-mail sent. A typical e-mail address has
five parts.
Jeff.geoff@outlook.com
1. Jeff.geoff is the user name and is usually coined by the user during e-mail account
registration.
2. @ is a symbol for “at” which separates the user name from the rest of the address.
3. outlook.com is the name of the host computer in the network i.e. the computer on
which the e-mail account is hosted.
4. The period “.” Is read as dot and is used to separate different parts of the e-mail
address.
5. Com identifies the type of organization offering particular services and is called the
domain, meaning it is a commercial institution.

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Composing and sending an e-mail

To compose an e-mail in either Outlook Express, Gmail or Yahoo;
1. Click the compose button.
2. Type the recipient address
3. Type in the subject of the message in the message box.
4. Click the send button.

Carbon copy (Cc); in e-mail, the Cc commands is to enable copies of e-mail to be sent to a
third party while acknowledging other recipients.
Blind Carbon Copy (BCC); Enables copies of e-mail to be sent to a third party without
acknowledging any other recipients.

Concept of Netiquette
Netiquette is a combination of the words network and etiquette, and is defined as a set of
rules for acceptable online conduct and behavior. Similarly, online ethics focuses on the
acceptable use of online resources telephone or video in an online social environment. It is a
social code of network communication. Communicating with others on internet without
creating misunderstanding, therefore recommendations to safeguard against these
misunderstanding have been proposed.

Factors affecting the speed on the internet

Processor speed; the speed of a computer microprocessor affects the speed to browser and
surf information and the internet. A processor of 3.4GHz can load the browsers faster over
the internet. It’s recommended that you use the latest version of processor or upgrade the
processor speed.
Memory; the memory capacity of the RAM tends to affect the speed of surfing
information on the internet. The greater the RAM between 2GB to 8GB the faster the
internet. Hard disk; a highly fragmented hard disk can act to slow to web surfing. It is
good to defragment and optimize the hard disk to increase on the window’s virtual
memory.
Bandwidth: the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can carry at one time.
Faster internet uses bandwidth of 1Gbps. If the bandwidth is 512kbps the internet is slower.
Internet access number; the number of people connected to the internet of the same
network also slower the speed of the internet. Hence it is faster to use the internet overnight
because many people would not be connected on the internet at that particular time.
Internet traffic; heavy web traffic tends to increase throughout the day and peak around
early evening since most of the people are connected to the internet. Downloading software
and multimedia movies can also slower the speed of the internet.

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World Wide Web

The World Wide Web (www) can be viewed as a vast virtual space on the internet where
information is made available. To access the internet services, a computer must be installed
with a web browser, e-mail client and internet protocol.

Web browsers
A web browser is a program that lets the user surf or browses the internet. Examples of web
browser include Microsoft internet explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google chrome, opera, and
Netscape navigator.
Search engines
Search engines are web-based programs that allows the user to easily search and retrieve
information on the internet. Examples are; Google, Bing, Alta vista, excite, Ask Jeeves and
Yahoo.
How to search information on the internet
• Open a web browser i.e. Mozilla fire fox, Google chrome
• Identify a search engine
• Enter keywords in the search text box. Be precise and exact
• Use quotation marks to identify the keywords
• The search results are displayed in the links, identify the links that contains the
information you want.
Choosing search terms and syntax
• Enter keyword in the search box and be precise and exact.
• Use multiple operators like AND, NOT if a search engine allows.
• Use spacing, symbols and punctuation in your search syntax like +, “”. To be specific
to the information in the results

Websites
A website is a group of related web pages or other resources located on a web server. The
first page on a website is called a home page.
Types of a website
The types of websites depend on the organization offering particular services. The table
below shows the domain and the type of website.

Domain Type
.edu Educational institution
.gov Government institution
.org Non-profit making organization
.mil Military organization

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.co& .com Commercial institution

.net An institution or organization providing networking
services
.ac An academic institution

The letter extension is sometime added to the domain name to show where the site is
located e.g. www.cranehighschool.ac.ug
The domain .ug, meaning cranehighschool is an academic institution located in Uganda.
Other letter extension includes .uk (United Kingdom), .us (United States), .ke (Kenya), .tz
(Tanzania), .jp (Japan), .au (Australia) etc.

Web portals- offers specialized services such as searching, e-mail, sports updates, financial,
news and links to selected websites.
A Blog- a website that contains personal information which can easily be updated. Some
blogs act as resume, diary and may be used for business, advocacy and campaign purposes.
Multimedia- it is a site that contain photos, movies, music, web TV and internet radio. They
are meant for entertainment. Components of multimedia are text, sound, graphics,
animations and video.
To make the information available on the website, special languages of the web such as
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), Extensible Hypertext markup language (XHTML), XML
(Extensible Markup Language), Hypertext Preprocessor (PHP) are used to prepare documents
on the web pages.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
The uniform Resource Locator (URL), simply referred to as the web address, connects the
user to a particular website. The URL has two basic parts.
1. Protocol- it is a set of rules that governs how two computers can send and receive data on
the network. For the internet, the protocol used is the Transmission Control Protocol and
internet protocol.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): it governs how data is transferred in the form
messages from one computer to another over the internet.
 Internet Protocol (IP): determines the addressing system on the internet or a set of
standards that control communication over internet. IP address is the number assigned
to network and computer connected on the internet to enable sending and receiving of
data.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP): it is a method of transferring files between two internet
sites. FTP is the means of accessing repositories of materials from the internet sites by
sending and receiving files.
 Hypertext transfer Protocol (HTTP): it is a set of rules for exchanging files (text,
graphic images, sound, video and other multimedia files) on the World Wide Web.
2. Domain name- name of the web server where the resource is located.

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Hyperlinks
Hyperlinks refer to links used to navigate from one web page to another.

Concept of Cloud computing

Cloud Computing is the internet-based storage for files, applications, and infrastructure. The
cost savings in implementing a cloud system is substantial and the pricing for use of cloud
computing can easily be scaled up or down as determined by necessity. Such as Box,
Dropbox, Microsoft, Apple or Amazon there are growing legal issues that must be addressed
by all parties involved with the cloud contract. Data security is one of the major concerns
with cloud computing. Even though the encryption and security power increases at an
exponential rate, the threat of hackers still looms in many companies’ minds. Experts say that
within four years, security systems for cloud computing will be perfected and stronger.
Uses of Cloud Computing

• Secure Service
• Satisfying User Experience
• Lower Costs
• Multi-User Access
• Infinite Storage

TOPIC 10: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Introduction to Data Communication

Data Communication refers to the process of transmitting data signals from one point to
another through the network. If all aspects of data communication are taken into
consideration, computer networking is the most efficient and reliable means of transmitting
data.

