HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION

When heat transfer takes place between a solid surface and a fluid system in motion at
different temperature, convection is said to have taken place. Convection is only possible in
the presence of a fluid medium. There are two types of convection

i. Free convection: if fluid motion is achieved using pump, compressor or fan, it is known
as forced convection.
ii. Free (Natural) convection: when the motion of the fluid is caused by density difference,
then it is known as natural convection.

The rate equation for the convective heat transfer (regardless of particular nature)
between a surface and an adjacent fluid is prescribed by Newton’s law of cooling as shown in
the figure below

( )

Q = rate of conductive heat transfer

A = area exposed to heat transfer

h = convective heat transfer coefficient

The units of h are

( )

The coefficient of convective heat transfer ‘h’ which is also known as the film heat transfer
coefficient may be defined as the amount of heat transmitted for a unit temperature difference
between the fluid and the unit area of surface in unit time.

Figure: convective heat transfer

The value of ‘h’ depends on the following factors:

i. Thermodynamic and transport properties (e.g., viscosity, density, specific heat etc.)
 ii. Nature of fluid flow;
iii. Geometry of the surface;
iv. Prevailing thermal conditions.

Since ‘h’ depends upon several factors, it is difficult to frame a single equation to satisfy all
the variations, however a dimensional analysis gives an equation for the purpose which is
given as under:

( ) ⁄ ( ) ⁄

( ) ⁄ ( ) ⁄

̅
̅̅̅̅ ( ) ⁄ ( ) ⁄

Where

Examples
i. A hot plate 1 m × 1.5 m is maintained at 300°C. Air at 25°C blows over the plate. If
the convective heat transfer coefficient is 20 W/m2°C, calculate the rate of heat
transfer.
ii. A wire 1.5 mm in diameter and 150 mm long is submerged in water at atmospheric
pressure. An electric current is passed through the wire and is increased until the
water boils at 100°C. Under the condition if convective heat transfer coefficient is
4500 W/m2°C find how much electric power must be supplied to the wire to maintain
the wire surface at 120°C?

Boundary Layer Theory

When a real (viscous) fluid flows past a stationary solid boundary, a layer of the fluid comes
in contact with the boundary surface and adheres to it (as a result of viscosity) and there will
be no slipping (that is velocity of fluid at the boundary equals the velocity of the boundary).
Therefore, the layer of fluid on the boundary has zero velocity while the layer of fluid
adjacent increases continuously until the velocity of the main stream is reached.

The layer of fluid adjacent to the solid boundary is known as the hydrodynamic boundary
layer or simply boundary layer. Boundary layer is formed whenever there is relative motion
between the boundary and the fluid.

The concept of boundary layer is very important to the transfer of heat and mass via
convection between a solid surface and a fluid flowing past it
Boundary layer definitions and characteristics

For a smooth plate kept parallel to the direction of flow fluid as shown above

o The edge facing the direction of flow is known as the leading edge
o The rear edge is the trailing edge
o Near the leading edge of a flat plate, the boundary layer is completely laminar and for
laminar flow, the velocity distribution is parabolic.
o Boundary layer thickness (δ) increases with distance from the leading edge, (x)
o Initially, boundary layer is laminar, however, with more fluid being slowed down by the
viscous boundary, the boundary layer becomes unstable and breaks into turbulent
boundary layer over a transition region.
o In the turbulent boundary layer, if the boundary is smooth, the flow is assumed to be
laminar and called laminar sub-layer.
o The velocity distribution for turbulent boundary layer is given by the log law of Prandtl’s
one seventh power law.

Characteristics of boundary layer

o Boundary layer thickness (δ) increases as the distance from the leading edge increases.
o Boundary layer thickness(δ) decreases as velocity U increases
o Boundary layer thickness (δ) increases as kinematic viscosity (ν) increases
o ( ), therefore, decreases as x increases. However when boundary layer
becomes turbulent, it shows a sudden increase and then decreases with increasing x.
o The various characteristics of boundary layer on flat pate are governed by inertial and
viscous forces and are functions of either .
o When boundary layer is laminar and velocity distribution is parabolic
o When boundary layer is turbulent and velocity distribution follows the log
law or power law
o Critical value of at which boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent depends
on
 turbulence in ambient flow
 surface roughness
 pressure gradient
  plate curvature
 temperature difference between fluid and boundary

Boundary Layer Thickness (δ)