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Terms used in data communication

Some of the terms used in data communication include: data signal, signal modulation and
demodulation, multiplexing, bandwidth, baseband, broadband transmission and attenuation.
Data signal: is the voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow of data. Data signal
can either be analog or digital in nature. Analog data is made up of continuous varying
waveform while digital data is made up of a non-continuous discrete signal.
Signal modulation and demodulation: This is the process of converting data signals to and
from a form that is suitable for transmission over a transmission medium. For example, a
modem converts a digital signal by superimposing it on an analog carrier signal which can
be transmitted over analog telephone. This process is called modulation. A modem at the
receiving end converts the analog signal into digital form, a process known as demodulation.
Multiplexing: Multiplexing is the process of sending multiple data signals over the same
medium e.g. a wire conductor can be made to carry several data signals either
simultaneously or at different times. De-multiplexing is the process of separating the
multiplexed signals at the receiving ending.
Bandwidth: A bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can
carry at one time. For example, a certain cable may have a bandwidth of 100Mbps (Megabits
per second).
Baseband: Baseband signal is a digital signal that is generated and applied to the
transmission medium directly without modulation. The signal takes the form of voltages of
different magnitudes as applied to the medium. The baseband signal utilizes the full capacity
of the transmission medium, hence at any one time, only one signal can be sent. However,
multiple signals can be sent at different times if they are multiplexed.
Broadband transmission: In broadband transmission, an analog signal is sent over the
transmission medium using a particular frequency. This means that several data signals can
simultaneously be sent through the same medium but at different frequencies. Frequency
bands between these data signals prevent them from, overlapping.
Attenuation: This is the decrease in amplitude and energy as a signal progressively moves
along the way and may never reach the destination. Attenuation or signal loss is usually
corrected by placing signal amplifiers also called repeaters stations along the medium at
appropriate distances in order to receive the weak signal, clean it, amplify it then retransmit
it.

MODE OF DATA COMMUNICATION

There are three modes of data communication namely: simplex, half duplex and full duplex.
Simplex transmission refers to communication in only one direction. An example of simplex
communication is radio broadcast. The listener cannot communicate back through the radio
receiver.
Half duplex refers to communication in both directions but one direction at a time. For
example, a sender must send the data before the recipient can reply. For example, if two
police officers are communicating using a radio call, one has to press a knob in order to

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transmit a message. During transmission, no message can be received. At the end of the
transmission, a button has to be pressed to allow reception of incoming message.
Full duplex transmission communication occurs in both directions simultaneously. An
example of full duplex communication is computers sending and receiving data on a
network.
ELEMENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION
The five elements of data communication are message, sender, receiver, transmission media
and protocol.
1. Message: is the information or data to be communicated. It consists of text,
numbers, pictures, sound or video.
2. Sender: is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation
(node), telephone handset, video camera. Etc.
3. Receiver: it is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television etc.
4. Transmission medium: is the physical pathway by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some example of transmission media includes twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cables, fiberoptic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication. It represents
an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices will
be connected but no communication is made.
Examples of protocols
1. UDPP (User Data Program protocol)
2. ICMP (Internet Control Massage Protocol)
3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
4. HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
5. FTP (File Transfer Protocol
Functions performed by protocols
1). Data sequencing: this refers to breaking a long massage into smaller packets of fixed
size. 2). Data routing: defines the most efficient path between the source and the
destination.
3). Data security: Protocols provide data security and privacy. It prevents access of data by
unauthorized users.
4) Connection establishment and termination: protocols define how connection are
established, maintained and terminated when two nodes of the network want to
communicate with each other.
5). Data formatting: Data formatting rules define which group of bits or characters within
packets constitute data, control, addressing or other information

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DATA COMMUNICATION TOOLS

These the devices that allow the user to communicate messages. Examples include
Computers, Mobile phones and internet. Etc.
Compare electronic and manual data communication tools (manual drums, bells, and
messengers).

Manual data communication Electronic data communication

-Does not use power and it is slow -Quick and fastest especially over network.

-Quick for short distance -Cover a large geographical area (distance)

-It does not support information digitally -Availability of data and information digitally

-It does not support sharing and it is expensive -Supports information sharing and
collaboration
-It does not require any skill to operate the -It requires literacy skills to use
drum
Data Transmission media
Data transmission medium is a pathway used for carrying data and information from one
point to another. A data signal cannot be sent from one place to another without a
medium of communication. In essence, data communication media can be divided into
two:
1. Physical transmission media/ communication using cable (bounded media)
2. Wireless transmission media/wireless communication (unbounded media)
Physical transmission media (bounded media)
The main distinguishing characteristic of bounded media is that data signals are
transmitted from the source to the destination through a restricted pathway such as
through a cable. For example, if the cable is a copper conductor, the data signal which
may be in form of an electrical signal is propagated through the cable from the source
to the destination. Any radiation from the guided medium is regarded as signal loss.
There are several types of bounded transmission media but the most common ones are:
1. Two wire open line cables.
2. Twisted pair cables.
3. Coaxial cables.
4. Fibre optic cables.
Two wire open lines cables
Two wire open lines cables are made up of two parallel copper wires separated by a plastic
insulator. They are used in telecommunication network to transmit voice signal. The wire
captures environmental frequencies which may cause interference to the signal e.g. radio

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waves hence causing noise in the transmission channel. In data communications, the word
noise refers to random unwanted signals picked up by the channel.

Twisted pair cable

Twisted pair cable is made up of two solid copper wire strands wounded around each other
in order to form a single media. The winding of the wires is meant to reduce the
development of an electromagnetic field around the two wires as they transmit data. The
twist between wires is helpful in reducing noise (electro-magnetic interference) and
crosstalk. They are mostly used to transmit voice and data signals. The two
common types of twisted pair cables are: i). Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) ii).
Shielded twisted pair (STP)
Fig. Twisted pair cable
STP cables comes with twisted wire pair covered in metal foil. This makes it more indifferent
to noise and crosstalk.
UTP has seven categories, each suitable for specific use. In computer networks, Cat-5, Cat-5e
and Cat-6 cables are mostly used. UTP cables are connected by RJ45 connectors.
Twisted pair cables are categorized into five groups according to the type of data
transmitted and maximum rate of transmission,
• Mbps means Megabits per second.
• Today networks are approaching speeds of Gigabits per second.
Category Suitable for transmitting Speed (max. limit)
1 Voice Less than 1Mpb
2 Data 1Mpbs
3 Data 16Mpbs
4 Data 20Mpbs
5 Data 100Mpbs

Example
A student of subsidiary ICT typed an e-mail to be sent over the internet at a speed of
100Mbps. Calculate the maximum number of characters that can be sent per second if each
character consists of 8 bits.

Solution

Characters per second

= 12500000 characters per second

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Revision Question
Geo’s network access speed is six megabytes per second. How many kilobytes does Geo’s
network receive or send per second?

Coaxial cables
Coaxial cables have two wires of copper. The core wire lies in center and is made of solid
conductor. Core is enclosed in an insulating sheath. The cable has a central copper core
which may be of solid or stranded wires. It is surrounded by hollow mesh conductor which is
covered by a shield making the cable more resistant to electromagnetic interference than the
twisted pair cable.

Fig. Coaxial cable

Coaxial cables have bandwidths of up to 1Gbps (Gigabits per second). Hence, they are
installed in a network to form the network backbone (a link that connects two or more
separate local area network).

Fibre optic cables

Fibre optic cable utilizes light to transmit data from one point to another on the network. The
electrical signal from the source are converted to light signals, and then propagated along
the fiber optic cable. To convert an electric signal to light, you need a light emitting diode
(LED) at the transmitter. At the receiving end, a photosensitive device can be used to convert
the light signals back to electric signals that can be processed by the computer.
The fiber optic cable is made of the core, cladding, buffer, strength members and the jacket.
It has a bandwidth of 50Gbps which is higher than that of the twisted pair’s 100Mbps.

Fig. Coaxial cable

Advantages of physical transmission media

1. It is fast and supports high bandwidth
2. Can be used in hazardous places (highly flammable) because they do not generate
electrical signal
3. They can carry voice, data and video signal simultaneously.

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4. They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference.

5. Installation equipment’s are cheap and readily available.
Disadvantages of physical transmission media
1. Connectivity devices and media are expensive.
2. Installation is difficult because the cable must be carefully handled.
3. It is relatively complex to configure
4. It covers short distance since they use the physical wires

Wireless transmission media (unbounded media)

Wireless or unbounded media, is a type of media that is used to transmit data from one
point to another without using physical connections. In this case transmitting antenna and
receiver’s aerial facilitates the communication. Example of wireless transmission media
include:
1. Bluetooth
2. Microwave
3. Satellite
4. Radio waves
5. Infrared
The unbounded media use different frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Fig. Electromagnetic spectrum

In the figure above all waves travel at the speed of light. For concern here, we will only deal
with microwaves, radio waves and infrared waves.

Bluetooth technology
One of the latest radio transmission technologies is called Bluetooth technology. Bluetooth is
a worldwide and short-range radio technology that enables people to use hand held
communication devices such as cell phones and personal digital assistants to access the
internet. The main idea behind Bluetooth communication is to try to define one standard
that will allow all personal communication devices regardless of their differences or size to
be able to communicate with each other and through wireless technology. The main
component in Bluetooth is a small low power tow-way radio transceiver, small enough to be
inserted in small devices. A network of Bluetooth enabled devices called wireless personal

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area network (WPAN) or piconet. This is because Bluetooth networks are best suited for
personal hand-held devices. This has made radio transmission to become popular in mobile
communication and internet connectivity.

Microwaves transmission
Microwave frequencies range from about 3GHz to 40GHz on the electromagnetic spectrum.
Due to their wave length, they easily release their energy in water as heat hence they are also
used in making microwave ovens used as domestic kitchen appliances. However, in
networking, micro waves are very suitable for point to point transmissions. This means that a
signal is directed through a focused beam from transmitter to the receiver station.

Satellite communication
A satellite is a microwave relay station. The microwave earth stations have parabolic dishes
with an antenna fixed on them in order to focus a narrow beam towards the satellite in
space. A satellite transmission system has three main components: transmitter earth station,
satellite, and receiving earth station. The new trend in microwave transmission has seen the
use of very small aperture terminal (VSAT) technology dish used in data, radio and TV
communication.
Radio waves transmission
Radio waves travels just like surface of water waves, from a central point and spread
outwards all directions. The waves are radiated into the atmosphere by a radio frequency
antenna at constant velocity. Radio waves are not visible to the human eye. Radio waves are
used in radio and television broadcasts. Data can also be transmitted over radio waves
communication channels.
Infrared transmission
Infrared waves fall just below the visible light on the electromagnetic spectrum. Just like
radio waves, infrared waves are not visible to the human eye. Communication through this
medium is achieved by having infrared signals transmitters and receivers (transceivers).
Transceivers of infrared signals must be within a line of sight in the same room. This is

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because infrared signals unlike radio signals, infrared signals cannot penetrate obstacles like
walls. An example of infrared device is the infrared transceiver on most mobile phones.

Advantages of wireless transmission media

1. Wireless medium is flexible in operation as compared to bounded media i.e. devices
can be moved around without losing access to the network.
2. Wireless network covers large geographical areas easily.
3. Wireless communication can take place via satellite even in very remote areas that do
not have high cost physical infrastructure like telephone lines.

Disadvantages of wireless transmission media

1. It is relatively difficult to establish or configure
2. The initial cost is very high
Factors which determine the data transmission capabilities of a device
a) Band width: This refers to the data carrying capacity of a channel or medium. The higher
the band width, the higher the data rate transmitted.
b) Radiation: This refers to the leakage of signals from the medium due to undesirable
electrical characteristics of the medium.
c) Noise absorption: refers to the susceptibility of the medium to external electrical noise
that can cause distortion of the data signal.
d) Attenuation: This refers to the loss of energy as signal propage outwards. The amount of
energy lost depends on frequency. Radiations and physical characteristics of the medias
contribute to attenuation.

DATA COMMUNICATION SERVICES

Data communication tools offers services like E-mail, Skype, Newsgroups and instant
messaging.
Electronic mail and fax
An electronic mail is the message transmitted electronically over the internet. It is simply
referred to as e-mail. To send and receive e-mail you may need a computer and e-mail
account or an ordinary fax machine.
Skype
Skype supports voice and video calls, text, instant messaging and sharing conversation with
(someone) over the Internet using the software application Skype, frequently also viewing by
webcam.
Newsgroups
Newsgroups are organized group of internet users who wish to share ideas and interests.
Once you join a newsgroup, you can participate in discussion forum and debates.

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Instant messaging
This is a more enhanced messaging service that allows two or more people to communicate
directly. To get the services you must first register with an instant messenger such as Yahoo!
Messenger.

Implication of using data communication services

Although data communication services are the most efficient and reliable for transmitting
data it has some negative implication.
1. Security and privacy: it is easier to access private information, hence posing security
concern.
2. Spread of malicious program: These include virus like; Trojan horse and worm that
attach itself to e-mail. Hence resulting to loss of data and frustration.
3. Accessibility to obscene information: The result is seen in young youths by posting
immoral act to the site and use of abusive words.

COMPUTER NETWORKS
Introduction to Computer Networks
A computer network is defined as a collection of computers linked together using
transmission media for the purpose of communication and resource sharing.
A network can be defined as a collection of independent entities that are arranged in such a
manner as to exchange data, information or resources.
The term transmission media refers to any physical or non-physical link between two or more
computers and in which a signal can be made to flow from source to destination. Some of
the shared resources include application programs, printers, fax machines, modem, storage
devices etc.
Elements of networking
A computer network is made up of several standard elements (Components) which can be
classified into four major categories namely:
• Data transmission media
• Communication devices
• Networking software
• Data signal
Computer Network Requirements (Communication Devices)
Computers and transmission media require communication devices for the network to be
fully operational. These devices are more or less used as interfaces or junctions between the
terminal equipment or devices at both ends of data communication devices which includes
Routers, transmission media, modems and codec’s, hubs, bridges, repeaters, gateways,
switches, network interface cards (NIC) and access point.

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Routers. The router interconnects different networks and redirects the transfer of data
packets from source to destination. Routing depends on network addresses. Each network
has a unique identifier or address called the network address.