Boundary layer thickness is defined as the distances from the boundary in which the velocity
reaches 99% of the velocity of the free stream (u = 0.99U). This definition gives an
approximate value for the boundary layer thickness; therefore boundary layer thickness (δ) is
generally referred to as the nominal thickness of the boundary layer. For greater accuracy, the
thickness of the boundary layer is defined in terms of some mathematical expressions which
are measures of the boundary layer of flow. Some commonly employed definitions of
boundary layer thickness are given below:

i. Displacement thickness (δ*): it is the distance measured perpendicularly to the boundary

by which the free (main) stream is displaced on account of formation of the boundary
layer. It is also defined as the additional wall thickness that would have to be added to
compensate for the reduction in flow rate on account of the formation of boundary layer.
It is denoted by δ*
∫ ( )
ii. Momentum thickness (θ): Denoted by θ, it is the distance through which the local loss of
momentum per second will be equal to if it were passing a stationary plate.
∫ ( )
iii. Energy thickness (δe): it is the distance measured perpendicular to the boundary of the
solid body by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in
the kinetic energy of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation.it is
denoted by δe and represented mathematically as
∫ ( )

Thermal boundary layer (δth)

When a liquid flows over a flat plate due to temperature difference between the fluid and the
surface, a temperature field is set up. The layer where the temperature field is set up is called
the thermal boundary layer. The thermal boundary layer is analogous to the hydrodynamic
boundary layer, however, the parameters which affect their growth are different. In
hydrodynamic boundary layer, the velocity profile is mainly dependent on the fluid viscosity
while the temperature profile in thermal boundary layer is dependent on the viscosity,
velocity of flow, specific heat and thermal conductivity of the fluid.

Energy equation for thermal boundary layer over a flat plate

 The differential energy equation for flow past a flat plate as shown above is given as

( )

When the viscous heat generation is neglected, the value of U is relatively low (U = 0), the
energy equation given above reduces to

Assumption

i. Steady incompressible flow

ii. Properties of the fluid at the film temperature, , are constant
iii. Body forces, viscous heating and conduction in the flow direction are negligible

The Local and Average Heat Transfer Coefficients

( ) ⁄ ( ) ⁄

( ) ⁄ ( ) ⁄

̅
̅̅̅̅ ( ) ⁄ ( ) ⁄

Where

̅
Advantages and Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

Advantages

1. It expresses the functional relationship between the variables in dimensionless terms

2. By proper selection of variables, the dimensionless parameters can be used to make
certain logical deductions about the problem.
3. Design curves, by using dimensional analysis can be developed from the experimental
data or direct solution of the problem.
4. It enables getting theoretical solution a simplified dimensionless form
5. Dimensionless analysis provides partial solutions to the problems that are too complex to
be dealt with mathematically
6. Dimensional analysis is a useful tool in the analysis and correlation of experimental data
in the planning of experiments and in the formulation of empirical correlation describing
a particular phenomenon
7. The results of one series of tests can be applied with the help of dimensional analysis to
a large number of other similar problems.

Limitations

1. It does not give any information regarding the selection of variables

2. It only indicates that there is some form of relationship between the parameters but the
complete information is not provided.
3. No information is given about the internal mechanism of the physical phenomenon

Dimensionless Parameters and their Physical Significance

i. Reynolds number: it is the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces

Significance:
 It measures the relative magnitude of the inertia force to viscous force
occurring in flow. Used in forced convection

 The higher the Re, the greater the effect of inertia force and vice versa
 It is an important criteria of kinematic and dynamic similarities in force
convection heat transfer

ii. Prandtl number: it is the ratio of kinematic diffusivity ( ) to thermal diffusivity (α).
Kinematic viscosity indicates the impulse transport through molecular friction
whereas thermal diffusivity indicates the heat energy transport by conduction process

( ⁄ )

Significance
 It provides a measure of the relative effectiveness of momentum and energy
transport by diffusion.
  Prandtl number is a connecting link between the velocity field and temperature
field and its value strongly influences relative growth of velocity and thermal
boundary layers
iii. Nusselt number: it is the ratio of the heat flow by convection under a unit
temperature gradient to the heat flow rate by conduction under a unit temperature
gradient through a stationary thickness.

Significance: It is a convenient measure of convective heat transfer coefficient.