Fig. Routers
Modem and codec’s
A modem converts a signal from digital to analog form for the purpose of transmission over
the analog media, while a codec covert an analog signal to digital form for transmission via a
digital medium. At the receiving end, the devices return the signal to its original form. A
modem can be external, an add-on card or built on the motherboard. Some modern routing
devices combine the functionality of bridge and a router. Such device is called router.

Fig. Modems

Hubs
A hub also called a concentrator, it is a component that connects computers on a network
and is able to relay signals from one computer to another on the same network. A hub
transmits signals by broadcasting them to all the computers on the network i.e. one that has
the same set of communication software usually called protocols. Protocols are set of rules
that govern the communication between devices on a network.

Fig. 24 port Hub

Bridges
This is a network device that selectively determines the appropriate network segment for
which a message is meant for delivery through address filtering. Hence a bridge can divide a
busy network into segments to reduce network traffic. The purpose of using a bridge is to: i).
Extend the length and number of stations that a segment can support.
ii). Reduce overall traffic flow by allowing broadcasts only in the data destination segment of
the network.
A bridge makes sure those packets that are not meant for particular segments are not
broadcasted in that segment.

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Repeaters
A repeater receives a signal from one segment of a network, cleans it to remove any
distortion, boosts it and then sends it to another segment. Repeaters are the simplest way to
expand a
network because they broadcast the same message to other network segments.
Gateways
A gateway is any device that can be configured to provide access to wide area networks or
internet. One such device is the router in which the gateway software is installed. However, a
gateway may not be a router, it may be a computer configured to access the internet. A
gateway is the most powerful network and internet connectivity device because of its ability
to convert data across different network architectures and protocol.
Switches
A switch, unlike a hub forwards a packet to the address node without broadcasting. A node
refers to data terminal equipment such as a workstation or a computer on the network. The
switch does this by connecting two nodes point to point as if they were linked by direct
cables between them. This reduces the broadcast problems on the networks. Some hubs
incorporate the switching mechanism, hence referred to as a switching hub.
Switches are more expensive than hubs and one switch may be used as a bridge to connect
several hubs in order to reduce collision problems caused by broadcast.

Fig. 8 ports Switch

Network interface cards (NIC)

Network interface cards (NIC) create a physical link between the computer and the
transmission media. A Network interface card is plugged into an empty expansion slot on the
motherboard. The network interface card has ports at the back in which the terminated end
of a network cable can be plugged.

Fig. Network interface card

Wireless communication devices

The most common device used in wireless communication includes access point and the
antenna. However, the cost of wireless technology goes down and the quality of services

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increases, it’s becoming cost effective for companies and individuals to extend the capability
of wired networks by integrating wireless segments into their communication.

Access point (AP)

The access point is one of the most common wireless network components. It is an entry
point into a bounded network for people who have wireless device such as personal digital
assistants (PDA’s), laptops and computers with wireless links.

Wireless antennae
The access point needs to have antennas in order to detect signals in the surrounding. The
waves may be radio waves, microwaves, or infrared waves in nature. In most cases, access
points will have two antennas so that the one that receives the best signal at any particular
time can be used.
Personal computer memory card international association (PCMCIA) cards
A personal computer memory card international association is an add-on card inserted into a
device such as personal digital assistants or laptop in order to enable wireless
communication between the devices and a wired network server.

Fig. WLAN PCMCIA Cards

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NETWORK SOFTWARE
Computers networks have evolved from the simple linking of computers on a common
transmission media to highly managed and optimized data and information transfer systems.
This means that apart from data communications, the focus is now squarely on how best to
utilize network resources. The issues of network security, interoperability and reliability have
taken center stage. Any network manager will be faced with question of network load
balancing and adoption of the best routing procedures.

These entire tasks would be impossible if network software was not available. Network
software can be classified into two main groups namely:
i). Network operating systems. E.g. Windows internet explorer
ii). Networking protocols.

Network operating system

These are operating systems specifically designed to optimize the networked computers
ability to respond to service requests. Servers run on a network operating system, this
software performs the following functions.
1. Provides access to network resources e.g. printers and folders.
2. Enable nodes on the network to communicate with each other more efficiently.
3. Supports inter process communication i.e. enables the various processes on the
network to communicate with one another.
4. Respond to request from application programs running on the network.
5. Supporting network services like network card drivers and protocols.
6. Implementing network security features.
In most cases, network operating systems are designed as multiuser operating system that
runs the network server program. Once installed on the right hardware plat form and
configured as a server, the operating system will provide network tools to network
administrators. The administrator can use the tools to do the following:
1. Secure the network against unauthorized access.
2. Track network usage and keep a log of all the people who have used the network.
3. Ensure inter-operation between various systems on the network.
4. Performance monitoring to ensure maximum throughput on the network.
Examples of networking operating systems are Windows NT/2000/2003, UNIX, Linux and
Novell Netware.
NB. Internetworking device like routers also has operating systems of their own and hence
they can be managed and configured for optimum performance. Note that routers are
special purpose computers.

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Protocol
Protocols are set of rules and procedures that govern communication between two different
devices. In computer networking, protocols refer to the rules and technical producers that
government communication between different computers.

How protocols work

The data transmission process over the network has to be broken down into discrete
systematic steps. At each step, a certain action takes place. Each step has its own rules and
procedures as defined by the network protocols. The work of these protocols must be
coordinated so that there are no conflicts or incomplete operations. This coordination is
achieved through protocol layering. Network Protocols are designed after the open systems
interconnection (OSI) model. The open systems interconnection model is not a protocol as
sub but is meant to help designers to come up with high quality layered protocols.
Layer Function
7 Application layer User application run here and generate requests for data
transmission
6 Presentation layer Adds formatting, display and encryption information to data being
sent
5 Session layer Sets up data transmission sessions between two communicating
devices
4 Transport layer Manages data transfer over the network to ensure reliability.
3 Network layer Address information is added to the packet and routing to
destination
2 Data link layer Adds error checking information and prepares data for going onto
the physical connection
1 Physical layer The data packets are finally transmitted via the network card through
the transmission media in form of bits

Data signal
All messages that are sent and received through the network must be represented using a
data signal. Metallic media would require an electrical signal; wireless media need
electromagnetic signal while fiber optic cables need light signal. A signal can either be
analog or digital.
Implications of computer networks
The reasons for setting up computer network have resulted into purpose and limitations of
networking.