Stanton Number (St)

It is the ratio of heat transfer coefficient to the flow of heat per unit temperature rise due to
velocity of fluid

Significance: It can be used only in correlating forced convection data

Peclet Number

It is the ratio of mass heat flow rate by convection to the flow rate by conduction under a unit
temperature gradient and through a thickness L. Peclet number can also be defined as the
product of Reynolds number and Prandt number

Graetz Number (G)

It is defined as the ratio of heat capacity of fluid flowing through the pipe per unit length of
the pipe to the conductivity of the pipe

( ⁄ )
( )

Grashoff Number (Gr)

It is the ratio of product of inertia force and buoyancy force to the square of viscous force. It
is related with natural convection heat transfer.
( )( )
( )
Significance: It governs the natural convection flow in laminar boundary layer

Formulae Used in Forced Convection

When the velocity of flow is given, that type of problem is forced convection

Laminar Flow over Flat Plates and Walls

Fluid properties are always evaluated at the film temperature when the prandtl
number . Where and For flow
over a plate when the Reynolds number is below flow is laminar, that is,
⁄ . Where U = velocity (m/s), L = length (m), v = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

1. ( ) ( )
2. ̅̅̅̅ ( ) ( )
, ,

3. Heat transfer ( )
4. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness ( )
5. Thermal boundary layer ( )
6. Local friction coefficient ( )
7. Average friction coefficient, ̅̅̅̅ ( )
8. For liquid metals
( )

Example
1. Air at atmospheric pressure and 200 °C flows over a plate with a velocity of 5 m/s, the
plate is 15 mm wide and is maintained at a temperature of 120 °C. Calculate the thickness
of the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer and the local heat transfer coefficient at
a distance of 0.5 m from the leading edge. Assume that the flow is on one side of the
plate.
2. Air at 25 °C and atmospheric pressure is flowing over a flat plate at 3 m/s. If the plate is
1 m wide and wall temperature is 75°C. Calculate the following at a location of 1 m from
the leading edge. (i) hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness (ii) local frition coefficient
(iii) thermal boundary layer thickness (iv) local heat transfer coefficient
3. Air at a temperature of 15°C flows at a velocity of 6.5 m/s across a flat plate maintained
at a temperature of 605°C. Calculate the amount of heat transferred per meter width from
both sides of the plate over a distance of 350 mm from the leading edge. The following
relation holds good in the case of large temperature difference between the plate and
fluid:
 ( ) ( ) ( )
Where are the absolute temperatures of the plate surface and free stream
respectively and all fluid properties are evaluated at the mean film temperature.

Flow over Cylinders

1. Nusselt number ( ) ( ) where the constant, C and coefficient m are

determined from the table below based on the Reynolds number

2. Heat transfer ( )
Example
1. Air at 15 °C and 30 km/hr flows over a cylinder of 400 mm diameter and 1.5 m high with
a surface temperature of 45°C. Calculate the heat loss.
2. Air at 40 °C flows over cylinder having a diameter of 6 mm with a velocity of 30 m/s. The
tube surface is 120°C. Calculate the heat transfer coefficent.

Laminar Flow inside Tubes

1. ( ) [ ( ) ]

2.

3. ̅
4.
5.
6.
7. For uniform heat flux Nu = 4.36
8. At constant wall temperature
(i) fully developed flow Nu = 3.66; Slug flow Nu = 5.78
( ⁄ )
9. [( ⁄ ) ]
This equation is valid for
i.
ii.
iii. Fully developed flow
10. ( ) ( )

The equation above is valid under the following conditions

i. ⁄
ii.
iii.
iv.

Example

Water at 20°C with a flow rate of 0.015 kg/s enters a tube with internal diameter of 2.5 cm
which is maintained at a uniform temperature of 90°C. Assuming hydrodynamically and
thermally fully developed flow, determine the heat transfer coefficient and the tube length
required to heat the water to 70 °C {water properties at 20°C: ⁄
⁄ ⁄
⁄

Turbulent Flow in Tubes

1. Velocity distribution ( ⁄ )
2. Boundary layer thickness ( )

3. Shear stress ( )

4. Local Skin friction ( )

5. Average skin friction ̅

√( )
6. ̅̅̅̅ ( ) ( ) n = 0.4 (for heating) n = 0.3 (for cooling)
7. ̅ ̅̅̅̅ ( ) ( )
The expressions above are valid for

Turbulent Flow over Flat Plate

Local Nusselt number ( ) ( )

Average Nusselt number ̅̅̅̅ ( ) ( )

The properties of fluid are evaluated at the mean film temperature

When the flow lies in transition range

̅̅̅̅ [( ) ]( )

Where and