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Purpose of networking
Resource sharing
A resource in the network environment means data/information, files, printers, modems,
communication links, storage devices, fax machines, application programs and any other
component that can be attached to the network. Users do not need to transfer files via
removable storage but would send the work to a network printer. This centralized access to
data and information leads to less waste of time and hence greater productivity.
Remote communication
Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signal between two
communication devices located at different location. A computer that tries to access
resources from another computer on the network is called a remote client while the
computer accessed is called a remote host.
Remote communication has been made possible by use of wireless transmission media such
as radio waves, microwave and satellite. It is used to share ideas and send messages over the
internet.
Distributed processing facilities
Distributed processing refers to a type of arrangement where computers are located at
different geographical locations but on the same network. The model of data processing has
a number of advantages
1. The failure of central computer does not affect the operations of the other terminals.
2. Processing load is shared equally hence no time wastage
Cost effectiveness
Networks are cost effective in the organization. Although the initial purchase and laying
down of network computers may be expensive, the savings experienced and the value added
to service delivery.
One good thing about a network is that it greatly increases the efficient use of scarce
resources. Imagine a large organization that has standalone computers only. In such a case,
the management has to buy a printer for each computer.
However, with a network, only one printer is sufficient. The same applies to other resource
like fax machine, optical drives, files and applications.
Computer network have enhanced daily communication by providing paperless
communication environment. Users can send electronic messages and mail to each other
instead of bearing the cost of stamp duty or delivery charges.
Reliability
A computer network is reliable in two ways especially when communicating or accessing
information:
1. Data can be transferred with minimum error from source to destination.
2. In case one computer breaks down, user can still access data and information from
the other computer using other computers on the network.

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Limitations of networking
Although networking has many advantages it also offers many challenges that are associated
with implementation and human factors. Some of the limitations and disadvantages of
networking include security issues, high initial installation cost, moral and cultural effects,
spread of terrorism and drug trafficking and over reliance on networks among others.
Security issues
Data and information held on a network is prone to more illegal access threats than if the
computer was not on the network. For example, a standalone computer may be accessed by
only a few people at home or in the office environment. However, once the computer is
connected to the network, especially the internet, many people can access it physically or
virtually over the network. Apart from this, when information is sent over the network from
source to destination, it can be tapped or listened to by unauthorized parties.
Organizations find it very challenging to guard information systems from constant threats of
illegal access. One of the common methods of data protection in a networked environment
is encrypting. Encrypted data cannot be understood by people who illegally access it unless
they have the decryption key.
High initial cost
The initial cost of buying network hardware and software is very high. In fact, most
institutions that have not set up their networks will more often than not quote cost as
limiting factor Moral and cultural effects
Large networks like the internet have chat rooms and messaging services that enable under
age children to meet peers and adults on the net some of whom may have bad intentions.
Access to pornographic and other negative material has also made the fight against social
problems such as HIV/AIDS bad sexual behavior, drugs and substance abuse more
complicated.
Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking
The internet provides recruitment ground for all types of illegal activities such as terrorism
and drug trafficking. The easy flow of information from one place to another keeps even
those who are on the wrong side of the law communicating easily. Terrorists and drug
traffickers use information networks for their business communication. However, many
countries have come up with methods of policing the internet to try and break such
syndicates

Network security
Network security is like the security measures we implement in our homes. You should try
your best to protect your data and information from intruders. In networking there are
several ways of enforcing security one of them is share level and the other is user level
security.
Share Level security: Share level security is sample network security used in peer to peer
networks. The user can decide which resources to give for sharing.

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User-level security: User level security model is used on server-based networks. A network
administrator assigns accounts to users. This means that each user is provided with a unique
name and password which he or she can use to access network resources.

Types of computer networks

Computer networks can be classified using several aspects but the most common
classification is according to size. Currently, there are several types of such networks but the
three most common are:
1. Local area network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan area network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)
Local area network (LAN)
Local area network is a computer network that spans a relatively small geographical area like
in one building or school. A local area network is usually owned by one organization.
However, one local area network can be connected to other local area networks over any
distance via data transmission lines or electromagnetic waves.
Most local area network connects personal computers and server computers on a small
network. A server computer is a computer dedicated to servicing requests for resources from
other computers (workstations) on a network. Most local area networks are configured such
that each workstation has its own central processing unit with which it executes programs,
but it is also able to access data and devices anywhere on the local area network, such as
laser printers, as well as data. Users can also use the local area network to communicate with
each other, by sending messages or engaging in chat sessions.
Local area networks are capable of transmitting data at very fast rates, much faster than data
transmitted over telephone lines.
Metropolitan area networks (MAN)
A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a metropolitan area like a town or city.
The metropolitan area network size typically covers a radius of 5 to 50 km. The metropolitan
area network infrastructure may be owned by a single company that has offices across a
metropolitan area or by a service provider who provides network services to subscribers in
the area. In essence, a metropolitan area network is made up of many local area networks in
a metropolitan area.
Wide area network (WAN)
A wide area network is larger than a metropolitan area networks and covers a large
geographical area such as a country, a continent or the whole world. It consists of many local
area networks and metropolitan area network connected together to form one large network
such as the internet.
Network models, Client/server network
A computer network in which one centralized, powerful computer (called the server) is a hub
to which many less powerful personal computers or workstations (called clients) are

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connected. The client sends requests, run programs and access data or information that is
stored on the server. The server is a computer that processes request and respond to the
other clients on the network.

Peer to peer network

A network of personal computers, each of which acts as both client and server, so that each
can exchange files and email directly with every other computer on the network. Each
computer can access any of the others, although access can be restricted to those files that a
computer's user chooses to make available. Peer-to-peer networks are less expensive than
client/server networks but less efficient when large amounts of data need to be exchanged.

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TOPIC 11: ELECTRONIC PUBLICATION

Electronic publishing refers to the process of producing publication like cards,

certificate, banner, flyers newspapers by designing their text and graphics layout and
inserting, editing, formatting and printing text and graphical objects using special
desktop publishing software installed on computers.
Examples of electronic publications include Microsoft Publisher, Adobe Page Maker,
Adobe InDesign, Corel Draw, Adobe Illustrator CS6, AutoCAD and Adobe Photoshop.

Application areas for electronic publishing

Most electronic publication are used to create graphic documents and publications like
award certificate, banners, flyers, brochures, business card, calendars, newspapers, book
covers etc.

Creating new publication.

Getting stated with Microsoft publisher
Click start, point to Programs, Microsoft office, then click Microsoft office
publisher
2007
Choose design templates or click New to design from scratch.
On file menu, click page Setup, select publication type and orientation.
On arrange menu, click layout guides, set margins and other properties.
Click OK button.

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Adjusting Measurement Units

To adjust measurement units in Inches, Centimeters, picas, point, pixels using Publisher
2007. Click Tools.
Click Options.
Click the drop-down arrow in Measurement units. Select the measurement unit
then click on it.
Click Ok button.

Saving a Publication
To save a publication in publisher 2007:
Click File.
Click Save As.
Enter the File name e.g. Crystal Invitation-
Card Click Save button.

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Working with text

To add text using text frame tool in publisher 2007.
Click Insert.
Click Text box.
On an empty area on the paste board or printable area, drag to define the text
block.
Type the text.

Document Enhancement
To enhance the appearance of document like background colour, text colour scheme
and font size.
Changing background colour
Click Format.
Click Background.
 Click More background colour.

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TOPIC 12: DATABASE

Database Management System (DBMS)

Introduction to databases
A database is a collection of structured and related data items organized so as to provide a
consistent and controlled access to items. To create and manage databases, we use Database
management System (DBMS) software. This software facilitates the creation, organization
and maintenance of databases.
Examples of database management software
• Microsoft office Access (Ms Access)
• Microsoft SQL Server
• Oracle
• FoxPro
• dBase  Lotus Approach  MySQL. Etc.
Functions of database management software
 Allow the user to add or delete records
 Update or modify existing records
 Organize data for easy access, retrieval and manipulation of records
 Act as an interface between a database and other application programs
 Ensure security for the data in the database by safeguarding it against unauthorized
access and corruption (damage).
 Keep statistics of data items in a database.
Database model
Databases can be classified according to the method used to organize data. The main
database models are: 1. Flat file
2. Hierarchical
3. Network
4. Relational
NB. The current database model trend is towards new models namely object relational and
object-oriented models.
Database objects
These features include database objects e.g.
 Tables
 Queries  Forms
 Reports
 Macros and Modules
 Computer programming language.

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Tables/file structure
This is a database structure that is used to hold related records.
Tables are organized in rows and columns with each row representing a record while each
column represents common fields in each record.

STUDENT ID FIRST NAME LAST NAME ADDRESS

ST001 Namayanja Miriam 510Masaka

ST002 Mutebi Gilbert 657Mutungo

Queries
A query is a statement used to extract, change, analyze or request for specific data from one
or more tables. Query is a question posed to a database using special language called SQL.

Form/input screen
A form is a graphical interface that resembles an ordinary paper form. Forms enable the user
to view and enter data into a table.

Reports
Most database systems provide user with a tool for generating reports from underlying
tables or queries. It is the report generator that provides the user with a means to specify the
output layout and what is to be output or printed on a report.

Macros
In most DBMS software, it is possible to automate frequently performed procedures or task
using database component known as a macro. For example, if you frequently use a particular
form when you start a database program, you need to create a macro that automates the
opening of the form.

Programmable model
When a database becomes more complex, you may need a more powerful tool than the
macros to automate your database operations further. Ms Access comes with a language
called Visual Basic included as a module in the software.

Data organization in database

One of the functions of a database system is to organize data for easy access, retrieval and
manipulation. Data is organized from the simplest form called a field to a very complex
structure called a database.

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Fields
A field is a character or a logical combination of characters that represent data item. For
example, in a class list, the student name is a field.

Record
A record is a collection of related fields that represent a single entity. An example of a record
is the student report card that may contain the student’s name, admission number, class,
total marks and average grade
Table
A table is a collection of related records. For example, the student’s file in a school database
contains the details of all the students in the school.

Database
This is the highest in data organization hierarchy that holds all related files or tables. For
example, a school database may contain students and staff tables/files.

Description of field data types

The type of data to be used in a database must be clearly defined for the purpose of
manipulation and storage. For example, if the field is to be used for calculation, it must be
defined as a number.
The data types allowed in Ms Access include:
 Text, Number, Memo, Date/Time, Currency, AutoNumber, Yes/No, OLE Object
Text
This type includes alphabetic letters, numbers, spaces and punctuation. Text can be used for
fields that do not require calculations such as names, places, identification numbers etc. This
type of field accommodates a maximum of 255 characters.
Number
These are fields made up of numeric numbers 0 to 9 that are to be manipulated
mathematically.
Numbers are used to carry out calculations in queries and form.
Memo
This is a field made up of alphanumeric (both alphabetic and numeric) data. Instead of using
Text, use this data type if you need to enter several paragraphs of text as it accommodates a
maximum of 32000 characters.
Time/date
Used to identify a field as either a date or time. This is because date/time values can be
manipulated mathematically in a database. For example, you can calculate the age of a
person from the date of birth to the current age.

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Currency
Use to identify numeric values that have decimals or fractions. Use this data type especially
when dealing with monetary values such as fees balance, amount sold, etc.
Auto Number
This is a numeric value used if you wish MS Access to automatically increase the values in a
field. For example, when entering a list of forty students and you have a field labeled Stud
Number; the numbers will increase by one every time you enter a new record.
Yes/No
This is a logical field where an entry is either yes or no, true or false, for example, a field may
require you to answer whether you are male or female.
OLE Object
OLE stands for Object linking and Embedding. This type of field is mostly used with graphical
user interface applications for inserting graphical objects such as pictures, drawings, charts
etc.
Field properties
As you create more and more complex tables, you will find a need to use field properties to
specify find details related to fields and table entries expected. Field properties depend on
the type of field selected.
Field size
Field size property allows the user to set the number of characters in a field instead of the
default
50. For numeric fields we use properties such as integer, long integer, Byte, Single and
Double.
Format
Determine how information appears on the screen when printed. For example, you can
format a number to scientific, currency, percentage or general format. For date type
dd/mm/yyyy long date d, dd, for date m , mmmm for month y, yyyy for year
Decimal places
For number and currency fields, you can specify the number of decimal places.
Input mask
Input mask automatically formats the field entry into a specified format. This property is
mostly used to format phone and address entries.
Caption
This is more descriptive name for a field to be used in a table or a form display. For example,
the caption for Stud Name Could be Student Name.

Default value
This is a value that appears automatically in the datasheet or form if nothing is entered by
the user to change it. For example, =Date () automatically displays the current date in a date
field.

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Validation rule
Logical expression that restricts the values to be entered in a field. For example, if you want
to restrict marks entered in a field to values between zero and a hundred, type>=0
and<=100.

Validation text
This is a message that appears once the validation rule is violated. For example, you may
create a validation text for the above validation rule to display “Enter a number between 0
and 100” whenever the user enters a value outside this range.
Required
Determines if an entry must be made in the field before you proceed to the next field or
record.
For example, if a primary key is required, you must enter it before you proceed.

Allow Zero length

This allows the user to proceed without making any entry in the field set as Zero length.

Indexed
An indexed facilitates the organization of records for easy search. A primary key is an
example of an index set to No duplicates.
Primary key and indexes
An index is a key(s) used to speed up searching and sorting records in a table, while a
primary key is an index that uniquely identifies each record stored in the table.
A primary key is an index that uniquely identifies each record stored in the table.
A primary key prevents the user from making null or double entries into a table. Access uses
the primary key to order records, and control redundancy. Once a field is set as primary key,
the datasheet is automatically indexed or sorted using the primary key.
Specifying search criteria
In order to search for a particular set of records, you have to enter a conditional statement in
the criteria row. For example, if I want a query to display Masaka only or employees who earn
more than 5,000. Type in criteria row, = “Masaka”,>5000
To define criteria, use either relational or logical operators. Less than (<), greater than (>),
less than or equal to (<=), not equal to (<>) and equal to (=). Logical operators include AND,
OR and NOT
Type: on criteria row e.g.>4000AND<6000 for values between 4000 and 6000

Use OR if you wish to get one or Two value.

Jinja OR Busia
Also use NOT to display exceptional record e.g. NOT 6000

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Wildcard
Wildcards are special symbols (asterisk) and question mark use in other characters (J*).
Use Like and wildcard, in criteria type:
Like “J*” for dates Like */*/1993
Wild card displays all names with letter J and years in 1993

Creating a calculated field

Calculations can be performed in queries and Forms. In the field name type an expression
Amount: [Quantity]*[Unit Price]
Or Use a Builder
For dates specify in search criteria and type
>#1/1/2009#AND<#31/12/2013#

Click the Run

Creating a database using Microsoft office access

Starting Microsoft Access
1. Click start, point to All programs, Microsoft office, then Click Microsoft office access
2007
2. On the New blank database, click database
3. Select the location where the database will be created, type the database name then
click Create.
4. Click view, then design view to create table object. Save table then proceed to design.

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TOPIC 13: SYSTEM SECURITY, ICT ETHICAL ISSUES AND EMERGING

TECHNOLOGIES

Introduction
The rapid growth and widespread use of information and communication technologies,
internet services as well as numerous occurrences of international terrorism, demands
betters’ methods of protecting computers, data and information.

Computer System Security

The three core principles of data security also referred to as information security are
confidentiality, integrity and availability.

Confidentiality
Confidentiality means that sensitive data or information belonging to an organization or
government should not be accessed by or disclosed to unauthorized people. Such data
include employees’ details, classified military information, business financial records etc.

Integrity
Integrity means that data should not be modified without owner’s authority. Data integrity is
violated when a person accidentally or with malicious intentions erases or modifies
important files such as a payroll or a customer’s bank account file.

Availability
Information must be available on demand. This means that any information system and
communication link used to access it, must be efficient and functional. An information
system may be unavailable due to power outages, hardware failure, unplanned upgrades or
repairs.

Security threats and control measures

Security threats to computers-based information systems, private or confidential data include
unauthorized access, alteration, malicious destruction of hardware, software, data or network
resources, as well as sabotage. The goal of data security, ensures integrity and safety of an
information system hardware, software and data. In this section, we explore various security
threats and control measures for each case.
Information system failure
Some of the cause of computerized information system failure include
1. Hardware failure due to improper use.
2. Unstable power supply as result of brownout or blackout and vandalism.
3. Network breakdown.

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4. Natural disaster
5. Program failure
Control measures against hardware failure
Protect computers against brownout or blackout which may cause physical damages or data
loss by using surge protectors and Uninterruptible power supply (UPS). For critical systems,
most organizations have put into place fault tolerant systems.
A fault tolerant system has redundant or duplicate storage, peripherals devices and software
that provide a fail-over capability to backup components in the event of system failure.
Disaster recovery plans
Disaster recovery plan involves establishing offsite storage of an organization’s databases so
that in case of disaster or fire accidents, the company would have backup copies to
reconstruct lost data.

Threats to privacy and confidentiality

Privacy means that data or information belonging to an individual should not be accessed by
or disclosed to other people.
Confidentiality on the other hand means that sensitive data or information belonging to an
organization or government, should not be accessed by or disclosed to unauthorized people.
Private and confidential data must be protected against unauthorized access or disclosure.
Threats from malicious programs
Malicious programs may affect the smooth running of a system or carry out illegal activities
such as, secretly collecting information from unknown user. Some of the common types of
malicious programs include:
1. Boot sector viruses- they destroy the booting information on storage media.
2. File viruses-attach themselves to files.
3. Hoax viruses- Come as e-mail with attractive messages and launch themselves when
e-mail is opened.
4. Trojan Horse- they appear to perform useful functions but instead they perform other
undesirable activities in the background.
5. Worms- it is a malicious program that self-replicated hence clogs the system memory
and storage media.
6. Backdoors-may be a Trojan or worm that allows hidden access to computer system.

COMPUTER VIRUS
Computer virus is a destructive program that attaches itself on removable drives and cause
damage to a computer system such as deleting system file, data or application files.
How Virus spread on standalone and networked computers
Standalone computer is one which is not connected to any other computer. However
networked computer is the one which is connected to any other computer for the purpose of

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exchanging data, information or resources. The table below shows how virus spread on
standalone and networked computer.

Standalone computer Networked computer

1. Use of flash disk 1. Through downloading email attachment
2. By using floppy diskette 2. Playing games on internet
3. Transferring files using memory card 3. Downloading files from internet

Control measures against viruses

To protect an information system against viruses:
1. Install the latest versions of anti-virus software on the computers. Make sure that you
continuously update the anti-virus software with new virus definition to counter the new
viruses.
2. Always scan removable storage media for viruses before using them.
3. Scan mail attachments for viruses before opening or downloading an attachment.

Hacking and cracking

A hacker is a person who gains unauthorized access to information just for fun, while a
cracker gains unauthorized access for malicious reasons. Hackers and crackers violate the
security measures put in place such as by-passing passwords or finding weak access points
to a software.

There are various motivations for hacking. One is that some people like the challenge and
feel great after successfully hacking a system, while some do it commercially for software
manufactures test the security status of a new software system.
Data protection in computer systems
To safeguard data and information against unauthorized access, the following measures
should be put in place;
Firewall
A firewall is a device or software system that filters the data and information exchanged
between different networks by enforcing the host networks access control policy. The main
aim of a firewall is to monitor and control access to or from protected networks. People who
do not have permission (remote requests) cannot access firewall restricted sites outside their
network.
Data encryption
Data on transit over the network faces many dangers of being tapped, listened to or copied
to unauthorized destinations. Such data can be protected by mixing up into a form that only
the sender and receiver is able to understand. This is by reconstructing the original message
from the mix which is called data encryption.

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Security monitors
Security monitors are programs that monitor and keep a log file or record of computer
systems and protect them from unauthorized access.
Biometric security
Biometric security is a growing form of unauthorized control measure that takes the user’s
attributes such as voice, fingerprints and facial recognition. For example, you can log on by
swap a finger on a finger print swap window
Password and PIN (Personal Identification Number)
Access control can also be enhanced by implementing multilevel authentication policies such
as assigning users log on accounts, use of smart cards and personal identification number
(PIN).

COMPUTER CRIME
The following are some examples of computer-related crimes that compromise data,
information and computer.
Physical theft
The physical theft of computer hardware and software is the most widespread related crime
especially in developing countries.
The most common issues now, we hear cases of people breaking into an office or firm and
stealing computers, hard disks and other valuable computer accessories. In most cases such
theft can be done by untrustworthy employees of firm or by outsiders. The reason behind an
act may be commercial, destruction to sensitive information or sabotage.
Control measures against theft
1. Employ security agents to keep watch over information centers and restricted backup
sites.
2. Reinforce weak access points like windows, door and roofing with metallic grills and
strong padlocks.
3. Motivate workers so that they feel a sense of belonging in order to make them proud
and trusted custodians of the company resources.
4. Insure the hardware resources with a reputable insurance firm.
Piracy
Piracy is a form of intellectual property theft which means illegal copying of software,
information or data. Software, information and data are protected by copyright and patent
laws.
Control measures against piracy
There are several ways of reducing piracy
1. Enforce laws that protect the owners of data and information against piracy.
2. Make software cheap enough to increase affordability.
3. Use licenses and certificates to identify original software.
4. Set installation passwords that deter illegal installation of software.

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Fraud
Fraud is stealing by false pretense. Fraudsters can be either employees in a company, non-
existent company that purports to offer internet services such as selling vehicles etc. other
form of fraud may also involve computerized production and use of counterfeit documents.
This is due to the dynamic growth of internet and mobile computing, sophisticated
cybercrimes.
Sabotage
Sabotage refers to illegal destruction of data and information with the aim of crippling
services delivery, or causing great loss to an organization. Sabotage is usually carried out by
disgruntled employees or competitors with the intention of causing harm to an organization.
Eavesdropping
Eavesdropping refers to tapping into communication channels to get information. Hackers
mainly use eavesdropping to access private or confidential information from internet users
or from poorly secured information system.

Surveillance (monitoring)
Surveillance refers to monitoring use of computer system and networks using background
programs such as spyware and cookies. The information gathered may be used for one
reason or the other e.g. spreading sabotage.

Industrial espionage
Industrial espionage involves spying on a competitor to get information that can be used to
cripple the competitor.

Accidental access
Threats to data and information come from peoples unknowingly giving out information to
strangers is or unauthorized persons.

Alteration
Alteration is the illegal modification of private or confidential data and information with the
aim of misinforming users. Alteration is usually done by people who wish to cancel the truth
or sabotage certain operations.
Alteration comprises the integrity of data and information making it unreliable.

ICT ETHICAL ISSUES

ICT policy seeks to address issues of privacy, e-security, ICT legislation, cybercrimes, ethical
and moral conduct, copyrights, intellectual property rights and piracy.

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Information privacy and violation

1. Data should not be disclosed to other people with the owner’s permission.
2. Data and information should be kept secured against loss or exposure
3. Data and information should be kept longer than necessary
4. Data and information should be accurate and up to date.
5. Data and information should be collected, used and kept for specified lawful
purposes.

Intellectual property (IP)

This refers to the work created by inventors, authors and artists.
Intellectual Property Rights are the rights to which creators are entitled for their work.
Examples of the intellectual property rights
1) Copy right ©
2) Trade mark ®
A copy right gives authors & artists exclusive rights to duplicate, publish & sell their material
A trade mark protects the companies logo & names

EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
Concepts of emerging technologies covers the rapid evolution of computers and information
technology with the future trends in computer and information and communication
technology which is characterized by artificial intelligence and digital forensics.
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Artificial intelligence refers to a branch of computer science that is concerned with the
development of machines that emulate human-like qualities such as learning, reasoning,
communication seeing and hearing. Also, artificial intelligence refers to the ability of a
machine to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence.
Computer scientist and engineers are still working hard to come up with computer reality in
near future which can think and learn instead of relying on static programmed instructions.

There are four main application areas of artificial intelligence namely:

1. Expert systems. Software that operate at the level of human expert in specific
application.
2. Natural language processing.
3. Artificial neural networks.
4. Robotics/perception systems.

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Digital forensics
Digital forensic refers to the forensic science encompassing the recovery and investigation of
material found in digital devices often in relation to computer crime. There are four main
application areas of digital forensic namely:
1. Legal consideration- use of digital evidence in court
2. Branches- perception of the computer forensic, mobile device forensic, network
forensic
3. Application of digital forensic such as electronic discovery, intrusion etc. 4. Forensic
process- analysis and reporting
ICT INDUSTRY
Information and communication technology (ICT) have created new job titles such as
computer operators, computer technicians, system analyst, computer programmers, software
engineer, information systems manager, data base administrator, computer trainer, web
administrator, computer graphics designers and network administrator. This section explains
some responsibilities of these professionals who are generally called information technology
workers.
Computer operator
Some of the responsibilities of a computer operator include;
1. Entering data into the computer for processing.
2. 2. Keeping up-to-date records (log files) of all information processing activities.
Computer technician
Given that computers require regular maintenance, upgrading as well as emergency repairs,
demand for computer technicians continues to grow as more people computerize their
workplaces and homes.
Some of the responsibilities of a computer technician are;
1. Troubleshooting computer hardware and software related problems.
2. Assembling and upgrading computers and their components.
3. Ensuring that all computer related accessories such as printers, modems, storage
media devices are in good working condition.
4. In developed countries, technicians help hardware engineers in designing and crating
some computer components such as storage devices, motherboards etc.

System analyst
This a person who is responsible for analyzing a company’s needs or problems then designs
and develops a computer-based information system.
A good analyst is one who has at least the following attributes;

1. Good problem-solving skills and creativity, ie. Must have wide experience in solving
problems.

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2. Good communication skills: The analyst must be able to communicate clearly and
precisely both in writing and in speech. He/she must be able to talk to different groups
of people e.g. managers, operators, attendant and general public.
3. Must have business knowledge: the analyst must clearly understand the environment
for which the system is being developed.
4. Technical knowledge: A system analyst must be well trained in relevant areas of
computer science such as hardware, software programing knowledge.

Some of the responsibilities of a system analyst include:

a) Reviewing the current manual or redundant information system and making
recommendations on how to replace it with a more efficient one.
b) Working with programmers to construct and test the system.
c) Coordinating training for users of the new system.

Computer programmer
Large organizations such as insurance companies, banks, manufacturing firms and
government agents hire programmers to work together with system analysts in order to:
1. Develop in house application programs or system programs.
2. Customize commercial application packages to suite the organization needs.
3. Install, test, debug, and maintain programs developed or customized for the
organization.

Computer engineer
Computer and electronic engineers are coming up with new and more efficient technologies
in information and communication technology almost daily. Since computers are electronic
devices, hardware designers must be good in electronic engineering in order to be able to:
1. Design and develop computer components such as storage devices, motherboards
and other electronic components.
2. Determine the electrical power requirement of each component.
3. Re-engineer computer components to enhance its functionality and efficiency.
4. Design and develop engineering and manufacturing computer-controlled devices
such as robots.
Web administrator/webmaster
Internet is one of the areas of information and communication technology that has drawn
the interest of most people. Thus, people are able to exchange messages, search for
information and do business through the internet.
A web administrator is responsible for:
1. Developing and testing websites.
2. Maintaining, updating and modifying information on the website to meet new
demands by the users.

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3. Monitoring the access and use of internet connection by enforcing the security
measures.
4. Downloading information needed by an organization or institution from internet
websites.
Computer graphics designers and typesetters
In publishing, skilled graphics designers and typesetters are required in order to design
graphical objects and professional publications. Such people may get employed in
publishing houses to typeset books, newspapers and magazines.
Self-employment
Self-employment can be achieved by using a computer or other ICT devices such as mobile
phones to start bureau services, internet services, consultancy services and computer
hardware and software vendor business.
Network administrator
A network administrator is a specialist whose responsibilities are to:
1. Set-up a computer network.
2. Maintain and enforce security measures on the network.
3. Monitor the use of network resources.
4. Maintain and troubleshoot network related problems.
Computer sales representatives
Computer sales representative should have good knowledge in information and
communication technology. This would help them to analyze customer needs and advice
accordingly. A good computer salesman needs to be self-confident, persuasive and
proficient in business communication.

WASSWA SWALLEH
wasswaswalleh@gmail.com

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